Swords

A Wikipedia Compilation
by
Michael A. Linton
Contents

1 Sword 1
1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Ancient history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Late Middle Ages and Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Early Modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Hilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Sword scabbards and suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Single and double-edged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Arming sword 30
2.1 History and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 Classification of swords 32
3.1 Classification by “Hilt-Type” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.1 “Handedness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 Classification by “Blade-Type” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Double-edge and Straight swords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.2 Edgeless and Thrusting swords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.3 Single-edge and Curved swords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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4 Zweihänder 39
4.1 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5 Claymore 41
5.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Two-handed (Highland) claymore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.5 References and further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Longsword 46
6.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3.1 Blade profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3.2 Blade cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3.3 Hilts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4 Fighting with the longsword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.2 German school of fencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

7 Basket-hilted sword 56
7.1 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2 Subtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2.1 Schiavona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2.2 Mortuary sword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2.3 Scottish broadsword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2.4 Sinclair Hilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2.5 Walloon sword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.3 Fencing technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
CONTENTS iii

7.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

8 Falchion 63
8.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.2 Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

9 Flame-bladed sword 67
9.1 Flambard, flammard, and Flammenschwert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2 Flamberge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

10 Sabre 71
10.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10.2 Origins of the weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10.2.1 Mameluke sword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
10.3 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.3.1 Adoption by Western forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.4 Modern sport fencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.5 Colorguard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

11 Katana 77
11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
11.2 Modern katana (gendaito) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.3 Post-World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.4 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.5 Etymology and loanwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.6 Forging and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.7 Usage in martial arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.8 Storage and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.9 Ownership and trade restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.9.1 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.9.2 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.10Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
iv CONTENTS

11.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

12 Ulfberht 86
12.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
12.5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
12.5.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
12.5.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.5.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Chapter 1

Sword

For other uses, see Sword (disambiguation).

A sword is a blade weapon used primarily for cutting or thrusting. The precise definition of the term varies with
the historical epoch or the geographical region under consideration. A sword in the most narrow sense consists of a
straight blade with two edges and a hilt. However, in nearly every case, the term may also be used to refer to weapons
with a single edge (backsword).
The word sword comes from the Old English sweord, cognate to swert, Old Norse sverð, from a Proto-Indo-European
root *swer- “to wound, to cut”. Non-European weapons called “sword”include single-edged weapons such as
the Middle Eastern saif, the Chinese dao and the related Japanese katana. The Chinese jian is an example of a
non-European double-edged sword, like the European models derived from the double-edged Iron Age sword.
Historically, the sword developed in the Bronze Age, evolving from the dagger; the earliest specimens date to ca.
1600 BC. The Iron Age sword remained fairly short and without a crossguard. The spatha as it developed in the Late
Roman army became the predecessor of the European sword of the Middle Ages, at first adopted as the Migration
period sword, and only in the High Middle Ages developed into the classical arming sword with crossguard.
The use of a sword is known as swordsmanship or (in an early modern or modern context) as fencing. In the Early
Modern period, the sword developed into the rapier and eventually the smallsword, surviving into the 18th century
only in the role of duelling weapon. By the 19th century, swords were reduced to the status of either ceremonial
weapon or sport equipment in modern fencing.

1.1 History

1.1.1 Ancient history

Bronze Age

Main article: Bronze Age sword

The sword developed from the dagger when the construction of longer blades became possible, from the late 3rd
millennium BC in the Middle East, first in arsenic copper, then in tin-bronze. The oldest sword-like weapons are
found at Arslantepe, Turkey, and date to around 3300 BC. However, it is generally considered that these are longer
daggers, and not the first ancestors of swords. Sword blades longer than 60 cm (24 in) were rare and not practical
until the late Bronze Age because the tensile strength of bronze is relatively low, and consequently longer blades
would bend easily. Copper and tin were mined in different places and later brought together for smelting process. It
was a slow transition and hence needed skilled personnel to make these swords at that time.* [1] It was not until the
development of stronger alloys such as steel, and improved heat treatment processes that longswords became practical
for combat. They were also used as decorations.* [2]
The hilt, either from organic materials or bronze (the latter often highly decorated with spiral patterns, for example),
at first simply allowed a firm grip and prevented the hand from slipping onto the blade when executing a thrust or the
sword slipping out of the hand in a cut. Some of the early swords typically had small and slender blades intended for
thrusting. Later swords were broader and were both cutting and thrusting weapons. A typical variant for European
swords is the leaf-shaped blade, which was most common in North-West Europe at the end of the Bronze Age, in the

1
2 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

British Isles and Ireland in particular. Robert Drews linked the Naue Type II Swords, which spread from Southern
Europe into the Mediterranean, with the Late Bronze Age collapse.
Sword production in China is attested from the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty.* [3] The technology for bronze swords
reached its high point during the Warring States period and Qin Dynasty. Amongst the Warring States period swords,
some unique technologies were used, such as casting high tin edges over softer, lower tin cores, or the application of
diamond shaped patterns on the blade (see sword of Goujian). Also unique for Chinese bronzes is the consistent use
of high tin bronze (17–21% tin) which is very hard and breaks if stressed too far, whereas other cultures preferred
lower tin bronze (usually 10%), which bends if stressed too far. Although iron swords were made alongside bronze,
it was not until the early Han period that iron completely replaced bronze.* [4]
In South Asia earliest available Bronze age swords of copper were discovered in the Harappan sites, in present-day
Pakistan, and date back to 2300 BC. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the Ganges-
Jamuna Doab region of Bangladesh, consisting of bronze but more commonly copper.* [5] Diverse specimens have
been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt.* [5] These swords have been variously dated to
times between 1700–1400 BC, but were probably used more notably in the opening centuries of the 1st millennium
BC.* [5]

Iron Age

Main article: Iron Age sword

Iron became increasingly common from the 13th century B.C. Before that the use of swords was less frequent. The
iron was not quench-hardened although often containing sufficient carbon, but work-hardened like bronze by ham-
mering. This made them comparable or only slightly better in terms of strength and hardness to bronze swords. They
could still bend during use rather than spring back into shape. But the easier production, and the better availability
of the raw material for the first time permitted the equipment of entire armies with metal weapons, though Bronze
Age Egyptian armies were at times fully equipped with bronze weapons.* [6]
Ancient swords are often found at burial sites. The sword was often placed on the right side of the corpse However
there are exception to these. A lot of times the sword was kept over the corpse. In many late Iron Age graves, the
sword and the scabbard were bent at 180 degrees. It was known as killing the sword. Thus they might have considered
swords as the most potent and powerful object.* [7]

Greco-Roman antiquity

Further information: Migration period sword

By the time of Classical Antiquity and the Parthian and Sassanid Empires in Iran, iron swords were common. The
Greek xiphos and the Roman gladius are typical examples of the type, measuring some 60 to 70 cm (24 to 28
in).* [8]* [9] The late Roman Empire introduced the longer spatha* [10] (the term for its wielder, spatharius, became
a court rank in Constantinople), and from this time, the term longsword is applied to swords comparatively long for
their respective periods.* [11]
Swords from the Parthian and Sassanian Empires were quite long, the blades on some late Sassanian swords being
just under a metre long.
Swords were also used to administer various physical punishments, such as non-surgical amputation or capital pun-
ishment by decapitation. The use of a sword, an honourable weapon, was regarded in Europe since Roman times as
a privilege reserved for the nobility and the upper classes.* [12]
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions swords of Indian iron and steel being exported from India to Greece.* [13]
Sri Lankan and Indian Blades made of Damascus steel also found their way into Persia.* [13]

Persian antiquity

In the first millennium BC the Persian armies used a sword that was originally of Scythian design called the akinaka
(acinaces). However, the great conquests of the Persians made the sword more famous as a Persian weapon, to the
extent that the true nature of the weapon has been lost somewhat as the name Akinaka has been used to refer to
whichever form of sword the Persian army favoured at the time.
1.1. HISTORY 3

It is widely believed that the original akinaka was a 14 to 18 inch double-edged sword. The design was not uniform
and in fact identification is made more on the nature of the scabbard than the weapon itself; the scabbard usually
has a large, decorative mount allowing it to be suspended from a belt on the wearerʼs right side. Because of this, it
is assumed that the sword was intended to be drawn with the blade pointing downwards ready for surprise stabbing
attacks.
In the 12th century, the Seljuq dynasty had introduced the curved shamshir to Persia, and this was in extensive use
by the early 16th century.

Chinese antiquity

Chinese steel swords made their first appearance in the later part of the Western Zhou Dynasty, but were not widely
used until the 3rd century BC Han Dynasty.* [4] The Chinese Dao (⼑ pinyin dāo) is single-edged, sometimes trans-
lated as sabre or broadsword, and the Jian (劍 or pinyin jiàn) is double-edged. The zhanmadao (literally “horse
chopping sword”), an extremely long, anti-cavalry sword from the Song Dynasty era.

1.1.2 Middle Ages

Europe and the Middle East

During the Middle Ages sword technology improved, and the sword became a very advanced weapon. It was fre-
quently used by men in battle, particularly during an attack. The spatha type remained popular throughout the
Migration period and well into the Middle Ages. Vendel Age spathas were decorated with Germanic artwork (not
unlike the Germanic bracteates fashioned after Roman coins). The Viking Age saw again a more standardized pro-
duction, but the basic design remained indebted to the spatha.* [14]
Around the 10th century, the use of properly quenched hardened and tempered steel started to become much more
common than in previous periods. The Frankish 'Ulfberht' blades (the name of the maker inlaid in the blade) were
of particularly consistent high quality.* [15] Charles the Bald tried to prohibit the export of these swords, as they were
used by Vikings in raids against the Franks.
Wootz steel which is also known as Damascus steel was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian
subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to the special smelting and reworking
of the steel creating networks of iron carbides described as a globular cementite in a matrix of pearlite. The use of
Damascus steel in swords became extremely popular in the 16th and 17th centuries.* [nb 1]* [16]
It was only from the 11th century that Norman swords began to develop the crossguard (quillons). During the Crusades
of the 12th to 13th century, this cruciform type of arming sword remained essentially stable, with variations mainly
concerning the shape of the pommel. These swords were designed as cutting weapons, although effective points were
becoming common to counter improvements in armour, especially the 14th-century change from chain mail to plate
armour.* [17]
It was during the 14th century, with the growing use of more advanced armour, that the Hand and a half sword, also
known as a “bastard sword”, came into being. It had an extended grip that meant it could be used with either one
or two hands. Though these swords did not provide a full two-hand grip they allowed their wielders to hold a shield
or parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword for a more powerful blow.* [18]
The earliest evidence of curved swords, or scimitars (and other regional variants as the Arabian saif, the Persian
shamshir and the Turkic kilij) is from the 9th century, when it was used among soldiers in the Khurasan region of
Persia.* [19]
In the Middle Ages, the sword was often used as a symbol of the word of God. The names given to many swords in
mythology, literature, and history reflected the high prestige of the weapon and the wealth of the owner.* [20]

East Asia

As steel technology improved, single-edged weapons became popular throughout Asia. Derived from the Chinese Jian
or dao, the Korean hwandudaedo are known from the early medieval Three Kingdoms. Production of the Japanese
tachi, a precursor to the katana, is recorded from ca. 900 AD (see Japanese sword).* [21] Japan was famous for the
swords (nihonto) it forged in the early 13th century for the class of warrior-nobility known as the samurai. The types
4 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

of swords used by the samurai included:nodachi/odachi (extra long field sword), tachi (long cavalry sword), katana
(long sword), wakizashi (shorter companion sword for katana), tantō (short sword). Ancient pre-samurai swords
included tsurugi (straight double edged blade) and Chokutō (straight single edged blade).* [22]
The Japanese katana reached the height of its development in the 15th and 16th centuries, when samurai increasingly
found a need for a sword to use in closer quarters, leading to the creation of the modern katana.* [23]
Some western historians have said that Japanese katana were among the finest cutting weapons in world military
history.* [24] * [25]

South and Southeast Asia

The swords manufactured in Indian workshops, such as the Khanda, find mention in the writing of Muhammad al-
Idrisi.* [26] In Sri Lanka, a unique wind furnace was used to produce the high quality steel. This gave the blade a
very hard cutting edge and beautiful patterns. For these reasons it became a very popular trading material.* [27]
The Talwar is a type of curved sword that was introduced to India in the 13th century by invading Muslim conquerors
and was adopted by communities who favoured the sword as their main weapon, including the Rajputs, Marathas and
Sikhs. It became more widespread under the Mughals who fought with curved swords from horseback.* [28] It was
revered by the Rajputs as a symbol of the god shiva, and is still used today as the primary weapon of the Sikh martial
art Gatka and also by South Asian Shiite Muslims for Tatbir.* [29]
The Urumi:(Tamil: சுருள் பட்டாக்கத்தி surul pattai, lit. curling blade; Sinhalese: එතුණු කඩුව ethunu kaduwa;
Hindi: aara) is a longsword with a flexible whip-like blade from India. Originating in the country's southern states,
it is thought to have existed as far back as the Maurya dynasty (322 - 185 BC). The urumi is considered one of the
most difficult weapons to master due to the risk of injuring oneself. It is treated as a steel whip,* [30] and therefore
requires prior knowledge of that weapon.
The Firangi (/fəˈrɪŋɡiː/; derived from the Arabic term for a Western European a "Frank") was a sword type which used
blades manufactured in Western Europe and imported by the Portuguese, or made locally in imitation of European
blades. Because of its length the firangi is usually regarded as primarily a cavalry weapon. The sword has been
especially associated with the Marathas, who were famed for their cavalry. However, the firangi was widely used by
the Mughals and those peoples who came under their rule, including Sikhs and Rajputs.* [31]
In Indonesia, the images of Indian style swords can be found in Hindu gods statues from ancient Java circa 8th to 10th
century, which means swords already known in ancient Indonesia culture. However the native types of blade known
as kris, parang, klewang and golok are popular to be used as weapon rather than sword. These daggers are shorter
than sword but longer than common dagger.
In The Philippines, traditional large swords known as the Kampilan and the Panabas were used in combat by the
natives. A notable wielder of the kampílan was Datu Lapu-Lapu, the king of Mactan and his warriors who defeated
the Spaniards and killed Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan at the Battle of Mactan on 27 April 1521.* [32]
Traditional swords in The Philippines were immediately banned, but the training in swordsmanship was later hidden
from the occupying Spaniards by practices in dances. But because of the banning, Filipinos were forced to use swords
that were disguised as farm tools. Bolos and baliswords were used during the revolutions against the colonialists
not only because ammunition for guns was scarce, but also for concealability while walking in crowded streets and
homes. Bolos were also used by young boys who joined their parents in the revolution and by young girls and their
mothers in defending the town while the men were on the battlefields. During the Philippine-American War in
events such as the Balangiga Massacre, most of an American company was hacked to death or seriously injured by
bolo-wielding guerillas in Balangiga, Samar.* [33] When the Japanese took control of the country, several American
special operations groups stationed in the Philippines were introduced to the Filipino Martial Arts and swordsmanship,
leading to this style reaching America despite the fact that natives were reluctant to allow outsiders in on their fighting
secrets.* [34]

