Error Treatments for oral and written language by the English Teacher(s) of

MAN 3 Banjarmasin at the 12th grade

Dewi Sartika
Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu
Pendidikan Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to find out how the error treatments for oral and
written language by the English teachers at MAN 3 Banjarmasin. Error
treatments refers to the way teachers respond to learners' linguistic errors made in
the course of learning a second language The form of this research itself is
qualitative descriptive research. In this study, the author will interview the teacher
about how to the error treatments for oral and written language

Key terms: Error treatments, oral and written language.

1. INTRODUCTION
Generally, to be a professional English teacher someone should have good
mastery in four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These
four language skills are integrated to make the communicative competence.
Therefore, each of the skills should be considered as equally important to be
mastered. Slightly different from two other skills of English, speaking and writing
enable people to voice out them in a communication.

Writing is language skills. It has taught from Primary school to senior high
schools. Moreover, it has also been taught at play group students, although they
only study to write and to pronounce a single word. It shows that this aspect is
very fundamental, where the students start writing words and then arrange them
into sentences and the last making paragraphs. Surely, writing is not easy as the
students think, because they should use correct dictions, chronologies, and
spelling of word. Students express their feelings, thinking, share opinion or ideas
and state willingness by writing. Writing refers to the students activities in
classroom.
Speaking is considered as an important skill to be accomplished by
students. As a language is used as a tool of communication, the ability of
speaking or communicating with others takes an important role. People should
know how to express thoughts, opinions, feelings, and ideas through the
language. The kinds of language is oral, written, and gesture form. It must be
acknowledged, that the most often used in communication is oral form in the
classroom.
Therefore, Errors or mistakes committed by students in the second/foreign-
language classroom had a hard time until current views on them became widely
accepted. Based on the explanation above researchers have focused on the study
of error treatment for oral and written language by the English teachers of MAN
3 Banjarmasin at 12th grade.

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

1. DESCRIPTION OF ERROR

Errors, according to James, C (1998, cited in Ainon Jariah Muhamad,

Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah, Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim, Isarji Sarudin,
Faridah Abdul Malik and Rozina Abdul Ghani, 2013) can be classified into two
types; the linguistic category classification and surface structure taxanomy. The
linguistic category classification specifies errors in terms of linguistic categories
and where the error is located in the overall system of the target language. Errors
can be at the phonological, grammatical, lexical, textual or discourse level. Adds
that language learners who do not have knowledge of the language would not be
able to correct the errors. Guided revisions in the classroom help the students to
recognize and correct the errors.
Dulay, H., M. Burt and S.D. Krashen, (1982, as cited in Ainon Jariah
Muhamad, Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah, Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim, Isarji
Sarudin, Faridah Abdul Malik and Rozina Abdul Ghani, 2013) Proposed a
descriptive taxonomy in describing errors. According to them, errors occur when
surface structure are altered or changed in a specific or systematic way. This can
be done by omission, addition, misformation and misordering.
However, looks at errors from a different perspective. He distinguishes three
types of errors which are transfers errors, analogical errors and teaching-induced
errors. (Corder, S.P., 1973. Introducing Applied Linguistics.
Penguin) In explaining errors, has also included strategies of second language
communication, in addition to the three types of errors suggested by Corder.
(Selinker, L., 1974. Interlanguage. In J. C. Richards (Ed.))

Dulay et al. (1982, as cited in Irawansyah, 2017) stated that errors are the
flawed side of learner speech and writing. In addition, Brown (1980, as cited in
Irawansyah, 2017) also stated about error and mistake. The error is a noticeable
deviation from the adult grammar or a native speaker reflecting the interlanguage
competence of the learners, while the mistake is a performance error that is either
a random guess or "slip", in that it a failure to utilize a known system correctly.

Meanwhile, Fauziati (2009) stated that errors are systematics, consistent

deviance which is characteristics of the learner‟s linguistics system at a given
stage of learning, and mistakes are deviation due to performance factors such as
memory limitation, fatigue, and emotional strain.

