Mac 246

MAC 246 MODULE 1
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: MAC 226
COURSE TITLE: EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
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MAC 246 EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
COURSE
GUIDE
MAC 246
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
Course Team Adebola A. Aderibigbe (Course Writer) – Bowen

University, Iwo
Dr. B. U. Nwanne (Course Editor) – Delta State
University, Abraka
Dr. Jonathan E. Aliede (Course Coordinator) –
NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
2
MAC 246 MODULE 1
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2013
ISBN: 978-058-029-8
All Rights Reserved
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CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction ………………………………………………. iv
What You Will Learn in this Course …………………….. iv
Course Aims ……………………………………………… v
Course Objectives ………………………………………… v
Working through this Course …………………………….. vi
Course Materials …………………………………………. viii
Study Units ……………………………………………….. viii
Text Books and References ……………………………… viii
Assessment ………………………………………………. x
Tutor Marked Assignment ……………………………….. x
Final Examination and Grading …………………………. x
Course Marking Scheme ………………………………… x
How to Get the Most from this Course …………………. xi
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ……………………….. xi
Summary ………………………………………………… xi
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
You are welcome to MAC 246 EDUCATONAL BROADCASTING.

It is available for students in the undergraduate mass communication
programme particularly in their second year. It is a two credits course
which means you have two hours in the week to participate in this
course. This course provides an opportunity for you as a student to be
exposed to a rare area of broadcasting. This is one course that teaches
the broadcaster on the methods of reaching different segments of their
audience with educational information. Importantly, it also empowers
the broadcaster with needed skills to learn as if they are in the
classroom. To achieve this, this writer has consulted widely in the field
of education to put this course in proper shape.
It is however advised that you dutifully fulfill all assigned task in this
course for their own development as this would be needed for the
acquisition of the needed skills to produce an educational broadcaster as
they are the future broadcasters.
This course guide provides you with the necessary information about the
contents of the course and the materials you will need to be familiar with
for a proper understanding of the subject matter. It is designed to help
you get the best of the course by exposing you to some outstanding
materials and books in the field. It also provides necessary guides on the
way to approach your Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs).
Overall, this course will leave you as a great educational broadcaster.

And importantly you will acquire the skills that will help you in great
ways become an encompassing and better broadcaster.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
The overall objective of MAC 246: Educational Broadcasting is to bring

to the awareness of the broadcaster the national importance of good
educational broadcasting and to train the broadcaster on ways of
improving educational broadcasting in Nigeria.
In this course, you will again be introduced to the foundational teachings

in broadcasting. This is intentional because I do not want to assume that
you are familiar with the rudiments of broadcasting as a course because
this will drive all other discussions in the course of this exercise. From
there, you are introduced to the discipline of educational broadcasting.
Here, a proper introduction has been done on education and the need for
a proper education and re-education of the populace because majority of
our national dilemma is a result of ignorance and nothing more. An
uneducated man will see the information that will kill him right in front
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of him and will not recognise it. Education is the only existing structure
for national development. It therefore behooves on the broadcaster to
perform this role in order to corroborate other kinds of education
acquired by the people in other lights. The general classification of
educational broadcasting has been highlighted so the broadcaster can
know that there are other medium in a medium. The principles of
educational presentation and the qualities of a good broadcaster have
been discussed.
Just like the audience of any broadcast presentation vary, so does the
audience for any educational broadcast. These are grouped into four and
they are the children, the adults, men and women in urban communities
and men and women in rural communities. The reason for this grouping
is to expose the student to the fact that when you are planning to teach or
pass across knowledge to a group of people, know exactly who you are
trying to reach so that your message will not be lost.
Lastly, this course will expose you to some skills in teaching like
general teaching methods, understanding learners and the use of audio
and visual aids.
COURSE AIMS
The aims of this course are to:
 expose you to the need for educational broadcasting

 show you how best to broadcast education on radio and television
 expose you to the different groups exposed to educational
broadcasting
 expose you to some teaching skills for educational broadcasting.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
Several objectives can be delineated from this course. In addition, each

unit has specific objectives. The unit objectives can be found at the
beginning of a unit. You may want to refer to them during your study of
the particular unit to check on the progress you are making. You should
always look at the unit objectives before and after completing a unit. In
this way, you could easily check whether or not you have covered what
is required of that unit.
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
 distinguish between radio and television

 provide a detailed account of the history of radio broadcasting in
Nigeria
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
 provide a detailed account of the history of television in Nigeria

 explain the purpose of broadcasting
 justify the need for good presentation
 define diction and its use in educational presentation
 explain the essence of mood and emotion in educational
broadcasting
 distinguish between intelligence and charisma.
 identify the various classification of educational media
 describe eight functions of educational media
 give an account of the history of educational broadcasting
 distinguish between teaching and learning
 discuss reasons why children need educational broadcasting
 discuss methods of reaching the children on radio and television
 describe some challenges in broadcasting to children
 give a short account of Adult Education in Nigeria
 state why Mass Adult Education is important in Nigeria
 outline ways by which Media can further aid adult literacy in
Nigeria
 state reasons why educational broadcasting is important to urban
dwellers
 give examples of past educational programmes in the country
 trace the emergence of rural broadcasting
 enlist strategies for rural broadcasting.
 differentiate among the categories of learners
 identify possible causes of slow learning
 explain the implications of the different learners to the
educational broadcaster
 explain the term teaching methods
 list the various methods of teaching
 identify useful materials in the library for the educational
broadcaster.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
1. To achieve the best in this course you are required to read the
study units. Most of the units contain self-assessment exercises,
and at some points in the course, you are required to submit
assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course is
a final examination.
2. The following is a practical strategy for working through the
course. If you run into any trouble, give your tutor a call.
Remember that your tutor’s job is to help you. When you need
assistance, you could even send an email. Nevertheless, do the
following.
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3. Read this course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

4. Organise a study schedule. Design a “course overview” to guide
you through the course. Note the time you are expected to spend
on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units.
Important information e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date
of the first day of the semester is available online on the NOUN
website.
5. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to
stay faithful to it. The major reason why students fail is that they
get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with
your schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is late to get
help.
6. Turn to unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
7. Assemble the study materials.
8. As you work through the unit, you will know what sources to
consult for further information.
9. You will learn a lot by dutifully doing the assignments. Keep
abreast with the deadlines given to the submission of your
assignments online. The assignments have been designed to help
you meet the objectives of the course, and therefore, will help
you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than
the due date.
10. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.
11. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s
objectives, you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit
through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.
12. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for
assessment, do not wait for feedback before starting on the next
unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned,
pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the
tutor-marked assignment and also the written comments on the
ordinary assignments.
13. See that you have fulfilled the objectives listed in the course
guide and in the main course materials. After completing the last
unit, prepare yourself for the final examination.
14. Stated below are the components of the course.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
COURSE MATERIALS
1. Course materials
2. Educational programmes on radio
3. Educational programmes on television
4. Study units
5. Recommended textbooks and other reference materials
6. Assignment file
7. Writing notes
STUDY UNITS
There are 14 study units in this course, as follows:
Module 1 Broadcasting and Education
Unit 1 Introduction to Broadcasting

Unit 2 Introduction to Educational Broadcasting
Unit 3 General Classification of Educational Media
Unit 4 The Need for Education and Broadcasting in Nigeria
Unit 5 Principles of Educational Presentation
Module 2 Categories of Educational Broadcasting
Unit 1 Children Education Broadcasting

Unit 2 Adults in Search of Education
Unit 3 Men and Women in Urban Communities
Unit 4 Men and Women in Rural Communities
Module 3 Useful Skills for Broadcast Education
Unit 1 Understanding Types of Learners

Unit 2 General Teaching Methods
Unit 3 Use of Audio-Visual Aids
Unit 3 Study Skills for Educational Broadcasters
Unit 4 Note-Taking Skills for Educational Broadcasters
TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCES
Abamba, P. (1985). ‘Military Politics and the Nigerian Economy,’

Newswatch.
Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Ilorin Kwara State:

Atoto Press Ltd.
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Booth, W. (1983). The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago. University of

Chicago Press.
Enekwe, O.O. (1966). ‘The Modern Nigerian Theatre.’ In: Nsukka

Studies in African Literature. Achebe Chinua. (Ed.). Enugu:
Intellect Publishers.
Finnegan, R. (1970). Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford

University Press.
Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nigeria.
Klaumeier, H.J. (1961). Learnng and Human Abilities- Educational

Psychology. New York: Harper and Brothers.
NOUN (2008). General Teaching Methods. In

www.nou.edu.ng/noun/Noun_OCL/Pdf2Edu233.
Okinda, C.F. (2009). Communication Skills, Creative and Critical

Thinking in PDF Created with Desk PDF Writer-
Trial::http://www.docudesk.com.
Onabajo, O. (2000). Principles of Educational Broadcasting. Gabi

Concepts Limited. Lagos.
Onabajo, O. (2002). Elements of Rural Broadcasting. Gabi Concepts

Limited. Lagos.
Onabajo, O. (2004). Introduction to Broadcasting. Lagos. Gabi

Concepts.
Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Slogan Consultants Ltd.
Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Nigeria. Abuja.: Spectrum Books Limited.
Schramm, W. (1969). Feedback for Instructional Television. Stanford:

Institute for Communication Research.
Shipley, N.M. et al. (1972). A Synthesis of Teaching Methods. New

York: McGraw hill Pierson.
Thakur, A. S. & Ezenne, A.N. (1980). A Short History of Education in

Nigeria. Ibadan: De Ayo Publications.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
ASSESSMENT
There are two aspects to the assessments of this course. First, are the
tutor-marked assignments; second is a written examination. In tackling
these assignments, you are expected to apply the information and
knowledge acquired during the course. The assignment must be
submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the
deadlines stated in the assignment file. The work you submit to your
tutor for assessment will account for 30 percent of your total course
mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for final examination
of three hours duration. This examination will account for the other 70
per cent of your total course mark.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
There are a number of tutor-marked assignments in this course. I want to

implore you to try hard to submit as many as you can. The best four (i.e.
the highest four of what you submit) will be counted. Each assignment
counts for 20 marks but on the average when the four assignments are
put together, the score will count at 30 per cent towards your total
course mark.
When each assignment is completed, send it together with a TMA

(Tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Ensure that each
assignment reaches your tutor on or before the stipulated deadline given.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
Please be informed that the final examination for MAC 246 Educational
Broadcasting of two hours duration and with a value of 70% of the total
course grade. The examination will consist of questions which will
reflect the practice exercises and tutor marked assignments you have
previously submitted. You are therefore advised to pay strict attention to
all the practical exercises you have encountered in the course of your
studying this course.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
ASSESSMENT MARKS
Assignments Submitted four, best three counts for 30% of
course marks.
Final examination 70% of overall course marks

Total 100% of course marks.
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HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE
You will appreciate this course better if you consistently study the units
and relate whatever you learn with the practical realities on the radio and
television education broadcasting. Lastly, you should cultivate the habit
of visiting reputable institutional or public libraries accessible to you.
FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS
There are specified hours of tutorials allotted in support of the course.

You will be notified of the dates, time and location of these tutorials
together with the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on
your article submissions and keep a close watch on your progress. Be
sure that your tutor-marked assignments are promptly sent in, and feel
free to contact your tutor in case of any difficulty with your self-
assessment exercise, tutor-marked assignment or the grading of an
assignment. I strongly advise you to attend the tutorials regularly and
punctually too. And please, active class participation will be noted.
SUMMARY
This is a practically driven course. Much of the effort to excel in this

course lies in your hand. Great success will be achieved if the student
takes the assigned assignments seriously and turn in exercises promptly.
But there is no doubting the fact that the students will enjoy the course.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Broadcasting and Education …………………… 1
Unit 1 Introduction to Broadcasting ……………………. 1

Unit 2 The Communication Process And
Educational Media ………………………………. 10
Unit 3 General Classification of Educational Media…… 19
Unit 4 The Need for Education and Broadcasting in
Nigeria …………………………………………… 24
Unit 5 Principles of Educational Presentation ………… 30
Module 2 Categories of Educational Broadcasting ……. 35
Unit 1 Children Education Broadcasting ……………… 35

Unit 2 Adults in Search of Education …………………. 40
Unit 3 Men and Women in Urban Communities ………. 46
Unit 4 Men and Women in Rural Communities ……….. 53
Module 3 Useful Skills for Broadcast Education ……… 58
Unit 1 Understanding Types of Learners ……………… 58

Unit 2 General Teaching Methods …………………….. 63
Unit 3 Use of Audio-Visual Aids ……………………… 70
Unit 4 Study Skills for Educational Broadcasters ……. 75
Unit 5 Note-Taking Skills for Educational Broadcasters 80
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MODULE 1 BROADCASTING AND EDUCATION
Unit 1 Introduction to Broadcasting

Unit 2 The Communication Process and Educational Media
Unit 3 General Classification of Educational Media
Unit 4 The Need for Education and Broadcasting in Nigeria
Unit 5 Principles of Educational Presentation
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO BROADCASTING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distinction between Radio and Television
3.2 History of Broadcasting in Nigeria
3.3 Ownership and Control of the Broadcast Media
3.4 The Purpose of Broadcasting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
According to Onabajo (2000), broadcasting has been defined as the

transmission of information through radio waves from a radio or
television station, to the audience in far and near places, through their
receivers, which help in decoding such information. Similarly,
broadcasting can also be defined as the dissemination of information by
an organisation by an organisation (radio or television) to a large widely
dispersed heterogeneous audience through their radio or television
receiver.
Broadcasting is an entirely electronic means of communication. Unlike

other forms of mass communication such as newspapers, magazines and
books, broadcasting it uses electronic technology to encode, distribute
and decode messages; newspaper is not a form of electronic
communication because it does not use electronic technology in all the
stages of encoding, distributing and decoding messages. Broadcasting is
distinguished from “cable-casting” - the transmission of television and
sometimes radio signals directly into the home by means of coaxial
cable - because whereas broadcasting is open to everyone provided they
have radio or television receiver, cable is restricted and its services are
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
exclusively available to only those who have the appropriate decoders.

Similarly, broadcasting, from its definition and meaning, is
distinguished from narrowcasting - the transmission of special interest
programmes to much smaller audiences.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 distinguish between radio and television

 provide a detailed account of the history of radio broadcasting in
Nigeria
 provide a detailed account of the history of television
broadcasting in Nigeria
 generate adequate information on public and private ownership of
radio and television in Nigeria
 explain the purpose of broadcasting.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Distinction between Radio and Television
By definition, radio is a medium for sending and receiving messages

through the air using electronic waves. It is also about the activity of
broadcasting programmes for people to listen to the programmes being
broadcast (Idebi 2008). It can also be defined as the broadcasting of
programmes for the public to listen to. It is the system of sending sound
over a distance by transmitting electrical signals BBC English dictionary
(1992).
In describing radio, Onabajo (2000) says in terms of general availability,

radio is the leading mass communication medium. In today’s world,
especially in the developing world of Asia and Africa, there are more
radio sets than television sets, newspapers and cinemas. Radio stations
are comparatively in expensive to run, after the initial capital expenses
of transmitters and receivers. It has immediacy in a higher degree than
other media of communication. Radio can talk back to its listeners by
telephone, where the technical facilities exist, thus putting members of
an audience in touch with one another. Radio is flexible because a
scheduled programme can be dropped at short notice and replaced with
something more topical or urgent.
On the other hand, television, according to Akpan (1988) is an electronic

device that brings to us informational, educational and entertainment
programmes. It is one of the greatest communications mechanism ever
designed and operated by man. It pumps into our brains an unending
15
stream of information, opinion, moral values and aesthetic taste.

