Module -5

Quantum Free electron theory of metals: Review of classical free electron theory, mention of failures.
Assumptions of Quantum Free electron theory, Mention of expression for density of states, Fermi-Dirac statistics
(qualitative), Fermi factor, Fermi level, Derivation of the expression for Fermi energy, Success of QFET.
Physics of Semiconductor: Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors, Expression for the concentration of electrons in
the conduction band, Hole concentration in valance band (only mention the expression), Conductivity of
semiconductors(derivation), Hall effect, Expression for Hall coefficient(derivation)
Dielectric materials: polar and non-polar dielectrics, internal fields in a solid, Clausius-Mossotti
equation(Derivation), mention of solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics with one example each. Application of
dielectrics in transformers.
Numerical problems

INTRODUCTION

The electron theory of solids explains the structures and properties of solids through their electronic
structure. This theory is applicable to all solids both metals and nonmetals. This theory also explains the bending in
solids behavior of conductors and insulators, electrical and thermal conductivities of solids, elasticity and repulsive
forces in solids, etc, the theory has been developed in three main stages

CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

This theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz. According to this theory, a metal consists of electrons which
are free to move about in the crystal molecules of gas it contains mutual repulsion between electrons is ignored and
hence potential energy is taken as zero. Therefore the total energy of the electron is equal to its kinetic energy.

ASSUMPTIONS (POSTULATES) OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Absence of electric field (E= 0) Presence of electric field ( E≠ 0 )

1. Solid metal has a nucleus with revolving electrons. The electrons move freely like molecules in a gas.
2. The free electrons move in a uniform potential field due to the ions fixed in the lattice.
3. In the absence of electric field (E=0), the free electrons move in random directions and collide with each
other. During this collision, no loss of energy is observed since the collisions are elastic as shown in the
figure.
4. When the presence of electric field ( E ≠ 0 ) the free electrons are accelerated in the direction opposite to
the direction of the applied electric field, as shown in the figure.
5. Since the electrons are assumed to be perfect gas, they obey the laws of the classical
theory of gases.
6. 6. Classical free electrons in the metal obey Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.
BASIC TERMS INVOLVED IN THE FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. Drift Velocity (Vd):- The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron
in a particular direction, due to the applied electric field.

Average distance travelled by the electron

𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Time taken

𝜆
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡
 2. Mobility (𝝁): The mobility is defined as the drift velocity (Vd) acquired by the electron per
unit electric field (E).

𝑉𝑑 2 −1 −1
𝝁= 𝑚 𝑉 𝑠
𝐸
3. Mean free path (𝜆): The average distance travelled by a electron between two successive collision is
called mean free path.

4. Mean collision time (𝝉𝒄 ) (or) Collision time: It is the time taken by the free electron between two
successive collision.
𝝀
𝝉𝒄 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑽𝒅
5. Relaxation time (𝝉): It is the time taken by the electron to reach ean quilibrium position from the
isturbed position in the presence of ethe lectric field.
𝒍
𝝉 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑽𝒅

Where L is the distance traveled by the electron. The value of relaxation time is of the order of 10–14 sec.

6. Band gap (Eg): Band gap is the energy difference between the minimum energy of the conduction
band and the maximum energy of the valence band.

7. Current density (J): It is defined as the current per unit area of a cross-section of
an imaginary
The plane held normal to the direction of the flow of current in a current carrying
conductor.
𝐈
𝐉 = 𝐀𝐦−𝟐
𝐀
SUCCESS USES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is used to verify Ohm’s law.

2. It is used to explain electrical conductivity (σ) and thermal conductivity of (K) of metals.
3. It is used to derive Widemann-Franz law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. According to classical free electron theory, all the free electrons will absorb energy, but the quantum free
electron theory states that only a few electrons will absorb energy.
3. This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect, paramagnetism, & ferromagnetism, etc.,
4. This theory cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators.
5. Dual nature of light radiation cannot be explained.
6. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific heat are not matched.
𝐾 𝐾
7. By classical theory 𝜎 = 𝑇 is constant for all temperature, but by quantum theory = 𝑇 is not a constant for
𝜎
all temperatures.
8. The Lorentz number obtained by classical theory does not have good agreement with experimental value and
theoretical value, it is rectified by quantum theory
Or
QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The failure of classical free electron theory paved this way for Quantum free electron theory. It was
introduced by summer field in 1928. This theory is based on making small concepts. This theory was proposed
by making small changes in the classical free electron theory and by retaining most of the postulates of the
classical free electron theory.
Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron theory

1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are realized in terms of a
set of energy values.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per Pauli’s exclusion principle and also
obey the Fermi – Dirac quantum statistics.
3. The field due to positive ion core is constant throughout the material. So electrons travel in a constant potential
inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.
4. Both the attraction between the electrons and the lattice points, the repulsion between the electrons themselves is
ignored and therefore electrons are treated free
FERMI ENERGY:
Statement
“The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature (0K) is called the Fermi energy and the energy
level is called Fermi level”. It is denoted by 'Ef'.

