Namma Kalvi 12th Physics Volume 2 Guide English Medium 215874 PDF
Namma Kalvi 12th Physics Volume 2 Guide English Medium 215874 PDF
Namma Kalvi 12th Physics Volume 2 Guide English Medium 215874 PDF
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2. State the law of reflection. 8. Tabulate the condition for nature of objects and
The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the images.
reflecting surface all are coplanar (i.e. lie in the Nature of
same plane). Condition
object/image
Real image Rays actually converge at the image
The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of
reflection r. Virtual image Rays appear to diverge from the image
Real object Rays actually diverge from the object
3. What is angle of deviation due to reflection?
Virtual object Rays appear to converge at the object
The angle between the incident and deviated
light ray in reflection is called angle of deviation due to
reflection.
The image distance far behind the mirror is equal By the law of reflection, the angle of incidence and
to the object distance in front of it. angle of reflection are the same in the two extreme
reflections.
If an object is placed between two plane mirrors
inclined at an angle θ, then the number of images The normals are now the bisectors of angles
n formed is as, between incident and reflected rays in the two
360
reflections.
If is even then, = − 1 for objects
placed symmetrically or unsymmetrically,
1
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By geometry, the height of the mirror needed is 18. What is focal plane?
only half of the height of the person. The plane through the focus and perpendicular to
ℎ + ℎ ℎ the principal axis is called the focal plane of the mirror.
. . =
2 2
19. What is paraxial rays?
From the above equation, we conclude that the The rays travelling very close to the principal axis
height of the mirror does not depend on the and make small angles with it are called paraxial rays.
distance between the person and the mirror.
16. What is focus or focal point? A ray falling on the pole will get reflected as per law
Light rays travelling parallel and close to the of reflection keeping principal axis as the normal.
principal axis when incident on a spherical mirror, (Figure (d))
converge at a point for concave mirror or appear to
diverge from a point for convex mirror on the principal 22. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a
axis. This point is called the focus or focal point (F) of the spherical mirror?
mirror. The Incident light is taken from left to right (i.e.
object on the left of mirror).
17. What is focal length?
The distance between the pole and the focus is All the distances are measured from the pole of the
called the focal length (f) of the mirror. mirror (pole is taken as origin).
2
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The distances measured to the right of pole along In the same time, light can cover a greater distance
the principal axis are taken as positive. d' in vacuum as it travels with greater speed c in
vacuum as shown in figure. Then we have,
=
As the time taken in both the cases is the same, we
The distances measured to the left of pole along can equate the time t as,
the principal axis are taken as negative.
= =
Heights measured in the upward perpendicular
direction to the principal axis are taken as positive. =
32. What is principle of reversibility? 39. What are the two conditions for total internal
The principle of reversibility states that light will refraction?
follow exactly the same path if its direction of travel is Light must travel from denser to rarer medium,
reversed.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium must
33. What is relative refractive index? be greater than critical angle (i.e. i > ic).
The comparison ratio of refractive index of one
40. Explain the reason for glittering of diamond.
medium with respect to other medium is called
The critical angle of diamond is about 24.40.
relative refractive index.
In snell’s law, = is the relative refractive A skilled diamond cutter makes use of this larger
index of the second medium with respect to first range of angle of incidence (24.40 to 900 inside the
medium. diamond), to ensure that light entering the diamond
is total internally reflected from the many cut faces
34. Write the relations of inverse rule and chain rule using before getting out.
relative refractive index.
According to inverse rule, This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.
1 1
= =
4
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42. Write a short note on looming. 45. Write a note on optical fibre.
In cold places, when move from ground to a height, Transmitting signals through optical fibres is
the density and hence the refractive index of the air possible due to the phenomenon of total internal
decreases due to temperature variation. reflection.
5
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49. What are the assumptions made while considering 54. What is power of a lens? Give its unit.
refraction at spherical surfaces? Power of lens is the degree of deviation of
The incident light is assumed to be monochromatic incident ray on a lens. It is defined as reciprocal of focal
(single colour) length of a lens. Its unit is diopter(D).
1
The incident ray of light is very close to the principal . . =
axis (paraxial rays)
55. What is angle of deviation by a prism?
50. What is thin lens? The angle between the direction of the incident
A lens which is formed by a transparent material ray and the emergent ray is called the angle of
bounded between two spherical surfaces or one plane deviation(d) of a prism.
and another spherical surface is called thin lens. . . = + −
51. Define primary focus and secondary focus. 56. What are the factors affecting the angle of deviation
The primary focus F1 is defined as a point where by a prism?
an object should be placed to give parallel The angle of incidence(i)
emergent rays to the principal axis. The angle of the prism(A)
The material of the prism
The wave length of the light()
52. What are the sign conventions followed for lenses? The incident ray and emergent ray are symmetrical
The sign of focal length is not decided on the with respect to the prism.
direction of measurement of the focal length from
the pole of the lens as they have two focal lengths, The refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to its
one to the left and another to the right (primary and base of the prism.
secondary focal lengths on either side of the lens).
