Binomial Theorem

1. (10.1)5 = (10 + 0.1)5 = 105 + 5(10)4(0.1) + 10(10)3(0.1)2 + 10(10)2(0.1)3 + 5(10)(0.01)4 + (0.1)5

= 100000 + 5000 + 100 + 1 + 0.005 + 0.00001 = 105101.00501

2. (2 + 3 ) + (2 − 3 )
4 4
[
= 2 2 4 + 6 ( 2) 2 ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ] = 194
2 4

0 < 2− 3 < 1 ⇒ 0< 2− 3 ( )4

<1 ⇒ ( )4
193 < 2 + 3 = 194 – 2 − 3 < 194. ( )4

3. (a) (1 + ax + bx2)6 = [1 + x(a + bx)]6 = 1 + 6x(a+bx) + 15x2(a+bx)2 + …

= 1 + 6ax + 6bx2 + 15x2 (a2 + 2bx + b2x2) +…
= 1 – 12x + 78x2 + … ∴ a = – 2, b = 3.
r r
9− r ⎛ 1 ⎞ 9− r ⎛ 1 ⎞ 18−3r
(b) Tr +1 = C 9r (3x 2 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = C r ( 3) ⎜ − ⎟ x
9

⎝ 2x ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
6
⎛ 1⎞ 567
Tr+1 = is independent of x ⇒ 18 – 3r = 0 ⇒ r=6 ∴ T7 = C 96 39−6 ⎜ − ⎟ =
⎝ 2⎠ 16

Tr +1 C 8r ( 4 x ) r 9−r 9−r ⎛4⎞ 1

4. (a) = r −1
= (4x ) = ⎜ ⎟ ≥1⇒ r≤5
Tr 8
C (4 x )
r −1 r r ⎝3⎠ 7
5
⎛4⎞ 57344 239
∴ Greatest term = T6 = C 85 ⎜ ⎟ = = 235
⎝3⎠ 243 243
Tr +1 C 9r ( 2 x ) r 39−r 10 − r ⎛ 2 x ⎞ 10 − r ⎛ 2 ⎞
(b) = r −1 9 − r +1
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ ≥1⇒ r≤4
Tr 9
C (2 x ) 3
r −1 r ⎝ 3 ⎠ r ⎝3⎠
∴ Greatest term = T4 or T5 = C 94 2 4 35 = 489888

( 2 n )!
5. Coefficient of xn in (1 + x)2n = C 2n n =
n!n!
(2n − 1)! ( 2n − 1)! 1 (2n ) × (2n − 1)! 1 (2n )!
Coefficient of xn in (1 + x)2n-1 = C n2 n −1 = = = =
n!( 2n − 1 − n )! n!(n − 1)! 2 n![n × ( n − 1)!] 2 n!n!
Result follows.

6. Coeff. of xm in (1 + x)m+n = C mm + n = C (mm++nn ) − m = C nm + n = Coeff. of xn in (1 + x)m+n

⎛ 35 r ⎞
7. (3 + 2x – x2 )(1 + x)34 = (3 – x)(1 + x)(1 + x)34 = (3 – x) (1 + x)35 = (3 − x )⎜ C 35
⎝ r =0
r x ⎟
⎠
∑
C 35
r −1 r
xr = r − C r −1 = 0
3 C 35 ⇒ =3 ⇒ = 3 ⇒ r = 27
35
Coeff. of 35
C r 36 - r

C nr n − r +1 n +1
8. n
= ≥1 ⇔ r ≤
C r −1 r 2

1
 ( 2p)! ( 2p)(2p − 1)...3.2.1
(i) If n =2p is even, the greatest coeff. is C nn / 2 = C 2p p = =
p!p! p!p!

( 2p − 1)( 2p − 3)...5.3.1 ( 2 p − 1)( 2p − 3)...5.3.1 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ( n − 1) 2

n

= [p( p − 1)...2.1]2 = p
2 =
p
2
p!p! p! ⎛n⎞
1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
(ii) If n = 2p +1 is odd, the greatest coefficients are C (nn −1) / 2 or C (nn +1) / 2 = C p2 −p1+1 or C p2 +p1+1