In a metal having N atoms, there are N allowed energy levels in each band. In the
energy band, the energy levels are separated by energy differences. It is
characteristic of the material. According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, each
energy level can accommodate a maximum of two electrons, one with spin up and
the other with spin down. The filling up of energy levels occurs from the lowest
level. The next pair of electrons occupy the next energy level and so on till all the
electrons in the metal are accommodated. Still, a number of allowed energy
levels, are left vacant. This is the picture when there is no external energy supply
for the electrons.

FERMI – DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION:

It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy levels as a function of temperature,
the probability of finding an electron in a particular energy state of energy E is given by.

Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function (Fermi temperature):

“Fermi temperature is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electron in a
solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0 K” But the ther mal energy possessed by electrons is given by the
product of kT”
(Fermi temperature is only a hypothetical concept
because even at the ordinary temperature it is not
possible for electrons to receive thermal energy in a
magnitude of EF. For example at EF = 3ev TF =
34800 K which is quite exaggerated to realize)
The expression for Electrical Conductivity of a Semiconductor:
On the basis of free electron theory, the charge carriers can be assumed to be moving freely inside a
semiconductor. Both the holes and the electrons contribute to the conductivity of the semiconductor.
Let us consider to start with, the conductivity in a semiconductor due to the flow of electrons only. Consider a
semiconductor of the area of cross section A, in which a current I is flowing. Let v be the velocity of electrons. The
electrons move through a distance v in one second. As per the assumption of free electron theory, a large number of
free electrons flow freely through the semiconductor whose area of the cross-section is A.
Semiconducting Materials
INTRODUCTION
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors
differ from metals in their characteristic property of decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.
Semiconductors can also display properties of passing current more easily in one direction than the other, and
sensitivity to light. Because the conductive properties of a semiconductor can be modified by controlled addition
of impurities or by the application of electrical fields or light, semiconductors are very useful devices for
amplification of signals, switching, and energy conversion. The comprehensive theory of semiconductors relies
on the principles of quantum physics to explain the motions of electrons through a lattice of atoms. Current
conduction in a semiconductor occurs via free electrons and holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Adding
a small number of impurity atoms greatly increases the number of charge carriers within it. When a doped
semiconductor contains excess holes it is called “p-type,” and when it contains excess free electrons it is known
as “n-type”.
The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions to precisely
control the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have multiple
p and n-type regions; the p-n junctions between these regions have many useful electronic properties.

Properties of semiconductor
1. The resistivity of semiconductors lies between a conductor and an Insulator.
2. At 0 K it behaves as an insulator.
3. They have negative temperature Coefficient of resistance. (When the Temperature is increased a large
number of charge carriers are produced due to the breaking of covalent bonds and hence these electrons move
freely and
gives rise to conductivity)
4. In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are charge carriers. (𝜎 = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎ℎ )
Where 𝜎𝑒 and 𝜎ℎ is the conductivities due to electron and holes.
5. If we increase the temperature of semiconductor, its electrical conductivity also increases.
6. They have an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band 0 K.
7. They are formed by covalent bonds.
8. They have a small energy gap (or) band gap.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Based on purity, the semiconductor is classified into two types.
1. Intrinsic semiconductors or Elemental semiconductors
2. Extrinsic semiconductors or Compound semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors
A pure semiconductor without any impurities is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
Example: Ge, Si (In the form of pure)
or
For an Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure Semiconductor)
In the case of-of an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes is always equal to the number of
electrons. Let it be equal to ni ,i.e. Ne =Nh, = ni .
By using Eq. (7), σi the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be written as,
(𝜎 = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎ℎ )
HALL EFFECT

Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is due to electron or
holes and therefore will not distinguish between p-type and n-type semiconductor. Therefore Hall Effect
is used to distinguish between the two types of charge carriers and their carrier densities and is used
to determine the mobility of charge carriers.

Hall Effect
When conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a transverse magnetic
field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as the “Hall effect” and the generated voltage is called
“Hall voltage”.

𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲:
Consider a rectangular slab of a semiconductor material in which a current I is flowing in the positive X-
direction. Let the semiconducting material be of n-type, which means that the charge carriers are electrons. Let a
magnetic field B be applied along the Z–direction. Under the influence of the magnetic field, the electrons
experience the Lorentz force FL given by,
FL= - B e v …….. (1)
Where”e” is the magnitude of the charge on the
electron, v is the drift velocity.
Applying the Flemings left-hand rule, we
see that the force is exerted on the electrons in the
negative Y-direction. The electrons are therefore
deflected downwards. As a result, the density of the
electrons increases in the lower end of the material,
due to which, its bottom edge becomes negatively
charged. On the other hand, the loss of electrons
from the upper end causes the top edge of the
material to become positively charged.
Hence a potential VH, called the Hall voltage appears between the upper and lower surfaces of the
semiconductor material which establishes an electric field EH, called the Hall field across the conductor in the
negative Y–direction. The field EH, experts an upward force FH on the electrons given by,
FH = - e EH …….. (2)
Now as the deflection of electrons in the downward direction due to the Lorentz force FL continues, it also
contributes to the growth of Hall field. As a result, the force FH which acts on the electron in the upward direction
also increases. These two opposing forces reach an equilibrium at which stage,
FL = FH
 Therefore Using Eqs. (1) And (2), the above equation becomes,
-Bev = -e E H
Therefore EH = B v …….. (3)
If “d” is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the slab, then,
 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric
is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in an electrical conductor
but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization.
“Dielectric is the material which does not allow electricity to flow with them but show electric effect is
known as the Dielectric material”

Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small

distance constitutes a dipole.