Central America

Before and during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire many different groups were using the obsidian sword as
a weapon, indluding the Aztecs, Mayans and Mixtecs, the Nahuatl name for the obsidian sword was the Macuahuitl
which consisted of a mahogany core with obsidian flints in its edge. One example of this weapon survived the Conquest
of Mexico and it was part of the Royal Armoury of Madrid until it was destroyed by a fire in 1884. Its original design
survives in diverse catalogues, among them the one created by the medievalist Achille Jubinal in the 19th century.
1.1. HISTORY 5

According to one source, the macuahuitl was 3 to 4 feet (0.91 to 1.22 m) long, and three inches (80 mm) in diameter,
with a groove along either edge, into which sharp-edged pieces of obsidian were inserted, and firmly fixed with an
adhesive.* [35] The rows of obsidian blades were sometimes discontinuous, leaving gaps along the side, while at other
times the rows were set close together and formed a single edge.* [36] It was noted by the Spanish that the macuahuitl
was so cleverly constructed that the blades could be neither pulled out nor broken.
The maquahuitl was sharp enough to decapitate a man.* [37] According to an account by Bernal Díaz del Castillo,
one of Hernán Cortésʼs conquistadors, it could even decapitate a horse:

Pedro de Morón was a very good horseman, and as he charged with three other horsemen into the
ranks of the enemy the Indians seized hold of his lance and he was not able to drag it away, and others
gave him cuts with their broadswords, and wounded him badly, and then they slashed at the mare, and
cut her head off at the neck so that it hung by the skin, and she fell dead.* [38]
̶Bernal Diaz del Castillo, 'Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España'

Several obsidian mines were close to the Aztec civilizations in the Valley of Mexico as well as in the mountains north
of the valley.,* [39] among them the Sierra de las Navajas“Razor Mountains”, named after its obsidian deposits. In
a Chichen Itza carving, a possible ancestor of the macuahuitl is shown as a club having separate blades sticking out
from each side. In a mural, a warrior holds a club with many blades on one side and one sharp point on the other, a
possible ancestor of the macuahuitl.* [36]
The maquahuitl had some drawbacks. It takes more time to lift and swing it because of its weigth than it does to
thrust with a sword. More space is needed as well, so warriors advanced in loose formations.* [40]The macuahuitl
has experienced somewhat of a rebirth in recent times, it enjoys a cult following, and interest on how to build the
weapon and its capabilities remain a focal point.* [41]* [42]* [43] There are also many places on line from which to
buy modern replicas of the macuahuitl.* [44]* [45]* [46]

1.1.3 Late Middle Ages and Renaissance

Main articles: Longsword and Zweihänder

From around 1300 to 1500, in concert with improved armour, innovative sword designs evolved more and more
rapidly. The main transition was the lengthening of the grip, allowing two-handed use, and a longer blade. By
1400, this type of sword, at the time called langes Schwert (longsword) or spadone, was common, and a number of
15th- and 16th-century Fechtbücher offering instructions on their use survive. Another variant was the specialized
armour-piercing swords of the estoc type. The longsword became popular due to its extreme reach and its cutting
and thrusting abilities.* [47]
The estoc became popular because of its ability to thrust into the gaps between plates of armour.* [48] The grip was
sometimes wrapped in wire or coarse animal hide to provide a better grip and to make it harder to knock a sword out
of the user's hand.* [49]
A number of manuscripts covering longsword combat and techniques dating from the 13th–16th centuries exist in
German,* [50] Italian, and English,* [51] providing extensive information on longsword combatives as used throughout
this period. Many of these are now readily available online.* [50]* [51]
In the 16th century, the large zweihänder was used by the elite German mercenaries known as doppelsöldners.* [52]
Zweihänder, literally translated, means two-hander. The zweihänder possesses a long blade, as well as a huge guard
for protection. It is estimated that some zweihänder swords were over 6 feet (1.8 m) long, with the one ascribed to
Frisian warrior Pier Gerlofs Donia being 7 feet (2.13 m) long.* [53] The gigantic blade length was perfectly designed
for manipulating and pushing away enemy pole-arms, which were major weapons around this time, in both Germany
and Eastern Europe. Doppelsöldners also used katzbalgers, which means 'cat-gutter'. The katzbalger's S-shaped
guard and 2-foot-long (0.61 m) blade made it perfect for bringing in when the fighting became too close to use a
zweihänder.* [54]
Civilian use of swords became increasingly common during the late Renaissance, with duels being a preferred way
to honourably settle disputes. The practice of civilian duelling, with specifically designed civilian swords such as the
Italian Cinquedea and Swiss Baselard, became so popular that according to one scholar: “In France during the reign
of Henry IV (1589–1610), more than 4,000 French aristocrats were killed in duels in an eighteen-year period...During
the reign of Louis XIII (1610–1643)...in a twenty-year period 8,000 pardons were issued for murders associated with
duels.”* [55]
 6 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

The side-sword was a type of war sword used by infantry during the Renaissance of Europe. This sword was a direct
descendant of the arming sword. Quite popular between the 16th and 17th centuries, they were ideal for handling
the mix of armoured and unarmoured opponents of that time. A new technique of placing one's finger on the ricasso
to improve the grip (a practice that would continue in the rapier) led to the production of hilts with a guard for the
finger. This sword design eventually led to the development of the civilian rapier, but it was not replaced by it, and
the side-sword continued to be used during the rapier's lifetime. As it could be used for both cutting and thrusting,
the term cut and thrust sword is sometimes used interchangeably with side-sword.* [56] Also of note is that as rapiers
became more popular, attempts were made to hybridize the blade, sacrificing the effectiveness found in each unique
weapon design. These are still considered side-swords and are sometimes labeled sword rapier or cutting rapier by
modern collectors.
Also of note, side-swords used in conjunction with bucklers became so popular that it caused the term swashbuckler
to be coined. This word stems from the new fighting style of the side-sword and buckler which was filled with much
“swashing and making a noise on the buckler”.* [57]
Within the Ottoman Empire, the use of a curved sabre called the Yatagan started in the mid-16th century. It would
become the weapon of choice for many in Turkey and the Balkans.* [58]
The sword in this time period was the most personal weapon, the most prestigious, and the most versatile for close
combat, but it came to decline in military use as technology, such as the crossbow and firearms changed warfare.
However, it maintained a key role in civilian self-defence.* [59]

1.1.4 Early Modern period

Further information: Rapier, Backsword, Smallsword and Sabre

The rapier is believed to have evolved either from the Spanish espada ropera or from the swords of the Italian nobility
somewhere in the later part of the 16th century.* [60]* [61] The rapier differed from most earlier swords in that it
was not a military weapon but a primarily civilian sword. Both the rapier and the Italian schiavona developed the
crossguard into a basket-shaped guard for hand protection.* [62] During the 17th and 18th centuries, the shorter
smallsword became an essential fashion accessory in European countries and the New World, though in some places
such as the Scottish Highlands large swords as the basket-hilted broadsword were preferred, and most wealthy men
and military officers carried one slung from a belt. Both the smallsword and the rapier remained popular dueling
swords well into the 18th century.* [63]
As the wearing of swords fell out of fashion, canes took their place in a gentleman's wardrobe. This developed
to the gentlemen in the Victorian era to use the umbrella. Some examples of canes̶those known as sword canes
or swordsticks̶incorporate a concealed blade. The French martial art la canne developed to fight with canes and
swordsticks and has now evolved into a sport. The English martial art singlestick is very similar.

1.1.5 Modern history

Further information: Épée

Towards the end of its useful life, the sword served more as a weapon of self-defence than for use on the battlefield,
and the military importance of swords steadily decreased during the Modern Age. Even as a personal sidearm, the
sword began to lose its preeminence in the early 19th century, reflecting the development of reliable handguns.* [59]
However, swords were still used in combat, especially in Colonial Wars between native populations and Colonial
Empires. For example, during the Aceh War the Acehnese Klewangs, a sword similar to the machete, proved very
effective in close quarters combat with Dutch troops, leading the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army to adopt a
heavy cutlass, also called klewang (very similar in appearance to the US Navy Model 1917 Cutlass) to counter it.
Mobile troops armed with carbines and klewangs succeeded in suppressing Aceh resistance where traditional infantry
with rifle and bayonet had failed. From that time on until the 1950s the Royal Dutch East Indies Army, Royal Dutch
Army, Royal Dutch Navy and Dutch police used these cutlasses called Klewang.* [64]* [65]
Swords continued in use, but were increasingly limited to military commissioned officers' and non-commissioned
officers' ceremonial uniforms, although most armies retained heavy cavalry until well after World War I. For example,
the British Army formally adopted a completely new design of cavalry sword in 1908, almost the last change in British
1.1. HISTORY 7

Army weapons before the outbreak of the war.* [66] At the outbreak of World War I, in August 1914, infantry officers
in all combatant armies still carried swords as part of their field equipment. The high visibility and limited practical
use of the weapon however led to it being abandoned within weeks, although most mounted cavalry continued to carry
sabres throughout the War. In China troops used the long anti-cavalry Miao dao well into the Second Sino-Japanese
War. The last units of British heavy cavalry switched to using armoured vehicles as late as 1938. Swords and other
dedicated melee weapons were used occasionally by many countries during World War II, but typically as a secondary
weapon as they were outclassed by coexisting firearms.* [67]* [68]* [69]

Ceremonial use

Further information: Sword of State

Swords are commonly worn as a ceremonial item in many military and naval services throughout the world. Occasions
to wear swords include any event in dress uniforms where the rank-and-file carry arms: parades, reviews, tattoos, and
changes of command. They are also commonly worn for officers' weddings, and when wearing dress uniforms to
church̶although they are rarely actually worn in the church itself.
In the British forces they are also worn for any appearance at Court. In the United States, every Naval officer at
or above the rank of Lieutenant Commander is required to own a sword, which can be prescribed for any formal
outdoor ceremonial occasion; they are normally worn for changes of command and parades. For some Navy parades,
cutlasses are issued to Petty Officers and Chief Petty Officers.
In the U.S. Marine Corps every officer must own a sword, which is prescribed for formal parades and other ceremonies
where dress uniforms are worn and the rank-and-file are under arms. On these occasions depending on their billet,
Marine Staff Non-Commissioned Officers (E-6 and above) may also be required to carry swords, which have hilts of
a pattern similar to U.S. Naval officers' swords but are actually sabres. The USMC Model 1859 NCO Sword is the
longest continuously-issued edged weapon in the U.S. inventory
The Marine officer swords are of the Mameluke pattern which was adopted in 1825 in recognition of the Marines'
key role in the capture of the Tripolitan city of Derna during the First Barbary War.* [70] Taken out of issue for
approximately 20 years from 1855 until 1875, it was restored to service in the year of the Corps' centennial and has
remained in issue since.

Sword replicas

Main article: Sword replica

The production of replicas of historical swords originates with 19th-century historicism.* [71] Contemporary replicas
can range from cheap factory produced look-alikes to exact recreations of individual artifacts, including an approxi-
mation of the historical production methods.
Some kinds of swords are still commonly used today as weapons, often as a side arm for military infantry. The
Japanese katana, wakizashi and tanto are carried by some infantry and officers in Japan and other parts of Asia and
the kukri is the official melee weapon for India. Other swords in use today are the sabre, the scimitar, the shortsword
and the machete.* [71]

• In the case of a rat-tail tang, the maker welds a thin rod to the end of the blade at the crossguard; this rod goes
through the grip.

• In traditional construction, Swordsmiths peened such tangs over the end of the pommel, or occasionally welded
the hilt furniture to the tang and threaded the end for screwing on a pommel. This style is often referred to as a
“narrow”or “hidden”tang. Modern, less traditional, replicas often feature a threaded pommel or a pommel
nut which holds the hilt together and allows dismantling.

• In a“full”tang (most commonly used in knives and machetes), the tang has about the same width as the blade,
and is generally the same shape as the grip.* [72] In European or Asian swords sold today, many advertised“full”
tangs may actually involve a forged rat-tail tang.
8 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

1.2 Morphology
Further information: Classification of swords

The sword consists of the blade and the hilt. The term scabbard applies to the cover for the sword blade when not in
use.