( 2p + 1)( 2p − 1)...5.3.1[p( p − 1)...2.1.2 P ]

n −1
( 2p + 1)! 1.3.5...( 2p + 1) 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ n
= = = 2 =
p
2 2

p!( p + 1)! p!( p + 1)! ( p + 1)! ⎛ n +1⎞

1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
9. f(x) = (1 + x)n = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn
f ’(x) = n(1 + x)n-1 = c1 + 2c2x +3c3x2 + … + ncnxn-1
f ’(-1) = 0 = c1 – 2c2 + 3c3 – … + n(-1)n-1 cn .
10. (1 + x)n = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn. and (x + 1)n = c0xn + c1xn-1 + c2xn-2 + … + cn.
Since (1 + x)2n = (1 + x)n (x + 1)n
Compare coeff. of xn+r in the expansion of (1 + x)2n,
(2n )! (2n )(2n − 1)....(n − r + 1)
c0cr + c1cr+1 + c2cr+2 + … + cn-rcn = C n2 n+ r = =
( n + r )!(n − r )! (n + r )!
n+1
11. Compare coeff. of x in the expansion of No. 10,
n −1
( 2n )! (2n ) × ( 2n − 1)! 2( 2n − 1)!
c0c1 + c1c2 +…+cn-1cn = ∑c c
r =0
r r +1 = C 2n n+1 =
( n + 1)!( n − 1)!
=
( n + 1) n × (n − 1)!(n − 1)!
=
(n + 1)[( n − 1)!]
2

(1 + x ) n − 1
12. (1 + x)n = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn. ∴ = c1 + c 2 x + ... + c n x n −1
x
nx (1 + x ) n −1 − [(1 + x ) n − 1]
Differentiate, we get = c 2 + 2c 3 x + ... + ( n − 1)c n x n − 2 .
x2
n −1
Put x = 1, n 2 n −1 − 2 n + 1 = c 2 + 2c 3 x + ... + ( n − 1)c n x n −2 , ∴ ∑ rc
r =0
r +1 = 1 + ( n − 2 )2 n −1

( n + 1)! n! n! n!
13. (a) n+1Cr – nCr –1 = − = [(n + 1) − r ] = = n C r.
r!( n + 1 − r )! ( r − 1)!( n − r + 1)! r!( n − r + 1)! r!(n − r )!
(b) Replace n by 2n and r by n in (a), 2n+1Cn – 2nCn –1 = 2nCn ….(1)
⎡ ( 2 n + 1)! ( 2n )! ⎤ ( 2n )! ( 2n )!
( n + 1)[ 2 n +1 C n + 2 n C n −1 ] = ( n + 1) ⎢ + ⎥ = ( n + 1) [( 2n + 1) + n ] = (3n + 1)
⎣ n!( n + 1)! ( n − 1)!( n + 1)!⎦ n!( n + 1)! n!n!
= (3n+1) 2nCn ….(2)
(1) × (2), (3n + 1) [2nCn ]2 = (n + 1) {[2n+1Cn ]2 –[2nCn-1 ]2}.
14. (1 + x)2n = c0 + c1x + c2x2 +…+ c2nx2n,
Put x = 1, 22n = c0 + c1 + c2 +…+ c2n ….(1)
Put x = –1, 0 = c0 – c1 + c2 –…+ c2n ….(2)
[(1) + (2)]/2, 22n – 1 = c0 + c2 + c4 + …+ c2n .

2
15. (1 + x + x2)10 = c0 + c1x + c2x2 +…+ c20x20,
Put x = 1, c0 + c1 + c2 +…+ c20 = 310 ….(1)
Put x = –1, c0 – c1 + c2 –…+ c20 =1 ….(2)

(1) + ( 2) 310 + 1 310 − 1

, c 0 + c 2 + c 4 + ... + c 20 = ⇒ c 2 + c 4 + ... + c 20 = , ∵ c0 = 1
2 2 2
(1) − ( 2) 3 −1
10
, c1 + c 3 + c 5 + ... + c19 = . Result follows.
2 2
16. (1 + x)2m+1 = c0 + c1x + c2x2 +…+ c2m+1x2m+1. Put x=1, c0 + c1 + c2 +…+ c2m+1 = 22m + 1.
But c0 = c2m+1, c1 = c2m , …., cm = cm+1, 2(c0 + c1 + c2 + …+ cm) = 22m+1. Result follows.
n n
17. ( y + a )n = ∑ C nr a r y n −r . Put y=x–a, xn = ∑ C a (x − a )
n
r
r n −r
⇒ pr = (nCr) ar.
r =0 r =0

(1 + x )k +1 − 1 (1 + x ) n + k +1 − (1 + x ) n
18. (1 + x)n + (1 + x)n+1 + … + (1 + x)n+k = (1 + x )n = , Geometric Progression
(1 + x ) − 1 x
Consider the xn – term on both sides, n Cn + n+1Cn + n+2Cn + … + n+kCn = n+k+1Cn+1 .