59. What is dispersion?
The focal length of the thin lens is taken as positive Dispersion is splitting of white light into its
for a converging lens and negative for a diverging constituent colours.
lens.
60. What is spectrum?
The other sign conventions for object distance,
The band of colours of light is called spectrum.
image distance, radius of curvature, object height
and image height remain the same for thin lenses 61. What is angular dispersion?
as that of spherical mirrors. The angular separation between the two extreme
colours (violet and red) in the spectrum is called the
53. Arrive at lens equation from lens maker’s formula.
angular dispersion.
According to lens maker’s formula,
1 1 1 . . − =( − )
= ( − 1) − −→ (1)
62. What are the factors affecting the angular dispersion?
Angle of the prism
From the general equation of spherical refraction,
Nature of the material of the prism.
1 1 1 1
− = ( − 1) − −→ (2) 63. Define dispersive power.
Dispersive power is defined as the ratio of the
Comparing the equations (1) and (2), we have, angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the
1 1 1 deviation for any mean colour.
− = −→ (3) −
The equation(3) is called len’s equation.
. . = =
6
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64. How are rainbows formed? 69. What is the reason for reddish appearance of sky
When sunlight falls on the water drop suspended during sunset and sunrise?
in air , splits into its constituent seven colours. This During sunrise and sunset, the light from sun
forms a rainbow. travels a greater distance through the atmosphere.
Primary rainbow is formed when light entering the Hence, the blue light which has shorter wavelength
drop undergoes one total internal reflection inside is scattered away and the less-scattered red light
the drop before coming out from the drop. The of longer wavelength manages to reach our eye.
angle of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is This is the reason for the reddish appearance of
400 to 420. sky during sunrise and sunset.
65. What is scattering of light? When these corpuscles impinge on the retina of the
When sunlight enters the atmosphere of the eye, the vision is produced.
earth, the atmospheric particles present in the
The different size of the corpuscles is the reason
atmosphere change the direction of the light. This
for different colours of light.
process is known as scattering of light.
When the corpuscles approach a surface between
66. What is Rayleigh’s scattering? two media, they are either attracted or repelled.
If the scattering of light is by atoms and
molecules which have size a very less than that of the The reflection of light is due to the repulsion of the
wave length λ of light a<<λ, the scattering is called corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light is
Rayleigh’s scattering. due to the attraction of the corpuscles by the
medium.
67. State the law of Rayleigh’s scattering. 72. What are the demerits of corpuscular theory of light?
The intensity of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely This theory could not explain the reason why the
proportional to fourth power of wavelength. speed of light is lesser in denser medium than in
1 rarer medium.
. . ∝
The phenomena like interference, diffraction and
polarisation could not be explained by this theory.
68. Why does sky appear blue?
According to the law of Rayleigh’s scattering, violet 73. Explain about wave theory of light.
colour which has the shortest wavelength gets Wave theory explains the propagation of light
much scattered during day time. through a medium.
The next scattered colour is blue. As our eyes are According to it, light is a disturbance from a source
more sensitive to blue colour than violet colour the that travels as longitudinal mechanical waves
sky appears blue during day time through the ether medium that was presumed to
pervade all space as mechanical wave requires
medium for its propagation.
7
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Demerits: 78. What is interference of light?
The wave theory could successfully explain The phenomenon of addition or superposition of
phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference two light waves which produces increase in intensity at
and diffraction of light. some points and decrease in intensity at some other
points is called interference of light.
Later, the existence of ether in all space was
proved to be wrong. Hence, this theory could not 79. What is constructive interference?
explain the propagation of light through vacuum. At points where the crest of one wave meets the
crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave meets
The phenomenon of polarisation could not be the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase.
explained by this theory as it is the property of only Hence, the displacement is maximum and these points
transverse waves. appear bright. This type of interference is said to be
constructive interference..
74. Explain about electromagnetic wave theory of light.
According to this theory, light is an electromagnetic 80. What is destructive interference?
wave, which is transverse in nature carrying At points where the crest of one wave meets the
electromagnetic energy. trough of the other wave and vice versa, the waves are
out-of-phase. Hence, the displacement is minimum and
No medium is necessary for the propagation of these points appear dark. This type of interference is said
electromagnetic waves. All the phenomenon of to be destructive interference.
light could be successfully explained by this theory.
81. What is phase of a wave?
Demerits: Phase is the angular position of a vibration or
Nevertheless, the interaction phenomenon of light wave.
with matter like photoelectric effect, Compton
effect could not be explained by this theory. 82. Obtain the relation between phase difference and
path difference.