1.2.1 Blade
Main articles: Sword blade and Oakeshott typology
There is considerable variation in the detailed design of sword blades. The diagram opposite shows a typical Medieval
European sword.
Early iron blades have rounded points due to the limited metallurgy of the time. These were still effective for thrusting
against lightly armoured opponents. As armour advanced, blades were made narrower, stiffer and sharply pointed to
defeat the armour by thrusting.
Dedicated cutting blades are wide and thin, and often have grooves known as fullers which lighten the blade at the
cost of some of the blade's stiffness. The edges of a cutting sword are almost parallel. Blades oriented for the thrust
have thicker blades, sometimes with a distinct midrib for increased stiffness, with a strong taper and an acute point.
The geometry of a cutting sword blade allows for acute edge angles. It should be noted, however, that an edge with
an acuter angle is more inclined to degrade quickly in combat situations than an edge with a more obtuse angle. Also,
an acute edge angle is not the primary factor of a blade's sharpness.* [73]
The part of the blade between the center of percussion (CoP) and the point is called the foible (weak) of the blade,
and that between the center of balance (CoB) and the hilt is the forte (strong). The section in between the CoP and
the CoB is the middle.
The ricasso or shoulder identifies a short section of blade immediately below the guard that is left completely un-
sharpened. Many swords have no ricasso. On some large weapons, such as the German Zweihänder, a metal cover
surrounded the ricasso, and a swordsman might grip it in one hand to wield the weapon more easily in close-quarter
combat.* [54] The ricasso normally bears the maker's mark.
The tang is the extension of the blade to which the hilt is fitted.
On Japanese blades, the maker's mark appears on the tang under the grip.* [74]

1.2.2 Hilt
The hilt is the collective term for the parts allowing for the handling and control of the blade; these consist of the grip,
the pommel, and a simple or elaborate guard, which in post-Viking Age swords could consist of only a crossguard
(called a cruciform hilt or quillons). The pommel was originally designed as a stop to prevent the sword slipping from
the hand. From around the 11th century onward it became a counterbalance to the blade, allowing a more fluid style
of fighting.* [75] It can also be used as a blunt instrument at close range, and its weight affects the centre of percussion.
In later times a sword knot or tassel was sometimes added. By the 17th century, with the growing use of firearms
and the accompanying decline in the use of armour, many rapiers and dueling swords had developed elaborate basket
hilts, which protect the palm of the wielder and rendered the gauntlet obsolete.* [76]
In late medieval and Renaissance era European swords, a flap of leather called the chappe or rain guard was attached to
a sword's crossguard at the base of the hilt to protect the mouth of the scabbard and prevent water from entering.* [77]

1.2.3 Sword scabbards and suspension

Main article: Scabbard

Common accessories to the sword include the scabbard, as well as the sword belt.

• Scabbard: The scabbard, also known as the Sheath, is a protective cover often provided for the sword blade.
Over the millennia, scabbards have been made of many materials, including leather, wood, and metals such as
 1.3. TYPOLOGY 9

brass or steel. The metal fitting where the blade enters the leather or metal scabbard is called the throat, which
is often part of a larger scabbard mount, or locket, that bears a carrying ring or stud to facilitate wearing
the sword. The blade's point in leather scabbards is usually protected by a metal tip, or chape, which on
both leather and metal scabbards is often given further protection from wear by an extension called a drag, or
shoe.* [78]

• Sword belt: A sword belt is a belt with an attachment for the sword's scabbard, used to carry it when not in
use. It is usually fixed to the scabbard of the sword, providing a fast means of drawing the sword in battle.
Examples of sword belts include the Balteus used by the Roman legionary.* [79]

1.3 Typology
Main articles: Types of swords and Classification of swords

Sword typology is based on morphological criteria on one hand (blade shape (cross-section, taper, and length), shape
and size of the hilt and pommel) and age and place of origin on the other (Bronze Age, Iron Age, European (medieval,
early modern, modern), Asian).
The relatively comprehensive Oakeshott typology was created by historian and illustrator Ewart Oakeshott as a way
to define and catalogue swords based on physical form, though a rough sense of chronology is apparent. However,
this typology does not set forth a prototypical definition for the longsword. Instead, it divides the broad field of
weaponry into many exclusive types based on their predominant physical characteristics, including blade shape and
hilt configuration. The typology also focuses on the smaller, and in some cases contemporary, single-handed swords
such as the arming sword.* [62]
For any other type than listed below, and even for uses other than as a weapon, see the article Sword-like object.

1.3.1 Single and double-edged

“Double-edge”redirects here. For the physical theatre company, see Double Edge Theatre.

As noted above, the terms longsword, broad sword, great sword, and Gaelic claymore are used relative to the era
under consideration, and each term designates a particular type of sword.

jian

In most Asian countries, a sword (jian 劍, geom ( ), ken/tsurugi (剣), pedang) is a double-edged straight-bladed
weapon, while a knife or saber (dāo ⼑, do ( ), to/katana (⼑), pisau, golok) refers to a single-edged object.

Kirpan

In Sikh history, the sword is held in very high esteem. A single-edged sword is called a kirpan, and its double-edged
counterpart a khanda or tega.* [80]

Churika

The South Indian churika is a handheld double-edged sword traditionally used in the Malabar region of Kerala. It is
also worshipped as the weapon of Vettakkorumakan, the hunter god in Hinduism.

backsword and falchion

European terminology does give generic names for single-edged and double-edged blades but refers to specific types
with the term 'sword' covering them all. For example the backsword may be so called because it is single-edged but
the falchion which is also single-edged is given its own specific name.* [81]
10 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Two-handed

See also: Two-handed sword

Two-handed sword may be used to refer to any sword that usually requires two hands to wield. However, in its proper
sense it should be used only to refer to the very large swords of the 16th century.* [75]
Throughout history two-handed swords have generally been less common than their one-handed counterparts, one
exception being their common use in Japan.

Hand and a half sword

A Hand and a half sword, colloquially known as a "bastard sword", was a sword with an extended grip and sometimes
pommel so that it could be used with either one or two hands. Although these swords may not provide a full two-hand
grip, they allowed its wielders to hold a shield or parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword
for a more powerful blow.* [49] These should not be confused with a longsword, two-handed sword, or Zweihänder,
which were always intended to be used with two hands.

A sword as a literature award

In Hungary, the most prestigious literary award is the Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award, which was founded by
Pal Molnar.

1.4 See also

• Classification of swords
• Types of swords
• List of swords
• List of sword manufacturers
• Chinese swords
• Japanese swords
• Korean swords
• Oakeshott typology
• Sword making
• Sword replica
• Swordsmanship
• Waster
• List of blade materials

1.5 References
Footnotes

[1] Maryon, Herbert(1960). Pattern-welding and Damascening of Sword-blades: Part I – Pattern-Welding. Studies in Conser-
vation 5, p. 25 – 37. A brief review article by the originator of the term“pattern-welding”accurately details all the salient
points of the construction of pattern-welded blades and of how all the patterns observed result as a function of the depth
of grinding into a twisted rod structure. The article also includes a brief description of pattern-welding as encountered in
the Malay keris. Damascus steel is also known as watered steel.
1.5. REFERENCES 11

Citations

[1] How Ancient Europeans Saw the World pg114 by Peter Wells.

[2] Drews, Robert (1995). The end of the Bronze Age: changes in warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C (revised ed.).
Princeton University Press. pp. 197–204. ISBN 0-691-02591-6.

[3] Chang, K. C. (1982). “Studies of Shang Archaeology”. Yale University Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 0-300-03578-0.

[4] Cao, Hangang. “A Study of Chinese Weapons Cast During Pre-Qin and Han Periods in the Central Plains of China”.
Retrieved 3 November 2010.

[5] Allchin, pp. 111–114

[6] Burton, p.78

[7] How Ancient Europeans saw the World pg 124 by Peter Wells

[8] Hanson, Victor Davis (1993). Hoplites: the classical Greek battle experience. Routledge Publishing. pp. 25–27. ISBN
0-415-09816-5. Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[9] Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (1998). The Roman army at war: 100 BC-AD 200. Oxford University Press. pp. 216–217.
ISBN 0-19-815090-3. Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[10] Fields, Nic (2009). The Roman Army of the Principate 27 BCE-CE 117. Osprey Publishing. pp. 30–31. ISBN 1-84603-
386-1. Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[11] Mantello, Frank Anthony C.; Rigg, A. G. (1996). Medieval Latin: an introduction and bibliographical guide. CUA Press.
pp. 447–449. ISBN 0-8132-0842-4. Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[12] Naish p.39

[13] Prasad, chapter IX

[14] Laing, Lloyd Robert(2006). The archaeology of Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. CE 400–1200. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 93–95. ISBN 0-521-54740-7

[15] Franklin, Simon (2002). Writing society and culture in early Rus, c. 950–1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 109. ISBN
0-511-03025-8. Retrieved 14 November 2010.

[16] Maryon, Herbert(1960). Pattern-welding and Damascening of Sword-blades: Part 2: The Damascene Process,. Studies in
Conservation 5, p. 52 – 60. A detailed discussion of Eastern wootz Damascene steels.

[17] Jeep, John M.(2001). Medieval Germany: an encyclopedia. Routledge publishing. p.802, ISBN 0-8240-7644-3

[18] Gravett, p.47

[19] James E. Lindsay (2005). Daily life in the medieval Islamic world. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 64. ISBN 0-313-
32270-8.

[20] Cirlot, Juan Eduardo (2002). A Dictionary of Symbols. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 323–325. ISBN 0-486-42523-1.

[21] Friday, Karl F.(2004). Samurai, warfare and the state in early medieval Japan. Routledge publishing. pp. 79–81., ISBN
0-415-32962-0

[22] Jeep, John M.(1998). The connoisseur's book of Japanese swords. Kodansha International publishing. ISBN 4-7700-2071-
6

[23] Nagayama, Kōkan (1998). The connoisseur's book of Japanese swords. Kodansha International. pp. 59–65. ISBN 4-7700-
2071-6. Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[24] Stephen Turnbull (2012). Katana: The Samurai Sword. Osprey Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9781849086585.

[25] Roger Ford (2006). Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and Armor. DK Publishing. pp. 66, 120. ISBN 9780756622107.

[26] Edgerton, page 56

[27] Freese, Brett Leslie. “Wind-Powered Furnaces”. archaeology.org. Retrieved 6 November 2010.

[28] Evangelista,page 575

12 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

[29]“Ancient and Awesome Indo-Pakistani Weapons”. Black Belt 18: 34. March 1980. ISSN 0277-3066.

[30] Saravanan, T. (2005). “Valorous Sports Metro Plus Madurai”. The Hindu.

[31] Stone and LaRocca, p. 229

[32] “Kampilan”. Malay World Edged Weapons. old.blades.free.fr. 13 March 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2009.

[33] Guro Tony (4 May 2012). “Traditional Filipino Weapons”. Philippine Martial Arts Institute. Retrieved 4 May 2012.

[34] Robert Rousseau, About.com Guide (4 May 2012). “A History and Style Guide of Kali”. About.com. Retrieved 4 May
2012.

[35] From A.P. Maudslay's translation commentary of Bernal Díaz del Castillo's Verdadera Historia de la Conquista de Nueva
España (republished as “The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico”, p.465).

[36] See Hassig (1988), p.85.

[37] Smith p.86

[38] Diaz del Castillo, p. 126

[39] Smith p. 87

[40] Richard Townsend, The Aztecs p. 24

[41] http://paleoplanet69529.yuku.com/reply/444042/Maquahuitl-destroyed-in-1884-Replica

[42] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqtxDz5tW6k

[43] http://dynamiteskills.blogspot.com/2010/06/pig-roast-butchering-and-stone-weapons.html

[44] http://www.ebay.com/itm/AZTEC-SWORD-MAYAN-WAR-CLUB-MACUAHUITL-OBSIDIAN-SWORD-/271414203851

[45] http://cart.occpaleo.com/aztecmacuahuitlobsidiansword.aspx

[46] https://www.etsy.com/listing/177196767/custom-decorative-macuahuitl-cedar-and

[47] Lindholm, David; Nicolle, David (2007). The Scandinavian Baltic Crusades 1100–1500. Osprey Publishing. p. 178. ISBN
1-84176-988-6.

[48] Tarassuk, Leonid; Blair, Claude (1982). The Complete Encyclopedia of Arms & Weapons: The Most Comprehensive Refer-
ence Work Ever Published on Arms and Armour from Prehistoric Times to the Present – with Over 1,200 Illustrations. Simon
& Schuster. p. 491.

[49] McLean, p.178

[50] “Transkription von cgm582”. Pragmatische Schriftlichkeit. Retrieved 10 November 2010.

[51] “15th Century English Combat Manuscripts”. The English Martial Arts Academy. Retrieved 10 November 2010.

[52] Douglas Miller, John Richards: Landsknechte 1486–1560, ISBN 3-87748-636-3

[53] “Greate Pier fan Wûnseradiel” (in Western Frisian). Gemeente Wûnseradiel. Retrieved 4 January 2008.

[54] Miller, Douglas (1976). The Landsknechts. Osprey Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 0-85045-258-9.

[55] Roth, Ariel A (1989). “The Dishonor of Dueling”. Geoscience Research Institute.

[56] The term cut & thrust is a non-historical classification first used within The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts to
differentiate cutting swords with compound hilts from true rapiers.

[57] “Practical Side Sword”. Fencing.net. Retrieved 22 November 2010.

[58] Mortensen, Peder; Torben Lundbæk; Kjeld von Folsach( ,1996). Sultan, Shah, and Great Mughal: the history and culture
of the Islamic world. National Museum. p. 200. ISBN 87-89384-31-8.

[59] “Encyclopædia Britannica-"Sword"". The Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 November 2010.

[60] Kirkland p.17

[61] Green p.583-584

1.5. REFERENCES 13

[62] Oakeshott, Ewart. The Sword in the Age of Chivalry. Boydell Press 1994. Pages 18-19. ISBN 0-85115-715-7

[63] Norman,B.;Vesey,A.(1980). The rapier and small-sword, 1460–1820. Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-405-13089-9

[64] Moor, Jaap de; Wesseling,H. L. (1989). Imperialism and war: essays on colonial wars in Asia and Africa. BRILL. pp.
69–71. ISBN 90-04-08834-2.