Television influences our perception of politics, religion, governance,
fashion and culture.
Television is, therefore, defined as an audio-visual medium. It blends

pictures with sounds to produce a communication experience exhibited
on the screen. It uses sound to explain the visuals presented on the
screen. It addresses the emotion and intellect in a remarkable way.
Owuamalam (2007) in Akpede (2010) says that television uses the
movement of images in a unique way or pattern to express thoughts and
feelings in an exciting and appealing manner. Television is defined by
the BBC English Dictionary (1992) as the system of pictures and
distance so that people can receive them on a television set.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
In two paragraphs distinguish between Radio and Television.
3.2 History of Broadcasting In Nigeria
According to Onabajo (2000), the broadcast media in Nigeria have come

a long way and have gone through a lot of changes, in trying to keep
pace with the intricacies of an ever-changing society. What started as a
rudimentary, experimental monitoring station can now boast of direct
satellite communication equipment.
Broadcasting started in Nigeria in 1932 as an experiment by the British

Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Lagos was chosen as one of the
centres around the world, to receive and retransmit British Empire
service signals from Daventry, England. Then the Lagos station began to
experiment with re-diffusion service, under the supervision of engineers
and technicians at the Posts and Telegraphs Department, who were also
mandated to design a system for distributing the signals, to major
population centres across the country. This relay system of the BBC was
replicated in mainly English speaking countries across the globe and
succeeded in taking BBC news and programmes to many parts of the
world.
The overall objectives of this innovation by the BBC were as follows:
 To develop links between Great Britain and English speaking

people throughout the world
 To propagate the British way of life, particularly in the empire
and
 To keep British citizens outside Britain informed about
happenings back home.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
 As a result of this, news, music and other aspects of programming

at the time, were designed towards fulfilling these objectives.
Radio Distribution Services (RDS)

On December 1, 1935, radio distribution service (rediffusion) was
commissioned in Lagos. By 1939, when the Second World War started,
the post and telegraph department which was overseeing the Lagos
experimental station, had popularised the medium, and had extended the
service to Ibadan, Oyo state. All through the war years, the British made
good the service of RDS, through which the BBC kept the King’s
subjects and citizens across the globe informed about the progress of the
war against Nazi-Germany. Few years later, radio distribution services
were opened in Kano, Abeokuta, Port Harcourt, Ijebu Ode, Enugu,
Kaduna, Jos and Zaria.
National broadcasting service

The success of the RDS motivated the British government to establish a
proper radio station in Nigeria by integrating all the Radio distribution
services in the country following the Turner Bryon report. On June 1,
1952, colonial governor, Sir John Stuart Macpherson commissioned the
Nigerian Broadcasting Services (NBS).
At first, BBC programmes dominated the Nigerian airwaves; efforts

were also made to produce programmes that the local population could
relate to. There were programmes and news in three main Nigerian
languages as well as many dialects.
The NBS was criticised based on the dominance of BBC programmes in

its broadcasts, and for what critics described as lacking the Nigerian
orientation. The BBC augmented Nigerian efforts by providing all the
needed training and technical equipment. In fact, BBC’s T.W Charmer
became NBS’s first director-general, while his counterpart, J.W Murray
became the Chief Engineer.
Nigerian broadcasting corporation

The Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBS), was seen as the colonial
government mouth piece, consequently, the central government thought
it necessary to convert the NBS into Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation
on April 1, 1957 by an act of parliament. This was to address the issue
raised against the former organisation (NBS) and to shield it from
government interference, and the propagation of the view of the ruling
political party.
The duties of the corporation, as spelt out in its act, included the right to
speak as a public service by means of wireless telegraph and by
television for general reception within Nigeria; to provide an external
17
service for general reception, in countries and places within the country;
and to ensure that the services which it provides, when considered as a
whole, reflect the culture, characteristics, affairs and opinions of the
people of each, or part of the federation.
According to Sambe (2008), the evolution of television in Nigeria

followed a similar pattern as that of radio. The irony here is that while it
was the Federal Government that started the first radio broadcasting
station in the country, it was a regional government that first ventured
into television broadcasting.
The Nigerian Constitution of 1954 provided that regional governments

could establish broadcasting services. As such, on October 1, 1959, the
Western Region blazed the trail by establishing the first television
station. Western Nigeria Television (WNTV) and Western Nigeria
Broadcasting Service (WNBS) though the reason for the establishment
of the medium was to use it as an additional means of improving the
regional school systems. It must be pointed out that the denial of Chief
Awolowo’s request for a rebuttal on comment made against his party by
Governor Macpherson on NBS was the immediate cause of the
establishment of WNTV/WNBS.
A year after the establishment of Ibadan station, the former Eastern

Nigerian Television Service (ENTV) based in Enugu came into being
with the slogan “Second to None”. This was followed by the
government of Northern Nigeria who established a television station as
an arm of the former Broadcasting Company of Northern Nigeria
(BCNN). It was located in the capital, Kaduna as – RKTV Radio
Kaduna Television. Not to be left behind, the federal government
established the Nigerian Television Service, Lagos in 1962. Thus, the
federal government, which had pioneered the establishment of radio
station in Nigeria, now trailed behind the regional governments in
establishing television station.
Immediately after independence, television stations tended to become

political tools for the regional governments of the day. In short, the mass
media were used to foster regional interest at the expense of national
interest.
Military intervention
This development was brought to a temporary halt when the military
struck and took over power in 1966. With its unitary system of
government, it means that the region would now take orders from the
central government. Beyond that, the Gowon’s regime had haltered the
structure of the country by creating 12 States from the four regions in
1967, which later increased to 19 states by the Muhammed/Obasanjo
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
regime in 1976. This encouraged some of the new state administrations

that were financially able to develop individual autonomous television
broadcasting services within their respective states.
The two military regimes were at first willing to give state governments
freedom to establish their television stations, but in 1976 the
Muhammed/Obasanjo regime forbade states from further construction
and development of television service and amalgamated the already
existing ones into one service known as Nigerian Television (NTV).
It is important to know that television was established in Nigeria with

the ostensible reason of providing adequate services in education, and
social and economic development. However, the reason became altered
as they began to go commercial and relying on foreign programmes.
The establishment and management of television stations remained in

the hands of the federal and state government until decree No 38 of 1992
that deregulated broadcasting media and established the National
Broadcasting Commission. This allowed for private ownership of both
the radio and television in the country.
In just 400 words, give a summary of the history of radio and television
broadcasting in Nigeria.
3.3 Ownership and Control of Broadcasting in Nigeria
Before the 1992 deregulation of the media, the broadcast media were
owned, operated and controlled by the federal and state governments.
The state governments established their stations to educate, inform and
entertain their people and actually did so during the second republic
because they felt the national television served the interests and needs of
the ruling party, by then the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was at the
federal level, and in those states where the party was in control.
According to Sambe (2008), other states administered by other political
parties in opposition were either blacked out or given unfavorable
coverage. Those who challenged this form of democracy were told that
the system of government that was being practiced during this time was
the “winner take all”. In order to ensure absolute control of the
television, for example, the government redeployed the director-general,
a seasoned broadcaster to the ministry of Information and appointed a
party ally and a historian n his place.
19
Even these days, the federal government dictates what should be the
content of broadcast and what should not. The state-owned broadcast
stations are even worse in this practice. Try and tune to any state-owned
radio or television and examine the percentage of time and attention
given to the state government. Since the state government hires and fires
staff, the station dare not broadcast any news that is against the
government. News is always about what the governor and his team of
politicians wants to hear. The government even regulates news contents
of private broadcast stations such as the African Independent Television
(AIT).
To a large extent, almost all, if not all government-owned and controlled

broadcast media have become praise singers of government policies. At
times, one listens to a one-hour broadcast news without coming up with
anything news-worthy.
3.4 The Purpose of Broadcasting
According to Onabajo (2004), basically, broadcasting serves three broad

purposes; it educates, it informs and entertains the audience.
 Education Function. A core purpose of the broadcast media is

the education of the widely dispersed audience available and
depending on it. Through the broadcast media, people acquire
new knowledge, attitude and skills, thus enabling them to cope
better with life. This education function can deal with formal,
non-formal and informal learning.
 News/Information. Broadcast stations survey the environment
and give reports or information about things going on in the
environment, especially those things that are likely to have
impact on people, and those things that are new and of human
interest.
 Opinion Function. The broadcast media provide an avenue for
the different shades of opinion in society to be aired. Broadcast
media enable us to know what different segments of the society
are thinking.
 Entertainment Function. Entertainment is an unavoidable
function of the mass media. In fact, it is the most craved among
the numerous audiences. Present research has shown that the
demand for entertainment among the numerous audiences is on
an incredible increase. This has given birth to many programmes
for different categories of the media audience (listeners or
viewers).
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, effort has been made to give a clear definition of
broadcasting as well offer clear distinction between the radio and
television, for easy understanding. Furthermore, the history of radio and
television was fully discussed so that students will know the antecedent
of what they now see around today. Lastly, the ownership and control of
the broadcast media in Nigeria was appraised and the purpose of
broadcasting also clearly discussed.
5.0 SUMMARY
Radio is a medium for sending and receiving messages through the air
using electronic waves. And television is as an audio-visual medium. It
blends pictures with sounds to produce a communication experience
exhibited on the screen. It uses sound to explain the visuals presented on
the screen. It addresses the emotion and intellect in a remarkable way.
Historically, radio broadcasting was started by the federal government,
while television began with the regional governments. The federal
government joined the television race later. The ownership and control
of the broadcast media were left in the hands of both the federal and
state governments until 1992 when the federal government decided to
deregulate the broadcast media. Since then, a number of broadcast
stations have been established and owned by private individuals and
sometimes corporate organisations.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. What do you think are the core purposes for establishing the
broadcast media in Nigeria? Give your answers with substantial
proofs.
ii. List the key differences between radio and television as a
broadcast media.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Onabajo, O. (2004). Introduction to Broadcasting. Lagos: Gabi

Concepts.
Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Slogan Consultants Ltd.
Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Nigeria. Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited.
21
UNIT 2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND

EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Communication
3.2 The Communication Process
3.3 Types of Educational Media
3.4 Functions of Educational Media
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
According to Salawu (2008), communication is essential for the

existence of societies, whether they are developed or developing. It is
necessary for your accumulation of knowledge and capability.
Furthermore, it serves as an instrument of social interaction. For the
desirable change in leaner’ behaviour and acquisition of knowledge and
skills to be accomplished, communication must both take place between
the teachers and learners. It is important for teachers to have deep
knowledge of what communication process is and also be skillful in the
use of communication skills. This unit is devoted to the study of
communication process for you to be able to acquaint yourself with how
you can improve your communication as an individual and more
importantly as a teacher/communicator.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define the term communication

 explain the concepts “Communication Process”
 identify and describe, at least six elements in communication
process
 establish the relationship between communication process and
teaching learning process
 identify and discuss various factors that could constitute
communication noise in a typical classroom teaching learning
process
22
MAC 246 MODULE 1
 identify the various classification of educational media

 describe eight functions of educational media.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Communication
Communication is a universal and everyday occurrence, and therefore, it

is a concept that has generated a lot of interest on the part of researchers,
governments and organisations. The universal nature of communication
has led to countless definitions of the term. Some of these definitions
are:
1. Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred

from one person to another (Chappel, R. and Read, W.L. 5th ed
1984).
2. Communication is the process by which one person (or a group)
shares and imparts information to another person (or group) so
that both people (and group) clearly understand one another
(Udall, R and Udall, S. 1979).
3. Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the
giving of understandable information and receiving and
understanding the message. It is the transferring of a message to
another party so that it can be understood and acted upon. (E.C.
Eyre 1983).
4. Communication is the exchange of ideas, thought or knowledge
between at least two people with an intention of changing the
behavior of one another particularly the decoder. (Abimbade
1997).
In terms of classroom usage, the term communication can be defined as

the totality of the teacher’s efforts to ensure that all the stated
instructional objectives are accomplished through effective manipulation
of the task, method (s), media, learners as well as the entire teaching
learning environment.
Give three outstanding definitions of communication.
3.2 The Communication Process
By its nature, communication involves an exchange of ideas or

information with at least two people. By so doing, many variables are
involved, and therefore account for communication being regarded as a
process. Thus, the process of communication always involves the
23
sender, the message/information, the medium/media and the receiver.

According to Berlo (1960), the ingredients of communication process
includes; the source, the message, the channel/medium and the receiver.
Berdell (1978) referred to the sender and the receiver as the encoder and
the decoder respectively.
As a process involving many interrelated parts, all the parts are expected
to work harmoniously for the purpose of communication to be achieved.
It is important to note that if there is a problem why any of the
elements/ingredients of communication process, communication will be
impaired thereby resulting to either partial or complete communication
breakdown.
The sender
This is a technical term that refers to the person who initiates the
exchange of idea/information. He/she is responsible for what is to be
disseminated, how it should be done, where and how it should be
assessed. The sender plays a prominent role in communication process.
If the sender is to be successful in conveying his message, he must,
according to Lazarus (1981):
 Know the receiver and present the information at his/her level

 Speak or write clearly and concisely
 Convey the desire to reach the receiver by his attitude
 Obtain feedback to confirm that the message has been received
correctly.
According to Salawu (2008) in order to achieve the above four points,

the sender must take into account the language proficiency, cognitive
ability, social status, aspirations, learning styles, psychological situation
as well as the family structure of the receiver. The sender must always
use the basic skills in speaking and writing interpreted as the KISS
principle which means ‘Keep It Short and Simple’. The simpler (simple
and brief) you make the information you send as the sender the better.
Furthermore, a sender has to be mindful of his attitude to the receiver

during presentation. Attitude of the sender to the receiver must be warm
and friendly. Saul (1968) said that “communication depends on the
attitude of the sender towards the receiver”. An attitude of understanding
by the sender can serve as a motivating factor to the receiver. In
addition, the sender is expected to consider selecting appropriate
medium/channel of communication. When wrong channel of
communication is used, communication will be impaired.
It is expected of the sender to be sure that the communication process is

effective. A way by which this could be done is for the sender to engage
24
MAC 246 MODULE 1
himself in periodic assessment of the receiver’s gains during

communication process. The adoption of the formative evaluation
procedure will provide him/her the needed feedback on the receiver’s
performance. Where expected outcomes are discovered as accomplished
necessary steps are taking to encourage further practice and retention.
However, where the expected outcomes are lacking, immediate steps
must be taken to fine tune the communication process. This is necessary
because without the purpose of communication being achieved, the
sender’s efforts are regarded as nullity and of no effect.
Salawu (2008) further suggested that in order to find out whether the
communication process is effective or not, feedback can be sought by
using such approaches like:
 Questioning the receiver on specific points during presentation

 Careful observation of the receivers facial expression and manner
 Solicit suggestions, or explanations or examples from the receiver
 In general, make your receiver(s) active during communication.
The decoder
The decoder is the receiver of the message. He is referred to as the
decoder, communicattee, as well as the audience. In several contexts the
decoder could be the listener, the viewer or the participant. The decoder
therefore refers to the person for which the message is designed. The
extent to which communication process is effective can be determined
by the degree of changes noticeable in the decoder.
For effective communication to take place, the decoder should be:
 A good listener for him/her to get correct information from the

sender/encoder
 Psychologically ready in that he should be in right frame of mind.
Nothing should preoccupy his mind other than what the sender is
imparting to him
 Ready for the task in terms of maturity as well as determination
to learn
 Follow instruction and take active part in the communication
process.
The message
This refers to the information, the task; the content, the subject matter,
knowledge, attitude, values, beliefs and/or skills designed and planned
to be acquired by the decoder. The message has to be correct and
adequate.
25
The channel
Anything that carries the message to the receiver is a channel. Another
common term commonly used as channel is “the medium”. A general
interpretation of means through which information is packaged and
disseminated as a combination of channels and medium will include, not
only oral, written, and non-verbal; but also such media like; the radio,
the television, overhead projector, films etc.
Noise
Noise in communication is a technical term for all forms of obstacles
which conspire to reduce the fidelity of communication. It then implies
that what makes it impossible for the decoder to get the message as
intended by the encoder constitutes communication noise. Noise can be
physical/environmental, physiological and psychological.
Let us then examine the categories of noise one after the other so you
can understand in detail.
Physical/environmental noise
Any form of disturbance to communication process traceable to the
factors within the immediate physical environment is classified as
physical/environmental noise, continuous or intermittent loud sound
from radio sets, markets, grinding machines, block making machines,
hooting by moving vehicles, outcry from the next class etc. are all
examples of this kind of noise.
Physiological noise
Any form of disturbances to the communication process arising from ill
health on the part of the sender and/or the receiver is referred to as the
physiological noise. Cases of headaches, stomach disorder, body pains
etc, during communication process are examples of physiological noise.
Psychological noise
This refers to unfavourable state of the mind of the sender and/or the
receiver. Psychological noise includes fatigue, emotional depression,
annoyance and lack of enthusiasm arising from internally or externally
related problems.
Other sources of communication noise especially on the part of the

sender include:
 Poor preparation
 Lack of deep knowledge of the message/topic under discussion
 Usage of wrong media
 Exhibition of disturbing mannerisms
 Inadequate mastery/usage of language of communication
26
MAC 246 MODULE 1
 Insensitivity to the receiver and a host of others.
Imagine that you are a radio presenter; enlist the possible sources of
noise for your listening audience.
Feedback
This is a technical term which refers to the available facts collected to
determine the effectiveness or otherwise of the interaction between the
sender and the receiver during communication process. The feedback
provides opportunities for the sender to readdress, in whole or in part,
deficiencies during the course of communication. Close to feedback is
assessment. Feedback is necessary in communication because without it,
decisions on whether communication is effective or not cannot be
determined.
3.3 Types of Educational Media (A Broad Category)
There are many ways of classifying educational media. They may be

perceived according to the levels of technology i.e low-level or high-
level technology. They may also be grouped according to the senses
they stimulate: visual media, audio media and audio visual media, or
classified as projected and non-projected media. They can be further
classified as printed and non-printed media etc. in fact; there is no rigid
form of classification.
Ogwo (1996) in Olagunju (2008) presented a descriptive example of a

way in which educational broadcasting may be classified.
Fig 1: Classification of Educational Broadcasting

EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
NON PRINTED
PRINTED
MEDIA
OTHER LOW ELECTRONIC
COST MEDIA MEDIA
27
Wall charts Computer Overhead Books-Text-

Projector Reference
Flip charts 16 mm Films Film strip Handouts
Panel Boards 8mm Films Opaque Journal
Projector
Magnetic Board Slides Slide Projector Dictionaries
Models Microfilms Cameras Encyclopedia
Flippers Transparencies Radio Cassettes Newspaper
Recorder
Specimens Video Films Computers Magazines etc
Real objects Audio, Cassette Microfilm
etc. recorder
Posters
Pictures
Graphics
The table above can be seen as classification according to printed and

non printed media. The diagram is self explaining under printed media,
you find books, handouts, journals, dictionaries, encyclopedia,
newspapers, magazines. Under non-printed media, we find chalkboard,
wall charts, flip charts, magnetic board, models etc. Electronic media is
divided into software and hardware. Under software, we have computer
programmes, films, slides, video films and audio cassettes etc. and under
hardware, we have over head projectors, Radio cassette recorder,
television sets, Radio sets etc.
SELF -ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Under what category is the television and radio in the classification of

educational media?
3.4 Functions of Media in Education
1. We are all used to the varieties of teacher-talk in class instruction,

which involves only the sense of hearing i.e. audio. This practice
as effective as it is could be boring after a while. The use of
instructional materials on the other hand calls into play the sense
of hearing. The more the number, the more enduring the learning
results. Remember the Chinese saying which states ‘I hear, I
forget; I see, I remember; I do, I understand’. So, we can
conclude that instructional materials guarantee more effective
hearing on the learner on the learner. In addition to merely
hearing, also sees and does
2. Educational media serve to concretise otherwise abstract concepts
and ideas. They also help to describe matters using prompters or
28
MAC 246 MODULE 1
cues. For example, think of a Nigerian village teacher trying to

teach the word computer. If he describes the machine using just
words, try and guess what will happen. But when he presents the
film or video of the types of computer, parts and functions of a
computer, the image of the abstract object will become concrete
in the minds of the children.
3. Media can provide access to a process or technique. Now, think
of the Engineer constructing a high way or building a bridge. If
you are just passing by, you will never know the process of road
construction. Think of watching a film that shows the processes.
The experience will become unforgettable.
4. Media helps in magnifying or reducing objects for classroom use.
By means of motion pictures or television, big objects or small
objects can be brought into the classroom for closer examination.
5. Media constantly brings experiences. Think of wars, flood,
terrorism etc. A video clip in any of the examples may transport a
child from the unknown to the known.
6. Media makes learning a reality. Teachers and students can go at
their own pace, rate and convenience. Video, audio cassettes and
computer assisted learning have made this possible. You can
record off the air some instructional programmes that can aid in
learning, making use of audio and video cassette recorders. You
can also buy pre-recorded audio, video tapes and compact discs
etc.
7. Media provides a common framework of learning experience.
This is simply what we call uniformity of learning. Whether you
are in Kano or Lagos, the same telecast is reaching everyone.
8. Media gain and hold the attention of learners. An adage says that
variety is the spice of life. You will also remember that a picture
speaks more than a thousand words. Pictures can be still or
motionless or it can be moving as in television or films.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Communication is an invaluable tool for human survival. Without

communication, no meaningful development can take place. Teaching
requires sound knowledge, now the extent of impact of the knowledge is
dependent on the extent to which the teacher understands the
communication process.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, effort has been made to give detailed discussion to the
communication process. We have seen that there are six essential parts
of any communication process which are the sender, the message, the
channel, the noise, the receiver and the feedback. Also, effort has been
29
made to examine the general classification of educational media and the

functions.
i. With your understanding of the communication process, kindly

answer the following questions.
a. As a student in MAC 246, what stage are you in the
communication process? Are you a sender, a receiver, a
noise or a medium?
b. With your answer, justify how you can be a better
broadcaster.
Abimbade, A. (1997). Principles and Practice of Educational

Technology. Ibadan. International Publishers Limited.
Salawu, I.O., Taiwo, S.A & Aremu, G.B. (1994). An Introduction to

Educational Technology. Ibadan. Afolabi Press.
30
MAC 246 MODULE 1
UNIT 3 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF

EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Need for Good Presentation
3.2 Diction
3.3 Mood and Emotion
3.4 Eye Contact
3.5 Competence
3.6 Charisma
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Akpede (2010) states that presentation is a careful way of introducing a

programme to the intended audience. It gives the audience insight into
what they would see or listen to in the programme.
Owuamalam (2007) says presentation provides the audience with the

vital information required to adjust their listening or viewing desire.
Presentation gives stations the integrity they enjoy in attracting audience
to their programmes in broadcasting. Presentation can be compared to
the paint which decorates the building from the outside which will
eventually attract the onlooker who would want to see the interior of the
building. If the programme is introduced skillfully and professionally,
the audience would want to watch or listen to the whole programme.
By and large, presentation is an interior to beckon to the audience to

come to a sumptuous meal. It may even capture some audience members
who are in the habit of wondering from station to station seeking
programme content that would fill their need.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 justify the need for good presentation

 define diction and its use in educational presentation
31
 explain the essence of mood and emotion in educational

broadcasting
 distinguish between intelligence and charisma.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Need for Good Presentation
Have you seen a soldier dressed in suit en route for war? or have you
seen a nurse in a swim suit while observing his/her duties? A good
educational presenter whether on radio or television must be
distinguished. If you are addressing children, set your mood and diction
according to the audience you are addressing. I once listened to a
programme meant for the age group of three to five years of age and the
presenter’s language was as though he was addressing the age group of
12- 14. You need to assume the position of the audience you are to
address. You need to stoop low or climb high as the case may be to
discover their needs. The needs of your receivers whether on radio or
television, are different.
Let us examine a few of the principles involved in presentation.
3.2 Diction
The ability to pronounce words distinctly and clearly determines to a

large extent how the audience members understand the information,
which is to be shared with the presenter. Stresses must be accurately
emphasised at the relevant points in order to state exactly what the
presenter intended. Clarity of meaning is the essence of good diction.
Being a good presenter takes more than producing beautiful words. It
involves the ability to exhibit great skill in presenting issues and ideas
clearly in few words so that the audience will understand at a go what
the presenter is saying.
As much as possible, tribal or foreign accents should be avoided in

broadcasting. Each language has to be spoken according to its phonetic
rules, and nothing more. Anything short of this results to
misunderstanding of the intention of the presenter and may become
noise.
The presenter must never attempt to speak in an exaggerated manner in

order to impress the audience. It should be noted that the aims of
presentation is to express a thought or feeling and the presenter should
aspire to achieve the aim of presentation rather than constituting
himself/herself into a public or audience nuisance.
32
MAC 246 MODULE 1
For an educational broadcaster, the diction is an important tool for

achieving the set objectives for reaching the audience. Not only that, the
diction of a presenter then becomes the rule for a listener to follow. I
once met a young man in one of the countries I visited recently who
pronounced a popular word wrongly as against the dictionary
stipulation. When I asked why he pronounced the word that way, he told
me that it was how a prominent newscaster in the country pronounced it
during a recent national newscast. Anyone who does the job of
educating the masses must be careful enough to understand that he/she is
being understudied and emulated in words and sounds.
Why do you think diction is important for educational broadcasting?
3.3 Mood and Emotion
The world all over is witnessing the effect of economic recession and as
such there is what may be referred to as fluctuating moods all over. The
reason for this is that whether corporate or private companies and
individuals are experiencing harsh times economically at this point. This
then makes the job of the broadcast media more challenging. The job is
even more challenging in Nigeria where corruption is intermixed with
the global challenges. The result of this is an inevitable national mood
swings. By mood, we mean, the way someone feels. Have you woken
up in the morning to find your father, mother or friend behaving so
differently compared to the way they behaved before going to bed the
last night? If yes, that is mood swing. Several things can cause this. So
many things can change a person’s mood and most of the time, people
turn to the media whether broadcast or print to change their mood.
Therefore, the mood has to be set for any broadcast presentation. This
responsibility rests on the presenter. The presentation of information and
the manner of delivery to the audience is the work of the presenter. If the
presenter is cheerful and lively in his/her presentation, the audience
would go along with him/her. The use of the body especially body
language such as facial expression certainly adds to the articulation of
meaning especially when accompanied by the correct words. The sounds
that come from a presenter often indicate the mood of the presenter as
they relate to the meaning and structure of the presentation.
Langer (1979) in Akpede (2010) says the various forms of human

feelings range from growth and attention, flowing and slowing, conflict
and resolution, speed, arrest, terrific excitement, calm or subtle
activation to dreaming lapses. It is, therefore, the duty of the presenter to
33
ensure that the mood and emotional feelings of the audience are aroused
in conjunction with the objectives of the stations programmes.
Two ways of setting the right mood

a. Introduce a Joke- This requires a lot of skills please. If you are
inexperience or not talented in making people laugh then it is
advisable that you go and read up or listen to good jokes and
present them in lively manner. Two people can tell the same joke
the same way and manner, yet it can resonate differently with the
audience. When you introduce a good joke before a learning
experience, you bring back the mind of a lost learner.
b. Use a Song- There are national appeal songs that can go along
your objective and as well set the right mood for your broadcast.
Please locate these songs and air them. And you will be amased
what effect this will bring to the audience.
3.4 Eye Contact
Television presentation is similar to interpersonal communication just

like the radio where the presenter appears to be addressing the listener,
who is face to face with him.
In the case of television, the presenter is separated from the audience yet
it appears as if he is addressing them in a face-to-face situation. In most
cases, presenters are seen smiling at their audience. This is to arrest the
attention and interest of the audience and make them feel relaxed. The
ability of the presenter to make frequent eye contact with the camera
lens in television or a mental delivery of aural contact through the
choice of words in radio can achieve the desired effect. It radiates
confidence in the presenter and provides unconstructive forum for verbal
communication. It is understood that in most cases, eye contact gives
encouragement to mutual participation in communication. It also
encourages quick feedback. Here, the source of information is easily
confirmed and identified. And if the presenter appears friendly and
presentable, the audience members are likely going to stay put to
consume the programme. Akpede (2010).
i. Define mood. And suggest two ways of setting the right mood.
ii. Justify the reasons for effective eye contact in educational
broadcasting.
34
MAC 246 MODULE 1
3.5 Competence
It is not compulsory that a presenter of an educational programme is a

graduate of education or the school of NCE. But it is important for him
to strive to know very much about the area of discuss. For instance, a
presenter of children’s programme must have acquired what it takes to
attract the children. What to say, what to do, how to say what you say,
how to talk to a particular age-group, how to be funny with children and
how to sustain their interest.
In other words, it is from knowledge that competence is drawn by the

presenter who is now in a better position to guide his audience
throughout the character of the programme. The presenter should also
show signs of competence in the other areas of production. For instance,
he or she should be able to know the signals given either by the
programme director or the floor manager who is the contact person
between the director and the artistes in the studio. In fact, he or she
should be knowledgeable in the production language and sign of the
programme. When he or she acquires knowledge in these and other
things that are involved in production, then such a presenter is said to be
competent in the performance of his or her job.
3.6 Charisma
According to Akpede (2010) programme presentation in broadcasting is

usually combined with special gift which tends to make the presenter
acceptable to the audience. The presenter should cultivate an acceptable
behaviour that makes him loveable any time his voice is heard over the
radio or his face is seen on the screen. For it is generally believed that if
people are impressed with a personality there is likelihood that such a
personality would attract a lot of followership. For example, in the late
1970s, anytime the late James Audu put his face on the screen and his
voice was heard, many audience members rushed to see and hear him
speak on Nigerian Television. Such a presenter is likely going to be
emulated by other talents for they too would like to be associated with
such success. The children presenter, Jimi Solanke is another
charismatic presenter but of folklore on the national television, and his
personality is a wonderful one.
There are no laid down rules for emitting charisma. It is an inborn

tendency that just manifests itself in a person. Since this is a gift
therefore, not everybody has this. For presenters with weak charisma,
they need efforts to win the audience to them.
A good presenter directs audience and influences individual and group

activity either by viewing television or listening to the radio. A good
35
presenter is capable of influencing audience to broadcast programmes,

thus achieving the aims and objectives of the station.
Differentiate between charisma and competence. And why does a

presenter have to possess these qualities?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The job of an educational broadcaster is not an easy one. Because

education is at the core of his objective, he needs to possess some
qualities that would endear the audience to him. Some of these qualities
are naturally endowed while some are acquired through experience.
Some presenters naturally look good on the screen while others make-up
to look better. Some presenters are good orators or teachers, while others
need to work extra hard to achieve similar feat.
5.0 SUMMARY
Principles of presentation are those things that the presenter has to

acquire, possess and exhibit in the performance of his or her job so that
he or she would be accepted and believed by the audience. The presenter
should ensure that he achieves the appropriate mood and emotion and
should create a welcome atmosphere before the audience in order to
successfully drive home the programme objectives.
When you get home today, put on your television set and search for an
educative programme. Discover how the presenter was able to make you
change your mood and sustain your interest in the programme.
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio TV Production. Owerri. Image and

Slogans Consultant Ltd.
36
MAC 246 MODULE 1
UNIT 4 THE NEED FOR EDUCATION AND

BROADCASTING IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Educational Broadcasting?
3.2 History of Educational Broadcasting in Nigeria
3.3 What Radio and Television can do for Education?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Educational broadcasting in Nigeria has a brief antecedent. Anyone who

claims to know a lot about anything must first and importantly know
something if not very much on the history of the matter. One important
reason for this is so that one is aware of the past developments in such
area of study and to discover some drawbacks and strength of the same
and also find ways of improving the idea if it is a viable or sustainable
one. I believe that educational broadcasting is a productive national and
international idea in a third world country like Nigeria where mass
literacy is absolutely essential.
I want to encourage you to dutifully study the contents of this unit and
fulfill the outline tasks. You will be glad later in life that you did.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define urban, rural and national development deduce a

chronological account of the history of educational broadcasting
 define with convincing examples the concept of educational
broadcasting.
37
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Educational Broadcasting?
Plato in Onabajo (2000) defines education as a process through which

we foster in the individual, desirable and relevant changes in behavior
and attitude. Jarvis (1986) in Onabajo (2000) says education is planned
series of incidents having humanistic basis, directed towards the
participants learning and understanding.
In the same vein, broadcasting has been defined as the transmission of

information through radio waves from a radio or television station, to
the audience in far and near places, through their receivers, which helps
in decoding such information.
From the above, we can define educational broadcasting as the

transmission of education or educational programmes through radio
waves from a television or radio station or any other broadcast device, to
the audience in far and near places.
The concept of educational broadcasting is as old as the emergence of

the broadcast industry and the objective of broadcasting is to improve
the lots of society, through the dissemination of developmental
information or knowledge that will bring about the desired attitudinal
changes in the lives of the listening or viewing audience.
Broadcasting has been used to educate in a formal way, when formal

school subjects are taught through radio and television, with the sole
intention of covering certain prescribed syllabus for examination
purposes. Because informal education is incidental learning and this can
take place through constant exposure to broadcast developmental
programmes on health, agriculture and civic education then it is not
possible to trivialise the effect of the broadcast medium on educating the
people.
3.2 History of Educational Broadcasting in Nigeria
According to Onabajo (2000) when Western Education Nigeria

Television (WNTV) was established in October 31, 1959, education was
seen as one of the main reasons for introducing television in Nigeria.
Time and facilities were made available to the then regional ministry of
education which in turn directed its school broadcasting unit to produce
series of educational broadcasts. Soon, the northern, eastern and
southern regions followed suit, as television was introduced in their
areas.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
However, with the creation of states, it became the responsibility of state

governments to purchase and install television sets in schools, as well as
supply sets to community viewing centres (CVCs) which were
established within each state. In this arrangement, the role of the
television station was merely to provide the technical facilities and those
to run them.
The subjects aired were elementary science, arts, crafts, English and
history. During that time, educational broadcasts were daily from
Monday to Friday, between the hours of 10am and 1:00pm.
During that period, educational broadcasting was divided into three:
a. Extensive Educational Broadcasting- The major emphasis of

Nigeria television has been in the area of extensive educational
broadcasting, that is, programming geared towards providing
general information and informal education largely addressed to
adults. Nigeria television has used this in assisting government in
its campaign to mobilise the people towards higher agricultural
output and increasing industrial development.
b. Intensive Educational Broadcasting- This is a process of
harnessing television to the formal educational system. The
results have been less than satisfactory, because the programme
has not been properly articulated. Critics point to the high
illiteracy rate especially amongst the people in the rural areas. It
has been opined that for television to be more effective in
combating the problem of educational broadcasting, there has to
be an expansion of the coverage area of television by installing
more powerful transmitters and relay transmitting stations as well
as creating infrastructure, such as electricity or solar energy and
by providing more community viewing centres. Irukwu (1980)
noted that the former Broadcasting Corporation of Northern
Nigeria (BCNN) used the community viewing centres to transmit
to its rural audience, health and educational programmes.
c. Education. Key to a Better Future- Nigerians have always
realised the importance of formal education as a means of
advancement and increased social status. The early post-
independence federal and regional governments realised that
education was the key to a better future for the Nigerian people
and that radio and television were crucial towards achieving this
goal. The first major breakthrough in educational broadcasting
came in 1984 with the establishment of National Educational
Technology Centre (NETC), under the auspices of the federal
ministry of education.
39
The body which was set up to regularise educational broadcasting in the

country, was set up specifically for the following objectives:
 To train educational broadcasters and visual aid specialists.