n n n −1 n −1
n ( n − 1)...( n − r + 1)
19. (1 + x ) n = ∑C x
r =0
n
r
r
. Put x = 1, 2n = ∑C
r =0
n
r ⇒ 2n − 2 = ∑C = ∑
r =1
n
r
r =1 r!
, C 0n = C nn = 1

n −1
( n − 1)!⎤
∴ ( n − 1)!( 2 n − 2) = ∑ n (n − 1)...(n − r + 1) ⎡⎢⎣
r =1 r! ⎥⎦

⎡ ( n − 1)!⎤
In the summation ⎢ is an integer since r ranges from 1 to (n – 1) and also each term has a factor n.
⎣ r! ⎥⎦
∴ (n – 1)! (2n – 2) = [2(n – 1)!] (2n – 1 – 1) is divisible by n.
If n is a prime number, [2(n – 1)!] is not divisble by n. ∴ (2n – 1 – 1) is divisible by n.

20. (a) (1 + x)n (1 + x)n = (1 + x)2n

2n
(c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn) (c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn) = ∑C
r =0
2n
r xr

Compare coeff. of xr – term, f(r) = c0cr + c1cr-1 + c2cr-2 + … + crc0 = .

(b) From (a), (1 + x)2n = f(0) + f(1) x + f(2) x2 + … + f(n + 1) xn+1 + … + f(2n)x2n ….(1)
2n – 1 2 2n – 1
Differentiate (1), (2n) (1 + x) = f(1) + 2f(2) x + 3f(3) x + …+(2n)f(2n)x ….(2)
(1 + x)n = c 0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + … + cn x n ….(3)
(2) × (3), Coeff. of n
x term on R.H.S. = c0 f(1) + 2c1 f(2) + 3c2 f(3) + … + (n+1)cn f(n+1)

Coeff. of xn term on L.H.S. = .

21. (a) (1 + x)n (1 + x)n = (1 + x)2n

(nC0 + nC1 x + nC2 x2+ … + nCn xn ) (nC0 xn + nC1 xn-1 + ….+ nCn ) = 2nC0 + 2nC1x + … + 2nCnx2n
Compare coefficients of x2n -term, we get (nC0)2 + (nC1)2 +(nC2)2 + … + (nCn)2 = 2nCn .

3
 (b) (1 – x)2n (1 + x)2n = (1 – x2)2n
(2nC0 – 2nC1x + 2nC2x2 – … + 2nC2n x2n) (2nC0 x2n + 2nC1x2n-1 + …+ 2nC2n)
= 2nC0 – 2nC1x2 + 2nC2x4 – … + (-1)n 2nCn x2n + …+ 2nC2n x4n .
Compare coefficients of x2n -term, we get (2nC0)2 – (2nC1)2 +(2nC2)2 + …– (2nC2n)2 = (-1)n 2nCn .
(c) (1 – x)2n+1 (1 + x)2n+1 = (1 – x2)2n+1
(2n+1C0 – 2n+1C1x + 2n+1C2x2 – … + 2n+1C2n+1 x2n+1) (2n+1C0 x2n+1 + 2n+1C1x2n + …+ 2n+1C2n+1)
= 2n+1C0 – 2n+1C1x2 + 2n+1C2x4 – … + 0 × x2n+1 + …+ 2n+1C2n+1 x4n+2 .
Compare coefficients of x2n+1 -term, we get (2n+1C0)2 – (2n+1C1)2 +(2n+1C2)2 + …– (2n+1C2n+1)2 = 0 .
(d) (1 + x)n = nC0 + nC1 x + nC2 x2 + … + nCn xn …. (1)
Differentiate (1), n(1 + x)n-1 = nC1 + 2 nC2 x + 3 nC3 x2 + … + n nCn xn-1 …. (2)
Since n(1 + x)n-1(1 + x)n = n(1 + x)2n-1 , we have :
(nC1 + 2 nC2 x + 3 nC3 x2 + … + nnCn xn-1)( nC0 xn + nC1 xn-1 + ….+ nCn)
= n (2n-1C0 + 2n-1C1x + … + 2n-1Cn-1xn-1 + … + 2n-1C2n-1 x2n-1)

Compare coefficients of xn-1 -term, we get (nC1)2 +2(nC2)2 + … + n(nCn)2 = n 2n-1Cn-1= .