According to Ferris (2011:3, as cited in Albert Efendi Pohan, 2017), errors are
morphological, syntactic, and lexical forms that deviate from rules or target
language, violating the expectations of literate adult native speakers.

As there are different kinds of errors classified according to specific

taxonomies, there are also different options for error treatment in naturalistic
contexts in first language acquisition and in second and foreign language
classroom settings.

Ferris (2011:89) explained types of error as follow:

a. Missing Word
Missing word has slight similar with the term of omission. According to
Dulay et al (1982:154) omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item
that must appear in a well-formed utterance, example: Mary the president of the
new company (The correct sentence should be “Mary is the president of the new
company”, the to be verb “is” was absence).
b. Unnecessary Word
 Unnecessary word has slight similar with the term of addition. Dulay et al
(1982:154) stated that addition errors are opposite of omission. They are
characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed
utterance, example: He doesn’t knows my name(The correct sentence should be
“He doesn’t know my name”, the verb “knows” should be “know” without adding
‘s’).
c. Noun Singular/Plural
Number is the form of word that show it is singular or plural. According to
Glencoe (1976:47) A singular noun names one person, place, thing or idea, for
example: child, corner, piano and religion. A plural noun names more than one.
Most plural nouns are formed by adding “-s” to the singular form. Words that end
in “ch, sh, s, x, or z” for the plural by adding “-es”. Words that end in consonant
and “y” form the plural by changing “y” to “i” and adding “-es”, for example:
books, glasses, flies.
d. Verb Tense
Glencoe (1976:141) stated that verb tenses show time. Tenses tell when
events happen, happened or will happen.
e. Article
Yakhontova (2003:52) explained that the indefinite article “a” (before a
consonant sound) or “an” (before a vowel sound) is used with countable nouns in
the singular. And the definite article “the” is used with countable noun in the
singular/plural and uncountable nouns in the meaning “contextually known”,
“mentioned earlier”.
f. Punctuation
Types of punctuation according to Glencoe (1976:245) are period (.) is used at the
end of a declarative sentence and at the end of a polite command, the exclamation
point (!) to shows strong feeling and indicate a forceful command, the question
mark (?) to indicate a direct question, the colon ( : ) to introduce a list, especially
after a statement that uses words such as these, the following or as follows, the
semicolon (;) to separate main clauses those are joined by a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet and for), commas (,) is used between the main
clauses in a compound sentence. Place a comma before a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet and for) that joins two main clauses.
Dash (-) to set off an abrupt break or change in thought within a sentence, the
parenthesis { ( ) } to set off material that is not important enough to be considered
part of the main statement, the quotation mark (“”) to enclose a direct quotation,
the apostrophe (‘) and “-s” is used to form the possessive of a singular, even one
that ends in “-s” and use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive of a plural
noun that the ends in “-s” and use an apostrophe and “-s” to form the possessive
of a plural noun that does not end in “-s”, the hyphen (-) is used after any prefix
joined to a proper noun or proper adjective.
g. Subject Verb Agreement
According to Glencoe (1976:161) subject verb agreement means that the subject
and verb in a sentence must agree. In the present tense, add –s or –es to the base
form for the third-person singular, for example: He skates, They skate. The
verbsbe, have and do change form to agree with their subject, for example: I am
climbing, They are climbing, He has reached the top, They have reached the top.
h. Word Form
Word form is the change form of word based on grammatical rules. Glencoe
(1976:293) explained that the main part of word is its root. When this is complete
word , it is called a base word. A root is often combined with a prefix (a part
attached to the beginning), a suffix (a part attached to the end), or another root.
Prefixes and suffixes often change the direction of a word’s meaning, for
example: quick (adjective), quickly (adverb).
i. Sentence Fragment
According to Glencoe (1976:123) a sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence.
It may lack a subject, a verb or both. Sentence fragment may be a subordinate
clause that cannot stand alone, for example: Although he bought the tie for his
brother (Although he bought the tie for his brother, he kept it for himself).

