9/24/2019

CE-824 Mechanical properties of soils

Part -1 (3 weeks)
Semester I 2019/2020
MS-Batch 2019
Dr. Badee Alshameri, PhD
RFV, Assistant Professor

Course Objectives

• To equip the students with the knowhow of soil properties with emphasis
on conceptual understanding of soil textures, consistency, permeability,
stress/strain behavior, shear strength and consolidation.

• The course focuses on the field/lab testing and preparation of report writing

1
 9/24/2019

Course Outcomes

• Students will be able to test the soil textures and stress/strain behaviors of
soils

• Students will be able to apply various soil improvements techniques and

methods in the field for mechanical properties

Course content

• Index and Classification Properties of Soil

• Permeability
• Stress-Strain Behavior and Condition of Failures
• Shear Strength
• Consolidation Theory

2
 9/24/2019

References / Text Books

• Das, B. M., & Sobhan, K. (201X) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering

• Das, B. M. (2013). Advanced soil mechanics. CRC Press.
• Holtz, R.D., Kovacs, W.D., (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
• Liu, C., Evett, J.B. (1997), Soil Properties: Testing, Measurement and Evaluation,
Prentice Hall, New Jeresy.
• Bowles, J.E. (1992), Engineering Properties of Soil and Their Measurement,
McGraw-Hill Company.

Questions need to be answered

• Why the mechanical properties of soil should be studied?

• What is the mechanical properties of soil?
• Which properties are important?
• Which properties should be tested! And why?
• Laboratory or field tests!
• Can the preliminary investigation be enough?

3
 9/24/2019

Classification of mechanical soil properties

• According to the test description

A. Index soil properties
B. Soil strength properties

Measuring the mechanical soil properties

• According to the implementation area

A. Laboratory soil tests
B. Field soil tests

4
 9/24/2019

Measuring the mechanical soil properties

• According to the test implementation method

A. Destructive tests
B. Non-destructive tests

Index physical soil properties

A. Soil textures (void ratio, porosity, particle shape, etc.)

B. Density (large and small scale) & relative density
C. Grain size distribution
D. Atterberg limits & consistency indices
E. Compaction
F. Permeability and seepage?

10

5
 9/24/2019

Soil Strength properties

A. Shear strength tests (direct shear, triaxial, UCT etc.)

B. Shear strength parameters (c, ø etc.)
C. Consolidation

11

Soil Strength properties-Some related standards

Test name ASTM AASHTO BS ASTM AASHTO BS

Moisture content D-2216 T-265 1377-2 Modified compaction D-1557 T-180 1377-4
D-4643
D-4959
D-4944
Specific gravity D-854 T-100 1377-2 Sand cone D-1556 T-191
D5550
Unit weight D-7263 Permeability D-2434 T-215 1377-5
D-4767
Sieve analysis D-421 T-87, T-88 1377-2 Consolidation D-2435 T-216 1377-5
Hydrometer analysis D-422 T-87, T-88 1377-2 Direct shear-granular D-3080 T-236 1377-7
Liquid limits D-4318 T-89 1377-2 Unconfined compression test D-2166 T-208 1377-7
Plastic limits D-4318 T-90 1377-2 Triaxial D-2850 T-223 1377-7
Shrinkage limits D-427 T-92 1377-2 AASHTO Soil Classification System D-3282 M-145
Standard compaction D-698 T-99 1377-4 Unified Soil Classification System D-2487

12

6
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

𝑉𝑣
Void ratio; 𝑒 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑣
Porosity; 𝑛 =
𝑉
𝑉𝑤
Degree of saturation; 𝑆 =
𝑉𝑣
𝑊𝑤
Moisture content; 𝑤 =
𝑊𝑠
𝑊
Unit weight ; 𝛾 =
𝑉

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

13

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Moisture content

• Moisture content
• Definition
𝑊𝑤
•𝑤=
𝑊𝑠

14

7
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Moisture content

• Measurements (laboratory & field)
• Classified according to; the time require, efficiency and
cost
A- Using heat
1. Oven dry (110 ± vs 50 ±)
2. Microwave
3. Sand bath