 To develop and produce instructional aids.
 To produce and transmit educational programmes on Radio and
Television.
 To conduct workshops and seminars on the application of audio-
visual technology to classroom teachings.
Educational programmes followed this laudable initiative by the

ministry of education. The various educational programmes were run
either in consonance with the curriculum and recommendation of the
ministry of education or independent of the ministry, but in line with the
peculiarities and philosophy of each individual station.
The various transformation and development that Nigerian broadcasting

industry had witnessed so far, reflects in the educational broadcasting
aspects of its activities, with a lot of programmes targeted at the various
segments of its audience. The advent of privately owned broadcasting
stations also has a lot of impact on educational broadcasting in the
country.
3.3 What Radio and Television Can Do For Education
According to Onabajo (2000) radio and television are the most powerful
means of education man has ever developed. He further says that there is
a general acceptance to the fact that they can make a profoundly
significant contribution to an improved quality of education for children,
youths and adults. The following are some of what the media can do for
education.
1. Radio and television can bring to children, youth and adults the
greatest achievements of our cultural heritage in art, music,
drama, poetry, etc.
2. They can bring the inspiration of great teachers, artists, statesmen
and scientists into the lives of people who might otherwise never
have direct contact with personalities of comparable magnitude.
3. These media can fill an important role in making university
education available to our rapidly increasing student enrollments
and to adults who were unable to secure a university education in
their youth.
4. Radio and television can lessen the gap between the rapidly
growing body of scientific knowledge and public understanding
of the social implications of modern science.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
5. They can be a major agency in all types of adult education from

“do-it-your-self” skills to science and philosophy.
6. It is possible to acquaint the people rapidly with major social,
civic and international issues on radio and television.
7. New events around the world can be brought to people
everywhere in a few hours by radio and television.
8. They contribute to the pre-service and in-service education of
teachers by making the quality of educational practice available
for observation and analysis.
Give three definitions of educational broadcasting from the point of

view of a mass communicator.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Educational broadcasting can be defined as the transmission of

education or educational programmes through radio waves from a
television or radio station or any other broadcast device, to the audience
in far and near places.
6.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, our discussion has been a rather brief one and issues
discussed were simply the evolution of educational broadcasting, the
history of educational broadcasting in Nigeria and what radio and
television can do for the education of a country.
What do you think radio and television can do for the education of the
educated and uneducated Nigerians?

41
UNIT 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL

PRESENTATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Education?
3.2 What is Broadcasting?
3.4 The Educational Qualities of Radio
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
I remember as I write this, introduction the words of my grandmother of

great memory. When I was travelling for my higher education several
years ago, she called me back from the cab and told me what was going
to be a part of my guiding philosophy in life. She said, “education
remains the only answer to the problem you see everywhere, so strive to
be educated and not only schooled”. I did not understand that statement
until years after.
Because my higher education was from a private university, I learnt

under an impressive media-driven knowledge transfer. Our professors
projected to us their ideas and principles either through a projector or
film or video or recording devices. With this, we longed to attend
classes, even when our health failed; we wanted to see the next practical
film projections etc. When I compared this with my initial background, I
became sorry for our state of education in Nigeria.
In this unit, we want to examine the role of education and the role of
broadcasting in the Nigerian context. Please, follow me as we explore
this terrain.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define education
 define broadcasting
 enumerate the qualities of radio for broadcasting.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
According to Abdulkareem (1992) in Babafemi (2000), education is as

essential to man as life itself on this planet earth. Societies through ages
have one form of education or the other, whether indigenous or western
education. Education varies from place to place and from time to time.
In fact, it is a very important means of developing any nation. The term
education has not lent itself to any strict consensual definition as it
depends on the perspective from which one views it. It can be
considered as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes,
interest, abilities, competence and the cultural norms of a society by
people to transmit this life to the coming generations so as to enhance
perpetual development of the society.
History has it that long before the advent of both Islamic and western
education, Nigeria has an indigenous type of education (ie education for
the survival of the people; subsistence education). However, modern
influences, at about 300 year’s interval to each other, robbed the country
of its indigenous education to a great extent. For instance, Christian
education was later promoted by the colonial administration to suit its
purpose of colonisation.
Adesina (1985) in Lawal (2008) noted that education is always related to

variable such as purpose of the learner, the aim of the teacher as well as
the technological problems of the society. He therefore defines
education as:
 The tool for the integration of the individual effectively into a

society so that the individual can achieve self-realisation, develop
national consciousness, promote unity and strive for social
economic, political, scientific, cultural and technological process.
While relating education to culture, Nduka (1982) in Lawal (2008) sees

the concept as the process of cultural transmission of the people at least
part of such culture from one generation to the next.
Education, according to Lester Smith cited by Osokoya (1987) is the

culture which each generation purposely gives to those who are to be its
successors in order to qualify them for at least keeping, and if possible
for raising the level of improvement which has been attained.
Horton, cited in Lawal (2008) sees education as an enhancing agency by

which the Africans could restore their self confidence, and make those
43
who doubt the humanity of African begin to revise their views and learn
to respect Africans.
Education, according to Nyerere (1982) is the transmission of

accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the society from one generation
to the next and also to prepare the young people for their future
membership of the society in which they find themselves.
According to Salawu (2008) education is a term that means many things

to many people. According to Oxford English dictionary (2000), the
term means “a process of teaching, training and learning, especially in
schools or colleges to improve knowledge and develop skills”. There
seems to be a consensus among definers of the term education.
Education is regarded as that which is given to an individual to make
him develop socially, morally, and intellectually as to allow for his/her
personal overall development and the development of the community in
which he/she finds himself/herself”. By implication, education, whether
formal or informal, is goal-oriented. It is to be functional, qualitative and
socio-personal driven. Socio-personal in the sense that it must be
tailored toward serving the society and the personality involved. This
accounts for why every society is concerned and deeply involved in the
content and quality of education given to the individuals in the society.
It is because of the role attributed to education by society that account
for its being defined as “transmission and renewal of culture from one
generation to another”.
Attempt a definition of education different from the above.
3.2 What is broadcasting?
Broadcasting is an activity strictly limited to the electronic media. The

electronic media may best be defined as all media forms appearing in
electronic form that is radio, television, films, projectors, computers etc.
In fact, Onabajo (2000) defines broadcasting as the transmission of
information through radio waves from a radio or television station, to
the audience in far and near places, through their receivers, which help
in decoding such information. Also, broadcasting can be defined as the
dissemination of information by an organisation to a widely dispersed
heterogeneous audience through their radio or television receivers.
Brief Information on Nigeria

Nigeria is a country described severally as one-third larger than Texas
and the most populous country in Africa. It is situated on the Gulf of
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
Guinea. Nigeria operates a multi-party system of government

transitioning from military to civilian government.
On October 1, 1960, Nigeria gained independence and became a

member of the Commonwealth of Nations thereby joining the United
Nations. Organised as a loosed federation of self-government states,
these states face the overwhelming task of unifying a country with 250
ethnic and linguistic groups.
For 33 years, Nigeria endured a pretty ravaging military government

until May 1999 when General Abdulsalam Abubakar fulfilled a long-
awaited pledge of stepping aside for a democratically elected leader and
this informed the election of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo who governed
the country for eight years.
Current statistics show that contrary to the 140 million population

estimate, Nigeria is now of over 160 million people. This has
implication for all the sectors of the country, especially education.
With the brief information on Nigeria, do you consider education an

urgent priority in the country? If yes: why?
3.3 The Educational Qualities of Radio
According to Onabajo (2000) radio has the following teaching qualities;

which are absent in other media, whether its programmes are pre-
recorded or transmitted live.
a. Immediacy- One can listen-in on the event itself. While

textbooks used for teaching may be five or 10 years out of date,
radio messages can be as current as the latest broadcast.
b. Realism- Report of events on radio as they unfold may be more
impressive than a newspaper reporter dealing with the same
events. The broadcaster is on the scene and the tones of his voice
communicate shades of meaning that the newspaper cannot
convey. World history becomes real and personal during live
broadcast of the London 2012 Olympic Games or some other
events, as students are transplanted to scenes of momentous
decisions.
c. The conquest of space and Time- Radio can overcome the
barriers of space and time through on the spot broadcasts or
simulated history.
d. Emotional Impact- Radio brings dramatic feelings into the
classroom and can carry to the listener all the emotional
45
overtones of the broadcast materials. The human voice is the

most significant way of reading people and can convey feelings
and attitudes even when the eyes of the listeners are closed.
e. Authenticity- Since it is rare for a teacher to be expert in every
phase of the subject he teaches, experts have often been brought
on radio to bring into classrooms expertise and authority in
subject matters. Radio can also provide expertise in methods.
f. Cost- Radio is relatively cheap to run because its per capital cost
is small, because it can reach millions of people at the same time.
It can be used inexpensively when there is need to emphasise
local problems or conditions and the solutions to such problems.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Nigeria is a country described severally as one-third larger than Texas

and the most populous country in Africa. The same country is still
struggling with giving its citizens good and quality education. If
education is the life-blood of any nation, can we say that Nigeria has
done well with education over the years? Can we also say that the
broadcast has been put to good use for educational purpose?
5.0 SUMMARY
So far in this unit, there has been a look at the definition of education
and broadcasting. Also, the qualities of radio for the purpose of
education have been examined.
Do you think radio is an important tool for mass education? If yes: how?

Concepts Limited.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
MODULE 2 CATEGORIES OF EDUCATIONAL

BROADCASTING
Unit 1 Children Education Broadcasting

Unit 2 Adults in Search of Education
Unit 3 Men and Women in Urban Communities
Unit 4 Men and Women in Rural Communities
UNIT 1 CHILDREN EDUCATION BROADCASTING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Why is Educational Broadcasting Important?
3.2 Educational Broadcasting and the Children
3.3 Methods of Educational Broadcasting for Children
3.4 Some Challenges of Broadcasting to the Children
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Perhaps the most difficult audience of any broadcasting medium is the

children. Why is this so? The definition of a child is given only with a
range. The most popular definition puts a child as being between the
unborn ages of zero to 18. Now, tell me, are you going to serve the same
content to a two year old and 17 year old and expect a meaningful
result? But despite this challenge, this unit has proffered some solutions
to reaching the various groups of children.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define a child
 list reasons why children need educational broadcasting
 describe methods of reaching the children on radio and television
 describe some challenges in broadcasting to children.
47
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Why is Educational Broadcasting Important?
Nigeria currently operates the 6-3-3-4 system of education. This is a

type of educational system wherein the recipient would spend six years
in the primary school, three years in the Junior Secondary School, three
years in the Senor Secondary School and four years in the tertiary
institutions. In these stages, we have primary schools, secondary schools
and tertiary Institutions such as colleges of education, polytechnic and
universities respectively.
Primary education as regards the 6-3-3-4 system of education is the

elementary type of education for children between ages six to 11 years.
This is the foundation of education upon which all others are built. It
therefore determines the success or failure of the whole system,
(National Policy on Education 1981).
Now, let us adopt our working definition of a Nigerian child as between

the ages of six and 11 for broadcast purposes. This set of children
resume school from the hours between 8:00am and 2:00pm. In many
schools, they are engaged in after-school lessons that will keep them in
school for another one hour, 30 minutes. It is therefore assumed that
these children will be at home from about 3:30 and 4:00 pm.
Research has shown that these kids engage themselves most of the time
after school with the television. The question therefore is to what extent
these children obtain educational information on the television or radio
after school.
3.2 The Importance of Educational Broadcasting for

Children
a. It facilitates their learning experience- The television in this part

of the world has not done quite well in educating our children. In
some parts of the world, children look forward to solving their
homework or school quizzes at home through the mass media.
This way, a practical re-demonstration of what they have learnt in
school is again projected to them.
b. Helps in the Childs Phonic education- If for instance, a child
learns in school a series of word pronunciation and is perhaps
confused, when that child gets home and tune to the television,
and hears the exact way the teacher has pronounced the word, the
child’s education is however enhanced in the process.
c. Because children learn faster when what they learn are played
before them, broadcasting offers to the child a greater advantage
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
over the class situation. A child who has been taught that aero-
plane works by flying in class, and gets home to see an aero-
plane in the television doing exactly what the teacher described
will no doubt be a better student.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Quickly think of other importance of educational broadcasting for

children.
3.3 Methods of Educational Broadcasting for the Children
By methods, we mean the various ways through which education can

appear on television for children. These are the various programmes
packaged with major and minor educational contents for the children.
And they are:
a. After-school programmes (A Lagos Example) - educational

broadcasting began in LTV 8 in November 1981. It went off the
air after four months and resurfaced in March, 1982 with the
teaching of Yoruba, English and French languages for the
beginners. The teaching of Yoruba language became an important
focus of educational broadcasting as a result of the decision
reached by the federal ministry of education, that all school
certificate holders must pass a Nigerian language at senior
secondary certificate of education level. This however, led to the
creation of Aditu which was aimed at broadcasting the teaching
of Yoruba language, grammar and literature. Education
broadcasting of Aditu was based on school curriculum syllabus of
Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council
(NERDEC). Towards the end of 1982, Areweyo another Yoruba
educational programme for primary school started to be relayed
from 5-5:45pm every Tuesday. The teaching of English language
and mathematics based on NERDEC curriculum was on air for
two years 1984-1986.
On the stable of African Independent Television (AIT),
programmes like Scrap Palace (a programme on the art) and
Kiddies Radio on Sunday (a quiz programme designed for
children between the ages of five to 12) was aired every Sunday
on Ray Power from 2 - 3pm.
b. Moonlight tales on television- An important instrument or
means of educating our children or the coming generation is by
rendering tales. This is a long practice in Africa. Our national
television at a time prioritised this practice but all of a sudden, the
practice has declined. Tales by moonlight was NTA’s longest
49
running children’s educational programme. The programme won