Burt and Kiparsky (1974, as cited in Hanna Y. Touchie, 1986) distinguish

between local and global errors. Local errors do not hinder communication and
understanding the meaning of an utterance. Global errors, on'the other hand, are
more serious than local errors because global errors interfere with communication
and disrupt the meaning of utterances. Local error involve noun and verb
inflections, and the use of articles,
prepositions, and auxiliaries. Global errors, for example, involve wrong word
order in a sentence.
Brown (1980, as cited in Irawansyah, 2017) mentioned the fact that learners‟
errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system
operating within the learner, led to the surge of the study of learner's error, called,
error analysis‟”. There are two functions of error analysis : (1) to investigate the
language learning process, and (2) to show whether it is necessary or not for the
teacher to give the remedial teaching. Error analysis is described in four
taxonomies, namely surface strategy, linguistics category, comparative, and
communicative effect taxonomy.
According Corder (1981), the same view regarding the function of error
analysis and that there are two justifications for studying learners’ errors: its
relevance to language teaching and the study of the language acquisition process.
According to Corder (1967), error analysis has two objects: one theoretical and
another applied. The theoretical object is to understand what and how a learner
learns when he studies a second language. The applied object is to enable the
learner to learn more efficiently by using the knowledge of his dialect for
pedagogical purposes.
Fauziati (2009) stated that error analysis as an approach to the study of SLA in
which its primary focus is on learner errors and the evidence of how learner errors
can provide an understanding of the underlying processes of second language
learning or second language acquisition.
Richards et al. (2000, as cited in Huang Jing, Hao Xiaodong and Liu Yu, 2016)
defines error analysis as “the study and analysis of the errors made by second and
foreign language learners’. This new movement tried to follow an inductive
approach, that is, to draw inferences about difficult areas from studying actual
errors. Error analysis distinguishes mistakes and error. A mistake refers to a
performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip”, in that it is a failure to
utilize a known system correctly. Mistakes are of no significance to language
learning because they are made at random and non-systematic. An error is
noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflection the
limit of the the learner’s competence in using the target language. It is just
because that learners do make errors and that these errors can be observed,
analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the
learner, led to a surge of study of learners’ errors.
Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982, as cited in Kanyakorn Sermsook, Jiraporn
Liamnimitr and Rattaneekorn Pochakorn, 2017) state that the analysis of errors is
the method to analyze errors made by EFL and ESL learners when they learn a
language. Not only can it help reveal the strategies used by learners to learn a
language, it also assists teachers as well as other concerning people to know what
difficulties learners encounter in order to improve their teaching.
James (1998, as cited in Kanyakorn Sermsook, Jiraporn Liamnimitr and
Rattaneekorn Pochakorn, 2017) proposes that Error Analysis (EA) is the analysis
of learners’ errors by comparing what the learners have learned with what they
lack. It also deals with giving the explanation of the errors in order to accurately
reduce them.
Another definition of Error Analysis (EA) given by Crystal (1999, as cited in
Kanyakorn Sermsook, Jiraporn Liamnimitr and Rattaneekorn Pochakorn, 2017) is
the study of language learners’ language forms which deviate from those of the
target language. According to Corder (1974 cited in Mungungu, 2010), Error
Analysis (EA) has two objectives. One is theoretical objective which concerns
what and how learners learn a language. The other is the practical one which
concerns how to help learners learn a language by making use of the knowledge
they have already had. Corder (1974 cited in Mungungu, 2010), hence, asserts that
Error Analysis (EA) is useful. He also proposes the five-stage process of Error
Analysis (EA) which consists of (1) the collection of errors, (2) the identification
of errors, (3) the description of errors, (4) the explanation of errors, and (5) the
evaluation of errors (Corder, 1974 cited in Wu & Garza, 2014).
Errors are categorized according to their features by Dulay, Burt and Krashen
(1982) into six different categories: omission of grammatical morphemes, double
marking of semantic features, use of irregular rules, use of wrong word forms,
alternating use of two or more forms, and misordering.
 In the late 1990s, James (1998) proposes five categories of errors which
include grammatical errors (adjectives, adverbs, articles, nouns, possession,
pronouns, prepositions and verbs), substance errors (capitalization,punctuation
and spelling), lexical errors (word formation and word selection), syntactic errors
(coordination/ subordination, sentence structure and ordering), and semantic
errors (ambiguous communication and miscommunication).
In another study by Hengwichitkul (2006), errors were analyzed at the
sentential level. All of the errors were classified as subject-verb agreement, tenses,
parts of speech, participial phrases, relative clauses, passive voice, parallel
structure, punctuation, run-ons and fragments.
Likewise, Runkati (2013) categorized the errors found in her study into two
main types. The former type dealt with errors at the sentential level which were
fragments, run-ons, subject-verb agreement, word order, tenses, capital letters and
punctuation. The latter one was errors at the word level, such as articles,
prepositions, word choices, nouns and numbers.