15

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Moisture content

• Measuring the moisture content
• Classified according to; the time require, efficiency and cost
B- Using Chemical reaction
1. Speedy moisture tester (a calcium carbide gas pressure tester).
2. Alcohol method

16

8
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Moisture content

• Measuring the moisture content
• Classified according to; the time require, efficiency and cost
B- Using mechanical method
1. Pycnometer
a) More suitable for cohesionless soil
b) Need to have Gs

17

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Moisture content

• Measurements (laboratory & field)
• Classified according to; the time require, efficiency and cost
C- Advanced
1. Nuclear
2. Electromagnetic Soil Density Gauge
3. Infera-red lamp and torsion method

18

9
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Unit weight

𝑊
• Unit weight (Density); γ =
𝑉
• Measuring the unit weight (methodology, function, advantage and disadvantage)
1. Directly measurement
2. Sand-cone
3. Rubber-balloon
4. Nuclear gauge
5. Electromagnetic Soil Density Gauge

19

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Unit weight

𝑊
• Unit weight (Density); γ =
𝑉
𝑀
• Density; 𝜌 =
𝑉
• Types of unit weight (bulk/moist, dry, saturated and submerged/effect)
𝑊 1−𝑤 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
• γ= =
𝑉 1+𝑒
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
• 𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑒
𝐺 +𝑒 𝛾𝑤
• 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑠
1+𝑒
• 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤

20

10
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

(Das & Sobhan, 2014)

21

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Unit weight

• When use different type of density
• Bulk
• Dry
• Saturated
• submerged

22

11
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Unit
weight
• Range value

Question!
Can this value be used in
the Design?

(Holtz & Kovacs, 1981)

23

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Examples
A geotechnical laboratory reported these results of five sample taken from a single
boring. Determine which are not correctly reported if any:
Sample 1: w=30%, γd=14.9 kN/m3, γsat=20 kN/m3
Sample 2: w=34%, γd=17 kN/m3, γsat=21 kN/m3
Sample 3: w=20%, γd=16 kN/m3, γsat=19 kN/m3
Sample 4: w=22%, γd=17.2 kN/m3, γsat=21 kN/m3
Sample 4: w=22%, γd=18 kN/m3, γsat=20 kN/m3

24

12
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Specific gravity

𝑊
Specific gravity (Density of ----------); 𝐺𝑠 =
𝑉
Difference between the density of mass and particles:
1. Scaling
2. Parameters effect (moisture content, voids, relations between the soil texture &
particle size etc.)

25

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Specific gravity

Measurements
1. Water Pycnometer
2. Gas Pycnometer
3. Porosimeter

26

13
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Specific gravity

Performance the specific gravity test
The standards precautions:
(1) The air bubbles (de-airing process).
(2) The variation in the temperature (isolated container).

27

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Specific gravity

Keys on specific gravity
(1) High particle density indicates the presence of minerals with high density.
(2) Low value of particle density indicates the presence of high organic matter
content.

28

14
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations
𝑉𝑣
• Void ratio; 𝑒 =
𝑉𝑠
• Range of void ratio
• How to measure the void ratio?

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

29

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations
Gs FC
e+
Gsf 100
• Intergranular Void ratio; 𝑒𝑖 =
G FC
1− s
Gsf 100

30

15
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Porosity
• The pore space content of the soil is called porosity
𝑉𝑣
• Porosity 𝑛 =
𝑉
𝑒
•𝑛=
1+𝑒
• Range of porosity
• Usage of porosity

31

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations
𝑉𝑤
• Degree of saturation; 𝑆 =
𝑉𝑣
• Range of degree of saturation

32

16
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Examples
It is known that the natural soil at a construction site has a void ratio of 0.92. At the
end of compaction, the in-place void ratio was found to be 0.65. If the moisture
content remains unchanged, then determine:
a. Percent decrease in the total volume of the soil due to compaction
b. Percent increase in the dry field unit weight
c. Percent change in the degree of saturation