[65] Ion, A. Hamish; Errington,Elizabeth Jane (1993). Great powers and little wars: the limits of power. Greenwood Publishing
Group. p. 60. ISBN 0-275-93965-0.

[66] Wilkinson-Latham, John (1966). British Military Swords from 1800 to the Present Day. Hutchinson & Co. ISBN 0-09-
081201-8.

[67] Johnson, Thomas M. (2006). German Swords of World War II – A Photographic Reference Vol.3: DLV, Diplomats, Customs,
Police and Fire, Justice, Mining, Railway, Etc. Schiffer Pub Ltd. ISBN 0-7643-2432-2.

[68] Youens, Michael; Warner, Philip (1973). Japanese Army of World War II. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0-85045-118-3.
Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[69] Taylor, Mike (1998). Battles of World War II. ABDO Publishing. ISBN 1-56239-804-0. Retrieved 18 November 2010.

[70] Roffe, Michael (1972). United States Marine Corps. Osprey Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 0-85045-115-9.

[71] Dov M. Gabbay, Anthonie Meijers, Paul Thagard, John Woods (2009). Philosophy of Technology and Engineering Sciences.
Elsevier Publishing. p. 1208. ISBN 0-444-51667-0.

[72] “Tang Types of a Sword”. gungfu.com. Retrieved 7 November 2010.

[73] Geißler, Robert (2014). “Concerning the Sharpness of Blades”. HROARR. Retrieved 18 May 2014.

[74] Yumoto, John M. (1979). The Samurai sword: a handbook. Tuttle Publishing. p. 137. ISBN 0-8048-0509-1.

[75] Loades, Mike (2010). Swords and Swordsmen. Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 978-1-84884-133-8.

[76] Wagner, Eduard(2004). Swords and daggers: an illustrated handbook. Courier Dover Publications, p.13, ISBN 0-486-
43392-7

[77] Burton,p.124

[78] Robson, Brian(1975). Swords of the British Army: the regulation patterns, 1788–1914. Arms and Armour Press, p. 10,
ISBN 0-901721-33-6

[79] Smith, pp.133–134

[80] Singh Jiwan Singh, B. Chatter, “The turban and the sword of the Sikhs: Essence of Sikhism”, Amritsar,2001, ISBN
81-7601-491-5

[81] Oakeshott, Ewart (1980). European Weapons and Armour. Guildford & London: Lutterworth Press. p. 152.

Bibliography

• Allchin, F.R. in South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from The Third International Conference of The As-
sociation of South Asian Archaeologists In Western Europe, Held In Paris (December 1979) edited by J.E.van
Lohuizen-de Leeuw. Brill Academic Publishers, Incorporated. 106–118. ISBN 90-04-05996-2.

• Prasad, Prakash Chandra (2003). Foreign Trade and Commerce In Ancient India. Abhinav Publications. ISBN
81-7017-053-2.

• Edgerton; et al. (2002). Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-
42229-1.

• Withers, Harvey J S;(2006). World Swords 1400–1945. Studio Jupiter Military Publishing . ISBN 0-9545910-
1-1.

• Naish, Camille (1991). Death Comes to The Maiden: Sex and Execution, 1431–1933. Taylor & Francis Pub-
lishing. ISBN 0-415-05585-7.

• Burton, Richard F (2008).The Book of The Sword. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 1-60520-436-6.
14 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

• Gravett, Christopher (1997). German Medieval Armies 1000-1300. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-657-4.

• Wertime, Theodore and Muhly, J. D.(1980) eds.The Coming of The Age of Iron. Yale University Press. ISBN
0-300-02425-8 .

• Kirkland, J.Michael (2006). Stage Combat Resource Materials: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Green-
wood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-30710-5.

• McLean, Will; Forgeng, Jeffrey L. (2008). Daily life in Chaucer's England. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0-313-35951-2.
• Green, Thomas A. (2001). Martial Arts of The World: An Encyclopedia.V.1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-
150-2.
• Evangelista, Nick (1995). The encyclopedia of the sword. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-27896-
2.
• Smith, William (1843). A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. Michigan University Press.

• Comnena, Anna. (1928). The Alexiad. Ed. and trans. Elizabeth A. Dawes. London: Routledge. Available at
the Internet History Sourcebook
1.5. REFERENCES 15
16 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Apa-type swords, 17th-century BC.

The swords found together with the Nebra skydisk, ca. 1600 BC.
1.5. REFERENCES 17

Hallstatt swords
18 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Darius I of Persia holding an acinaces in his lap

1.5. REFERENCES 19

Battle scene from the Morgan Bible of Louis IX showing 13th-century swords

A Japanese wakizashi of the 17th century, with its koshirae and shirasaya.
20 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Chinese Dao Sabre (Decorative or acrobatic version)

1.5. REFERENCES 21
22 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Kampilan a Filipino long sword.

Obsidian edge sword, the Aztec Macuahuitl. Drawing part of the Catalog of the Royal Armoury of Madrid by the medievalist Achille
Jubinal in the 19th century, original specimen was destroyed by a fire in 1884.
1.5. REFERENCES 23

1548 depiction of a Zweihänder used against pikes in the Battle of Kappel

24 CHAPTER 1. SWORD
1.5. REFERENCES 25

British Major Jack Churchill (far right) leads Commandos during a training exercise, sword in hand, in World War II.
26 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Graphical documentation of the Szczerbiec, a sword that was traditionally used in the coronation ceremony of Polish kings, 12th-13th
century.
1.5. REFERENCES 27

Pommel Fuller
Rain-guard (Chappe) Edge
Central ridge

Cross-guard Point
Grip
Strong Weak
Hilt Blade

Locket Chape

Scabbard
28 CHAPTER 1. SWORD

Hilt of a rapier. In this case, with a swept hilt

1.5. REFERENCES 29
Chapter 2

Arming sword

The arming sword (also sometimes called a knight's or knightly sword) is a type of European sword with a single-
handed cruciform hilt and straight double-edged blade of around 69 to 81 centimetres (27 to 32 in), in common use
from the 11th to 16th centuries. It is a common weapon in period artwork, and there are many surviving examples
in museums.

2.1 History and use

The arming sword was the standard military sword of the medieval European knight. The term came into use to dif-
ferentiate the standard single-handed sword from the great sword. It is so called because it was worn with armour.* [1]
It was typically used with a shield or buckler; however, there are many texts and pictures depicting effective arming
sword combat without the benefit of a shield. According to medieval texts, in the absence of a shield the empty
(normally left) hand could be used for grabbing or grappling opponents. The arming sword was overall a light,
versatile weapon capable of both cut and thrust combat, and normally boasted excellent balance.
After the longsword came to predominate, the arming sword was retained as a common sidearm but came to be
referred to as a shortsword, later evolving into the cut and thrust swords of the Renaissance.

2.2 Morphology
Although a variety of designs fall under the heading of 'arming sword', they are characterized as having single-handed
cruciform hilts and straight double-edged blades designed for both cutting and thrusting.
Blade length was usually from 69 to 81 centimetres (27 to 32 in); however, examples exist from 58 to 100 centimetres
(23 to 39 in).* [2] Pommels were most commonly of the 'Brazil-nut' type from around 1000-1200 CE,* [1] with the
'wheel' pommel appearing in the 11th and predominating from the 13th to 15th centuries.
Arming swords correspond to Oakeshott types XI, XII and XIII. The type is a development of the High Middle Ages,
first apparent in the Norman swords of the 11th century. As such they are a continuation of the early medieval "Viking
sword", which ultimately derives from the spatha of Late Antiquity and the Migration Period.
A combination of the Oakeshott and Peterson Typologies shows a chronological progression from the Viking sword to
a“transitional sword”, type X, which incorporated elements of both Viking and arming swords. This“transitional
sword”continued to evolve into the presently defined arming sword.
Oakeshott contrasts the arming sword both from what he calls the “great swords”̶describing the latter as having
longer and broader blades̶and from what he calls“hand-and-half swords”which he describes as similar in size but
with a longer grip (typified by the subtypes XIIa and XIIIa that were in use simultaneously with the arming swords
in the latter part of the High Middle Ages, c. 1250–1350). He notes these subtypes as the progenitors of the later
two-handed longswords of the Late Middle Ages, in use c. 1350–1550. For this reason, scholars occasionally refer
to these “great swords”improperly and anachronistically as “longswords”. By contrast, the arming sword would
evolve into the later “shortsword”worn as a sidearm while wielding the two-handed longsword.

30
2.3. SEE ALSO 31

2.3 See also

• Types of swords

• Oakeshott typology
• Longsword

2.4 Notes
[1] Loades, Mike (2010). Swords and Swordsmen. Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 978-1-84884-133-8.

[2] Oakeshott, Ewart (1998). Records of the Medieval Sword. Boydell & Brewer Inc. ISBN 0-85115-566-9.

2.5 References
• Oakeshott, Ewart (1998). Records of the Medieval Sword. Boydell & Brewer Inc. ISBN 0-85115-566-9.

• Loades, Mike (2010). Swords and Swordsmen. Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 978-1-84884-133-8.

2.6 External links

 Chapter 3

Classification of swords

Further information: Types of swords and List of premodern combat weapons § Swords

The English-language terminology used in the classification of swords is imprecise, and has varied widely over
time, with terms such as “broadsword”, “long sword”, “short-sword”, “bastard sword”, “side-sword”and
“two-handed sword”being used to group together weapons, often with no particular agreed upon definition, relation
to one another in regards their technology, and construction or intended use and fighting style. However, in modern
times many of these have been given specific meanings (although sometimes quite arbitrarily). Some of these terms
originate contemporary with the weapon they refer to, others are modern or early modern terms used by antiquarians,
curators, and modern-day sword enthusiasts for historical swords.
Terminology was further complicated by terms introduced (i.e. "hand-and-a-half sword", “single-handed sword”,
"Pappenheimer",* [1]* [2] "Walloon sword", "Sinclair Sabre", "Mortuary sword", "spada da lato", “town sword”,
etc.) or misinterpreted (i.e. bastard sword, broadsword,* [3]* [4] rapier,* [5] estoc, flamberge, etc.) in the 19th century
by antiquarians, and in 20th century pop culture (sword and sorcery, role playing games, fighting games, etc.). Also
the addition of new terms to the mix such as“great sword”, "Zweihänder" (instead of Bidenhänder), and "cut-and-
thrust sword". Historical European Martial Arts associations have turned the term spada da lato, a term that was
coined by Italian curators, into “side-sword”. Furthermore, there is a disregard for the use of the term broadsword
by these associations. All these newly introduced or redefined sword terms add to the confusion of the matter.
The most well known systematic typology of blade types of the European medieval sword is the Oakeshott typology
(although this is a modern classification and not a medieval one, and has many overlaps). Elizabethans used descriptive
terms such as “short”, “bastard”, and “long”which emphasized the length of the blade, and “two-handed”
for any sword that could be wielded as such.

3.1 Classification by “Hilt-Type”

3.1.1 “Handedness”

The term two-handed sword, used as a general term, may refer to any large sword designed to be used primarily
with two hands:

• the European longsword, popular in the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance.

• the Scottish late medieval claymore (not to be confused with the basket-hilted claymore of the 18th
century)

• the Bidenhänder sword favoured by the Landsknechte of 16th-century Germany.

The term “hand-and-a-half sword”is modern (late 19th century).* [6] During the first half of the 20th century, the
term “bastard sword”was used regularly to refer to this type of sword, while “long sword”or “long-sword”, if
used at all, referred to the rapier (in the context of Renaissance or Early Modern fencing).* [7]

32
3.2. CLASSIFICATION BY “BLADE-TYPE” 33

The term“single-handed sword”(or“one-handed sword”) is a retronym coined to disambiguate from“two-handed”

or“hand-and-a-half”specimens.“Single-handed sword”is used by Sir Walter Scott.* [8] It is also used as a possible
gloss of the obscure term tonsword by Nares (1822);* [9] “one-handed sword”is somewhat later, recorded from c.
1850.
Apparently, some swords were designed for left-hand use, although left-handed swords have been described as “a
rarity”.* [10]

Great sword

These include the long swords in both the Middle Ages* [11]* [12]* [13] and Renaissance, like the “outsized speci-
mens”- between 90 cm and 120 cm - such as the Oakeshott type XIIa or Oakeshott type XIIIa. These swords can be
wielded with either one hand or with two hands, but their grip may be designed specifically for one hand, two hands,
or the “hand-and-half”grip where the off-hand grips the pommel, depending on the preference of the wielder.

Claymore

The Scottish name Claymore (Gaelic claidheamh mor, lit.“great sword”)* [14]* [15] can refer to either the longsword
with a distinctive two-handed grip, or the basket-hilted sword developing from a rapier.

Bidenhänder

The Bidenhänder or two-hander is the "true" two-handed sword.

The Bidenhänder was a specialist weapon wielded by certain Landsknechte Doppelsöldners. It is highly doubtful that
these two-handed swords were used to chop off the point of pikes; however, the two-handed sword was an ideal
weapon for protecting the standard bearer or a breach since a Doppelsöldner armed with one could fend off many
attackers by using moulinets.

3.2 Classification by “Blade-Type”

3.2.1 Double-edge and Straight swords

These are double-edged, usually straight bladed swords.