75. Explain about quantum theory of light. In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ
Quantum theory endorsing the views of Max Plank corresponds to a phase of 2π as shown in Figure.
was able to explain photoelectric effect.
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84. What are coherent sources? 87. How do source and images behave as coherent
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they sources?
produce waves which have same phase or constant In this method a source and its image will act as a
phase difference, same frequency or wavelength set of coherent source, because the source and its
(monochromatic), same waveform and preferably same image will have waves in-phase or constant phase
amplitude. difference as shown in Figure.
All the points on the wavefront are at the same 90. What is diffraction?
phase. Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp
edges into the geometrically shadowed region.
If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using
a double slit, the two points will act as coherent 91. Differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhofer
sources as shown in Figure. diffraction.
S.No. Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
Spherical or cylindrical Plane wavefront
1. wavefront undergoes undergoes diffraction
diffraction
Light wave is from a Light wave is from a
2.
source at finite distance source at infinity
For laboratory conditions, In laboratory conditions,
3. convex lenses need not convex lenses are to be
be used used
Difficult to observe and Easy to observe and
4.
analyse analyse
9
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92. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in 96. What is a diffraction grating?
Fraunhofer diffraction. Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material
Let us consider the condition for first minimum with on which opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond
(n = 1). a sin θ = λ pointer.
The first minimum has an angular spread of, 97. What is grating element?
The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called
= grating element (e = a + b).
Special cases:
When a < λ, the diffraction is not possible, because 98. What is corresponding points?
Points on successive slits separated by a
sinθ can never be greater than 1.
distance equal to the grating element are called
When a ≥ λ, the diffraction is possible. corresponding points.
For a = λ, sinθ = 1 (i.e, θ = 90 ), the central
0
99. What are resolution and resolving power?
maximum spreads fully in to the geometrically
Resolution is the smallest seperated distance in
shadowed region leading to bending of the
the image of two points of the object which could
diffracted light to 900.
be seen clearly without the blur due to diffraction.
For a >> λ, sinθ << 1 i.e, the first minimum will fall The inverse of resolution is called resolving power.
within the width of the slit itself. The diffraction will
not be noticed at all. 100. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, central
When a > λ and also comparable, say a = 2λ, maximum of first image must coincide with minimum of
1 second image and vice versa. This criterion is said to be
= = = limit of resolution.
2 2
then = 300 . These are practical cases where
101. What is polarisation?
diffraction could be observed effectively.
The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of
93. What is Fresnel’s distance? light (electric or magnetic field vector) to a particular
Fresnel’s distance is the distance of diffracted direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
ray upto which ray optics is obeyed and beyond which ray wave is called polarization of light.
optics is not obeyed but, wave optics becomes significant.
102. What is unpolarised light?
94. Obtain the equation for Fresnel’s distance. A transverse wave which has vibrations in all
From the diffraction equation for first minimum, directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave is said to be unpolarised light.
= ; =
From the definition of Fresnel’s distance,
2 = ;2 =
Equating the above two equation gives,
=
2
After rearranging, we get Fresnel’s distance z as,
103. What is polarised or plane polarised light?
= A transverse wave which has vibrations in only
2
one direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
95. Mention the differences between interference and propagation of wave is said to be polarised light.
diffraction.
S.No. Interference Diffraction 104. What is plane of vibration?
Superposition of two Bending of waves around The plane containing the vibrations of the electric
1. field vector is known as the plane of vibration.
waves edges
Superposition of waves Superposition of waves
from two coherent emitted from various
2.
sources. points of the same
wavefront.
3. Equally spaced fringes. Unequally spaced fringes
Intensity of all the bright Intensity falls rapidly for
4.
fringes is almost same higher orders
Large number of fringes Less number of fringes
5.
are obtained are obtained
10
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105. What is plane of polarisation? 111. State and obtain Malus’ law.
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration The light transmitted of intensity I from the
and containing the ray of light is known as the plane of analyser varies directly as the square of the cosine of the
polarisation. angle θ between the transmission axis of polariser and
analyser.
106. What are the four methods of polarisation? =
Polarisation by selective absorption
Polarisation by reflection 112. List the uses of polaroids.
Polarisation by double refraction Polaroids are used in goggles and cameras to
Polarisation by scattering. avoid glare of light.
107. Differentiate between polarised and unpolarised
light Polaroids are useful in three dimensional motion
pictures i.e., in holography.
S.No. Polarised light Unpolarised light
Consists of waves Consists of waves having
Polaroids are used to improve contrast in old oil
having their electric field their electric field
paintings.
vibrations in a single vibrations equally
1.
plane normal to the distributed in all directions Polaroids are used in optical stress analysis.
direction of ray. normal to the direction of
ray. Polaroids are used as window glasses to control
Asymmetrical about the Symmetrical about the the intensity of incoming light.