22. From 21. (d) eqs. (1) and (2), put x = 1, we get :
n
n C0 + n C1 + n C2 + … + n Cn = 2 …. (1)

n C1 + 2 n C2 + 3 n C3 + … + nnCn = n 2n-1 …. (2)

a × (1) + b × (2) , a + n(a + b) + nC2(a + 2b) + nC3(a + 3b) + … + nCn [a + nb] = 2n-1(2a + nb).
2 n +1

1 − ⎛⎜
x ⎞
⎟
23. (a) (1 + x)2n + x(1 + x)2n-1 + … + xn (1 + x)n + xn+1(1 + x)n-1 + … + x2n = (1 + x )
2n ⎝1+ x ⎠
x
1−
1+ x

= (1 + x)2n+1 – x2n+1.
(b) Compare coefficients of xn –term , we get 2nCn + 2n-1Cn-1 + … + nC0 = 2n+1Cn.
n 2 n
24. (1 + x) = nC0 + nC1 x + nC2 x + … + nCn x …. (1)
n-1 2 n-1
Differentiate (1), n(1 + x) = n C1 + 2 n C2 x + 3 n C3 x + … + n n Cn x …. (2)
Method 1
(2) × x , nx(1 + x)n-1 = nC1 x+ 2 nC2 x2 + 3 nC3 x3 + … + n nCn xn …. (3)
n-2 n-1 2 2 2 2 n-1
Differentiate (3), n(n – 1)x(1 + x) + n(1 + x) = n C1 + 2 n C2 x + 3 n C3 x + … + n n Cn x …. (4)
2 2 2 n-2 n-1 n-2 2 n-2
Put x=1 in (4), n C1 1 + nC2 2 + … + nCn n = n(n – 1) 2 + n2 = 2 (n – n + 2n) = n(n + 1)2 .
Method 2
Differentiate (2), n(n – 1)(1 + x)n-2 + n(1 + x)n-1 = (2)(1) nC2 x + (3)(2) nC3 x2 + … + n(n – 1) nCn xn-1 …. (5)
n-1
Put x=1 in (2), n2 = n C1 + 2 n C2 + 3 n C3 + … + n n Cn …. (6)
n-2 n-1
Put x=1 in (5), n(n – 1)2 +n2 = (2)(1) nC2 + (3)(2) nC3 + … + n(n – 1) nCn …. (7)
2
(6) + (7), using n Ck k = k(k – 1) nCk + k nCk for RHS, result follows.

4
25. (1 + x + x2)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + … + a2nx2n …. (1)
(a) Put x=1 in (1), a0 + a1 + … + a2n = (1 + 1 + 12)n = 3n .
(b) Put x = –1 in (1), a0 – a1 + a2 – a3 + … + a2n = (1 – 1 + 12)n = 1 .
(c) Replace x by 1/x in (1),
[1 + (1/x) + (1/x )] = a0 + a1 (1/x) + a2 (1/x2) + … + a2n (1/x2n)
2 n
…. (2)
(2) × x , (1 + x + x ) = a2n + a2n-1 x + a2n-2 x + … + a0 x
2n 2 n 2 2n
…. (3)
Compare coefficients in (1) and (3), ak = a2n-k , k = 0, 1, …., 2n
or an-r = an+r , r = 0, 1, …., n
2 n 2 n 2 4 n
(d) (1 + x + x ) (1 – x + x ) = (1 + x + x ) .
(a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + … + a2nx2n) (a0 – a1 x + a2 x2 – … + a2nx2n) = a0 + a1 x2 + a2 x4 + … + a2nx4n …. (4)
Compare coefficients of x2n on both sides, a02 – a12 + a22 – a32+ … + a2n2 = an .
(e) From (d) and since ak = a2n-k , we have 2[a02 – a12 + a22 – a32 + … + (-1)n-1 an-12] + (-1)n an2 = an .

∴ a02 – a12 + a22 – a32+ … +(-1)n-1 an-12 =

(f) From (4), since ak = a2n-k ,

(a2n + a2n-1 x + a2n-2 x2 + … + a0x2n) (a0 – a1 x + a2 x2 – … + a2nx2n) = a0 + a1 x2 + a2 x4 + … + a2nx4n….(5)
Compare coefficients of x2n+2 = 22(n+1) -term in (5), a0a2 – a1a3 + a2a4 – a3a5 + … + a2n-2a2n = an+1.
m 2 m
26. (a) (1 + x) = mC0 + nC1 x + mC2 x + … + mCm x . Put x = 1, mC0 + mC1 + mC2 + … + mCm = 2m .
(b) In (a), put m = 2n+1, 2n+1C1 + 2n+1C2 + … + 2n+1C2n-1 = 2m – 2n+1C0 – 2n+1C2n+1 = 22n+1 – 2 .
But, 2n+1Cr = 2n+1C2n+1-r , ∴ 2[2n+1C1 + 2n+1C2 + … + 2n+1Cn ] = 22n+1 – 2 .
∴ 2n+1C1 + 2n+1C2 + … + 2n+1Cn = 22n – 1 .