2. SOURCE OF ERROR
There are many sources of error itself. In general, the source of error consists of
two parts, namely interlingual and intralingual transfer. Ricahrds (1971, as cited in
Joanna Huang) cites four major types or causes of intralingual(developmental)
errors: (1) overgeneralization, (2) ignorance of rule restrictions, (3) incomplete
application of rules, and (4) false concepts hypothesized, and also Later in his
1974 paper, he identifies six sources of errors namely, (1) interference, (2)
overgeneralization, (3) performance errors, (4) markers of transitional
competence, (5) strategies of communication and assimilation and (6) teacher-
induced errors.
Schumann and Stenson (1974) in an introduction to their compilation state
three major reasons for errors: (1) incomplete acquisition of the target grammar,
(2) exigencies of the learning/ teaching situation, and (3) errors due to normal
problems of language performance, such as the difficulties, both inter- and intra-
lingual ones, which are normally expected.
 Politzer and Ramirez (1973) conducted a study of errors made by Mexican-
Americans, and found that errors might result from a number of sources such as
L1 inteference, improper application of rules of L2 regional differences, etc.
Brown (1980, as citied in Irawansyah, 2017) classified the source of errors into
four categories. First, interlingual transfer, that is the negative influence of the
mother tongue of the learner. Second, intralingual transfer, that is the negative
transfer of items within the target language. Third, the context of lerning, which
overlaps both types of transfer, for example the classroom with its teacher and its
materials in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case of
untutored second language learning. Fourth, communication strategies. It is
obvious that communication strategy is the conscious employment of verbal
mechanisms for communicating an idea when linguistics forms are not available
to the learner for some reasons.
In addition, Norrish (1983) classified causes of error into three types: 1)
Carelessness. Carelessness is often closely related to the lack of motivation. Many
teachers admit that it is not always the student‟s faults if he loses interest, perhaps
the materials and/-or style of presentation does not suit him; 2) First language.
Learning a language (mother tongue or foreign language) is a matter of habit
formation. When someone tries to learn new habits, the old ones will interfere
with the new ones. This cause of the error is called first language interference; 3)
Translation. Translation is one of the causes of error. This happens because a
student translates his first language sentence or idiomatic expression into the
target language word for word. This is probably the most common cause of the
error.
Meanwhile, Fries (1945) and Lado (1957, as cited in Hanna Y. Touchie, 1986)
The native language of learners plays a significant role in learning a second
language. Errors due to the influence of the native language are called interlingual
errors. Interlingual errors are also called transfer or interference errors. The view
that the native language plays a mostly negative role was emphasized as early as
the forties and tile fifties.
Dulay and Burt (1974, as cited in Hanna Y. Touchie, 1986) said that Althougll
recently researchers tend to minimize interlingual errors and emphasize
intralingual and developmental errors. Intralingual and developmental errors are
due to the difficulty of the second/target language. Intralingual and developmental