the 1991 prized pieces International Video/Film Competition,
organised by the National Black Programme Consortium in
Columbus, Ohio, USA. The consortium adjudged tales by
moonlight, the best youth educational programme in Ohio. The
programme is a typical Nigerian educational programme in
traditional folklore and the episodes are usually recorded in an
environment that reflects the actual scenery in specific stories.
A similar programme of the NTA is story-land. It is a folklore
that teaches the children not to tell lies. It is a story of wisdom
which is illustrated graphically. Storyland made its debut in 1990,
and featured Jimi Solanke and Dede Mabiaku as story tellers.
c. Television debates/quiz-Debate programmes are educational
programme whether on radio or television. This is an avenue
where children could easily pick the skills involved in argument.
The NTA network service at a time included the Jets Quiz
Competition. Also, the Bournvta Brain Match, a form of quiz
competition was on air among others. The purpose of these
programmes was to prepare the children for the future ahead of
them.
d. Educational drama- Children love drama programmes where
they can find children of their age, who speak similar language
like they do. They could be educated through this avenue. Such
drama could address some of their social education needs like
etiquettes, moral and ethical conducts etc.
e. Cartoons- The dictionary defines cartoons in two contexts. The
first is that it is an amusing drawing in a newspaper or magazine,
especially one about politics or events in the news. The second is
(animated cartoons) which is a film/movies made by
photographing a series of gradually changing drawings or
models, so that they look as if they are moving. Cartoons attract
children because of the colouration of the drawing. The voice of
the characters is another delight. These days, with the
advancement in computer technology, there is an amazing
improvement in the quality of cartoons that appear on our
national/international televisions.
3.4 Some Challenges of Broadcasting to Children
a. Language- When broadcasting for children, the instructor or

broadcaster needs to be mindful of the choice of words. Because
different children converge in front of the television, there is the
need to understand the fact that these children are of different
educational background. Therefore, assumptions should not be
made that there will be a general understanding of an idea or
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
instruction. As an instructor on radio or television, the use of the

simplest word to drive your idea is unavoidably important.
b. Audience analysis- A fatal mistake that broadcast instructors
make is to generalise the children population. The definition of
children given earlier in our discussion gives a range of (zero to
18 years) for children. The question an instructor should ask is
‘what segment of the population am I going to reach and how
will I achieve this?’ The broadcast content for ages 10-14 may
not make sense to ages 1-4 years.
c. Appropriate instructional materials- There are different
instructional materials for teaching children. This is because,
children learn faster when they see. Tell a child a dog barks and
he may still be confused. But show a child a dog barking and
there is a connection to the dog either at home or of the neigbour
and you have succeeded in passing loads of information.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Education plays a pivotal role in a nation’s development. The extent to

which the children are educated will either spell a great future or doom
for any nation. The structures that we build today will only become
reliable legacies tomorrow only if our children are truly educated. One
of the avenues of mass education is the mass media; whether radio or
television. But for the youngsters, television seems to be the fastest way
of connecting them.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts have been made to define a child from different
contexts.
Identify educational broadcasting method that you can find on our

national television stations today. Are they really educating the
children?

Schramm, W. (1969). Feedback for Instructional Television. Stanford:

Institute for Communication Research.
51
UNIT 2 ADULTS IN SEARCH OF EDUCATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of an Adult
3.3 What is Adult Education?
3.4 Purpose of Adult Education
3.5 Brief History of Adult Education in Nigeria
3.6 Functions of the Broadcast Media
3.7 Methods of Educational Broadcasting for the Adult
Learners
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
By Adult Education, we refer to definition by experts for deep

understanding. In this unit we will go down history lane to the history of
adult education in Nigeria. The reason for this is to aid our
understanding on subsequent issues to be discussed in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 narrate a short account of adult education in Nigeria

 state why mass adult education is important n Nigeria
 outline ways by which media can further aid adult literacy in
Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of an Adult
Nzeneri (2008) described an adult as a person who is physically and

psychologically mature and who is socially, economically, and
politically responsible. In his words, physical maturity implies that the
adult is capable of being a parent, picking a life partner, raising a family
and managing a home.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
In some communities, an adult is known by his age. Some say that

adulthood starts at 14 years of age. To many, one has attained adulthood
when he is up to 18 years of age. To Ume (no date) an adult is not
known by his age or physical and psychological maturity but by the
circumstances in which he or she finds herself. In this case, a boy of 14
years may be a more adult than another who is 20 years.
To many scholars, the term education means learning which starts from
the cradle to the grave. Okafor (1987) defined education to embrace all
experiences through which an individual acquires knowledge or ideas,
develops his intellect and strengthens his will.
3.3 What is Adult Education?
We can see the relevance of experience in Ume and Okafor’s

definitions. Using their definitions of adult and education, we can safely
say that adult education is just a process by which a mature person
acquires knowledge, ideas etc. some other scholars saw adult education
as a comprehensive term describing not merely literacy education but
non-formal, out of school education and training.
A summary of United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural

Organisation (UNESCO) presents adult education as a process by which
a matured member of a society acquires knowledge and skills to make
himself relevant in his community.
3.4 Purpose of Adult Education
According to Nzeneri (2008) the purpose of adult education and non-

formal education of the Nigerian National Policy on Education include:
 To produce functional literacy education for adults who have

never had the advantage of any formal education.
 To promote functional and remedial education for those young
people who prematurely developed out of the formal school
system.
 To provide further education for different categories of
completers of the formal education system in order to improve on
their basic knowledge and skills.
 To provide in-service on the job vocational and professional
training for different categories of workers and professionals in
order to improve their skills.
 To give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetics;
cultural and civic education for public enlightenment.
53
3.5 Brief History of Adult Education in Nigeria
Before the advent of the western education in Nigeria, some form of

adult education has been given in the traditional societies, and Muslims,
through the Quranic schools have also been teaching not only children,
but also adults. The aims were to prepare people to master skills in order
to earn their living, to learn about the cultural heritage, to behave
according to society’s codes of conducts and to lead moral life so as to
enter the blissful thereafter.
However, the western concept of adult education came with the

Christian missionaries in the 1840s to start with, the missionaries taught
adults along with children and emphasised religion. The three Rs were
also imparted as the knowledge of these helped them to understand the
Bible. Sunday school activities and classes in the evenings when adults
were free were taken up quite seriously, both by the missionaries and
their congregation. The missions emphasised moral training, and the
literacy was to help the learner to master western values.
According to Online Researchers (2010) the history of adult education

dates back to the 40s. in Aderinoye’s opinion, adult education started as
evening classes in Kano in 1940. He further informed us that
experiments in community development and literacy began in Udi in
1942 with Chadwick ER as the organiser. He also wrote that as far back
as 1958 before Nigeria’s independence, an association had been formed.
The association constituted what was called an Interim committee in
their conference at the University of Nigeria Nsukka. The committee
was changed with the preparation for launching of a natural body and a
constitution to be examined in a conference proposed to be held at the
University of Ibadan in December 1967. Unfortunately, the civil war
made the realisation of this dream impossible until 1971 when the
association was transformed into a national body called Nigerian
National Council for Adult Education (NNCAE). The aim of the council
was to achieve 100% literacy in Nigeria.
Also in 1971, Chief A.Y. Eke the then minister for education called for a
10 year (1974-1984) mass literacy campaign and served as the founding
chairman of the National Mass Education Commission. Following the
pressure by the federal government for recognition of the discipline of
adult education, a unit called adult education was created at the Federal
Ministry of Education in 1974.
The administration of Alhaji Shehu Shagari in 1982 following call by

the United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) for total eradication of illiteracy from the world 1982-1992
as a 10 year mass literacy campaign period. In 1987, the federal
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
government directed all state government in the federation to establish

adult and non-formal education agencies to execute literacy education.
In 1990, a decree was promulgated establishing a national mass literacy
commission. To buttress the unseasoned effort of our government to
respond to the global trend for Education for All (EFA) in line with the
United Nations declaration, the Universal Basic Education was launched
in September 20, 1999.
3.6 Functions of the Broadcast Media
According to Marsh & Knox (1966) mass media serve two basic
functions and that is to provide information and to provide escape.
Communication theorists identify two major functions of mass media.
The first is that it is a medium for contributory effects; to reinforce
existing opinions or recent decisions. To increase knowledge and
information on a wide range of topics, or to provide a tool for personal
growth and development, the second function is that it serves as a means
of escape that is to provide mental and physical relaxation, to stimulate
the imagination and to act as a means of vocation interaction. The first
function represents a search for instrumental information. The second
therefore is a search for entertainment.
In the words of Idebi (2008) education could not be limited within

teacher and taught without social environment. Therefore, mass media is
one such potent force in the social environment of education. Through
modern electronic techniques and technologies (i.e the broadcast media),
mass media prove that education is really comprehensive and not
confinable to the four walls of the classroom.
Some of the functions of the broadcast media as stated by Sharma

(2012) are as follows:
1. Provides various information - The broadcast media

disseminates various information for the mass of people to
acquire different knowledge as quickly as possible.
2. Provides vocational information- The broadcast media helps in
providing vocational and professional information to a large
group of people.
3. Spreading awareness and civic responsibility- People can be
aware of different problems of the society and their role in
changing society through mass media. People know their rights
and duties for the nation clearly.
4. Provides educational programmes- The broadcast media help
in forming suitable habit for different programmes and they
utilise their leisure time in a productive way. It also influences
the behavior of the people through different programmes.
55
5. Role as a non-formal agency- In advanced societies of the

world, mass media are not treated as informal agencies of
education. They are called non-formal agencies due to its wide
coverage of educational items in a systematic way. It is viewed
that the mass media can substitute the classroom teaching in
future. Therefore, mass media are the main means of educating
the society. These are the cheapest and quickest means of
educating the people.
3.7 Methods of Educational Broadcasting for the Adult

Learners
The discipline of Sociology assumes that a child has what is called

tabula rasa (a situation in which there is no fixed idea about how
something should develop). In simple terms, they believe the child’s
mind is like a clean board where nothing has been written. In essence,
when fixing ideas, knowledge or information, because of their
inexperience to life, such dissemination should ordinarily take a most
simple, descriptive, illustrative and dramatic form. This is why
educational technology for teaching children keeps evolving simpler
methods of teaching.
An adult coming into education learning environment as a new comer

already has innumerable ideas affixed in his mind especially through
informal education. There is no such thing as a tabula rasa in such an
adults mind. In fact, what we should expect is altering or reshaping such
a mind. Let me make myself clearer. We have a child of six years of age
in primary one. We also have an adult of 28 years in primary one. You
can’t but agree with me that their view of life is totally different. They
will be learning the same thing, but their response will be different. One
will learn as an innocent and vulnerable learner while the older will
learn with several beckoning questions.
The question that arises therefore is how do you pass knowledge across
to the adult learner knowing quite well the challenges involved? The
following points are no less useful.
 Radio education- The tendency that an adult is easily exposed to

the radio is high in many situations. They could access it in the
car, in the public cab/bus, at work, through the mobile phone etc.
Children cannot easily access the radio except the conditions are
programmed for them or perhaps it happened on chance. Because
of this advantage for adults, radio is one of the most appropriate
media for disseminating instructions to adults. It is unfortunate
that this is not happening in Nigeria the way it should.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
Programmes could be aired specially for the purpose of educating

the adult population.
 Experience-infused teaching- Because the adult learner has had
loads of life experiences whether while growing, during
marriage, through disappointments etc, the instructor could mix
these hypothetical experiences together as a method in reaching
out to the adult.
 Language- English is the official language in Nigeria; therefore,
it is the acceptable language of instruction in schools. For the
children we can achieve substantial success at instructing in
English, but for the adult, I envisage problems. Let us take for
instance the 28 years old leaner in primary one that we discussed
above. Let us assume that he has not had frequent exposure to the
English language over the years, now he finds himself in the
classroom where English language is the only medium of
expression. No matter his brilliance, he will have some problems.
The way out is educational instruction should be given through
the indigenous languages on radio and television.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Education being vital in a nation’s development, adult education
is not less important than children education in the building of a
nation. The brief history of adult education is enumerated in this
unit. You learnt some of the functions of the broadcast media
especially how it could be used for adult learners.
7.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts have been made to examine different contexts
of adult learning.

Why is mass adult education important in Nigeria?
Outline two ways by which media can further aid adult literacy in
Nigeria.

Thakur, A.S. & Ezenne, A.N. (1980). A Short History of Education in

Nigeria. Ibadan: De Ayo Publications.
57
UNIT 3 MEN AND WOMEN IN URBAN

COMMUNITIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Past Mass Education Programmes in the Nigerian Mass
Media
3.2 Media Methods for Educating the Urban Population
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Another category of people in need of constant education are the men

and women in the urban communities. These are heterogeneous
population of men and women widely distributed in town and cities.
They need to be educated on a daily basis on the issues around their
vicinity, state or nation. This kind of education is for their well being
and overall survival.
In this unit, we shall examine in what capacity, people in the urban areas
need to be educated.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state the reason why educational broadcasting is important to

urban dwellers
 give examples of past educational programmes in the country.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Past Mass Education Programmes in the Nigerian Mass

Media
1. Currency change
In 1971, the Nigerian Currency changed from the pound and
shilling to naira and kobo. Both the print and broadcast media
were actively involved in educating Nigerians about the
equivalent of old rate to the new one and the advantages of the
new currency, which included making trade relationship easier
with other countries. Despite the wide coverage given by the
electronic media, the rural population seemed to have been lost in
the process of innovation, as media messages were distorted, as it
passed from hand to hand. For some time after the introduction of
the new currency, there were reports of confusion in the rural
areas, about the equivalent of the new coins to the old ones. Up
till now, many illiterate traders still insist that buyers should first
convert to the old currency, before paying for the goods bought in
the new currency. All in all, the change was successful and has
received a high degree of acceptance and compliance by the
public, because people did not have a choice of alternatives in
dealing with their innovation, because after a certain date, it
became illegal to use the old currency.
2. Traffic change (1972)
Anyone who wanted to use the roads after April 6, 1973 did not
have much of a choice. They had to drive on the right side of the
road, or face the consequences. Earlier there had been media
campaigns. Jingles were made for radio and were repeatedly
broadcast. The television messages were more effective, as it
pictorially illustrated the change over, through animation.
However, in this case, the information was directed to the city
dwellers, who owned cars and the drivers of commercial vehicles.
3. National census (1973)
In 1973, a national census was conducted. It aimed at knowing
the population of Nigeria for effective planning. Again, the mass
media was used. It provided all the information and education on
why people must ensure that they were counted. Jingles meant to
educate the citizenry were produced and aired by both radio and
television. However, because the community and opinion leaders
were not mobilised before hand, the event was misconstrued, the
rural population thought it was election time and demanded to be
paid before registration. Other political leaders fuelled unpatriotic
acts, by ensuring that their people were counted numerous times,
while some census officials inflated figures. Hence, the results
generated a lot of controversy.
59
According to Onabajo (2000) studies on the 1973 national census

campaign showed that the radio was more versatile on the census
campaign than other media.
4. Operation feed the nation (1976)
The Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) of 1976 was a generalised
appeal through the mass media to Nigerians. It aimed at taking
farming and food production more seriously. According to
Opubor (1985) in Onabajo (2000) the government attempted
through the media to highlight economic and social support and
reinforcement for people who wished to participate in the
programme through making fertiliser and seedlings available and
thorough social approval and commendation of those who were
feeding the nation. However, participation was on voluntary
basis, except for the short lived attempt to compel all university
students to work on the farms during their long vacations on
some stipends.
The print and broadcast media was flooded with persuasive messages
asking people in all walks of life to participate be they farmers, civil
servants, doctors, engineers, soldiers, businessmen, policemen, students,
housewives etc.
Political Education: Transition from Military to Civil Rule 1978-

1979
According to Onabajo (2000) from the outset of the transition to civil

rule, the Nigerian mass media enlightened and acquainted the public
with the political activities in the country.
Olorunsogo in Onabajo (2000) examined the roles played by the