∴ .

27. nC18 = n C7 ⇒ nC18 = nCn-7 ⇒ 18 = n – 7 ⇒ n = 25 .

25 × 24 × 23 27 × 26
∴ nC22 = 25C22 = 25C3 = = 2300 and 27Cn = 27C25 = 27C2 = = 351
3 × 2 ×1 2 ×1
n n n

∑ ∑ ( n − r + 1) = ∑ r = n ( n + 1)
a1 a2 a3 an Cr 1
28. +2 +3 + ... + n = r n
=
a0 a1 a2 a n −1 r =1 n C r −1 r =1 r =1 2
29. Coeff. of xr = nCr + 2r nCr + 4r nCr = (1 + 2r + 4r) nCr .

a3 : a n-3 = a3 : a6 =
(1 + 23 + 43 ) 9C3 =
1 + 8 + 64
=
73
=
1
(1 + 26 + 46 ) 9C6 1 + 64 + 4096 4161 57

∫ (1 + x ) n = ∫ (c 0 + c1 x + c 2 x 2 + ... + c n x n )dx
1 1
30. (1 + x)n = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn ⇒
0 0

(1 + x ) 1 ⎡ c x n +1 ⎤ 1
n
c x2 c x3
⇒ = ⎢c 0 x + 1 + 2 + ... + n ⎥ ⇒ .
n +1 0 ⎣ 2 3 n +1 ⎦0

5
31. First part is omitted.
x2 ( p − 1)( p − 2 )
1 + ( 2 p − 1) x + ( 3p − 2)( p − 1) + ( 4 p − 3) x 3 + ...
2! 3!
x2 ( p − 1)( p − 2 )
= 1 + [p + ( p − 1)]x + [2 p + ( p − 2 )]( p − 1) + [3p + ( p − 3)] x 3 + ...
2! 3!
⎧ p( p − 1) p( p − 1)( p − 2 ) 2 ⎫ ⎧ ( p − 1)( p − 2 ) 2 ( p − 1)( p − 2 )( p − 3) 3 ⎫
= ⎨ px + 2 x+3 x + ...⎬ + ⎨1 + ( p − 1)x + x + x + ...⎬
⎩ 2! 3! ⎭ ⎩ 2! 3! ⎭
= x {pC1 + 2 pC2 x + 3 pC3 x2 + …} + {1 + p-1C1 x + p-1C2 x2 + p-1C3 x3 + … }
d
= x (1 + x )p + (1 + x )p−1 = px (1 + x )p−1 + (1 + x )p−1 = ( px + 1)(1 + x )p−1
dx
32. (x2 + 2x + 2)n = [2 + (2x + x2)]n = nC0 2n + nC1 2n-1 (2x + x2) + nC2 2n-2 (2x + x2)2 + nC3 2n-3 (2x + x2)3 + …
Coeff. of x2 –term = nC1 2n-1 + nC2 2n-2 (22) = 2n-1 n2 .

Coeff. of x3 –term = nC2 2n-2 (2 × 2) + nC3 2n-3 (23) = .

33. Coefficientof the term in x5 = 21 and Coefficientof the term in 1/x5 = 140.
34. a = -20, b = 200
35. (1 + 2x + 3x2)n = [(1 + 2x) + 3x2]n = nC0 (1 + 2x)n + nC1 (1 + 2x)n-1 (3x2) + nC2 (1 + 2x)n-2 (3x2)2 +…
4 4 2 2
Coeff. of x –term = nC0 nC4 2 + nC1 n-1C2 2 3 + nC2 n-2C0 3
Coeff. of x3 –term = nC0 nC3 23 + nC1 n-1C1 2 × 3
Coeff. of x4 –term : Coeff. of x3 –term = 121 / 28 ⇒ 14 n2 – 65n – 376 = 0 ⇒ (n – 8)(14n + 47) = 0
∴ n=8 (negative root is rejected)
36. Put x = –1 , result follows.
37. (a + x)n = c0 an + c1 an-1x + c2 an-2 x2 + … + cnxn .
(a – x)n = c0 an – c1 an-1x + c2 an-2 x2 – … + (–1)n cnxn .
2 s1 = (a + x)n + (a – x)n …. (1) , 2 s2 = (a + x)n – (a – x)n …. (2)
n n
[(1) + (2)] /2 , s1 + s2 = (a + x) …. (3) , [(1) – (2)] /2 , s1 – s2 = (a – x) …. (4)
(3) × (4), s12 – s22 = (a2 – x2)n , (1) × (2), 4s1s2 = (a + x)2n – (a – x)2n.
38. (1 + x)n = (1 + x)2 (1 + x)n-2 = (1 + 2x + x2) (1 + x)n-2
Compare coeff. of xr –term, n Cr = n-1Cr + 2(n-2Cr-1) + n-2Cr-2 .
39. Same as 20 (a).
40. (3 + 2x – x2)(1+x)34 = (3 – x)(1 + x)(1 + x)34 = (3 – x)(1 + x)35 .
Coeff. of xr – term = 3 35Cr-1 – 35Cr = 0, 1≤ r ≤ 35 . ∴ 3 35Cr-1 = 35Cr ⇒ r=6.
41. (1 – x + x2)3n = a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + … …. (1) , (x + 1)3n = c0x3n + c1x3n -1 + c2x3n -2 + … …. (2)
Put x=1 in (1), a0 + a1 + a2 + … =1 .
Consider (x + 1) (1 – x + x ) = (1 + x3)3n
3n 2 3n