factors include the following:
1. Simplification: Learners often choose simple forms and constructions instead of
more complex ones. An example of simplification might involve the use of simple
present instead of the present perfect continuous.
2. Overgeneralization: This is the use of one form or construction in one context
and extending its application to other contexts where it should not apply.
Examples of overgeneralization include the use of corned and goed as the past
tense forms of corne and go and the omission of the third person singular s under
the heavy pressure of all other endless forms as in I,e go. It should be noted that
simplification and overgeneralization are used by learners in order to reduce their
linguistic burden.
3. Hypercorrection: Sometimes the zealous efforts of teachers in correcting their
students' errors induce the students to make errors in otherwise correct forms.
Stenson (1978) calls this type of error "induced errors." For example, the teacher's
insistence that Arab ESL learners produce the phoneme IpI correctly prompts
them to always produce IpI where the phoneme Ibl is required. Thus Arab ESL
learners say piTd and pattie instead of bird and battle.
4. Faulty teaching: Sometimes it happens that learners' errors are teacher-induced
ones, i.e., caused by the teacher, teaching materials, or the order of presentation.
This factor is closely related to hypercorrection above. Also, it is interesting to
note that some teachers are even influenced by their pupils' errors in the course of
long teaching.
5. Fossilization: Some errors, specially errors in pronunciation, persist for long
periods and become quite difficult to get rid of. Examples of fos.silized errors in
Arab ESL learners are the lack of distinction between IpI and Ibl in English and
the insertion of the resumptive pronoun in English relative clauses produced by
these learners.
6. Avoidance: Some syntactic structures are difficult to produce by some learners.
Consequently, these learners avoid these structures and use instead simpler
structures. Arab ESL learners avoid the passive voice while Japanese learners
avoid relativization in English.
7. Inadequate learning: TItis is mainly caused by ignorance of rule restrictions or
underdifferentiation and incomplete learning. An example is omission of the third
person singular s as in: He want.
8. False concepts hypothesized: Many learners' errors can be attributed to wrong
hypotheses formed by these learners about the target language. For example, some
learners think that is is the marker of the present tense. So, they produce: He is
talk to the teacher. Similarly, they think that was is the past tense marker. Hence
they say: It was happened last night.
Based on her study, Penny (2001, as cited in Kanyakorn Sermsook, Jiraporn
Liamnimitr and Rattaneekorn Pochakorn, 2017) concludes that there are two
major sources of errors: interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. Likewise,
Heydari and Bagheri (2012) also state that interlingual interference and
intralingual interference are the two sources of errors committed by EFL and ESL
learners. James (1998) proposes that there are four sources of errors which are
interlingual errors, intralingual errors, communication strategy-based errors, and
induced errors. Thai scholar, Hinnon (2014) differently proposes that there are
three sources of errors: Negative transfer of the mother tongue, limited knowledge
of the target language, and the difference between words and sentence structures
of the mother tongue and those of the target language.