2.
ray direction ray direction
It is obtained from Produced by Polaroids are used to produce polarised laser
3. unpolarised light with the conventional light beam acts as needle to read/write in compact discs
help of polarisers sources. (CDs).
108. Discuss polarisation by selective absorption.
Polaroids produce polarised lights to be used in
Selective absorption is the property of a material
liquid crystal display (LCD).
which transmits waves whose electric fields vibrate
in a plane parallel to a certain direction of
113. State Brewster’s law.
orientation and absorbs all other waves.
The tangent of the polarising angle for a
The polaroids or polarisers are thin commercial transparent medium is equal to its refractive index.
sheets which make use of the property of selective . . =
absorption to produce an intense beam of plane
polarised light. 114. What is polarising or Brewster’s angle?.
The angle of incidence at which a beam of
Selective absorption is also called as dichroism.
unpolarised light falling on a transparent surface is
reflected as a beam of plane polarised light is called
109. What are polariser and analyser?
polarising angle or Brewster’s angle(iP).
The Polaroid, which plane polarises the
unpolarisedlight passing through it is called a
115. What is double refraction or birefringence?
polariser.
When a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a
The polaroid, which is used to examine whether a calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced. Hence,
beam of light is polarised or not is called an two images of a single object are formed. This
analyser. phenomenon is called double refraction or birefringence.
110. What are plane polarised, unpolarised and partially 116. Differentiate Ordinary and extraordinary ray.
polarised light? S.No. Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray
If the intensity of light varies from maximum to zero It does not obey laws of
1. It obeys laws of refraction.
for every rotation of 900 of the analyser, the light is refraction.
said to be plane polarised. Inside a double refracting The extra ordinary ray
crystal the ordinary ray travels with different
If the intensity of light does not vary for the rotation 2.
travels with same velocity velocities along different
0
of 90 of the analyser, the light is said to be in all directions. directions.
unpolarised. A point source inside a
A point source inside a
refracting crystal
If the intensity of light varies between maximum refracting crystal
0 3. produces elliptical
and minimum for every rotation of 90 of the produces spherical
wavefront for
analyser, the light is said to be partially polarised wavefront for ordinary ray
extraordinary ray
light.
11
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117. What is optic axis? Clearly, charges accelerating parallel do not
Inside the crystal, there is a particular direction in radiate energy towards this observer since their
which both ordinary and extraordinary ray travel with acceleration has no transverse component.
same velocity. This direction is called optic axis.
Hence, the radiation from perpendicularly
118. Mention the types of optically active crystals with accelerated electron reaches the observer as
example. polarised light.
Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice
having only one optic axis are called uniaxial 122. What are near point and normal focusing?
crystals. Near point focusing:
The image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm for
Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite normal eye. This distance is also called as least
having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals. distance D of distinct vision. In this position, the eye
feels comfortable but there is little strain on the eye.
119. What are the uses of Nicol prism?
It produces plane polarised light and functions as a Normal focusing:
polariser The image is formed at infinity. In this position the
eye is most relaxed to view the image.
It can also be used to analyse the plane polarised
light i.e used at an analyser.
123. What is simple microscope?
A simple microscope is a single magnifying
120. What are the drawbacks of Nicol prism?
(converging) lens of small focal length. It is to get an erect,
Its cost is very high due to scarity of large and
magnified and virtual image of the object.
flawless calcite crystals.
Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely through 124. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a
it, the emergent ray is always displaced a little to microscope?
one side. Oil immersed objective is preferred in a
microscope to further reduce the resolving distance dmin
The effective field of view is quite limited. and thereby increasing the magnification.
Light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane 125. What is an astronomical telescope?
polarised. An astronomical telescope is used to get the
magnification of distant astronomical objects like stars,
121. How is polarisation of light obtained by scattering of planets, moon etc. The image formed here is inverted.
light?
The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows 126. What is terrestrial telescope?
a rise and fall of intensity when viewed through a A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at
polaroid which is rotated. long distance on the surface of earth. Hence, image
This is because of sunlight, which has changed its should be erect.
direction (having been scattered) on encountering
the molecules of the earth’s atmosphere. 127. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial
telescope?
Under the influence of electric field of the incident A terrestrial telescope has an additional erecting
light, the electrons in the molecules acquire lens to make the final image erect.
components of motion in two directions.
We have shown an observer looking at 900 to the 128. What is reflecting telescope?
direction of the sun. Telescopes with mirror objectives are called
reflecting telescopes.
12
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Disadvantages: 138. What type of lens is formed by a bubble inside
The objective mirror would focus the light inside the water?
telescope tube. Biconvex lens is formed when an air bubble is
inside the water.