33

Index physical soil properties

Relative density
• In situ denseness or looseness of granular soil.
𝑒 −𝑒
• Relative density; 𝐷𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
• How to measure the emax and emin
• By measuring the density instead the void ratio using ASTM D-4253 & D-4254
• Pouring the granular material in mold then measure the density then using 𝛾𝑑 =
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
−1 − −1
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛾𝑑 −𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛
• 𝐷𝑟 = =
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝐺 𝛾 𝛾𝑑 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛
−1 − 𝛾 𝑠 𝑤 −1
𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

34

17
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties

Relative density-Range

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

35

Index physical soil properties

Comments on emax and emin

“McGeary (1961) conducted tests with
mixtures of two different sizes of steel spheres.
The larger spheres had a diameter of 3.15 mm
(D). The diameter of the small spheres (d)
varied from 0.91 mm to 0.16 mm” (Das &
Sobhan 2014)

Variation of minimum void ratio with percent of smaller steel spheres by

volume -Test results of McGeary (1961) after (Das & Sobhan 2014)

36

18
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties

Comments on emax and emin

Variation of emax and emin with percent of nonplastic fines (Based on

the test results of Lade et al., 1998). Note: For 50/80 sand and fines, D50-
sand /D50-fine =4.22 and for 80/200 sand and fines, D50-sand/D50-fine
=2.4 after (Das & Sobhan 2014)

37

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Examples
2-m-high sandy fill material was placed loosely at a relative density of 47%.
Laboratory studies indicated that the maximum and minimum void ratios of the fill
material are 0.92 and 0.53, respectively. Construction specifications required that
the fill be compacted to a relative density of 80%. If Gs = 2.65, determine:
a. Dry unit weight of the fill before and after compaction
b. Final height of the fill after compaction

38

19
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Phase relations-Solutions according to the phase
relations

𝑉𝑣
Void ratio; 𝑒 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑣
Porosity; 𝑛 =
𝑉
𝑉𝑤
Degree of saturation; 𝑆 =
𝑉𝑣
𝑊𝑤
Moisture content; 𝑤 =
𝑊
𝛾𝑠 𝑠
Specific gravity ; 𝐺𝑠 =
𝛾𝑤

𝑊 𝑊𝑤 +𝑊𝑠 𝑉𝑤 𝛾𝑤 +𝑉𝑠 𝛾𝑠
Unit weight ; 𝛾 = = =
𝑉 𝑉𝑣 +𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑣 +𝑉𝑠

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

39

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Examples (Solve it using; (a) mathematical relationship and (b) first principles)
1. A soil sample has a unit weight of 1.9 gm/cc and a water content of l2%. If the
specific gravity be 2.65, determine the dry density, degree of saturation, void
ratio and porosity of the soil.
2. An undisturbed specimen of soil has a volume of 300 cc and weighted 498 g.
After drying in oven at 105'C for 24 hours' its weight reduced to 456 g.
Determine the void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation and water content
3. A saturated soil sample, weighing 178 gm, has a volume of 96 cc. If the specific
gravity of soil solids be 2.67 , determine the void ratio, water content and unit
weight of the soil

40

20
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Plasticity and Structure of Soil

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

41

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Measurement of liquid limits (LL):

1. Casagrande method (25 blows)
2. Fall cone method(weight =0.78 N)
to penetrate 20 mm in 5 sec)

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

42

21
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Representative curve

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

43

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Flow index (IF)

𝑤2 − 𝑤2
𝐼𝐹𝐶 =
log 𝑑2 − log 𝑑2
i.e. the flow index is the slope of penetration
under different moisture content

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

44

22
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Measurement of plastic limits (PL):

1. Rolling method (crumbles when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in diameter)
2. Fall cone method (weight =2.35 N to penetrate 20 mm in 5 sec)

Empirical correlation
PL = 0.04 LL + 0.26 CF + 10
Where CF is clay fraction and should be > 30 %

45

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Plastic index (PI)

• PI = LL-PL

• Empirical methods:
• PI = 0.741 IFC
• PI = 0.96 LL - 0.26 CF – 10
• Where CF is clay fraction and
should be > 30 %

Burmister (1949) classified the plasticity index in a

qualitative manner(Das & Sobhan 2014)

46

23
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Plastic index (PI)
• PI = LL-PL