( 3n )!
Compare coeff. of x3n –term, a0c0 + a1c1 + a2c2 + … = 3nCn = .
n! ( 2 n )!

6
 2 p(2 p − 1) 2 p( p − 1) 2
42. (1 + x)2p(1 – x)p = ⎡⎢1 + 2 px + x + ...⎤⎥ ⎡⎢1 − px + x + ...⎤⎥
⎣ 2! ⎦⎣ 2! ⎦
p( p − 1)
Coeff. of x = coeff. of x2 ⇒ p = − p 2 + p(2 p − 1) + ⇒ p ( p − 5) = 0 ⇒ p=5
2

43. Let a = 3 3 , b = 5. Then I + F = 3 3+5 ( )

2 n +1
= (a + b )
2 n +1
.

0 < 3 3 −5 < 1 ⇒ 0 < G = 3 3 −5 ( )

2 n +1
= (a − b )
2 n +1
<1.
(a + b ) 2 n +1
= a 2 n +1 + 2 n +1 C1a 2 n b + 2 n +1 C 2 a 2 n−1b 2 + ... + 2 n+1 C 2 n+1b 2 n+1 …. (1)
(a − b ) 2 n +1
=a 2 n +1
− 2 n+1 C1a b + 2 n+1 C 2 a
2n 2 n −1 2
b − ... − 2 n+1 C 2 n +1b 2 n +1
…. (2)
∴ (a + b ) 2 n +1
− (a − b )
2 n +1
contains even powers of a and is an integer.
∴ I + F – G is an integer. But I is an integer. ∴ F – G is an integer.
Since 0 < F, G < 1. ∴F–G=0 ∴ F=G.

∴ F(I + F) = G(I + F) = (a + b )
2 n +1
(a − b )2 n+1 = (a 2 − b 2 )
2 n +1
[(
= 3 3 − 52 )
2
] 2 n +1
= 22n+1.
mn
44. (a) ∑ a x ≡(1 + x + ... + x )
r =0
r
r m n
…. (1)

mn
(i) Put x=1 in (1), ∑a r =0
r = ( m + 1)
n

∑ ( −1) a = [1 − 1 + ... + (− 1) ] = ⎨⎩0 , when m is odd

⎧1 , when m is even
mn
r n
(ii) Put x = -1 in (1), r
r =0
m +1 n
mn
⎛ 2 −1⎞
∑ 2 a = (1 + 2 + ... + 2 ) m n
⎟ = (2 m+1 − 1)
n
(iii) Put x=2 in (1), r
r =⎜
r =0 ⎝ 2 −1 ⎠
mn

∑ ra x ≡n (1 + x + ... + x m ) (1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + ... + mx m−1 )

r −1 n −1
(b) Differentiate (1), r …. (2)
r =0
mn
m ( m + 1)
∑ ra
1
≡n ( m + 1) mn ( m + 1)
n −1
Put x=1 in (2), r =
r =0 2 2
mn mn
∴ mn ∑a
r =0
r =2 ∑ ra
r =0
r .

(c) When m is even, m = 2p .

m

∑ ( −1) r = −1 + 2 − 3 + 4 − ... + 2p = (− 1 + 2 ) + (− 3 + 4 ) + ... + [− (2p − 1) + 2p] = p = 2

r m
r =1

When m is odd, m = 2p + 1.
m

∑ ( −1) r = −1 + 2 − 3 + 4 − ... − (2p + 1) = (− 1 + 2 ) + (− 3 + 4 ) + ... + [− (2p − 1) + 2p] − (2p + 1)

r =1
r

m +1
= p − (2 p + 1) = − p − 1 = −
2

[ ] ⎡ r ⎤
m mn
Put x = -1 in (2), ∑r =1
( −1) r −1 ra r = n 1 − 1 + ... + ( − 1)
m n −1
∑
⎢ ( −1) r ⎥
⎣ r =1 ⎦
⎧mn , if m is even
m
∴ 2 ∑ (−1) ra
r =1
r
r =⎨
⎩ 0 , if m is odd.