One must have an eye piece inside obstructing
some light. 139. It is possible for two lenses to produce zero power?
Yes. It is possible when the combination of
130. What is spectrometer? Give their basic parts. convex and concave lenses of same focal length is used.
The spectrometer is an optical instrument used
to study the spectra of different sources of light and to 140. Why does sky look blue and clouds look white?
measure the refractive indices of materials. The sky looks blue due to Rayleigh’s scattering
where shorter wavelegth like blue scattered more.
Basic parts:
(i) Collimator (ii) Prism table and (iii) Telescope. The clouds look white due to normal scattering
where all wavelengths of light scattered equally.
131. What is the use of collimator?
The collimator is used to produce a parallel beam 141. Why is yellow light preferred during fog?
of light in spectrometer. When light pass through fog, Rayleigh’s
scattering happens where longer wavelength of light like
132. What are the uses of spectrometer? yellow, orange and red are scattered less than other
It is used to study the spectra of different sources colours. Among these yellow is more sensitive to our
of light. eyes. Hence, the yellow light is preferred during fog.
It is used to measure the refractive indices of 142. Two independent monochromatic sources cannot
materials. act as coherent sources, why?
Two independent monochromatic sources can
133. What is myopia? What is its remedy? never be coherent, because they may emit waves of
Myopia or nearsightedness is the defectness of the same frequency and same amplitude, but not with same
eye in which cannot see distant objects clearly. phase.
To overcome this problem, one should use the 143. Does diffraction take place at the Young’s double
concave lens of calculated focal length. slit?
Yes. Light waves diffracted at the slits produce
134. What is hypermetropia? What is its remedy? interference in the screen.
Hypermetropia or hyperopia or farsightedness is
the defectness of the eye in which cannot see the 144. Is there any difference between coloured light
objects close to the eye. obtained from prism and colours of soap bubble?
Yes. The coloured light obtained from prism is
To overcome this problem, one should use the due to refraction whereas colours of soap bubbles are
convex lens of calculated focal length. due to interference.
135. What is presbyopia? 145. A small disc is placed in the path of the light from
The kind of farsightedness arising due to aging is distance source. Will the center of the shadow be
called presbyopia. bright or dark?
The center of the shadow will be bright because
136. What is astigmatism? What is its remedy? the light ray diffracted at the edge of the small disc
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different interfere constructively at the center of the shadow.
curvatures along different planes in the eye lens.
146. When a wave undergoes reflection at a denser
Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions medium, what happens to its phase?
equally well. A wave undergoes reflection at a denser
medium, will get 1800 phase difference than the incident.
Lenses with different curvatures in different plane
are used to rectify this defect.
Conceptual Questions:
137. Why are dish antennas curved?
The curved dish antennas act like concave
mirrors and are used to get focussed signals of
broadcasting.
13
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5 Marks Q & A: We can apply the sign conventions for the various
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for lateral distances in the above equation.
magnification. =− , ’=− , =−
The mirror equation establishes a relation among
object distance u, image distance v and focal All the three distances are negative as per sign
length f for a spherical mirror. convention, because they are measured to the left
of the pole. Now, the equation (3) becomes,
An object AB is considered on the principal axis of − − − (− )
a concave mirror beyond the center of curvature C. =
The image formation is shown in the figure. − −
On further simplification,
−
=
= −1
Let us consider three paraxial rays from point B on
the object. The first paraxial ray BD travelling
parallel to principal axis is incident on the concave Dividing either side with v,
mirror at D, close to the pole P. 1 1 1
= −
After reflection the ray passes through the focus F.
The second paraxial ray BP incidentat the pole P
After rearranging,
is reflected along PB’.
1 1 1
+ = −→ (4)
The third paraxial ray BC passing through centre of
curvature C, falls normally on the mirror at E is
reflected back along the same path. The above equation(4) is called mirror equation.
The three reflected rays intersect at the point A′ B′. Lateral magnification in spherical mirrors:
A perpendicular drawn as A′ B′ to the principal axis The lateral or transverse magnification is defined
is the real, inverted image of the object AB. as,
ℎ ℎ (ℎ )
( )=
As per law of reflection, the angle of incidence ℎ ℎ (ℎ)
∠BPA is equal to the angle of reflection ∠ B′PA′ . ℎ′
=
The triangles ΔBPA and ΔB′PA′ are similar. Thus,
ℎ
from the rule of similar triangles, Applying proper sign conventions for equation (1),
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
= −→ (1) =
The other set of similar triangles are, ΔDPF and Here, A’B’=−h, AB=h, PA’=−v, PA=−u
Δ B′A′ F. (PD is almost a straight vertical line) −ℎ′ −
′ ′ ′ =
= ℎ −
= =
= −→ (2)
15
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Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
For the refracting surface 1, the light goes from n1 The angles of incidence and refraction at the first
to n2. face AB are i1 and r1.