Nigerian Television Authority, the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria
(FRCN) and federal ministry of information and the federal electoral
commission in mobilising and educating the Nigerian people about the
transition from military to civil rule between 1978 and 1979.
Many programmes and approaches were designed for effective coverage

so as to be able to catch the flavour and fury of political campaigns.
Interviews were conducted with House of Representatives, senatorial,
gubernatorial and presidential candidates on radio and television
The federal ministry of information embarked on mass public

enlightenment campaigns in the then 19 states of the federation. A 15
minute documentary was commissioned by the defunct Federal Electoral
Commission (FEDECO) and produced by the film division of the
ministry of information. The film titled “Voting in Election 79” was
aimed at educating the voters in correctly exercising their civil rights
60
MAC 246 MODULE 1
during the 1979 general elections. Copies of the film were distributed to
television stations, mobile cinema vans of federal and state ministries of
information and some public cinema houses. The ministry also recorded
some jingles for distribution, among radio stations in the country,
informing and motivating the electorate to vote.
War against Indiscipline (WAI)
When Buhari/Idagbon military regime seized power from the Shagari

government on the 30th December 1983, the country was thought to be
in a decadent state and that there was the need for discipline to be
restored among Nigerians. With the complete mobilisation of the mass
media, late Major General Tunde Idiagbon launched the famous War
Against Indiscipline (WAI) in five phases. The first phase was queue.
Nigerians were being asked to do things orderly by forming a queue in
their day to day transactions. This was directed at the urban population
where the rush-rush syndrome was prominent. Both radio and television
producers made appropriate jingles to ensure that people not only took
their turns during transactions, but also discouraged others from jumping
existing queue. Posters were also designed and pasted at strategic places
to educate the city dwellers, that it was more desirable to be orderly. The
Nigerian Television Authority (NTA), in one of its numerous jingles to
create awareness, used a canteen situation, where a man of the people
was disallowed from jumping queue. Because the city dwellers have
access to the media, the queue campaign was successful.
Another phase was environmental sanitation. People were shown on

television clearing their surroundings. There was great compliance by
the people. The exercise was to take place at the last Saturday of every
month. People kept their houses and surrounding environment clean
between the periods of 7:00am to 10:00am in the afternoon. This was
given great prominence on radio and television as there was constant
reminder and education.
Using the above past mass education programmes as a guide, enlist

current mass education programmes of recent time especially since the
democratic transition on May 1999.
61
3.2 Methods of Reaching the Urban Communities

Educationally
1. Talk-shows- Let me give you the dictionary definition of talk-

show. It is simply a television or radio programme in which
famous people or persons are asked questions and they talk in an
informal way about their work and give opinions on various
topics. Another definition is a method where a presenter
introduces a particular topic which is then discussed by the
audience.
Depending on how the presenter can handle this method, talk-

shows are powerful medium of education for the urban dwellers.
This method most times bring notable, knowledgeable and skilled
people from all works of life, be it the university, polytechnic,
colleges of education, politics, media, entertainment industry etc.
to air their views on either a topic assigned to them on a wide
variety of topics thrown to them. Imagine a talk-show that hosts
the likes of the Nobel Laureate, Professor Wole Soyinka or
Chinua Achebe to air their views on a variety of topics or
importantly on literature and national development.
According to Onabajo (1999) every talk show should have the
attribute of informing, educating as well as entertain its viewers.
However, there are talk-shows in our television industry, which
show little or no creativity. A situation where a presenter sits in
the studio, in front of a phone-service, asking viewers to
contribute to a topic of discussion without a resource person, is at
its best insulting to the viewers. It is a lazy approach to
programming, which is fast gaining momentum.
2. Drama- The simple definition of drama is that it is a performance
which tells a story through action and dialogue. It takes us into
the lives and thoughts of people and exposes their character and
how these change as a result of the conflicts which face them and
how these are resolved. When the conflicts are inconsequential,
the drama is a comedy and when they are deeply disturbing or
profound, it is a tragedy.
In Iyiola (2009) drama is a composition that tells a story through
action and dialogue which is planned and written into a script,
with the aim of entertaining, education or informing a target
audience. It is a medium of communication in which reality is
deliberately and purposely initiated.
Because drama is an imitation of the real world, it therefore
makes it a tool for the transformation of the society. The
deteriorating level of the nation’s educational system can best be
expressed in drama to educate our people on the need or
importance of education in our society. Important education
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
could be passed across through a 30 minutes drama on television

or radio.
Health and development communication experts are now
beginning to see the opportunities that abound in the use of radio
drama for rural education these days.
3. Documentaries-Documentaries stem up from documents.
Therefore, materials for a documentary have been preserved in
time past. A documentary is narrative in nature and may be
planned or unplanned. A documentary therefore is an assembly of
many pieces of information. All documents are meant to educate
which distinguish them from the magazine. The magazine simply
informs, while documentary largely educates. If a magazine
programme educates, it is purely incidental. A documentary may
have the urgency of news, but not hard news. It deals more with
the soft aspects of news and has an element of drama, hence, it is
entertaining.
There is however a difference between a radio documentary and a

television documentary. This difference is the difference that exists
between radio and television. If the radio documentary does not make
use of embellishments like sound effects, such as the sound of rain or
thunder, the radio documentary will be boring to the listeners. In radio
documentary, the musical breaks are used to eliminate too much of
talking. The narrator must put together every illustration through a
beautiful narration.
Types of documentary
1. Historical documentary- Historical documentary may tell us the

story of something that is happening or has happened. It may tell
us about an important national event about to take place, or one
that occurred in the past. It could do with the history of a nation
and its people. According to Onabajo (2000) historical
documentary is not a regular feature on our air waves, but it is
used to mark occasions. Most of the materials are archival in
nature, but since it is historical in concept, it also features
contemporary history. Where documents are not available for
particular information, the events are often acted out.
2. Biographical documentary- It is usually about the life and times
of nation’s heroes, their achievements, frustrations, their thought
processes and the lives they affected they were alive. This type of
documentary thrives on whether there are enough audio, visual
and pictorial representations about remarkable events that the
heroes participated in. The missing gaps are acted out, using
characters that have close resemblance to the hero in question.
Such documentaries include “The Life and Times of Chief
63
Obafemi Awolowo”, “Zik of Africa-the demise of a Titan”, Fela-

the passing away of a legend”.
3. Scientific documentary- This deals with breakthroughs in the
field of science and technology. It may be on marine engineering,
space technology and travels, medicine, agriculture etc.
4. Religious documentary- Most religious documentaries are acted
out because religious heroes date back to a long and remote time
in history. The religious characters are simply representations or
artistic impressions of the original characters.
Other types of documentaries include docu-drama, institutional

documentary, cultural documentary, mythical documentary, habitat
documentary and news documentary.
Enumerate the types of documentary.
4.0 CONCLUSION
An important category of people in need of constant education are the

men and women in the urban cities like Lagos, Abuja, Port Harcourt,
Benin City, and Ibadan etc. This is because these people constitute the
working class whose access to constant information is through the
media. To effectively reach these set of people there are some methods
and this methods have been dutifully discussed in this unit.
7.0 SUMMARY
This unit has discussed the past mass education programmes in the
Nigerian mass media with the aim of taking the students especially the
younger ones on an historical excursion, so that they can appreciate the
role of the mass media in giving education. Also, in this unit the
methods used in reaching people in the urban centres have been
seriously outlined.
When you get home today, turn your television to a city station. Look
out for other methods where the station communicates to the urban
dwellers.
Hasling, J. (1980). Fundamentals of Radio Broadcasting. USA:

McGraw-Hill Book Publishing, Co. Inc.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
Onabajo, O. (1999). Essentials of Broadcast Writing and Production.

Lagos: Gabi Concept.
Onabajo, O. (2000). Principles of Educational Broadcasting. Lagos:

Gabi Concepts Limited.
UNIT 4 MEN AND WOMEN IN RURAL

COMMUNITIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Composition of Rural Dwellers
3.2 Some Strategies for Rural Broadcasting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
According to Onabajo (2002) rural broadcasting is a recent concept in

Nigeria broadcasts history and it is a phenomenon that is prevalent in the
developing or emerging world. The concept takes cognisance of the
larger percentage of the rural population when compared with urban
residents.
Mabogunje (1981) in Onabajo (2002) contends that about 70% of

Nigerians reside in the rural areas hence the need to educate them and
lift them from the doldrums of poverty into opportunities. To achieve
this, the broadcast media needs to be fully employed for the task.
Further, according to Onabajo (2002) rural educations is a subset of

rural development and rural broadcasting can only but have one major
focus- that is transmitting developmental information to educate the
rural citizenry, with the overall intention of developing their well-being
through innovative ideas that will stimulate them into action.
65
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the purpose for rural broadcasting

 trace the emergence of rural broadcasting
 list some strategies for rural broadcasting.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Composition of Rural Dwellers
Some of the characteristics of the rural area occupants are poverty and
illiteracy. Because majority of the population are farmers and artisans,
the level of education is pretty low. Again access to education is not as
abundant and easy compared to the city. Until recently, adequate
attention has not been paid to the rural areas in Nigeria. Majority of the
educational infrastructures found in the rural areas are the elementary
and secondary school levels. And their conditions are even as deplorable
as the life in those areas. We can therefore say that the level of education
in the rural areas is next to nothing; they are very low. Because of this,
this area is plagued with a lot of avoidable challenges majorly health.
Emergence of rural broadcasting
According to Onabajo (2000) rural broadcasting in Nigeria came about

when broadcasting made efforts to discover basic information about
their listenership. Such efforts were sporadic and have not produced far
reaching and enduring results.
Rural broadcasting sprang up as a result of the regions which longed for

broadcasting; first the West in 1959, then the East in 1960 and the north
in 1962, set up their own broadcasting corporations and began
transmitting their own programmes on both radio and television
particularly in local languages.
Although in 1950s, rural community listening was apparently

uncommon in Nigeria, however, some native authorities in Northern
Nigeria were recorded as installing community listening kiosks with dry
battery receivers in the mid 1950 and the Nigerian broadcasting service
at that time proceeded cautiously with experiments in community
listening.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
About 11% of indigenous programmes was translated into nine

languages- Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo, Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Ijaw, Edo and Efik,
which are mother tongues of significant sections of the Nigerian
population.
The most conventional way to estimate the rural broadcasting systems

relative stage of development is a receiver-to-population ratio expressed
as the average number of rural receivers available for every thousand
persons in the area. UNESCO stipulated 50 radio receivers per 1000
inhabitants as a minimum target level for development in the 1960s. In
1988, according to UNESCO, Nigeria averaged only 85 radio receivers
per thousand inhabitants, as against a world average of 159.
3.2 Some Strategies for Rural Broadcasting
According to Onabajo (2002) radio is the only medium of mass

communication which makes information available to the widest
possible audience in developing societies. It is radio’s ability to reach
people even in the remotest parts of a country. This is why radio is a
popular choice as agents of rural development. Despite this, there are
some strategies for reaching out through radio especially when the
purpose is to educate.
McAnany (1973) gave five strategies for radio broadcasting. And they
are:
1. Open broadcasting- this is the strategy through which broadcast

is directed to an unorganised audience. It is based on the
assumption that a good message is capable of being accepted by
the individual on his own, and the best way to attract and hold a
mass audience is to offer spontaneous and continuous satisfactory
programmes on education. A small core of educational
programme here is broadcast (usually in local language) on
health, agriculture, family life, sanitation and child care, among
others, in addition to the usual programmes, such as talks,
features, music and drama. Because of the unorganised nature of
the audience, there is always doubts as to whether the people are
listening, and if they are, whether they are benefitting from the
programmes. Open broadcast strategy is bedeviled by all the
problems that affect the use of radio for the education of the rural
population. Under this type of broadcast, programmes are being
produced in assumed knowledge both of the subject matter and of
the environmental conditions of the audience.
2. Radio study groups- this strategy is used in Tanzania to teach
practical skills, cooperative and civic responsibility to rural
67
communities. Using the strategy requires much more than mere

broadcasting. It requires a structure for organising listening and
learning practices, support materials, monitors or teachers and
some kind of assessment. Tanzania uses this strategy as part of a
national plan to develop the people’s awareness, their spirit of
nationalism and co-operation, and to strengthen their sense of
integrity and bring out defined changes in the people’s behavior
and attitudes and in their physical environment. Radio is used in
conjunction with the printed word. How does this work? Before
broadcast, texts on the subject matter for study are distributed to
the audience. Paraphrased versions of the text materials form the
content of broadcast materials.
This strategy gives Tanzania the opportunity to launch out mass
education campaign to the people. This is highly supported by the
nation’s government. In 1970, the Institute of Adult Education,
University of Dares Salam, Tanzania in collaboration with
government departments, organised a national political education
campaign for the Tanzanians using radio and study group
methods. People got organised in radio listening groups and
discussed issues under specially trained leaders.
3. Radio rural forum- radio rural forum is the strategy which
makes use of radio with discussion and decision for rural groups.
The strategy involves the presentation of a regular weekly 15 to
30 minutes magazine programme to rural audiences formed into
listening groups. The programmes usually comprise rural news,
answers to listeners question, family advice, a talk and
discussion. The groups- usually between 10-30 listeners each,
listen to the programmes and discuss their contents under the
guidance of a group leader, and then take decisions on the points
raised. The leader sends monthly reports to the source of the
programme for review and possible inclusion in subsequent
programmes.
4. Radio schools- according to Onabajo (2000) this is the most
widespread strategy for using radio for rural community
education in Latin America. It was originally tried in Sutatenza,
Columbia, where it has now permeated the life of the rural
population. The schools have small organised listening groups
meeting in houses or churches under a guide. The audiences of
these radio schools are primarily illiterate rural adults. The basic
aim of this strategy is to offer fundamental, integral education
which goes beyond mere reading, writing and cognitive skills and
tries to change the passive and dependent attitude of the rural
man, creating a deepening of his sense of dignity and self-worth
and turning him into a new man.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
Why do you think rural education is important?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The rural population constitutes the highest mass of uneducated persons

in any country. Any country that fails to pay attention to this set of
people stand a chance of drifting back in the nearest future. There are
however methods of reaching this population and research are still
ongoing on newer methods to educate these people.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, efforts have been made to discuss the composition of the
rural dwellers with the need to discover their educational need and how
to meet these needs. Some strategies to reach this population have been
discussed.
Can you think of a better method for reaching the rural populace? Write
out your thoughts in one or two pages.
Moemeka, A.A. (1981). Local Radio Community Education for

Development. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.
Onabajo, O. (2002). Elements of Rural Broadcasting. Lagos: Gabi

Concepts Limited.
UNESCO (1995). Year Book Report. Paris: UNESCO.
MODULE 3 USEFUL SKILLS FOR BROADCAST

EDUCATION
69
Unit 1 Understanding Types of Learners

Unit 2 General Teaching Methods
Unit 3 Use of Audio-Visual Aids
Unit 4 Study Skills for Educational Broadcasters
Unit 5 Note-Taking Skills for Educational Broadcasters
UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF LEARNERS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Learners
3.2 Gifted and Talented Learners
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit has been designed to make you understand the different types
of learners, their characteristics and the implications to broadcasting. By
the end of this unit, you would have had an overall view of the different
types of learners and the ways by which they can be helped.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 differentiate between the categories of learners

 identify possible causes of slow learning
 explain the implication of differences in types of learners to the
teacher.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
3.1 Types of Learners
Since students are centers of teaching/learning processes, teachers must

be able to identify the different types of learners in order to be able to
help them. According to Rasaq (2003) understanding the different types
of learners will be of immense value in assisting the teachers or
broadcasters in preparing suitable materials to cater for the varying
learning needs.
There are mainly three categories of learners and they are:
 Slow learners (backward learners)

 Gifted and talented learners (fast learners)
 Normal learners (average learners)
With short explanations, enlist the categories of learners.
Slow learners
Slow learners are the category of students who lag in virtually all that
they do, and especially in their school work. They exhibit numerous
learning difficulties that seem to defy all learning methodologies and
procedures. This category of learners is made up of mentally retarded
and the learning disabled (LD).
Some characteristics of slow learners
1. The slow learners have a short attention span, that is, they cannot
concentrate for long.
2. They have short memory and they do not remember easily what
they have been taught.
3. The slow learners are always bored and generally have no interest
in learning.
4. They have poor communication skills. They are poor in both oral
and written languages.
5. They have poor eye-hand coordination. They cannot see properly
nor even copy correctly.
6. Their numeric ability is very low and they are very poor in
calculation.
7. They have poor social interaction and cannot get along with
others easily. In fact, they exhibit aggressive behaviour most of
the time.
Some causes of slow learning
71
The following are some of the causes of slow learning according to

research:
1. Health problems- A child’s mother might have had measles,

venereal diseases, etc that might have caused mental retardation
in the child. Also, the mother might be malnourished during
pregnancy. The child’s health might also be affected after birth.
2. Psychological problems- Mothers who experience intense and
excessive anxiety, worry, stress and the like may give birth to
disturbed children, since the mother’s state of health affects the
child.
3. Genetic problem- If slowness or dullness runs in the lineage,
inherited characteristics from parents may influence the general
intellectual development of the child.
4. Home based problems- Broken homes and extreme poverty on
the part of the parents may affect the child.
5. School based problems- Poor methods of teaching, poor teacher-
pupil relationships; for example when a child constantly
experiences hostility from the teacher; and poor learning
environment is not conducive to learning.
i. What are the possible causes of slow learning?

ii. What are the implications of these to the educational broadcaster?
3.2 Gifted and Talented Learners
The gifted and talented learners are those whose intellectual abilities are
exceptionally and constantly outstanding.
Some characteristics of gifted learners
1. They rank high in academic achievement and cover a wide

ground within a short period of time.
2. They are fast thinking, highly creative and imaginative with very
high constructive abilities.
3. They have very good cordial relationships. They make friends
easily.
4. They have outstanding leadership qualities and can work well
under pressure.
5. They are mostly invariably good in all subjects i.e science,
languages, arts and even sporting activities.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
List four characteristics of a gifted child.
Normal learners
Majority of learners can be classified as normal learners. That is, the

majority of learners are of average abilities.
Some characteristics of normal learners
1. They manifest average ability.