7
45. nCr+1 = n-1Cr + n-1Cr+1. omitted – bookwork.
nCr = n-1Cr + n-1Cr-1

n-1Cr-1 = n-2Cr-1 + n-2Cr-2

n-2Cr-2 = n-3Cr-2 + n-3Cr-3

: : :

n-r+1C1 = n-r-2C1 + n-r-2C0

Adding all equalities and cancel terms, put n-r-2C0 to n-r-1C0 . Result follows.

46. nCr = n-1Cr-1 + n-1Cr. omitted – bookwork.

n

∑
1
P(n) : n +q Cq n +q
= 1.
q =0 2

C0 ⎛⎜ 0 ⎞⎟ = 1 = R.H.S.
1
For P(0), L.H.S. = 0 ∴ P(1) is true.
⎝2 ⎠
k

∑
1
Assume P(k) is true for some k ∈ N , i.e. k +q Cq k +q
=1 …. (*)
q =0 2
k +1 k +1 k +1 k +1

∑ ∑ ( k+q Cq + k+q Cq−1 ) ∑ ∑

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s= k +1+q C q k +1+q
= k +1
+ k +1+q
= k +1
+ k +q C q k +q
+ k +q Cq −1 k +1+q
q =0 2 2 q =1 2 2 2 q =1 2 q =1 2

1 ⎡ k +1 1 ⎤ k

∑ ∑
1 1 1 1
= k +1
+ ⎢ k+q Cq k +q
− k
+ 2 k +1 C k +1 2 k +1 ⎥
+ k + q +1 Cq k +q + 2
2 2 ⎣ q =0 2 2 2 ⎦ q =0 2

1⎡ 1 ⎤ 1⎡ 1 ⎤
= 1 + C + s − C
2 ⎢⎣ 2 2 k +1 ⎥⎦ 2 ⎢⎣ 2 2 k + 2 ⎥⎦
2 k +1 k +1 2 k +1 k + 2 , by (*)

1 1 1 1
= + s, ∵2 k+1 C k +1 2 k +1
= 2 k +1 C k+2 2 k+2
2 2 2 2
∴ s=1 and P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

47. (a) (Case 1) For n ≥ r. If n is a positive integer, use Math. Induction to prove the assertion.
Use Cr(n + 1) = Cr (n) + Cr-1(n) to complete the assertion. (sum of two integers is an integer)
Also, if n=0, Cr(0) = 0 .
(Case 2) For 0 ≤ n < r , One of the factor n , (n – 1), …., (n – r + 1) is zero. ∴ Cr(n) = 0 ∈ Z .
(Case 3) If n ∈ -Z , put m = -n,
n ( n − 1)...( n − r + 1) ( − m )( − m − 1)...( − m − r + 1) m( m + 1)( m + 2 )...( m + r − 1)
Cr (n) = = = ( − 1)
r

r! r! r!
= (-1)r Cr (m + r – 1) which is an integer by Case 1 .

(b) deg [p(x)] = k, deg [Ci(x)] = i where 0 ≤ i ≤ k .

By division algorithm, we can get

8
 p(x) = bk Ck(x) + rk(x) , deg [rk(x)] = k – 1 < deg [Ck(x)] = k
rk(x) = bk-1 Ck(x) + rk-1(x) , deg [rk-1(x)] = k – 2
: : : :
r2(x) = b1 C1(x) + r1(x) , deg [r1(x)] = 0
r1(x) = b0 C0(x) .
Adding all equalities, p(x) = bkCk(x) + bk-1Ck-1(x) + … + b0C0(x) …. (1)
Now, p(0) = b0 C0(0) ∈ Z since b0 , C0(x) ∈ Z .
p(1) = b1 C1(1) + b0 C0(1) ∈ Z since b1 , C1(1), b0 , C0(1) ∈ Z .
Similarly, p(2) = b2 C1(2) + b0 C0(2) + b0 C0(2) ∈ Z .
Continue in this way, all bi’s in (1) are integers.
(c) Similar to (b), instead of Z , we use Q , we can show that bi ∈ Q .
By (1), all coefficients of p(x) are rationals.
48. (a) Same as 21. (a) .
1 n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )....( n − k + 1) 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ k − 1 ⎞ 1
(b) C nk = = ⎜ 1 − ⎟⎜ 1 − ⎟...⎜ 1 − ⎟≤ since all factors in brackets ≤ 1
n k
k! n k
k! ⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠ k!
n
⎛1 + 1 ⎞ =
n n