Longsword and bastard sword

These days, the term longsword most frequently refers to a late Medieval and Renaissance weapon designed for use
with two hands. The German langes Schwert (“long sword”) in 15th-century manuals did not necessarily denote a
type of weapon, but the technique of fencing with both hands at the hilt.
Contemporary use of “long-sword”or “longsword”only resurfaces in the 2000s in the context of reconstruction
of the German school of fencing, translating the German langes Schwert.
The French épée bâtarde as well as the English bastard sword originates in the 15th or 16th century, originally as
having the general sense of “irregular sword or sword of uncertain origin”. Qui n'étoit ni Françoise, ni Espagnole,
ni proprement Lansquenette, mais plus grande que pas une de ces fortes épées ("[a sword] which was neither French,
nor Spanish, nor properly Landsknecht [German], but longer than any of these sturdy swords.”)* [16] Espée bastarde
could also historically refer to a single-handed sword with a fairly long blade compared to other short swords.* [17]
Joseph Swetnam states that the bastard sword is a sword that is midway in length between a short sword and a long
sword,* [18] and Randall Cotgrave's definition seems to imply this as well. The French épée de passot, was also known
as épée bâtarde (i.e., bastard sword) and also coustille à croix* [19] (literally a cross-hilted blade), referred to a medieval
single-handed sword optimized for thrusting* [20] The épée de passot was the sidearm of the franc-archers (French /
Breton bowmen of the 15th and 16th centuries).* [21] The term passot comes from the fact that these swords passed
(passaient) the length of a“normal”short-sword.* [21] The German term for a bastard sword was Reitschwert (literally
a riding sword),* [22]* [23] "...in the early Renaissance the term bastard-sword was also sometimes used to refer to
 34 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF SWORDS

single-hand arming-swords with compound-hilts. A form of German arming sword with a bastard-style compound
hilt was called a 'Reitschwert' ('cavalry sword') or a 'Degen' ('knight's sword').”* [24]
The“Masters of Defence”competition organised by Henry VIII in July 1540 listed* [25] two hande sworde, bastard
sworde and longe sworde as separate items (as it should in Joseph Swetnam's context).* [26]* [27]* [28]
Antiquarian usage in the 19th century established the use of “bastard sword”as referring unambiguously to these
large swords.* [29] However, George Silver and Joseph Swetnam refer to them merely as two hande sworde. The
term "hand-and-a-half sword" is modern (late 19th century).* [6] During the first half of the 20th century, the term
“bastard sword”was used regularly to refer to this type of sword.* [7]
The Elizabethan long sword (c.f. George Silver* [30] and Joseph Swetnam) is a single-handed“cut-and-thrust”sword
with a 4-foot-long (1.2 m) blade* [18] similar to the long rapier. “Let thy (long) Rapier or (long) Sword be foure
foote at the least, and thy dagger two foote.”Historical (15th to 16th century) terms for this type of sword included
the Italian spada longa (lunga), and French longue épée.
The term longsword has also been used to refer to different kinds of sword depending on historical context:

• Bidenhänder or two-hander, a late Renaissance sword of the 16th century Landsknechte, the longest sword of
all;

• the long "side sword" or "rapier"* [5] with a cutting edge (the Elizabethan long sword).

Broadsword

The basket-hilted sword was a military sword, termed“broad”in contrast with the smallsword. The term broadsword
has been used loosely to indicate any of the following swords:

• Claymore* [31]

• Basket-hilted sword* [32]

• A sabre.* [33]

It must be noted that the term broadsword was never used historically to describe the one-handed arming sword. The
arming sword was wrongly labelled a broadsword by antiquarians as the medieval swords were similar in blade width
to the military swords of the day (that were also sometimes labeled as broadswords) and broader than the dueling
swords and ceremonial dress swords.

Long knife

Knives such as the seax and other blades of similar length - between 1 and 2 feet ( ˜ 30 cm and 60 cm) - are sometimes
construed as“swords”. This is especially the case for weapons from antiquity that lack access to the technology for
the high quality steel that is necessary for reliable swords of the length of a spatha or longer.

• Iron Age swords

• Seax, a tool and weapon, common in Northern Europe.

• Gladius, an early ancient Roman blade
• Xiphos, a double-edged, single-hand blade used by the ancient Greeks;

• certain Renaissance era sidearms:

• Baselard, a late medieval heavy dagger;

• Cinquedea, a civilian long dagger;
• Dirk, the Scottish long dagger (biodag);
• Hanger or wood-knife, a type of hunting sword or infantry sabre;

• certain fascine knives:

 3.2. CLASSIFICATION BY “BLADE-TYPE” 35

• Model 1832 Foot Artillery Sword, a blade of about 25 inches in length designed after the Roman gladius.
Also known as a coupe-chou (literally a cabbage cutter) in France.

Over-sized two-handers that were not practical weapons were popular as parade swords.

3.2.2 Edgeless and Thrusting swords

The edgeless swords category comprises weapons which are related to or labeled as “swords”but do not emphasis
“hacking or slashing techniques”or have any“cutting edges”whatsoever. The majority of these elongated weapons
were designed for agility, precision and rapid thrusting blows to exploit gaps in the enemy's shield wall and armor, or
pierce iron or steel armour.

xiphos

The Spartiatēs were always armed with a xiphos as a secondary weapon. Among most Greek warriors, this weapon
had an iron blade of about 60 centimetres, however, the Spartan version was typically only 30-45 centimetres. The
Spartan's shorter weapon proved deadly in the crush caused by colliding phalanxes formations – it was capable of
being thrust through gaps in the enemy's shield wall and armor, where there was no room for longer weapons. The
groin and throat were among the favorite targets. In one account, an Athenian asked a Spartan why his sword was so
short and after a short pause he replied, “It's long enough to reach your heart.”

Rapier

The rapier (French épée rapière, Spanish espada ropera). Note that there is no historical Italian equivalent to the
English word rapier.* [5]
The term rapier appeared in the English lexicon via the French épée rapière which either compared the weapon to a
rasp or file; or rapier may be a corruption of “rasping sword”* [34] which referred to the rasping* [35] sound the
blade makes when it comes into contact with another blade.
Confusingly, the German rappier* [36]* [37] is not the same weapon as the rapier but rather a long sword.* [38]

Panzerstecher and koncerz

The Panzerstecher is a German and East European weapon with a long edgeless weapon of square or triangular cross-
section for penetrating armour.* [39]* [40]* [41] Early models were either two-handers or“hand-and-half”hilted,* [42]
while later 16th and 17th century models (also known as koncerz) were one-handed and used by cavalry.* [43]

Tuck and Verdun

The tuck (French estoc, Italian stocco) is an edgeless blade of square or triangular cross-section used for thrusting. In
French, estoc also means thrust or point; and estoc et taille means cut and thrust.
The tuck may also get its name from the verb to tuck which means to shorten.

Small-sword

The small sword or smallsword (also court sword, fr: épée de cour or dress sword) is a light one-handed sword
designed for thrusting which evolved out of the longer and heavier rapier of the late Renaissance. The height of the
small sword's popularity was between the mid-17th and late 18th century. It is thought to have appeared in France
and spread quickly across the rest of Europe. The small sword was the immediate predecessor of the French dueling
sword (from which the épée developed) and its method of use̶as typified in the works of such authors as Sieur
de Liancour, Domenico Angelo, Monsieur J. Olivier, and Monsieur L'Abbat̶developed into the techniques of the
French classical school of fencing. Small swords were also used as status symbols and fashion accessories; for most of
the 18th century anyone, civilian or military, with pretensions to gentlemanly status would have worn a small sword
on a daily basis.
36 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF SWORDS

3.2.3 Single-edge and Curved swords

These are single-edged, usually thick or curved bladed swords, typically designed for hacking or slashing purposes.

Kopis

Unlike the xiphos, which is a thrusting weapon, the kopis was a hacking weapon in the form of a thick, curved single
edged iron sword. In Athenian art, Spartan hoplites were often depicted using a kopis instead of the xiphos, as the
kopis was seen as a quintessential “bad guys”weapon in Greek eyes.* [44]

Katanas

Main article: katana

Historically katana (⼑) were one of the traditionally made Japanese swords (⽇本⼑ nihontō)* [45]* [46] that were
used by the samurai of feudal Japan.* [47] Modern versions of the katana are sometimes made using non-traditional
materials and methods. The katana is characterized by its distinctive appearance: a curved, slender, single-edged
blade with a circular or squared guard and long grip to accommodate two hands.

Hanger

The hanger (Obs. whinyard, whinger, cuttoe), wood-knife or hunting sword is a long knife or short sword that hangs
from the belt and was popular as both a hunting tool and weapon of war.* [48]* [49]

Falchion and cutlass

The falchion (French braquemart,* [50] Spanish bracamarte) proper is a wide straight-bladed but curved edged hanger
or long knife.* [51] The term falchion may also refer to the early cutlass.
The cutlass or curtal-axe also known as a falchion (French badelaire, braquemart,* [52] coutelas,* [53] malchus Italian
coltellaccio, storta, German messer,* [54] dussack, malchus) is a broad-bladed curved hanger or long knife. In later
usage, the cutlass referred to the short naval boarding sabre.

Sabre

The sabre (US saber) or shable (French sabre, Spanish sable, Italian sciabola, German sabel or säbel, Russian sablya,
Hungarian szablya, Polish szabla) is a single-edged curved bladed cavalry sword.* [55]

Scimitar

The scimitar (French cimeterre, Italian scimitarra) is a type of saber that came to refer in general to any sabre used
by the Turks or Ottomans (kilij), Persians (shamshir) and more specifically the Stradioti* [56] (Albanian and Greek
mercenaries who fought in the French-Italian Wars and were employed throughout Western Europe* [57]).* [58] The
scimitar proper was the Stradioti saber,* [59]* [60] and the term was introduced into France by Philippe de Com-
mines (1447 – 18 October 1511) as cimeterre,* [61] Italy (especially the Venetian Republic who hired the stradioti as
mercenaries) as scimitarra, and England as cimeter or scimitar via the French and Italian terms.

3.3 See also

• Types of swords

• Oakeshott typology
3.4. REFERENCES 37

3.4 References
[1] Pappenheimer Sword - myArmoury.com

[2] Pappenheimer | Define Pappenheimer at Dictionary.com

[3] Broadswords

[4] SOCIETY :: WEAPONS :: THRUSTING AND CUTTING WEAPONS [1] image - Visual Dictionary Online

[5] The rapier revisited

[6] attested in a New Gallery exhibition catalogue, London 1890.

[7] see e.g. A general guide to the Wallace Collection, 1933, p. 149.

[8] in Death of the Laird's Jock (1831).

[9] Robert Nares, A glossary; or, Collection of words ... which have been thought to require illustration, in the works of English
authors (1822).

[10] Tony Willis, "A Pair of Scottish Swords", Page One, Page Two, Page Three, Page Four.

[11] Oakeshott, Ewart. The Sword in the Age of Chivalry. Boydell Press 1994. Page 42-46.

[12] Oakeshott, Ewart. Records of the Medieval Sword. Boydell Press 1991. Page 89 and 95.

[13] Du Fresne Du Cange, C.; Henschel, G.A.L.; Carpentier, P.; Adelung, J.C.; Favre, L.; Freher, M.; Scaliger, J.J.; Welser, M.
(1887). Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis: Indices (pp. v-ccxvi) & “Extraits des observations sur l'Histoire de Saint
Louis”. L. Favre.

[14] “Search Chambers - Free English Dictionary”. chambers.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-05-27.

[15] “Claymore”. jacobites.info. Retrieved 2014-05-27.

[16] Oeuvres - François Rabelais (écrivain), César de Missy, Jacob Le Duchat, Louis-Fabricius Dubourg, Bernard Picart, Pieter
Tanjé, Balthasar Bernaerts, Jacob Folkema - Google Boo...

[17] Dictionnaire historique de l'ancien langage françois - Sainte-Palaye (Jean-Baptiste de La Curne, M. de La Curne de) -
Google Books

[18] A Perfect Length II: The Longsword – Encased in Steel

[19] Notes and queries - Oxford Journals (Firm) - Google Books

[20] Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue françoise - Gilles Ménage, Auguste François Jault, Pierre Borel, Pierre de Caseneuve,
H. P. Simon de Val-Hébert, Pierre Besnier, Claude ...

[21] Dictionnaire étymologique, critique, historique, anecdotique et littéraire ... - François-Joseph-Michel Noël - Google Books

[22] Fitzwilliam Museum Collections Explorer - Object HEN.M.213-1933 (Id:18930)

[23] Patrick Bárta “Bastard”Sword - myArmoury.com

[24] Sword Forms

[25] The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts :: View topic - Sword types in prize playing

[26] Joseph Strutt The sports and pastimes of the people of England from the earliest period: including the rural and domestic
recreations, May games, mummeries, pageants, processions and pompous spectacles, 1801, p. 211.

[27] London Masters of Defense

[28] The London Masters of Defense

[29] Oakeshott (1980).

[30] Paradoxes of Defence, by George Silver (1599)

[31] Pennant, T. (1776). A Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides, 1772 (v. 2). B. White.

[32] “Forms of European Edged Weaponry -- myArmoury.com”. myarmoury.com. Retrieved 2014-05-27.

38 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF SWORDS

[33] Boyer's French Dictionary: Comprising All the Additions and Improvements of ... - Abel Boyer, William Bentley Fowle -
Google Books

[34] Rapier | Define Rapier at Dictionary.com

[35] Le Monde De D Artagnan

[36] Higginssword.org

[37] JM9

[38] swetnam1

[39] dict.cc dictionary :: Panzerstecher [Blankwaffe] :: German-English translation

[40] English Tuck (Estoc) - myArmoury.com

[41] What's a Panzerstecher?

[42] Philadelphia Museum of Art - Collections Object : Tuck (Panzerstecher)

[43] Hermann Historica - Internationales Auktionshaus für Antiken, Alte Waffen, Orden und Ehrenzeichen, Historische Samm-
lungsstücke

[44] Spartan Weaponry

[45] Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani (2008). The Development of Controversies: From the Early Modern Period to Online
Discussion Forums. Peter Lang. p. 150. ISBN 978-3-03911-711-6.

[46] Evans Lansing Smith; Nathan Robert Brown (2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Mythology. Alpha Books. p.
144. ISBN 978-1-59257-764-4.

[47] Kokan Nagayama, trans. Kenji Mishina (1997). The Connoisseur's Book of Japanese Swords. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha
International Ltd. ISBN 4-7700-2071-6.