Dipole Moment: “The Product of the magnitude of one of the

charges and distance of their separation is called dipole moment”
Consider two charges –q and +q with distance of separation l
which is assumed to be small. The dipole moment for this
arrangement is given by μ=ql

Polarization: The separation of the effective center of positive

and negative charges in a substance by the application of an electric field is known as Polarization.
Types of Dielectrics:
1. Polar Dielectrics.
2. Non-Polar Dielectrics.

Polar Dielectrics: A molecular in which is the center of mass of positive charges does not co-inside with the
center of mass of negative changes when no external fields are applied is called polar molecules.
Exam: HCL, H2O, NH2, NaCl

Non-Polar Dielectrics: A molecular in which is the center of mass of positive charges co-inside with the
center of mass of negative changes when no external fields are applied is called Non-polar molecules.
Exam: Co2, H2

Dielectric Constant: 𝑫 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑬

𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒂/ 𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝜺𝒓 = 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Relation Between polarization and Dielectric Constant:

P = o (r -1) E
Where E is the applied field.

Types of Polarization:
They are 3 types of polarization can be seen when we applied the external field.

Electric Polarization:
Once the application of external electric field the separation created between the charges leads to the
development of dipole moment this process occurs throughout the materials.

The electronic polarizability, αe for a rare gas atom is given by

𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑁
Where N is the number of atoms /unit volume.
Ionic polarization:
The displacement Couse an increase or
decrease in the distance of separation between the
atoms depending upon the location of ions pair in the
lattice.

Orientation polarization:
Polar molecules exhibits this mechanism
when polar molecules are kept in an electric field
already existing dipoles tend to again in the
direction of the applied electric field. This
increase the dipole moment.

The total polarization α of a material is thus

given by the sum of the electronic, ionic and
orientational polarizations is
α = αe+ αi + αo
Solid Insulating Materials:
Solid insulating materials are available in extremely diver’s verity. Mica, porcelain, glass or synthesis
materials like plastic etc. are inorganic whereas cloth rubber or paper.
Paper is hygroscopic Hence it is the dried and impregnated with mineral oil or vegetable oils high density
papers are preferred in DC and energy storage capacitors.

Liquid Insulating Materials:

Mainly, liquid insulating materials are used in transformers, switches, circuit’s breakers etc… During the
working conditions, the winding in an electrical device gets heated due to both eddy heating & joules heating.
Liquid insulators allow the surroundings.
Examples of liquids insulators are transformer oil, silicon fluids, viscous Vaseline, fluoro-organic fluids etc.

Gaseous Insulating Media:

Gases are good insulators and work well as heat transferring media. Under the insulators gases category
fall- air, nitrogen, inert gases, hydrogen etc.
It is a general observation that air provides insulation between the overhead transmission power lines
without any cost. In plenty of uses it is present as a part of electric devices whether we plan it to be there or not.
Pressure has a decided effect on the dielectric strength of all gases. Higher pressure reduces its ability to insulate.

Internal Fields in liquids and solids

When a dielectric material, either solid or liquid, is subjected to external field and each atom develops the
electric dipole hence the resultant field at any given atom will be sum of applied electric field and electric field
due to surrounding dipole. This resultant local field is called the internal field and defined as the “The internal
field is the electric field that acts at the site of any given atom of solid or liquid dielectric subjected to an
external field and is the resultant of the applied field and the field due to all surrounding dipoles” or “The sum
of external field and the field due to all dipoles surrounding that point” this is called as the internal field or
local fields.
 E Let the distance be d, and the electronic
polarizability of the dipoles be αe
The expression for the internal fields Ei is given as
𝐸
𝐸𝑖 =
1.2𝛼𝑒
1−
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑3

Lorentz Field :

OR (CLAUSIUS – MOSSOTTI EQUATION)

APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC IN TRANSFORMER

A transformer consists two insulated conducting coils

wound on a core. The core is also insulated. In case of high
voltage transformers, further insulation is required to be provided
between individual windings in the coils and also between the
core and the coins. Hence their size grows. The size of the
transformer increases also with operational AC frequency. The
insulation is provided by using paper, mica or cloth. The paper
is impregnated with varnish or wax to fill the air gaps.
If there are gaps, then since the permittivity of air is less,
ionization of air occurs at high voltage leading to, rating to
heating which damages the insulation. This effect called
Corona mica is used to guard against Corona. However, when
the operating voltage across 3 KV and up, a kind of oil called
Transformer oil is used, It is based on Mineral oil. Apart from
guarding against Corona after about 100Kv oil helps to keep the
Transformer cold it remains stable at high temperature available
for large size Transformers that are used in High Voltage
transmission lines cooling by water circulation around the body
of the transformer is provided.