∑ ∑
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) ⎜ ⎟ nCk ≤ = 1+1+ + + ... + < 1+1+ + + ... + (Geometric series)
⎝ n⎠ k =0 n k by ( b )
k =0 k! 2! 3! n! 2 2 2
2n

< 1 + ⎛⎜ 1 + + 2 + ... + n + ... ⎞⎟

1 1 1 1
(Infinite geometric series) =1+ = 3.
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ 1−
1
2

49. (a) If m – p ≥ p , G(m, m – p)

(1 − x m )(1 − x m−1 )...(1 − x m−p+1 )(1 − x m−p )(1 − x m−p−1 )...(1 − x p+1 ) (1 − x m )(1 − x m−1 )...(1 − x m−p+1 )
= = = G(m, p)
(1 − x )(1 − x 2 )...(1 − x p )(1 − x p+1 )...(1 − x m−p−1 )(1 − x m−p ) (1 − x )(1 − x 2 )...(1 − x p )

If m – p ≤ p, we may put m–p=q. Then p=m–q and it follows that m–q≥q. From above,

G(m, m – p ) = G(m, q) = G(m, m – q) = G(m, p) .

(b) (i) G(m, p + 1) – G(m – 1, p + 1)

(1 − x m )(1 − x m−1 )...(1 − x m−p ) (1 − x m )(1 − x m−1 )...(1 − x m−p−1 )

= −
(1 − x )(1 − x 2 )...(1 − x p+1 ) (1 − x )(1 − x 2 )...(1 − x p+1 )

(1 − x m )(1 − x m−1 )...(1 − x m−p )

= [(1 − x m ) − (1 − x m−p−1 )] = x m−p−1 (1 − x p+1 )G ( m − 1, p )
1
p+1
(1 − x )(1 − x )...(1 − x
2
) 1 − x p+1

= xm – p – 1 G(m – 1, p) .

(ii) From (b) (i) , we get: G(n, p + 1) = G(n – 1, p + 1) + xn – p – 1 G(n – 1, p) .

Putting p + 1, p + 2, …, m for n,

9
 G(p + 1, p + 1) = G(p, p) + G(p, p + 1)

G(p + 2, p + 1) = xG(p + 1, p) + G(p + 1, p + 1)

G(p + 3, p + 1) = x2 G(p + 2, p) + G(p + 2, p + 1)

: : : : : : :

G(m, p + 1) = xm – p – 1 G(m – 1, p) + G(m – 1, p + 1)

Adding all these equalities, we have :

G(m, p + 1) = G(p, p) + G(p, p + 1) + xG(p + 1, p) + x2 G(p + 2, p) + … + xm – p – 1 G(m – 1, p)

But G(p, p + 1) = 0 , result follows.

1 − x0
(c) For p = 1, if m = 0, then G(m, p) = G(0, 1) = =0
1− x
1− xm
If m ≥ 1, then G(m, p) = = 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x m−1 .
1− x
Thus, when p = 1, G(m, p) is a polynomial in x for any integer m≥p–1.
Assume that G(m, p) is a polynomial in x for any m ≥ p – 1 .
Thus when m ≥p–1, G(p, p), G(p + 1, p), G(p + 2, p), … , G(m – 1, p) are all polynomials in x.
Therefore by (b) (ii) , G(m, p +1) is also a polynomial in x .
Moreover, we have shown that G(p, p + 1) is a polynomial in x for any positive integer m≥p.
So, by the Principle of Induction, G(m, p) is a polynomial in x for any m, p ∈ N, m ≥ p – 1 .

50. (a) f’(ai) = (ai – a1) (ai – a2) …(ai – ai-1) (ai – ai+1) …(ai – an)

(b) (i) (*)

∴ g(ai) = Ai (ai – a1) (ai – a2) …(ai – ai-1) (ai – ai+1) …(ai – an) = Ai f’(ai) .
g (a i )
∴ Ai =
f ' (a i )
n
(ii) If deg [g(x)] < n – 1 , the coefficient of xn of g(x) =0 and so ∑A
i =1
i =0 .

(iii) Let g(x) = xm where m ≤ n – 2 . Then f(x) = (x – 1) (x – 2) … (x – n) .

f’(i) = ( i – 1) … [i – (i – 1)] [i – (i + 1) … (i – n) = ( i – 1)! ( n – i)! (-1)n– i .
n
im
By (ii), ∑ ( −1)
i =1
n −i

( i − 1)! ( n − i )!
=0

10