[48] Hunting Weapons: From the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century - Howard L. Blackmore - Google Books

[49] European Hanger - myArmoury.com

[50] Glossaire archéologique du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance

[51] Glossaire archéologique du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance

[52] Les Guerriers d'Avalon

[53] Glossaire archéologique du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance

[54] Historical Messer Drawings

[55] Ethnographic Arms & Armour - Article: Notes on development of modern sabers - Role of Eastern Europe & the Hussars

[56] Stradioti: Balkan Mercenaries In Fifteenth And Sixteenth Century Italy

[57] estradiot : définition de estradiot, citations, exemples et usage pour estradiot dans le dictionnaire de français Littré adapté
du grand dictionnaire de la langue française d'...

[58] Glossaire archéologique du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance

[59] Oeuvres complètes de Bossuet - Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet - Google Books

[60] Le costume historique: Cinq cents planches, trois cents en couleurs, or et ... - Auguste Racinet - Google Books

[61] Des princes français, rois de Sicile, rois de Naples - Michel Levasseur - Google Books
Chapter 4

Zweihänder

The Zweihänder (German for“two hander”, also called Two handed sword, Montante, Great sword, Biden-
händer, Schlachtschwert* [1] or Bihänder), is a two-handed sword primarily of the Renaissance. It is a true two-
handed sword because it requires two hands to wield, unlike other large swords that are wielded with two hands but
can also be wielded with one.* [2]
The Zweihänder swords develop from the longsword of the Late Middle Ages and they became a hallmark weapon
of the German Landsknechte from the time of Maximilian I (d. 1519) and during the Italian Wars of 1494–1559.
The Goliath Fechtbuch (1510) shows an intermediate form between longsword and Zweihänder
These swords represent the final stage in the trend of increasing size that started in the 14th century. In its developed
form, the Zweihänder has acquired the characteristics of a polearm rather than a sword. Consequently, it is not carried
in a sheath but across the shoulder like a halberd. By the second half of the 16th century, these swords had largely
ceased to have a practical application, but they continued to see ceremonial or representative use well into the 17th
century. Some ceremonial zweihänder, called “bearing-swords”or “parade-swords”(Paratschwert) were much
larger and weighed about 10 pounds (4.5 kg).* [3]

4.1 Morphology

Due to their size and weight ̶typically at least 1.4 m (4 ft 71 ⁄8 in) long and with a weight of over 2 kg ̶Zweihänders
require two hands; as such they require at least 25 cm (9.84 in) for the grip.* [4] Zweihänders above 4 kg are considered
to be more ceremonial than practical.
Early Zweihänders were simply larger versions of longswords. Later examples had Parierhaken (“parrying hooks”
) at the top of the ricasso as well as side rings on the hilt. A sword did not necessarily have both features.* [5]
Some Zweihänders had wavy blades and were called Flammenschwert.

4.2 Application

The weapon is mostly associated with either Swiss or German mercenaries known as Landsknecht, and their wielders
were Doppelsöldner. However, the Swiss outlawed their use, while the Landsknechte kept using them until much
later.* [6] The Black Band of German mercenaries (active during the 1510s and 1520s) included 2,000 two-handed
swordsmen in a total strength of 17,000 men. Zweihänder wielders fought with and against pike formations. There
are some accounts of Zweihänders cutting off pike heads. Soldiers trained in the use of the sword were granted the
title of Meister des langen Schwertes (lit. Master of the Long Sword) by the Marx brotherhood.
Frisian hero Pier Gerlofs Donia is reputed to have wielded a Zweihänder with such skill, strength and efficiency that
he managed to behead several people with it in a single blow. The Zweihänder ascribed to him is, as of 2008, on
display in the Frisian museum. It has a length of 213 cm (84 in) and a weight of about 6.6 kg (141 ⁄2 lb).* [7]

39
40 CHAPTER 4. ZWEIHÄNDER

1548 depiction of a Zweihänder used against pikes in the Battle of Kappel

4.3 References
[1] Oakeshott, Ewart (November 2000). European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution.
Boydell Press. p. 148.

[2] Melville, Neil H. T. (January 2000). “The Origins of the Two-Handed Sword”. Journal of Western Martial Art.

[3] Clements, J. “The Weighty Issue of Two-Handed Greatswords”. ARMA. Retrieved 11 May 2012.

[4] Melville, Neil H. T. (January 2000). “The Origins of the Two-Handed Sword”. Journal of Western Martial Art.

[5] Melville, Neil H. T. (January 2000). “The Origins of the Two-Handed Sword”. Journal of Western Martial Art.

[6] Clements, J. “The Weighty Issue of Two-Handed Greatswords”. ARMA. Retrieved 11 May 2012.

[7] “Greate Pier fan Wûnseradiel” (in Western Frisian). Gemeente Wûnseradiel. Retrieved 2008-01-04.

4.4 External links

• Essay by Anthony Shore (Journal of Western Martial Art)
• The Weighty Issue of Two-Handed Greatswords, by John Clements
 Chapter 5

Claymore

Not to be confused with a type of Scottish broadsword.

For other uses, see Claymore (disambiguation).
A claymore (/ˈkleɪmɔər/; from Scottish Gaelic claidheamh-mòr, “great sword”)* [1] is the Scottish variant of
the late medieval two-handed longsword. It is characterised as having a cross hilt of forward-sloping quillons with
quatrefoil terminations. It was in use from the 15th to 17th centuries.
In later years (1700s onwards) the word claymore began to be used in Scotland and parts of England to refer to basket-
hilted swords. While this description was probably not used during the 1600s when basket hilted swords were the
primary military swords across Europe but over time the large, heavy, broad bladed swords remained in service with
Scottish regiments. After the Acts of Union in 1707 when Scottish and English regiments were integrated together
the swords were seen as a mark of distinction by Scottish officers over the more slender sabres used by their English
contemporaries. As a broad, heavy weapon the swords were seen as a symbol of physical strength and prowess, and a
link to the historic Highland way of life. Although these swords were no longer recognizable as the historical claymore
they were the broadsword of that era and so were referred to using that same word. Such swords remained in service
with Scottish regiments into the 1800s.

5.1 Terminology
The term claymore is an anglicisation of the Gaelic claidheamh-mòr “great sword”, attested in 1772 (as Cly-more)
with the gloss “great two-handed sword”.* [2] The sense "basket-hilted sword" is contemporaneous, attested in
1773 as “The broad-sword now used [...] called the Claymore, (i.e. the great sword).”* [3] OED observes that the
latter usage is “inexact, but very common”. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica likewise judged that the term is
“wrongly”applied to the basket-hilted sword.* [4]
Countering this view, Paul Wagner & Christopher Thompson argue that the term “claymore”was applied first to
the basket-hilted broadsword, and then to all Scottish swords. They provide earlier quotes than those given above, in
support of its use to refer to a basket-hilted broadsword and targe: “a strong handsome target, with a sharp pointed
steel, of above half an ell in length, screw'd into the navel of it, on his left arm, a sturdy claymore by his side”(1715
pamphlet). They also note its use as a battle-cry as early as 1678.* [5]
Authors arguing that the basket-hilted sword is“incorrectly”called claymore have been known to suggest that claybeg
(from a purported Gaelic claidheamh-beag “small sword”) should be used instead.* [6]
This does not parallel Scottish Gaelic usage. According to the Gaelic Dictionary by R. A. Armstrong (1825),
claidheamh-mòr translates to“broadsword”, and claidheamh dà làimh to“two-handed sword”, while claidheamh-
beag is given as a translation of "Bilbo".* [7]
The term “claymore”became part of vocabulary of the Victorian era sentimental or Romanticist “retro-Jacobite”
literature and poetry such as the Skye Boat Song (1870).
Other contemporary Gaelic descriptives of swords include claidheamh-cùil or back sword, referring to a single-edged
sword with a flat“spine”(not one worn on the back, a common misinterpretation), the claidheamh-crom or crooked
sword, which could describe either a typical sabre style blade (such as that worn by Archibald Campbell, 1st Duke of
Argyll, in the painting by Medina) or a scimitar style blade known as a “Turcael”(“Turkish”blade) such as that

41
42 CHAPTER 5. CLAYMORE

Engraving of a claymore and armour at Dunvegan Castle (from Footsteps of Dr. Johnson, 1890).

brandished by Alasdair Mòr, the Champion of Clan Grant, in the c. 1715 portrait by Waitt, or the claidheamh-caol
or narrow sword, usually describing a rapier or small-sword.
The term claybeg, purportedly from Scots Gaelic claidheamh-beag meaning “little sword”is not seen in clan-era
Gaelic song or poetry, 'Dwelly's' [ibid.], or other authorities, and seems to be a fairly recent invention.

5.2 Two-handed (Highland) claymore

The two-handed claymore was a large sword used in the late Medieval and early modern periods. It was used in the
constant clan warfare and border fights with the English from circa 1400 to 1700.* [8] Although Claymores existed as
far back as the Wars of Scottish Independence they were smaller and few had the typical quatrefoil design (as can be
seen on the Great Seal of John Balliol King of Scots).* [9] The last known battle in which it is considered to have been
used in a significant number was the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689. It was somewhat longer than other two-handed
5.2. TWO-HANDED (HIGHLAND) CLAYMORE 43

A mid-16th-century tomb effigy from Finlaggan

swords of the era. The two-handed claymore seems to be an offshoot of Early Scottish medieval longswords (similar
to the Espee de Guerre or Grete war sword) which had developed a distinctive style of a cross-hilt with forward-angled
arms that ended in spatulate swellings.The lobed pommels on earlier swords were inspired by the Viking style. The
spatulate swellings were later frequently made in a quatrefoil design.* [10]
44 CHAPTER 5. CLAYMORE

The average claymore ran about 140 cm (55 in) in overall length, with a 33 cm (13 in) grip, 107 cm (42 in) blade,
and a weight of approximately 5.5 lb (2.5 kg). For instance, in 1772 Thomas Pennant described a sword seen on his
visit to Raasay as: “an unwieldy weapon, two inches broad, doubly edged; the length of the blade three feet seven
inches; of the handle, fourteen inches; of a plain transverse guard, one foot; the weight six pounds and a half.”* [11]
Fairly uniform in style, the sword was set with a wheel pommel often capped by a crescent-shaped nut and a guard
with straight, forward-sloping arms ending in quatrefoils, and langets running down the centre of the blade from the
guard. Another common style of two-handed claymore (though lesser known today) was the “clamshell hilted”
claymore. It had a crossguard that consisted of two downward-curving arms and two large, round, concave plates that
protected the foregrip. It was so named because the round guards resembled an open clam.

5.3 See also

• Historical fencing in Scotland

5.4 Notes
[1]“claymore”. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., 1989. (subscription required)

[2] Thomas Pennant, A map of Scotland, the Hebrides, and part of England, cited after OED. See also Alexander Robert
Ulysses Lockmore (1778). Annual Register Vol. 23. London.

[3] James Boswell, The journal of a tour to the Hebrides, with Samuel Johnson, cited after OED.

[4] Chisholm 1911, p. 474.

[5] Wagner, Paul & Thompson, Christopher, “The words claymore and broadsword”in Hand, Stephen, Spada II: Anthology
of Swordsmanship (Chivalry Bookshelf, 2002)

[6] so Nick Evangelista, The encyclopedia of the sword, 1995, ISBN 978-0-313-27896-9, p. 113. The suggestion appears as
early as 1835, in a letter to the editor of The United service magazine p. 109: "... the claybeg or Andrew Ferrara, now
worn by the officers and sergeants of the Highland corps, and which has usurped the venerable name of the ancient Scottish
weapon”.

[7] A Gaelic Dictionary, p. 120. see also Wagner, Paul; Christopher Thompson (2005). “The words “claymore”and
“broadsword"". SPADA (Highland Village, Texas: The Chivalry Bookshelf) 2: 111–117.. Dwelly's Illustrated Gaelic to
English Dictionary (Gairm Publications, Glasgow, 1988, p. 202); 'Culloden – The Swords and the Sorrows (The National
Trust for Scotland, Glasgow, 1996).

[8] swords and sabres harvey J S withers

[9] Ewart Oakeshott= Records of the Medieval Sword pg.117 BOYDELL&BREWER Ltd

[10] Highland grave slab national museum of Scotland.

[11] Wagner, Paul & Thompson, Christopher, “The words claymore and broadsword”in Hand, Stephen, Spada II: Anthology
of Swordsmanship (Chivalry Bookshelf, 2002)

5.5 References and further reading

• Claude Blair, 'The Word Claymore' in David H. Caldwell (ed.), Scottish Weapons and Fortifications (Edinburgh
1981), 378–387

• David H. Caldwell, The Scottish Armoury (Edinburgh 1979), 24–26

• Fergus Cannan, Scottish Arms and Armour (Oxford 2009), 29–31, 79, 82

• Tobias Capwell, The Real Fighting Stuff: Arms and Armour at Glasgow Museums (Glasgow 2007), 84

• Ross Cowan, 'Weapon of Deeds: The Two-Handed Scottish Highland Sword', Medieval Warfare 1.3 (2011),
24–25
5.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 45

• Ross Cowan, 'Lairds of Battle', Military History Monthly 32 (2013), 47–48

• G. A. Hayes-McCoy, 'Sixteenth Century Swords Found in Ireland', Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries
of Ireland 78 (1948), 38–54

• J. G. Mann, 'A Late Medieval Sword from Ireland', Antiquaries Journal 24 (1944), 94–99
• Dwelly's Illustrated Gaelic to English Dictionary (Gairm Publications, Glasgow, 1988, p. 202)

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Claymore". Encyclopædia Britannica 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
p. 474.

5.6 External links

• Scottish hand-and-a-half and two-handed swords

• Two-handed Highland swords in the collections of Glasgow Museums, the National Museum of Scotland, and
the British Museum.