2. They have their own learning problems like lateness to school,
truancy, wrong peer group, etc.
3. They manifest giftedness when faced with challenges.
The physically handicapped learners
This category of learners has physical deformities like blindness,

deafness, lameness and paralysis. They need special provision to assist
their learning, like school for the handicapped nationwide. Some special
equipment may be necessary to facilitate their learning and movement
such as a wheel chair, brail books, tape recorders, etc.
Some characteristics of the handicapped learners
1. They have physical deformities that people can see

2. They have sound intellectual powers
3. Some of them may be gifted/talented
4. They generally have feelings of inadequacy
5. They generally have feeling of low self esteem.
Outline two characteristics of the normal and handicapped learners.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Having been exposed to the different types of learners, broadcasters

must be able to script their messages carefully to carry along majority of
the learners in the audience targeted.
Since the learners of an educational broadcaster are most of the time not
seen or easily assessable, this learning variations will no doubt arouse
the consciousness of the broadcasters to know that among a particular
audience there are innumerable learning difficulties within the group.
5.0 SUMMARY
73
The following are the major highlights of what we have examined in this
unit:
 There are mainly three categories of learners; the slow, the

talented and the average learners.
 The fourth category of learners is the physically handicapped
who can be gifted, normal or slow learners.
The educational broadcaster is therefore advised to be careful when

preparing materials for broadcast as it is clear that even among a target
audience, there could be many responses due to the physiological and
psychological make-up of the audience members.
What are five implications of the different types of learning for the
educational broadcaster?
Klaumeier, H.J. (1961). Learning and Human Abilities. Educational

Psychology. New York: Harper and Brothers.
NOUN (2008). General Teaching Methods. In:

www.nou.edu.ng/noun/Noun_OCL/Pdf2Edu233.
UNIT 2 GENERAL TEACHING METHODS
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Teaching Methods
3.2 Various Types of Teaching Method
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Teaching through any medium has different methods or approaches to it.

Just like one must learn how to drive before picking a car, one needs to
expose himself to the principle guiding the dissemination of knowledge
before we attempt to do it. The professional training of mass
communication is not enough for an educational broadcaster. That is
why I have decided to expose you to the teachings in the department of
education so you can better be taught by the experts in the field of
teaching.
This unit among other things will expose the students to some methods
of teaching as well as some of the advantages and disadvantages of it.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the term teaching methods

 list the various methods of teaching
 state when and where each method is applicable.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Teaching Methods
By teaching methods, we mean approaches to effective teaching that are

appropriate for an audience at a particular time for a particular purpose
only to achieve the desired end.
Education scholars believe that to reach a certain people educationally, it

is best that one selects the most appropriate teaching method.
The various methods are as follows:
75
1. Lecture or the chalk and talk methods

2. Discussion method
3. Demonstration method
4. Discovery method
5. Assignment method
6. Field trips method (Excursion/
7. Individualised instructional method
8. Laboratory method
9. Inductive and deductive method
10. Open education method.
3.2 Various Types of Teaching Method
The lecture method
This method is a popular one. You are probably familiar with it. It has
been termed a didactic method. It involves verbal presentation of ideas,
concepts, generalisation and facts. The objective of this method is just to
stuff the students with information. You do most of the work by talking
while students are just passive or slightly involved by taking down notes
and asking few or no questions. In the universities and other institutions
of higher learning, the lecture method is the acceptable means of
imparting information. At the secondary school level, the students have
not been trained to follow chains of reasoning. Therefore lecture method
should not be used in its pure forms.
Advantages of the lecture method
1. It is cheap to operate as no special apparatus is needed

2. It makes fewer demands on the teacher’s time for planning and
preparing and is therefore an attractive and easy method of
teaching.
3. It is an efficient means of giving a vast amount of knowledge in a
limited amount of time.
4. Large classes of students can be handled by the teacher.
5. It serves to channel the thinking of all students in a given
direction.
Disadvantages of the lecture method
1. Students are passive listeners and do not participate in the

development of the lessons.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
2. The desired learning outcomes may not be accomplished.

3. The method is inadequate for teaching certain types of concepts
e.g attitudes and feelings which are not learned through mere
telling.
4. Students’ progress cannot be evaluated during the lesson since
they are passive.
5. It cannot meet the different needs of the students as regards
individual differences.
6. It rarely affords students the opportunity to practice
communication skills.
7. It encourages cramming.
Study both the advantages and the disadvantages of the lecture method
again. Do you think it is useful for educational broadcasting? Justify
your answer in just seven lines.
The discussion method
The discussion method is based on the philosophy that knowledge arises

within the students and not from any external source. The students take
over the subject from various points of view and the teacher serves as a
moderator.
Advantages of the discussion method
1. Students maintain a high degree of mental alertness to develop

clear thinking.
2. Both interest and a feeling of confidence are maintained as
students learn to express themselves freely.
3. Students learn through discussion method owing to active
participation and involvement in the lesson.
4. Discussion method provides good practice for problem solving.
5. It provides the teacher with information about the students which
can aid in a better understanding of the students.
6. Teaching by discussion leads to positive attitudinal change
because a student may find his or her own values and beliefs
challenged by the views of fellow students.
Disadvantages of the discussion method
1. A lot of time would be wasted before the students arrive at

satisfactory answers
77
2. Discussion method cannot be used so often as it does not allow

for easy coverage of the syllabus.
3. In most cases, most students do not participate in the lesson
because they do not know much about the topic of the lesson.
They may even be shy or fearful.
4. Students who have no background of the topic being discussed
may become bored or disinterested in the lesson.
5. Since the attention span of the students (young ones) is very
short; they cannot maintain high level of attention.
Study both the advantages and the disadvantages of the discussion

method again. Do you think it is useful for educational broadcasting?
Justify your answer in just seven lines.
The demonstration method
In this method, you the teacher will do a display or exhibition while the
students watch. It typically involves showing students the correct use of
science apparatus illustrating a technique (for example, using
chloroform to anaesthetise toads or guinea pigs) performing an
“experiment” which is dangerous, risky, difficult or expensive for
individual students use.
Demonstration method can be used in the drilling of shorthand outlines,

for example manipulation of various office equipment could be
demonstrated by the teacher during office practice lesson. Sometimes,
demonstrations can be performed by students either individually or in
groups. Also, in trades like sewing, weaving, barbing, pot making and
the like demonstration method is best adopted using the teaching
learning processes.
Advantages of the demonstration method
1. It is an inexpensive method since only the demonstrator needs

materials.
2. It shows how something is accomplished properly or expertly,
since the teacher is supposedly more competent than most
students.
3. Demonstration method is especially beneficial in the areas of
skills and attitudes.
4. The proficiency displayed reduces the length of trial and error
time.
5. It can reduce hazards e.g. breakage and accidents before students
embark on individual or group work with materials involved.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
6. A good demonstration method holds the learners attention thus

facilitating learning by giving students the opportunity to see and
hear what is actually happening.
Disadvantages of the demonstration method
1. The assumption made that all the students see and hear equally
well does not necessarily follow. Visibility of details of what is
being demonstrated is not assured in large classrooms or in
circumstances where small objects are used.
2. Where the demonstration is restricted to the teacher or
broadcaster alone, students or learners will be denied the
opportunity to acquire manipulative skills in handling of the
materials and apparatus.
What is your opinion about the demonstration method? Do you think it

is appropriate for educational broadcasting?
Discovery method
The discovery method is a teaching strategy which enables students to

find the answers themselves. It is a learner centered approach hence; it is
called a heuristic method. It is of two types, notably, the guided
discovery and the unguided discovery. In the guided discovery, the
teacher (you the educational broadcaster) guides the students to discover
for themselves solutions to given problems by providing them with
general principles, but not the solution to the scientific problem. The
unguided discovery type involves the students discovering for
themselves both the general principles and solution to a scientific
problem. It is sometimes called the pure discovery.
Advantages of the discovery method
1. Discovery method, whether it is the directed type or undirected,

makes the student an active participant rather than a mere passive
recipient.
2. Since the method poses a challenge for the students to discover
the information or knowledge for himself, retention of any
information or knowledge so discovered will be increased.
3. The training acquired in finding out things for oneself
independently can be applied to new learning and problem
solving.
4. The joy in discovering something provides the students with
intrinsic motivation.
79
5. The method brings home to pupils their notions of the nature of

scientific evidence; students learnt that answers to questions can
often be obtained from investigations they can carry out for
themselves.
6. Discovery method helps students develop manipulative skills and
attitudes which constitute one of the fundamental objectives of
science teaching.
7. Since discovery operates at the highest levels of the cognitive
domain, it encourages analytical and synthetic thought as well as
intuitive thinking.
Disadvantages of the discovery method
1. Discovery method is time consuming and progress is

comparatively slow. Apparatus have to be set up and results of
the investigation waited for.
2. The method leaves open the possibility of not discovering
anything. Students may end up discovering things often other
than what is intended to be discovered. This could be highly
demoralising to them particularly of great effort has been
expended.
3. The method is expensive considering the equipment and
materials needed.
4. Discovery method is only good for a small class where effective
teacher supervision is possible.
With the disadvantages of the discovery method, do you still consider it

an appropriate method for the educational broadcaster in anyway?
4.0 CONCLUSION
From our foregoing discussion, you would have noted that every
teaching method has its advantages and disadvantages. You should also
note that each of these methods has a part to play in the promotion of
effective transmission of knowledge by teachers and assimilation of the
same by students. As a potential educational broadcaster, you should sit
and consider the appropriate teaching method usable for the identified
audience before going on air.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
9.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, effort has been made to expose the students to:
 The meaning of teaching methods

 And four teaching methods namely lecture, discussion,
demonstration and discovery methods.
Assume that you are an educational broadcaster on NOUN television.

Your next broadcast is teaching “Use of English” to secondary school
students. What do you think is the most appropriate method for this
broadcast presentation and why?
Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Ilorin Kwara State:

Atoto Press Ltd.
Shipley, N.M. et al (1972). A Synthesis of Teaching Methods. New

York: McGraw Hill Pierson.
81
UNIT 3 USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids
3.2 Characteristics of Good Audio-Visual Aids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Audio visual aids or instructional materials are different forms of

information carriers which are used to record, store, preserve, transmit
or retrieve information for the purpose of teaching and learning. They
also transmit information in such a fashion that will modify the attitude,
habits and practices of student. In a general way, audio visual aids
facilitate learning. We will examine how some of these aids are used to
enhance learning on the broadcast media. In so doing, it must be
emphasised that audio-visual aids are supplements and should not
replace teaching by the broadcaster.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define audio-visual aids

 list the various types of audio-visual aids
 list the characteristics of good audio-visual aids
 explain how audio-visual aids can be used effectively
 point out the specific situations some audio-visual aids can be
used.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids
a. Picture- Pictures can help to suggest or help to explain things

which are omitted when teaching. They direct learners’ attention,
especially children to the point you want to impress upon them,
by guiding their observation with questions and suggestions you
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
will train them to acquire the habit of looking for things that
matter in pictures. Pictures give general impression of a lesson.
We should use varieties to give the desired impression when we
teach on the television.
b. Illustrations- The term illustration is commonly applied to the
wise use of teaching aids, pictures and drawings to the
employment of examples and comparisons, to elucidate either an
argument or to enliven an argument. But to the teacher it means
more than. It includes geological specimens, chemical and
physical apparatus or anything that appeals to the sense or the
imagination of the learner; throwing light upon a piece of
description or reasoning. Illustrations should therefore lead from
known to unknown, simple to complex and definite. Illustrations
are of three kinds.
1. Material illustrations- These include actual object,
specimens, models or apparatus of various kinds. These
are appropriately employed among junior pupils of a
school.
2. Pictorial illustrations These consist of pictures, diagrams,
cardboards, sketches of objects or models of things
unobtainable. The broadcaster should endeavour to
employ them step by step as the broadcast proceeds.
Drawing or diagrams and sketches on the cardboard
projected through a zoom in will have more lasting
impression. The use of colours, coloured chalks, shading
etc makes impression on the children.
The following should be noted when using pictorial
illustrations:
 They must be large and bold
 They must be accurate
 They must be self illustrating as much as possible
 They must be hidden until they are required
3. Verbal illustrations These are used exclusively in the
absence of both material and pictorial illustrations. Such is
the case in some processes in arithmetic e.g interest, stock
and shares etc in oral and written composition, literature
grammar and civics. Here the use of examples,
compositions, contrasts, analogy and so on is most
appropriate. The broadcast must be careful to see that he
does not abuse the use of any of these illustrations among
the learners.
List different kinds of illustrations and pick out the one you think is
most appropriate for educational broadcast.
83
c. Blackboards The- basic visual aid used in most schools is the

blackboard and the chalk. It can be used with advantage in the
teaching of subjects like geography, biology and the first stage of
language. Children learn more quickly and surely by fitting
words and pictures together. For the educational broadcaster, the
use of the blackboard may become a little difficult yet achievable.
But this will depend on how good the camera man is in projecting
it to learners at home.
d. Recorded Video Take- for instance, you want to show the
learners the characteristics of a particular animal, let us say an
eagle. Playing a recorded video of an eagle will most definitely
drive your point better than just drawing it.
e. Photographs- A picture, they say tell more than a thousand
words. Pictures and photograph have the greatest value for what
they are designed to illustrate if used at the time when
explanations or comments are being made on them.
f. Charts - Charts represents desirable permanent equipment for
teaching purposes. To achieve the best results, they should be in a
natural colour, large enough and sufficiently clear to be seen
easily from all parts. Good charts may be constructed rapidly by
using either of the following methods:
1. Tracking a magnified image
2. Using a photograph to magnify a diagram map or sketch,
filling filmstrips and slides.
Film, filmstrips and slides should be closely integrated with standard

lesson procedure and not used merely as embroidery or entertainment.
For a successful use, the teacher or broadcaster should be thoroughly
familiar with the filmstrips or slides and should indicate to the class the
specific areas to be observed. The relevance of these features to the
lesson or lessons should be pointed out.
3.2 Characteristics of Good Visual Aids
 The pictures, maps and charts should be attractive with suitable

colours
 Writing must be large enough and clear enough to be easily read
 It must be neat
 It is logically arranged, in short, clear steps (a model for exercise
e.g mathematics and geography).
 The charts and posters should be accurate in spacing and
planning
 The figures and the letters should be well formed
 Objects and pictures should be big enough for children to see
 Apparatus must be accurately prepared and be ready before the
lesson
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
 Let all pupils first see any material or apparatus before

individuals or age group can see it
 All pictures on the television must be clear and the radio should
have a clear sound
 When preparing apparatus, the correct, accurate language and
spelling must be considered.
Effective Use of the Audio-Aids
The following are some of the suggestions for effective use of audio-
visual material.
 They should be relevant to the curriculum.