• The plasticity index is property of the material which allows Table 1.2: Plasticity index classifications
it be deformed rabidly without rupture (breaking). High PI PI Classification Notes
means the soil particle has high specific area which means
can hold a large amount of water at the plastic zone before > 17 High Higher swilling, compressibility, activity,
it transfer to liquids limit plasticity and volume change. Can be called fat
clay
7 to Medium Can be called lean
17 plasticity
<7 Low Can be called lean
plasticity
0 No plasticity Indicate non cohesive soil

47

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Activity (A)
• The slope of the line correlating PI and %
finer than 2 mm
𝑃𝐼
• 𝐴=
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦−𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Activity (Based on Skempton, 1953) (Das &

Sobhan 2014)

48

24
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Activity

Relationship between plasticity index and clay-size fraction

by weight for kaolinite/bentonite clay mixtures (Das &
Sobhan 2014)

49

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Sensitivity of Clay
The unconfined compression strength is greatly reduced when the soils are tested after remolding
without any change in the moisture content
qu(undisturbed)
=
St qu(disturbed)
The sensitivity ratio of most clays ranges from about 1 to 8; however, highly flocculent marine clay deposits
may have sensitivity ratios ranging from about 10 to 80. There are also some clays that turn to viscous fluids
upon remolding. These clays are found mostly in the previously glaciated areas of North America and
Scandinavia and are referred to as “quick” clays.

50

25
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Sensitivity of Clay

Table 1.6: Classification of clays based on sensitivity (Das & Sivakugan, 2007)
Sensitivity Insensitive
1-2 Slightly sensitive
2-4 Medium sensitive
4-8 Very sensitive
8-16 Slightly quick
16-32 Medium quick
32-64 Very quick
> 64 Extra quick

51

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Thixotropy of Clay

The loss of strength of clay soils from remolding is primarily caused by the destruction of the clay particle
structure that was developed during the original process of sedimentation. If, however, after remolding, a soil
specimen is kept in an undisturbed state (that is, without any change in the moisture content), it will continue to
gain strength with time. This phenomenon is referred to as thixotropy

Thixotropy is a time-dependent reversible process in which materials under constant composition and volume
soften when remolded. This loss of strength is gradually regained with time when the materials are allowed to
rest

52

26
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Plastic index (PI)

• PI = LL-PL

(Das & Sobhan 2014)

53

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Plasticity chart

Casagrande plasticity chart (Das & Sobhan 2014)

54

27
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Shrinkage limits (SL)

SL = wi -∆w
where wi is initial moisture content when the soil is
placed in the shrinkage limit dish and ∆w is change
in moisture content (that is, between the initial
moisture content and the moisture content at the
shrinkage limit)

Shrinkage limit test: (a) soil pat before drying;

(b) soil pat after drying (Das & Sobhan 2014)

55

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Shrinkage limits (SL)

Range

Typical values of shrinkage limit for some clay minerals are

from Mitchell (1976), (Das & Sobhan 2014)

56

28
 9/24/2019

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Liquidity Index (LI)

Table 1.3: Properties of fine grain soils (de Vallejo & Ferrer 2011)
𝑤−𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 = where w is in
𝐿𝐿−𝑃𝐿 Classification LI γd (kN/m3) w% e
situ moisture content of soil
Very soft 1 – 0.8 < 14 > 55 > 1.3
If LI > 1, this mean w > LL and these
soils, when remolded, can be Soft 0.8 – 0.65 14 - 16 55 – 40 1.3 – 1

transformed into a viscous form to Frim 0.65 – 0.4 16 – 17 40 – 25 1 – 0.7

flow like a liquid
Stiff 0.4 – 0.25 17 - 18 25 – 15 0.7 – 0.5
If LI < 0, means the soil deposits that
Hard < 0.25 > 18 < 15 < 0.5
are heavily overconsolidated may
have a natural moisture content less γd is dry unit weight, w% is the moisture content, e is the void ratio
than the plastic limit.

57

Index physical soil properties-Soil textures

Consistency Index (CI)

𝐿𝐿−𝑤
𝐶𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿−𝑃𝐼

58

29