• Scottish two-handed swords with clam shell guards in Kelvingrove, the National Museum of Scotland and Dean
Castle (Kilmarnock).

• Scottish swords image resource

Chapter 6

Longsword

For other uses, see Longsword (disambiguation).

A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a
cruciform hilt with a grip for two-handed use and a straight double-edged blade of around 90 to 110 cm (35 to 43
in),* [1] prevalent during the late medieval and Renaissance periods (approximately 1350 to 1550), with early and
late use reaching into the 13th and 17th centuries.

6.1 Terminology

Further information: Oakeshott_typology § Type_XIII

Historical (15th to 16th century) terms for this type of sword included Spanish espadón, montante, or mandoble,
Italian spadone or spada longa (lunga), Portuguese montante and Middle French passot. The Gaelic claidheamh
mòr means “great sword"; anglicised as claymore, it came to refer to the Scottish type of longsword with v-shaped
crossguard. Historical terminology overlaps with that applied to the Zweihänder sword in the 16th century: French
espadon, Spanish espadón, or Portuguese montante may also be used more narrowly to refer to these large swords.
The French épée de passot may also refer to a medieval single-handed sword optimized for thrusting.
The French épée bâtarde and the English bastard sword originate in the 15th or 16th century, originally in the general
sense of “irregular sword, sword of uncertain origin”, but by the mid-16th century could refer to exceptionally
large swords.* [2] The Masters of Defence competition organised by Henry VIII in July 1540 listed two hande sworde
and bastard sworde as two separate items.* [3] It is uncertain whether the same term could still be used to other types
of smaller swords, but antiquarian usage in the 19th century established the use of “bastard sword”as referring
unambiguously to these large swords.* [4]
The German langes schwert (“long sword”) in 15th-century manuals does not denote a type of weapon, but the
technique of fencing with both hands at the hilt, contrasting with kurzes schwert (“short sword”) used of fencing
with the same weapon, but with one hand gripping the blade (also known as a half-sword). It is only in the later 16th
century that the term langes schwert can be shown to be applied to a type of sword; it had found its way into English as
longsword or long sword by the time of Shakespeare, in whose Romeo and Juliet (Act I, scene i) this loan translation
is attested.
Contemporary use of “long-sword”or “longsword”only resurfaced in the 2000s in the context of reconstruction
of the German school of fencing, translating the German langes schwert.* [5]* [6]* [7]
The term “hand-and-a-half sword”is relatively modern (from the late 19th century).* [8] This name was given
because the balance of the sword made it usable in one hand, as well as two. During the first half of the 20th century,
the term “bastard sword”was used regularly to refer to this type of sword, while “long sword”(or “long-sword”
), if used at all, referred to the rapier (in the context of Renaissance or Early Modern fencing).* [9]

46
6.2. EVOLUTION 47

6.2 Evolution
The longsword is characterised not so much by a longer blade, but by a longer grip, which indicates a weapon designed
for two-handed use. Swords with exceptionally long hilts are found throughout the High Middle Ages, but these remain
exceptional, and are not representative of an identifiable trend before the late 13th or early 14th century.
The longsword as a late medieval type of sword emerges in the 14th century, as a military weapon of the earlier
phase of the Hundred Years' War. It remains identifiable as a type during the period of about 1350 to 1550.* [10] It
remained in use as a weapon of war intended for wielders wearing full plate armour either on foot or on horseback,
throughout the late medieval period. From the late 15th century, however, it is also attested as being worn and
used by unarmoured soldiers or mercenaries. By the 16th century, its military use was mostly obsolete, culminating
in the brief period where the oversized Zweihänder were wielded by the German Landsknechte during the early to
mid 16th century. By the second half of the 16th century, it persisted mostly as a weapon for sportive competition
(Schulfechten), and possibly in knightly duels.
Distinct“bastard sword”hilt types developed during the first half of the 16th century. Ewart Oakeshott distinguishes
twelve different types.* [4]* :130 These all seem to have originated in Bavaria and in Switzerland. By the late 16th
century, early forms of the developed-hilt appear on this type of sword. Beginning about 1520, the Swiss sabre
(schnepf) in Switzerland began to replace the straight longsword, inheriting its hilt types, and the longsword had
fallen out of use in Switzerland by 1550. In southern Germany, it persisted into the 1560s, but its use also declined
during the second half of the 16th century. There are two late examples of longswords kept in the Swiss National
Museum, both with vertically grooved pommels and elaborately decorated with silver inlay, and both belonging to
Swiss noblemen in French service during the late 16th and early 17th century, Gugelberg von Moos and Rudolf
von Schauenstein.* [4]* :133* [11] The longsword or bastard-sword was also made in Spain, appearing relatively late,
known as the espadon or the montante.

6.3 Morphology

Pommel Fuller
Rain-guard (Chappe) Edge
Central ridge

Cross-guard Point
Grip
Strong Weak
Hilt Blade

Locket Chape

Scabbard

The basic anatomy of an arming sword.

6.3.1 Blade profile

The blade of the longsword is straight and double-edged. Over time, the blades of longswords become slightly longer,
thicker in cross-section, less wide, and considerably more pointed. This design change is largely attributed to the
use of plate armour as an effective defence, more or less nullifying the ability of a sword cut to break through the
armour system. Instead of cutting, long swords were then used more to thrust against opponents in plate armour,
48 CHAPTER 6. LONGSWORD

requiring a more acute point and a more rigid blade. However, the cutting capability of the longsword was never
entirely removed, as in some later rapiers, but was supplanted in importance by thrusting capability.

6.3.2 Blade cross-section

Different blade cross-sections. At the top, variants of the diamond shape. At the bottom, variants of the lenticular shape.

The two most basic forms of blade cross-section are lenticular and diamond. Lenticular blades are shaped like thin
double convex lenses, providing adequate thickness for strength in the centre while allowing a proper cutting edge.
These normally have fullers, which are grooves or channels running down the flats of the blade, originating at or
slightly below the hilt. The resultant geometry both lightens and strengthens the blade. On earlier blades, this shape
ran almost the entire length of the blade. As points became more acute, the fuller stops around one-third from the
point and the cross section changed to a diamond shape. The diamond-shaped blade slopes directly up from the edges,
without the convex curve of the lenticular blade. The central ridge produced by this angular geometry is known as
a riser. Many later blades are of diamond section their entire length though with the flats of the diamond hollowed
to give increased rigidity for thrusting. These forms were hammered in by the bladesmith and only the surface finish
was ground.
6.4. FIGHTING WITH THE LONGSWORD 49

6.3.3 Hilts

A variety of hilt styles exist for longswords, with the style of pommel and quillon (crossguard) changing over time to
accommodate different blade properties and to fit emerging stylistic trends.

6.4 Fighting with the longsword

For more details on this topic, see Historical fencing.

The expression fechten mit dem langen schwert (“fighting with the long sword”) in the German school of fencing
denotes the style of fencing which uses both hands at the hilt; fechten mit dem kurzen schwert (“fighting with the
short sword”) is used in half-sword fighting, with one hand gripping the blade. The two terms are largely equivalent
to “unarmoured fighting”(blossfechten) and “armoured fencing”(fechten im harnisch).

6.4.1 History

Codified systems of fighting with the longsword existed from the later 14th century, with a variety of styles and
teachers each providing a slightly different take on the art. Hans Talhoffer, a mid-15th-century German fightmaster,
is probably the most prominent, using a wide variety of moves, most resulting in wrestling. The longsword was a quick,
effective, and versatile weapon capable of deadly thrusts, slices, and cuts.* [12]* :15–16 The blade was generally used
with both hands on the hilt, one resting close to or on the pommel. The weapon may be held with one hand during
disarmament or grappling techniques. In a depiction of a duel, individuals may be seen wielding sharply pointed
longswords in one hand, leaving the other hand open to manipulate the large dueling shield.* [12]* :plates 128–150
Another variation of use comes from the use of armour. Half-swording was a manner of using both hands, one on
the hilt and one on the blade, to better control the weapon in thrusts and jabs. This versatility was unique, as multiple
works hold that the longsword provided the foundations for learning a variety of other weapons including spears,
staves, and polearms.* [12]* [13] Use of the longsword in attack was not limited only to use of the blade, however, as
several Fechtbücher explain and depict use of the pommel and cross as offensive weapons.* [12]* :73–73; plate 67 The
cross has been shown to be used as a hook for tripping or knocking an opponent off balance.* [12]* :plate 58 Some
manuals even depict the cross as a hammer.* [14]
What is known of combat with the longsword comes from artistic depictions of battle from manuscripts and the
Fechtbücher of Medieval and Renaissance Masters. Therein the basics of combat were described and, in some
cases, depicted. The German school of swordsmanship includes the earliest known longsword Fechtbuch, a manual
from approximately 1389, known as GNM 3227a. This manual, unfortunately for modern scholars, was written in
obscure verse. It was through students of Liechtenauer, like Sigmund Ringeck, who transcribed the work into more
understandable prose* [15] that the system became notably more codified and understandable.* [16] Others provided
similar work, some with a wide array of images to accompany the text.* [17]
The Italian school of swordsmanship was the other primary school of longsword use. The 1410 manuscript by Fiore
dei Liberi presents a variety of uses for the longsword. Like the German manuals, the weapon is most commonly
depicted and taught with both hands on the hilt. However, a section on one-handed use is among the volume and
demonstrates the techniques and advantages, such as sudden additional reach, of single-handed longsword play.* [18]
The manual also presents half-sword techniques as an integral part of armoured combat.
Both schools declined in the late 16th century, with the later Italian masters forgoing the longsword and focusing
primarily on rapier fencing. The last known German manual to include longsword teaching was that of Jakob Sutor,
published in 1612. In Italy, spadone, or longsword, instruction lingered on in spite of the popularity of the rapier, at
least into the mid-17th century (Alfieri's Lo Spadone of 1653), with a late treatise of the “two handed sword”by
one Giuseppe Colombani, a dentist in Venice dating to 1711. A tradition of teaching based on this has survived in
contemporary French and Italian stick fighting.* [19]

6.4.2 German school of fencing

Main article: German school of fencing

50 CHAPTER 6. LONGSWORD

1440s illustration of one- and two-handed use of the longsword. Note the sword being used one-handed is drawn shorter and may
also be intended as a large knightly sword (CPG 339 fol. 135r).

Bloßfechten

Bloßfechten (blosz fechten) or“bare fighting”is the technique of fighting without significant protective armour such
as plate or mail.
6.4. FIGHTING WITH THE LONGSWORD 51

Example of two handed use vs. half-sword, dating to ca. 1418 (CPG 359, fol. 46v).

The lack of significant torso and limb protection leads to the use of a large amount of cutting and slicing techniques in
addition to thrusts. These techniques could be nearly instantly fatal or incapacitating, as a thrust to the skull, heart, or
major blood vessel would cause massive trauma. Similarly, strong strikes could cut through skin and bone, effectively
amputating limbs. The hands and forearms are a frequent target of some cuts and slices in a defensive or offensive
manoeuvre, serving both to disable an opponent and align the swordsman and his weapon for the next attack.
52 CHAPTER 6. LONGSWORD

Unarmoured longsword fencers (plate 25 of the 1467 manual of Hans Talhoffer)

Page of the Codex Wallerstein showing a half-sword thrust against a two-handed sword's Mordstreich (Plate 214)

Harnischfechten

Harnischfechten, or “armoured fighting”(German kampffechten, or Fechten in Harnisch zu Fuss, literally “fighting

in armour on foot”), depicts fighting in full plate armour.* [20]
6.5. SEE ALSO 53

The increased defensive capability of a man clad in full plate armour caused the use of the sword to be drastically
changed. While slashing attacks were still moderately effective against infantry wearing half-plate armour, cutting
and slicing attacks against an opponent wearing plate armour were almost entirely ineffective in providing any sort
of slashing wound as the sword simply could not cut through the steel, although a combatant could aim for the
chinks in a suit of armour, sometimes to great effect.* [21] Instead, the energy of the cut becomes essentially pure
concussive energy. The later hardened plate armours, complete with ridges and roping, posed a threat against the
careless attacker. It is considered possible for strong blows of the sword against plate armour to damage the blade
of the sword, potentially rendering it much less effective at cutting and producing only a concussive effect against the
armoured opponent.
To overcome this problem, swords began to be used primarily for thrusting. The weapon was used in the half-sword,
with one or both hands on the blade. This increased the accuracy and strength of thrusts and provided more leverage
for Ringen am Schwert or “wrestling at/with the sword”. This technique combines the use of the sword with
wrestling, providing opportunities to trip, disarm, break, or throw an opponent and place them in a less offensively
and defensively capable position. During half-swording, the entirety of the sword works as a weapon, including the
pommel and crossguard. One example how a sword can be used this way is to thrust the tip of the crossguard at the
opponent's head right after parrying a stroke. Another technique would be the Mordstreich (lit. “murder stroke”
), where the weapon is held by the blade (hilt, pommel and crossguard serving as an improvised hammer head) and
swung, taking advantage of the balance being close to the hilt to increase the concussive effect (see the fighter on the
right of the Codex Wallerstein picture).* [21]

6.5 See also

• Historical European martial arts

• Oakeshott typology

• Ricasso

• Great sword

• Claymore

• Side-sword

• Waster

• Jian

• Tachi

• Katana

6.6 Notes
[1] Loades, Mike (2010). Swords and Swordsmen. Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 978-1-84884-133-8.

[2] Rabelais, François (1741). Le Duchat, Jacob, ed. Oeuvres (in French). p. 129 (footnote 5). Qui n'étoit ni Françoise , ni
Espagnole, ni proprement Lansquenette, mais plus grande que pas une de ces fortes épées. ([A sword] which was neither
French, nor Spanish, nor properly Landsknecht [German], but larger than any of these great swords.