 They should be previewed or tried out in advance before use in
the class.
 They should be taught, not merely shown.
 Provision should be made for definite follow-ups.
 Records should be kept of the results obtained, evaluation should
be made.
 Too many teaching aids should not be used at a time.
 The types of materials used should be within the knowledge and
experience of the learners.
 All teaching aids should be tactically and technically correct.
 No one type of material s best for all living situations. Each has a
specific role in order to provide maximum effects.
Visual aids cannot teach by themselves, they need the teacher or

broadcaster indicating how and when to use them, and the benefits
derived from their use. Explain.
4.0 CONCLUSION
For effective learning to take place the teacher or broadcaster ought to

use audio-visual aids. There are a wide range of these aids ranging from
illustrations on the blackboard to the more complex ones as computers
which was not treated in this unit. They all have their relevance
depending on the situation. The important thing is that the teacher or
broadcaster chooses the right aid and prepare well before the
commencement of the broadcast.
85
8.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, effort has been made to define audio visual aids in respect to
educational broadcasting. Also, various types of audio-visual aids have
been discussed with characteristics. And lastly, we have explained how
audio-visual can be used for effective teaching.
Suggest five ways through which audio-visual aids can be used for
effective educational broadcasting.
Association for Education Communication and Technology (AECT)

(1977). The Definition of Educational Technology. Washington
DC Author.
Kemp, J.E. & Smailie, D.C. (1989). Planning Producing and Using
Instructional Media (60th ed.). New York: Harper and Row
Publishers.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
UNIT 4 STUDY SKILLS FOR EDUCATIONAL

BROADCASTERS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Using the Library
3.2 The Dictionary as a Research Tool
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Not many people have the enduring capacity to study. To be the best at
any discipline or chosen endeavour, one must study hard. There is
virtually no field or discipline that does not have its own documentation
somewhere, either online or offline. Any serious broadcaster should
always find the library interesting. The scope and depth of his delivery
will be a function of his searches in the course of planning. Study skills
are important. Welcome to this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify useful materials in the library

 identify functions and roles of a dictionary as a research material.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Using the Library
A library is not just a collection of books. Rather, it is a highly organised

system of obtaining, classifying, storing and retrieving information and
knowledge. It is in fact the repository of knowledge. As a result, the
library is very valuable educational centre in any institution. The ability
to use the library effectively is, therefore necessary in enhancing the
chances of success for the writer and the researcher no matter the level.
The library contains written, printed and other information storages such
as films, slides, phonographic video cassettes and types. These are
stored and preserved in a well-organised form so that retrieval is easy
for the learner through the assistance of the library staff.
87
Useful materials in the Library for the educational broadcaster
Reference work
Libraries keep a collection of reference materials, usually in the
reference room. These materials may not be removed from the library.
They are often bulky in size and contain general information. They
contain useful information which acts as introductory hint that lead the
student into more detailed study or research. The reference room
contains encyclopedias, dictionaries, yearbooks, guides and
bibliographies.
General Encyclopedia
The two major general encyclopedias are encyclopedia Britannica and
Encyclopedia Americana. There are other encyclopedia’s which the
student can also refer to. These belong to the major subjects such as
Encyclopedia of philosophy, social sciences, literature, engineering and
the sciences. In whatever form, the encyclopedia contain useful
information on a general and introductory basis that guide the student
into more detailed reference. The encyclopedia also contains useful
bibliographies.
Dictionaries (Unabridged)
The dictionaries give the meanings of terms, concepts, words or phrases.
There are general dictionaries and those of the specific subject areas
such as a dictionary of literature terms, A dictionary of music, A
dictionary of geography, etc. These give full meanings of words or terms
used in each field.
Bibliographies
These are reference works which contain bibliographical information of
people in various subjects. They are usually bibliographical information
about inventors, statesmen, writers, artists and composers of music.
Yearbooks and Directories

Yearbooks are devoted to the chief occurrences or events of the
preceding year and are published as soon as possible the following year.
Information in yearbooks can be in the form of statistics in economics,
trade and population. Directories are updated information about persons
and organisations, giving details of their addresses, telephone numbers
and official designations and functions. Examples are the Nigerian
yearbook and the telephone directories.
General publications and documents

Government releases certain important information to the public at
intervals. This could be yearly or quarterly or at certain periods it
chooses. These information are contained in publications such as the
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
official gazette, annual reports, budget speeches and reports of the

various commissions set up to look into aspects of national life. Such
publications are secured with extra care by the libraries.
Serial and newspapers

Any publication that is issued in successive parts and appearing at
regular intervals for an indefinite period is called a serial publication.
The term covers all periodicals, newspapers, magazines and
monographs. The newspapers are daily publications containing news
about current events.
Indexes and abstracts

Indexes are useful guides to different periodicals on different subjects
and they help students to know about relevant works in their field or any
field. The abstract contain a summary of a published article. An abstract
can carry brief statements on the published article in journal but this
requires that one needs to read the article itself before understanding the
topic. Other abstracts however may be very informative which means
they contain sufficient information on the article and the reader need not
read the original article to gain the required information.
3.2 Using the Dictionary
The dictionary enables the writer to become familiar with or gain

knowledge of words. The meanings, usage, pronunciation and spellings
of words must be known by the writer. The words in a dictionary are
arranged in alphabetical order and explanations and meanings of each
word are given. A dictionary is designed to improve the learner’s use of
language; one cannot claim to know all the words in a language. As a
result, everybody needs to use the dictionary at one time or another. The
dictionary is a guide to all users of a particular language.
Functions/roles of the dictionary as a research tool
As a vocabulary guide
A dictionary is intended primarily to give the meanings of words. The
reader has to look up the meaning of words he comes across which are
new or strange to him. Sometimes, he may be able to derive or infer the
meaning of words from their contexts but at other times he must look up
the words in the dictionary before the meanings can become clear. The
alphabetical order in which words have been arranged in the dictionary
makes them easy to locate.
Pronunciation
The dictionary provides a guide to pronunciation. There are
undoubtedly, slight variations in the way different people pronounce
89
words but these variations should not lead to misunderstanding in the

meaning of words. As a result, there are guides provided in the
dictionary to enable the learners realise sounds of the language as nearly
as they should be in order to communicate effectively in English. The
guides are in the form of sound patterns or phonetic symbols usually
enclosed in bars/ and which come before the meaning of each word in
the dictionary.
Spelling guide
The dictionary is a final authority in matters of spelling. Often, when
disputes arise over the correct spelling of a word, the dictionary is the
right authority to consult. A user of the language is expected to be
familiar with the spelling of words that he comes across. The spelling
guidelines often have expectations to them and these create difficulty for
the learner. To overcome spelling problems, particularly when the writer
is in doubt, the dictionary offers the required solution to them.
The learner may run into difficulty when words of similar sounds are
involved. Such words may have just one letter that differentiates them
from other words of similar sound. In such cases, the meaning of each
word will enable the learner identify the word for which spelling he
seeks.
Dictionary as a research guide

The dictionary provides information on how to use a particular word and
the possible context in which the word or its form can apply. The learner
will find these guides useful if he uses them as models upon which he
can construct his own sentences. The probable guides on usage which a
dictionary provides are: the various tense forms and the occurrence of
the word in, various grammatical structures such as in sentences,
phrases, clauses and in figurative or idiomatic expressions. The learner
is expected to acquaint himself with the various forms of word usage a
dictionary provides.
Etymological functions of a dictionary

Many words in English have been borrowed from Greek, Latin or
French. This is a result of the various external influences to which the
English culture has been subjected over the centuries. The origin of most
borrowed words in English is given in dictionaries. These words are
usually broken into syllables or roots from which such words are
formed. Through the knowledge of the origin of a word, a learner will be
able to trace the changes in meaning that may have occurred to the word
over the years. The knowledge of the origin of a word will also enable
the user derive the various forms of the word and use them with a
greater measure of confidence and exactitude.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
4.0 CONCLUSION
The knowledge of the Library is the key to understanding the

importance of study skills. Many writers do not know what could be
found in a library. Many assume that what they can find is simply
books. No, it goes beyond this. In fact, in a standard library, there are
provisions for Video, Audio, Journals, some artifacts etc. The moment a
writer knows this, he takes the library seriously.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, effort has been made to identify and elaborate on the useful
materials for the writers in a library environment. The dictionary was
also identified as important resource materials. The roles and functions
of the dictionary were carefully enlisted.
Go to a nearby library, either public or private. Move around the library

and enlist other materials found in the library that have not been
captured here.
Abamba, P. (1955). Military Politics and the Nigerian Economy,

Newswatch.
Booth, W. (1983). The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago. University of

Chicago Press.
Enekwe, O.O. (1966). The Modern Nigerian Theatre in Nsukka Studies

in African Literature. (Ed). Achebe Chinua. Enugu: Intellect
Publishers.
Finnegan, R. (1970). Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford

University Press.
91
UNIT 5 NOTE-TAKING SKILLS FOR EDUCATIONAL

BROADCASTERS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Important Reasons to Take Notes
3.2 Guidelines for Note Taking
3.3 Some Methods of Note Taking
3.4 Note-Taking Tips
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The skill to take down notes is a must for every broadcaster. Research
has shown that over 80% of the information from lectures, reading or
observation is lost within two weeks if no effort is made to record or
remember the material. Note taking helps you to remember both what
you heard and what you understood. It is learning about the subject and
not simply recording all that the speaker says. Note taking helps you to
pay closer attention to and become more familiar with the new
information.
In this unit, effort has been made to expose the students to some reasons
why note taking is essential, some guidelines for note taking and some
methods of note taking.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state five reasons why note taking is essential for a broadcaster

 explain and use two Note taking Methods of their choice.
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MAC 246 MODULE 1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Important Reasons to Take Notes
Every broadcaster, regardless of the depth of knowledge will still find

research a matter of must. To carry out effective research, whether
through interviews, lectures, reading etc. note taking is an effective tool
to this effect. Because of the enormity of information the writer needs
and the various and scattered sources he needs to consult, note-taking is
then a means to collect all these sources together for later consultation
and use.
The following are the reasons why writers have to take note:
a. To track down information

b. To help to remember information taken down
c. Your notes often contain information that cannot be found
elsewhere (i.e. in textbooks)
d. Notes help you to concentrate while writing
e. Note serves as a guide to your write-up. This is because most of
the information you need to flesh your work has already been
noted
f. A writer’s note serves as a reminder.
3.2 Guidelines for Note-Taking
To take down note from any research effort, the following needs to be
noted:
a. Concentrate on the interview, reading, observation or lecture so

as to capture all the necessary facts or figures.
b. Be Consistent. By being consistent, I mean, do not feel any
information is not necessary, if you look closely, the information
you trivialise can become very important later. So capture it.
c. Be brief. Because of the enormity of information a writer could
find in any information centre or study, there is a need to be brief.
By this, I mean write down only the major points and important
information.
d. Write legibly. Be careful to write in such a way that is readable to
a poor reader. Sometimes, because of the exigency of time,
writers write in such a way that even they themselves may find it
hard to read later. Please avoid this. Notes are useless if you
cannot read them.
e. Do not be concerned with spelling and grammar. One mistake
amateur writers make when taking down notes is to ensure the
93
appropriateness of grammar and spelling. This is a time waster.

Do not bother about this. Just keep writing.
3.3 Some Note-Taking Methods
According to Okinda (2009) the common methods of note-taking

include:
1. Cornell method
2. Outlining method
3. Mapping method
4. Charting method
5. Sentence method.
The Cornel method

This method provides a systematic format for condensing and organising
notes without laborious recopying. Write notes in the main space and
use the left-n space to label each idea and detail with a key word or
“cue.”
Method
a. Rule your note with two and a half margin on the left leaving a
sic-inch area on the right in which to make notes.
b. During any research session, take down information in the six-
inch area.
c. Move to a new line when the interviewee seems too fast or has
gone off-point.
d. After the research session, complete phrases and sentences as
much as possible.
The mapping method

This method uses comprehension/concentration skills and evolves in a
not taking form which relates each fact or idea to every other fact or
idea. It is a graphic representation of the content of a lecture. It is a
method that maximises active participation, affords immediate
knowledge as to its understanding, and emphasises critical thinking.
Method
a. Create a graphic representation of what is heard, read or
observed.
b. Use any symbol, draw, do all you can to capture the information
as vividly as possible.
c. Be simple.
94
MAC 246 MODULE 1
Advantages of the mapping method
1. Helps you to visually track your lecture regardless of conditions.

2. Little thinking is needed and relationships can easily be seen.
3. Easy to edit your notes by adding numbers, marks, and colour
coding.
4. Review by covering lines for memory drill and relationships.
5. Main points can be written on flash or note cards and pieced
together into a table or larger structure at a later date.
3.4 Note-Taking Tips
General Tips for taking notes
a. Determine which pieces of information in any research situation

are important and which pieces are not by being critical when you
read or listen.
b. Take information that is important, relevant and credible.
c. Distinguish between facts, opinions, and examples.
d. Write down important, relevant, educated opinions e.g. if the
interviewee is giving a point that compares the ideas of different
theorists, it would be important to write down a summary of each
theorist’s opinion in your note.
e. Be critical of the material you are listening to or that you are
reading.
f. Use shortcuts that you will understand and that make the writing
process quicker. Abbreviations (e.g instead of for example),
symbols (instead of “equals”).
g. Do not write down notes word for word (notes should be a
summary of the main ideas and should be used to help jog your
memory).
Tips for taking notes from readings
a. Understand what you are looking for in the reading.

b. A well structured reading, should begin by outlining the main
premise, argument or ideas in the first few sentences, and
certainly in the first paragraph.
c. Pick out the main premise and write it down.
d. If you understand the premise, do not read the examples given to
support it. Never include examples in your notes. Only include
the facts, avoid experiences and anecdotes where possible.
95
Tips for taking notes from lectures
a. Understand why you are attending the lecture.

b. Prepare for the lecture and think about what you are hoping to
achieve.
c. Always revisit your notes as soon as possible after taking them
and never rely solely on someone else’s notes.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Note-taking is essential to any writer who wants to write well. This is

because with good note-taking, a broadcaster has given himself the edge
of summarising all the needed information in a single note. It would then
be easy to make consultation later when he is about to flesh up the topic.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, effort has been made to expose the students to important
reasons to take notes, guides to note-taking, some methods of note-
taking and some general tips to effective note taking.
Okinda, C.F. (2009). Communication Skills, Creative and Critical

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MAC 246 MODULE 1

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: MAC 226

COURSE TITLE: EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING

Course Team Adebola A. Aderibigbe (Course Writer) – Bowen

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

You are welcome to MAC 246 EDUCATONAL BROADCASTING.

Overall, this course will leave you as a great educational broadcaster.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The overall objective of MAC 246: Educational Broadcasting is to bring

In this course, you will again be introduced to the foundational teachings

The aims of this course are to:

 expose you to the need for educational broadcasting

Several objectives can be delineated from this course. In addition, each

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 distinguish between radio and television

 provide a detailed account of the history of television in Nigeria

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

3. Read this course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

There are 14 study units in this course, as follows:

Module 1 Broadcasting and Education

Unit 1 Introduction to Broadcasting

Module 2 Categories of Educational Broadcasting

Unit 1 Children Education Broadcasting

Module 3 Useful Skills for Broadcast Education

Unit 1 Understanding Types of Learners

TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCES

Abamba, P. (1985). ‘Military Politics and the Nigerian Economy,’

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Ilorin Kwara State:

Booth, W. (1983). The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago. University of

Enekwe, O.O. (1966). ‘The Modern Nigerian Theatre.’ In: Nsukka

Finnegan, R. (1970). Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford

Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Klaumeier, H.J. (1961). Learnng and Human Abilities- Educational

NOUN (2008). General Teaching Methods. In

Okinda, C.F. (2009). Communication Skills, Creative and Critical

Onabajo, O. (2000). Principles of Educational Broadcasting. Gabi

Onabajo, O. (2002). Elements of Rural Broadcasting. Gabi Concepts

Onabajo, O. (2004). Introduction to Broadcasting. Lagos. Gabi

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Schramm, W. (1969). Feedback for Instructional Television. Stanford:

Shipley, N.M. et al. (1972). A Synthesis of Teaching Methods. New

Thakur, A. S. & Ezenne, A.N. (1980). A Short History of Education in

There are a number of tutor-marked assignments in this course. I want to

When each assignment is completed, send it together with a TMA

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Final examination 70% of overall course marks

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are specified hours of tutorials allotted in support of the course.

This is a practically driven course. Much of the effort to excel in this

Module 1 Broadcasting and Education …………………… 1