−
− = −→ (1) The path of the light inside the prism is QR. The
′
angle of incidence and refraction at the second
For the refracting surface 2, the light goes from face AC is r2 and i2 respectively.
medium n2 to n1.
− RS is the ray emerging from the second face.
− = −→ (2)
Angle i2 is also called angle of emergence.
Adding the above two equations (1) and (2), The angle between the direction of the incident ray
1 1 PQ and the emergent ray RS is called the angle of
− =( − ) −
deviation d.
Further simplifying and rearranging, The two normals drawn at the point of incidence Q
1 1 − 1 1 and emergence R are QN and RN.
− = −
1 1 1 1 They meet at point N. The incident ray and the
− = −1 − emergent ray meet at a point M.
If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the The deviation d1 at the surface AB is,
focus of the lens. Thus, for u = ∞, v = f. Then the ∠ = = − −→ (1)
equation becomes.
1 1 1 1 The deviation d2 at the surface AC is,
− = −1 − ∠ = = − −→ (2)
∞
1 1 1
= −1 − −→ (3) Total angle of deviation d produced is,
= +
If the refractive index of the lens is n2 and it is
placed in air, then n2 = n and n1 = 1. So the Substituting for d1 and d2,
equation (3) becomes, =( − )+( − )
1 1 1
= ( − 1) − −→ (4) After rearranging,
=( + )−( + )−→ (3)
The above equation is called the lens maker’s
formula. In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the angles (at the
vertices Q and R) are right angles.
Significance:
This formula tells the lens manufactures what Therefore, the sum of the other angles of the
curvature is needed to make a lens of desired focal quadrilateral is 1800.
length with a material of particular refractive index. ∠ +∠ = 180 −→ (4)
This formula holds good also for a concave lens.
From the triangle ΔQNR,
4. Derive the equation for angle of deviation produced by + +∠ = 180 −→ (5)
a prism and thus obtain the equation for refractive
index of material of the prism. Comparing these two equations (4) and (5) we get,
Let light ray PQ is incident on one of the refracting + = −→ (6)
faces of the prism as shown in figure.
Substituting this in equation (3) for angle of
deviation,
= + − −→ (7)
16
Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
Refractive index of material of the prism: These are called interference fringes or bands.
At minimum deviation, d = D , = = and Using an eyepiece the fringes can be seen directly.
= = . Now, the equation (7) becomes,
At the center point O on the screen, waves from
=2 −
S1 and S2 travel equal distances and arrive in-
phase.
+
=
2 These two waves constructively interfere and
bright fringe is observed at O. This is called central
From equation(6), bright fringe.
2 =
The fringes disappear and there is uniform
= illumination on the screen when one of the slits is
2
covered.
Substituting i and r in Snell’s law,
sin This shows clearly that the bands are due to
= interference.
sin
6. Obtain the equation for path difference and bandwidth
sin in Young’s double slit experiment.
= Equation for path difference :
sin The schematic diagram of the experimental set up
is shown in figure.
The above equation is used to find the refractive
index of the material of the prism. The angles A and
D can be measured experimentally.
The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they The mid-point of S1 and S2 is C and the mid-point
are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm. of the screen O is equidistant from S1 and S2. P is
any point at a distance y from O.
As S1 and S2 are equidistant from S, the light
waves from S reach S1 and S2 in-phase. The waves from S1 and S2 meet at P either in-
phase or out-of-phase depending upon the path
So, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which are difference between the two waves.
the requirement of obtaining interference pattern.
The path difference δ between the light waves from
Wavefronts from S1 and S2 spread out and S1 and S2 to the point P is,
overlapping takes place to the right side of double = –
slit.
A perpendicular is dropped from the point S1 to the
When a screen is placed at a distance of about line S2P at M to find the path difference more
1 meter from the slits, alternate bright and dark precisely.
fringes which are equally spaced appear on the = – =
screen.
17
Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
The angular position of the point P from C is θ. Equation for bandwidth :
∠OCP = θ. The bandwidth (β) is defined as the distance
between any two consecutive bright or dark
From the geometry, the angles ∠OCP and ∠S2S1M fringes.
are equal. i.e. ∠OCP = ∠S2S1M = θ.
The distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive
In right angle triangle ΔS1S2M, the path difference, bright fringes from O is given by,
S2M = d sin θ. So that,
= − = ( + 1) −
= −→ (1)
Therefore, = −→ (9)
(1), = −→ (3)
Equations (8) and (9) show that the bright and dark
(2), = −→ (4) fringes are of same width equally spaced on either
side of central bright fringe.