3. ERROR TREATMENT
In second language acquisition, error treatment refers to the way teachers
respond to learners' linguistic errors made in the course of learning a second
language. Many error treatment studies seek to address issues like when, how, and
by whom such errors should be corrected.

Craig Chaudron (1977) has pointed out four types of treatment:

 Treatment that creates an autonomous ability in learners to correct themselves

on any item
 Treatment that elicits a correct response from the learners
 Any reaction/treatment by a teacher that demands improvement
 Positive or negative reinforcement involving the expression of approval or
disapproval
Teachers cannot and should not correct all errors committed by their students.
Besides, the frequent correction of oral errors disrupts the process of language
learning and discourages shy students from communicating in the target language.
The following are general guidelines in correcting second language learning
errors:
I. Teachers should correct errors affecting intelligibility, i.e., errors that
interfere with the general meaning and understandability of utterances. In this
connection, teachers should concentrate on correcting global errors more than
local errors.
2. High frequency and generality errors should be corrected more often than
less frequent errors. For example, the omission of the third person Singular s is
an error of high frequenc frequency and generality.
3. Teachers should put more emphasis on correcting errors affecting a large
percentage of their students. This factor is clearly related to the second factor
above.
4. Stigmatizing or irritating errors should be paid more attention to. This factor
is related to the socioliguistic aspect of language learning. Pupils who come
from lower socioeconomic classes are conscious of and very sensitive to
ridicule about
their informal variety of language from students from higher socioeconomic
classes who speak a more formal and prestigious variety of the language.
5. Finally, errors relevant to a pedagogical focus should receive more attention
from the teacher than other errors. For example, if the focus of the lesson is
the use of the present perfect tense, the correction of errors involving
prepositions,
articles, and demonstratives in this lesson should not be emphasized by the
teacher because if he/she did, the attention of the students would be distracted
from the focus of the lesson which, in this instance, is the use of the present
perfect tense.
 4. SPEAKING
Speaking is the productive skill. This is an activity of producing words or
sentences orally. Speaking is used by someone for communication in daily life at
school, at home or some other places. Speaking is a language communication skill
in which one can express his or her ideas to others. And also it is a complex
language skill because one needs to find ideas or information before speaking.
The ideas or informations are then arranged in a good order. Through speaking,
people can communicate with others directly or indirectly.
According to Gerald Gillis (as cited in Diwi Erlin Effendi, 2015) Speaking
skills can enhance one’s personal life, thereby bringing about the well-
roundedness we all should seek.
5. WRITING
Writing means filling the gap that exists among the ability to express ideas,
feelings, and opinions. It is widely admitted that writing is a crucial
communication that could not be separated from human life. Pincas (1986, as
cited Andi Asrifan, 2015) Writing is an instrument of both communication and
self-expression. Writing has an important role when a writer wants to deliver a
message to a reader for a purpose. Through writing, the writer can explain things
and as a result readers can get information by reading the written message.
Writing is taught as one of four language skills in English and it is one activity
that the students do most in their study. Through writing assignments, the students
can express their ideas, respond to the other ideas, tell stories, convey information,
and they are expected to be able to compose well-organized writing. Writing
ability also can be the ticket to better college grades and greater academic
achievement.
Heaton (1988, as cited in Albert Efendi Pohan, 2017), stated that the writing
skills are complex and sometimes difficult to teach, requiring mastery not only of
grammatical and rhetorical devices but also of conceptual and judgment
following.
According to Rita Rani Mandal (2009, as cited in Nguyen Thanh Huy,
2015)Writing is a skill, which is not only helpful in writing to English, but also
useful to improve other considerably. “In English learning classroom, the teacher
aims at developing four skills of his/her the learner’ ability to understand to speak,
to read and to write. The ability to write occupies the last place in this order, but it
does not mean that it is least important. Reading makes a full man, conference a
ready man and writing an exact man”, said Bacon. “It is an important tool, which
enables man to communicate with others people in many ways”.
6. METHODOLOGY
THE POPULATION AND SAMPLE
The target population of this study is teacher who taught English at MAN 3
Banjarmasin.
The sample of this study is teacher who taught English in 12th grade at MAN 3
Banjarmasin.
THE INSTRUMENT
The instrument that used in this research is interview. It is technique which the
data collected through face-to-face interaction between the interviewer and the
teacher.
TECHNIQUE OF DATA ANALYSIS
The data from interview are analyzed in three steps:
First, the interviews were transcribed or converted in to written form.
Second, the transcribed were given back to the respondents to check whether it
has reflected what they meant to provide data for analysis.
Third, the transcripts were condesed into briefer statements in which the main
sense of what is said is rephrased in a few words.
7. RESULT
Based on the results of the interview, a teacher who teaches English in 12th
grade, he said that, to give a response in teach speaking, sometimes he waits for
his students to finished and he responds but sometimes he stops his students and
tells the wrong ones and then tells them to continue after he said the correct word.
For writting, he usually give a note in students book where the students make a
wrong or he write the correct word, but also he said that he can give a different
response based on the situation in the class or based how much time that he have
for that class at the time.

8. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

 From the result of the research that has been discussed. the researcher can
conclude that this research shows that in teaching English the teacher for teach
speaking sometimes he waits for his students to finished and he responds but
sometimes he stops his students and tells the wrong ones and then tells them to
continue after he said the correct word. For writting, he usually give a note in
students book where the students make a wrong or he write the correct word

The researcher would offer some suggestion for the teacher. The teacher must
make their own notes, what words are often students are wrong in pronunciation
or in writing, so not only one student is given feedback but to all students.

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