Substituting equation(4) in (3), we get,
7. State and prove Brewster’s law.
ℎ ℎ , = −→ (5)
Brewster’s law:
The tangent of the polarising angle for a
Based on the condition on the path difference, the transparent medium is equal to its refractive index.
point P may have a bright or dark fringe.
Proof:
Condition for bright fringe (or) maxima: At the incidence of polarising angle, the reflected
The condition for the constructive interference or and transmitted rays are perpendicular to each
the point P to be have a bright fringe is, other.
ℎ , = ℎ , = 0, 1, 2, . ..
∴ =
∴ = = −→ (6)
ℎ , = (2 − 1) ℎ , = 0, 1, 2, . ..
+ 90 + = 180
2 = 90 − −→ (1)
= (2 − 1)
2 From Snell’s law, the refractive index of the
transparent medium is,
∴ = = (2 − 1) −→ (7) sin
2 =
sin
This is the condition for the point P to be a dark
fringe. The distance yn is the distance of the nth Where n is the refractive index of the medium with
dark fringe from the point O. respect to air.
18
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Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
Substituting the value of rp from Equation(1),
sin
=
sin(90 − )
sin
=
cos
tan =
This relation is known as Brewster’s law. It is cut into two halves along the diagonal so that
their face angles are 720 and 1080.
8. Discuss about pile of plates.
The phenomenon of polarisation by reflection is The two halves are joined together by a layer of
used in the construction of pile of plates. canada balsam, a transparent cement.
It consists of a number of glass plates placed one Let us consider a ray of unpolarised light from
over the other in a tube as shown in figure. monochromatic source such as a sodium vapour
lamp is incident on the face AC of the Nicol prism.
A beam of unpolarised light is allowed to fall on the The ordinary ray is total internally reflected at the
pile of plates along the axis of the tube. layer of canada balsam and is prevented from
emerging from the other face.
So, the angle of incidence of light will be at 56.30
which is the polarising angle for glass. The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted through
the crystal which is completely plane polarised.
The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
incidence are reflected at each surface and those
parallel to it are transmitted.
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Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
7. Dual nature of radiation and matter 10.What is secondary emission?Give examples.
When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the
1. What is a particle and a wave? surface of the metal, the free electrons on the
Particle is a material object which is considered as metal surface gain kinetic energy and come out
a tiny concentration of matter. from the surface. This is called secondary
emission.
Wave is a broad distribution of energy. Ex: Image intensifiers, photo multiplier tubes etc.
6. What are the types of electron emission? 15. Give the definition of intensity of light and its unit.
Thermionic emission. Intensity(brightness) of light is defined as the rate
Field emission. at which light energy is delivered to a unit of surface. Its
Photo electric emission. unit is candela(Cd).
Secondary emission.
16.What is stopping or cut-off potential?
7. What is thermionic emission?Give examples. The negative potential of the collecting electrode
When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the at which photocurrent gets zero is called stopping or cut-
free electrons on the surface of the metal are off potential(V0) .
emitted due to thermal energy. This type of
emission is known as thermionic emission. 17.What is threshold frequency?
The minimum frequency above which the
Ex: Cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, emission of photoelectrons takes place for given surface
X-ray tubes, etc., is called the threshold frequency.
8. What is field emission?Give examples.
18.State laws of photoelectric effect.
When strong electric field is applied across the
For a given frequency of incident light, the number
metal, electron emission takesplace. This is called
of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional to
field emission.
the intensity of the incident light. The saturation
Ex: Field emission scanning electron current is also directly proportional to the intensity
microscopes, Field-emission display etc. of incident light.
9. What is photoelctric emission?Give examples. Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is
When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable independent of intensity of the incident light.
frequency is incident on the surface of the metal,
electron emission takesplace. This is called photo Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons
electric emission. from a given metal is directly proportional to the
Ex: Photo diodes, photo electric cells etc. frequency of incident light.
20
Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
For a given surface, the emission of 25.What are the applications of photo cells?
photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of It is used in switches and sensors.
incident light is greater than a certain minimum
frequency called the threshold frequency. It is used to automatic on or off the street lights
during night and day respectively.
There is no time lag between incidence of light and
ejection of photoelectrons. It is used for reproduction of sound in motion
pictures.
19.What are the characteristics of photons?
The photons of light of frequency ν and It is used as timers to measure the speeds of
wavelength λ will have energy, given by, athletes during a race.
ℎ
=ℎ = It is used in exposure meters to measure the
intensity of the given light and to calculate the
The energy of a photon is determined by the exact time of exposure of light in photography.
frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity
and the intensity has no relation with the energy of 26. State de Broglie hypothesis or What is de Broglie or
the individual photons in the beam. matter waves?
According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter
The photons travel with the velocity of light and its particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in motion are
momentum is given by, associated with waves. These waves are called de
ℎ ℎ Broglie waves or matter waves.
= =
27.What is de Broglie wavelength?
Since photons are electrically neutral, they are
This wavelength of the matter waves is known
unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
as de Broglie wavelength. . . = =
When a photon interacts with matter (photon-
electron collision), the total energy, total linear 28. Why we do not see the wave properties of a
momentum and angular momentum are baseball?
conserved. Since photon may be absorbed or a de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional
new photon may be produced in such interactions, to the mass of the object for a given velocity. So, the
the number of photons may not be conserved. bigger objects like base ball do not show wave properties
considerably.
20.What is photoelectric cell or photocell? Write its
principle. 29. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength
Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which associated with a charged particle of charge q and
converts light energy into electrical energy. mass m, when it is accelerated through a potential V.
ℎ ℎ
Principle: Photoelectric effect. = =
2
21.Mention the types of photoelectric cells.
Photo emissive cell. 30. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy.
Photo voltaic cell. Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength?
Photo conductive cell. Justify.
de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional
22.What is photo emissive cell? to the mass of the object for a given kinetic energy. Since
The photocell, which generates electrical energy the mass of the electron is very less compared to mass
by electron emission due to irradiation of light or other of the proton, de Broglie wavelength of electron is greater
radiations is called photo emissive cell. than proton.
23.What is photo voltaic cell? 31. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ
The photocell, which generates electrical energy associated with a particle of mass m in terms of its
when the intensity of light or other radiations incident on kinetic energy K.
the sensitive element made of semiconductor. ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ = = =
√2
24.What is photo conductive cell?
The photocell, which generates electrical energy Where, h –Planck’s constant
when the resistance of the semiconductor changes in
accordance with the radiant energy incident on it.
21
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Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
32. Name an experiment, which shows wave nature of 5 Marks Q & A:
the electron. Which phenomenon was observed in 1. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with
this experiment using an electron beam? necessary explanation.
Davisson – germer experiment. When a photon of energy hν is incident on a metal
Diffraction of electron beam. surface, it is completely absorbed by a single
electron and the electron is ejected.
33. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic
energy. How are the de Broglie wavelengths In this process, a part of the photon energy is used
associated with them related? for the ejection of the electrons from the metal
de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional surface (photoelectric work function ϕ0 ) and the
to the mass of the object for a given kinetic energy. Since remaining energy as the kinetic energy of the
the mass of the electron is very less compared to mass ejected electron.
of the alpha particle, de Broglie wavelength of electron is
greater than alpha particle. From the law of conservation of energy,
1
ℎ = + −→ (1)
34.What are X-rays? 2
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short Where m is the mass of the electron and υ its
wavelength ranging from 0.1 to 100Å. velocity.
3. Give the construction and working of photo emissive Therefore, for a particle of mass m travelling with
cell. speed υ , the wavelength is given by,
Construction: ℎ ℎ
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in
= = −→ (2)
which two metallic electrodes – that is, a cathode
and an anode are fixed as shown in figure. This wavelength of the matter waves is known as
de Broglie wavelength.
The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.) Thus, this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s
battery. Electrons are emitted from the hot filament hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.
by thermionic emission.
7. Briefly explain the principle and working of electron
They are then accelerated due to the potential microscope.
difference between the filament and the anode Principle:
aluminium cylinder by a high tension (H.T.) Wave nature of an electron.
battery.
Description:
Electron beam is collimated by using two thin The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
single crystal of Nickel. used for illuminating the object under study.
The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different Higher magnification as well as higher resolving
directions are received by the electron detector power can be obtained by employing the waves of
which measures the intensity of scattered electron shorter wavelengths.
beam.
De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much
The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper less than (a few thousands less) that of the visible
light being used in optical microscopes.
so that the angle θ between the incident beam and
the scattered beam can be changed at our will.
As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie
waves of electrons have very much higher
The intensity of the scattered electron beam is
resolving power than optical microscope.
measured as a function of the angle θ.
24
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Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
Electron microscopes giving magnification more 8. Explain the production of X-rays using discharge
than 2,00,000 times are common in research tube.
laboratories. X-rays are produced in x-ray tube which is
essentially a discharge tube as shown in figure.
Working:
The construction and working of an electron
microscope is similar to that of an optical
microscope except that in electron microscope
focussing of electron beam is done by the
electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
25
Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
The energy of the photon emitted is equal to the From the figure, it is evident that K-series of lines
loss of kinetic energy of the electron. in the x-ray spectrum of an element arises due to
the electronic transitions from L, M, N, . . levels to
Since an electron may lose part or all of its energy the K-level.
to the photon, the photons are emitted with all
possible energies (or frequencies).
ℎ
=
ℎ
=
Where λ0 is the cut-off wavelength.