[3] Strutt, Joseph (1801). The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England from the Earliest Period: Including the Rural and
Domestic Recreations, May Games, Mummeries, Pageants, Processions and Pompous Spectacles. Methuen & Company. p.
211.

[4] Oakeshott, Ewart (1980). European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution. Boydell &
Brewer, Incorporated. pp. 129–135. ISBN 9780851157894.

[5] A nonce attestation of “long-sword”in the sense of “heavy two-handed sword”is found in Kezer, Claude D. (1983).
Principles of Stage Combat. I. E. Clark Publications. ISBN 9780886801564.
54 CHAPTER 6. LONGSWORD

[6] Thimm, Carl A. (31 May 1999). A Complete Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling. Pelican Publishing. ISBN 9781455602773.
uses“long sword (Schwerdt) on p. 220 as direct translation from a German text of 1516, and“long sword or long rapier”
in reference to George Silver (1599) on p. 269.

[7] Systematic use of the term only from 2001 beginning with Tobler, Christian Henry; Ringeck, Sigmund; Liechtenauer,
Johann (2001). Secrets of German Medieval Swordsmanship. Chivalry Bookshelf. ISBN 9781891448072.

[8] As attested in Exhibition of the Royal House of Tudor. London: New Gallery. 1890.

[9] See, for example, A General Guide to the Wallace Collection. H.M. Stationery Office. 1933. p. 149.

[10] Oakeshott, Ewart (1994). The Sword in the Age of Chivalry (PDF). Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press. p. 56. ISBN
9780851157153. OCLC 807485557.

[11] “Peter Finer”. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Two further silver-encrusted swords possessing pommels
of this type can be seen in the Schweizerisches Landesmuseum, Zurich...The first belonged to Hans Gugelberg von Moos
(recorded 1562–1618), and the second to Rudolf von Schauenstein (recorded 1587–1626), whose name appears on its
blade along with the date 1614.

[12] Talhoffer, Hans (2000). Rector, Mark, ed. Medieval Combat: A Fifteenth-Century Illustrated Manual of Swordfighting and
Close-Quarter Combat. Greenhill Books. ISBN 1853674184.

[13] Lindholm, David (2006). Fighting with the Quarterstaff: A Modern Study of Renaissance Techniqu. Highland Village,
Texas: Chivalry Bookshelf. p. 32. ISBN 9781891448362.

[14] Talhoffer, Hans (1467). Fechtbuch (in German).

[15] Ringeck, Sigmund. MS Dresd. C 487.

[16] Lindholm, David; Svard, P. (2003). Sigmund Ringneck's Knightly Art of the Longsword. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press.
p. 11. ISBN 1581604106.

[17] Talhoffer, Hans. Thott 290 2.

[18] dei Liberi, Fiore. Flos Duellatorum (PDF) (in Italian).

[19] See, for instance, Giuseppe Cerri's Trattato teorico e pratico della scherma di bastone of 1854.

[20] Clements, John. “Medieval and Renaissance Fencing Terminology”.

[21] Lindholm, David; Svärd, Peter (2006). Signmund Ringeck's Knightly Arts of Combat. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. p.
219. ISBN 1581604998.

6.7 References
• Cvet, David M. (February 2002). “Study of the Destructive Capabilities of the European Longsword”.
Journal of Western Martial Art.
• Dawson, Timothy (February 2005). “A club with an edge”. Journal of Western Martial Art.
• Hellqvist, Björn (November 2000). “Oakeshott's Typology – An Introduction”. Journal of Western Martial
Art.
• Melville, Neil H. T. (January 2000). “The Origins of the Two-Handed Sword”. Journal of Western Martial
Art.
• Shore, Anthony (October 2004). “The Two-Handed Great Sword – Making lite of the issue of weight”.
Journal of Western Martial Art.

6.8 External links

• “Oakeshott's Typology of the Medieval Sword: A Summary”Albion Armorers, inc. 2005 – This quick survey
lists the types and sample illustrations of the Oakeshott Typology. Extremely useful, but note, the webpage
updates the statistics of the original Oakeshott Typology, with the findings from later research.
• Scottish hand-and-a-half and two-handed swords
6.9. FURTHER READING 55

6.9 Further reading

• Clements, John (1998). Medieval Swordsmanship: Illustrated Methods and Techniques. Boulder, Colorado:
Paladin Press. ISBN 1581600046.
• Clements, John (2008). Masters of medieval and Renaissance martial arts: rediscovering the Western combat
heritage. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 9781581606683.

• Thomas, Michael G (2008). The Fighting Man's Guide to German Longsword Combat. Newport: SwordWorks.
ISBN 9781906512002.

• Tobler, Christian Henry (2004). Fighting With the German Longsword. Union City, California: Chivalry
Bookshelf. ISBN 1891448242.

• Windsor, Guy (2004). The Swordsman's Companion: A Modern Training Manual for Medieval Longsword.
Union City, California: Chivalry Bookshelf. ISBN 1891448412.

• Zabinski, Grzegorz (2002). The Codex Wallerstein: A Medieval Fighting Book from the Fifteenth Century on
the Longsword, Falchion, Dagger, and Wrestling. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 1581603398.

• Schmidt, Herbert (2015). Sword Fightin: An Introduction to handling a Long Sword. Schiffer Books. ISBN
978-0764347924.
 Chapter 7

Basket-hilted sword

“Broadsword”redirects here. For other uses, see Broadsword (disambiguation).

The basket-hilted sword is the name of a group of early modern sword types characterized by a basket-shaped

A typical schiavona of the late 17th century.

guard that protects the hand. The basket hilt is a development of the quillons added to swords' crossguards since the

56
7.1. MORPHOLOGY 57

Juxtaposition of an early broadsword with quillons with a 17th-century schiavona, from The Encyclopaedia of Sport & Games
(1911).

Late Middle Ages. In modern times, this variety of sword is commonly referred to, in colloquial contexts, as the
broadsword, though it should be noted that no historical evidence has currently been unearthed which demonstrates
that this was one of the sword's titles during the times of its prevalence.* [1]* [2] The basket-hilted sword was generally
in use as a military sword, in contrast with the rapier, the slim dueling sword worn with civilian dress during the same
period, although each did find some use in both military and civilian contexts.

7.1 Morphology
The basket-hilted sword is a development of the 16th century, rising to popularity in the 17th century and remaining
in widespread use throughout the 18th century, used especially by heavy cavalry up to the Napoleonic era.
One of the earliest basket-hilted swords was recovered from the wreck of the Mary Rose, an English warship lost
in 1545. Before the find, the earliest positive dating had been two swords from around the time of the English Civil
War.* [3] At first the wire guard was a simple design but as time passed it became increasingly sculpted and ornate.* [4]
The basket-hilted sword was a cut and thrust sword which found the most use in a military context, contrasting with
the rapier, the similarly heavy, thrust-oriented sword most often worn with civilian dress which evolved from the
espada ropera or spada da lato type during the same period. The terms “broadsword”and “backsword”were
not used in the 17th and 18th centuries and are of Victorian invention, referring to double-edged and single-edged
basket-hilted swords respectively. Both terms were introduced to distinguish these cut and thrust swords from the
narrower rapier and smallsword.
By the 17th century there were regional variations of basket-hilts: the Walloon hilt, the Sinclair hilt, schiavona,
mortuary sword, Scottish broadsword, and some types of eastern European pallasches.* [5]* [6]* [7] The mortuary
and claymore variants were commonly used in the British isles, whether domestically-produced or acquired through
trade with Italy and Germany. They also influenced the 18th-century cavalry sabre.* [8]
During the 18th century, the fashion of dueling in Europe focused on the lighter smallsword, and fencing with the
broadsword came to be seen as a speciality of Scotland. A number of fencing manuals teaching fencing with the
Scottish broadsword were published throughout the 18th century.
Descendants of the basket-hilted sword, albeit in the form of backswords with reduced “half”or “three-quarter”
baskets, remained in use in cavalry during the Napoleonic era and throughout the 19th century, specifically as the
1796 Heavy Cavalry Sword, the Gothic Hilted British Infantry Swords of the 1820s to 1890s, the 1897 Pattern British
58 CHAPTER 7. BASKET-HILTED SWORD

Portrait of Donald McBane, a Scottish fencing master, from Donald McBane's The Expert Swordsman's Companion (1728). This
image portrays McBane in the“Inside Guard”with a broadsword, while the table next to him has both broadswords and smallswords.
The wall behind him has a targe with flintlock pistols on each side.

Infantry Officer's Sword and as the Pattern 1908 and 1912 cavalry swords down to the eve of World War I.
7.2. SUBTYPES 59

7.2 Subtypes

7.2.1 Schiavona

The Schiavona was a Renaissance sword that became popular in Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries.* [9] Stem-
ming from the 16th-century sword of the Balkan mercenaries who formed the bodyguard of the Doge of Venice, the
name came from the fact that the guard consisted largely of the Schiavoni, Istrian and Dalmatian Slavs.* [7] It was
widely recognisable for its “cat's-head pommel”and distinctive handguard made up of many leaf-shaped brass or
iron bars that was attached to the cross-bar and knucklebow rather than the pommel.* [7]
Classified as a true broadsword, this war sword had a wider blade than its contemporary civilian rapiers. It was
basket hilted (often with an imbedded quillon for an upper guard) and its blade was double edged. A surviving blade
measures 93.2 cm × 3.4 cm × 0.45 cm and bears two fullers or grooves running about 1/4 the length of the blade.
Weighing in at around 1.1 kg, this blade was useful for both cut and thrust.* [10]
The schiavona became popular among the armies of those who traded with Italy during the 17th century and was the
weapon of choice for many heavy cavalry.* [11] It was popular among mercenary soldiers and wealthy civilians alike;
examples decorated with gilding and precious stones were imported by the upper classes to be worn as a combination
of fashion accessory and defensive weapon.* [12]

7.2.2 Mortuary sword

A similar weapon was the cut-and-thrust mortuary sword which was used after 1625 by cavalry during the English
Civil War. This (usually) two-edged sword sported a half-basket hilt with a straight blade some 90–105 cm long.
These hilts were often of very intricate sculpting and design.
After the execution of King Charles I (1649), basket-hilted swords were made which depicted the face or death mask
of the “martyred”king on the hilt. These swords came to be known as "mortuary swords”, and the term has been
extended to refer to the entire type of Civil War–era broadswords by some 20th-century authors.* [13]
This sword was Oliver Cromwell's weapon of choice; the one he owned is now held by the Royal Armouries, and
displayed at the Tower of London. Mortuary swords remained in use until around 1670 when they fell out of favor
among civilians and began to be replaced with the smallsword.* [8]

7.2.3 Scottish broadsword

Further information: Historical fencing in Scotland and Andrew Ferrara

A common weapon among the clansmen during the Jacobite rebellions of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the
Scottish Basket Hilted Broadsword was the ideal weapon of choice for combating the British Redcoats armed with
muskets. When paired with a “targe”, or light buckler a highlander was provided with a staunch defense to block a
bayonet and then deliver a thrust with the sword. In between rebellions and after the overall failure of the rebellions,
the Highlanders would hide these weapons in the heath. It is not an uncommon story that features a hiker finding such
a blade.

7.2.4 Sinclair Hilt

The Sinclair Hilt was one of the earliest basket-hilt designs and was of south German origin.* [14] On average the
blade of a Sinclair or “compound”hilt sword measured 38in.
It had long quillons and an oval leather-wrapped grip that was originally designed for falchion blades but was soon
applied to the broadsword.* [15] It had a large triangular plate very similar to the ones used on main gauche daggers
and was decorated with pierced hearts and diamonds.* [16]
Hilts of this design were also used on other weapons including sabres, cutlasses, rapiers, backswords and civilian
hunting hangers.* [17]
A similar weapon was the Pallasch which had the same hilt and straight blade but was single-edged. It was used until
the mid-18th century by the Austrian army and inspired the British 1796 Heavy Cavalry Sabre.
60 CHAPTER 7. BASKET-HILTED SWORD

It is believed that these swords were brought back to Scotland by George Sinclair's mercenaries who had served on
the continent.* [18]
The Sinclair hilt broadsword influenced the development of the Scottish basket-hilted claymore, which was used by
highlanders in the 17th and 18th century.* [19] After the Jacobite Wars it became a symbol of Scotland.* [20]

7.2.5 Walloon sword

The so-called walloon sword (épée wallone)* [21] was common in Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands and
Scandinavia in the Thirty Years' War and Baroque era. Basket-hilted rapiers made during the same period are known
as Pappenheimer rapiers.* [22]
The Walloon sword was favored by both the military and civilian gentry.* [23] Its hilt was ambidextrous with shell-
guards and knuckle-bow that inspired 18th century continental hunting hangers.* [24]
Following their campaign in the Netherlands in 1672 (when many of these German-made swords were captured from
the Dutch), the French began producing this weapon as their first regulation sword.* [25] Weapons of this design were
also issued to the Swedish army from the time of Gustavus Adolphus until as late as the 1850s.* [26]

• Venetian schiavona of the late 17th century

• British Pattern 1788 Heavy Cavalry Sword
• A Scottish broadsword of the claidheamh cuil or “back-sword”type
• George Sinclair's forces land in Norway, 1612. The soldier in the center is armed with a Sinclair hilt broadsword
and wears a comb morion.
• Swiss-made Walloon sword

7.3 Fencing technique

Further information: Elizabethan fencing and Historical fencing in Scotland
George Silver in his Paradoxes of Defence (1599), published some material on broadswords, but no instructive details.
Two later books by Silver, Brief Instructions on my Paradoxes of Defence, and Rules of Defence to be observed in open
Fyght, &c., contained more detailed instructions in the use of the broadsword. Silver advises three principal“fyghts”
, or stances for attack, one with the hilt held above the wielder's head with the point towards the wielder's knee; the
second with the wielder's hilt just below chest level with the point towards the wielder's left foot; and the third having
the hands held low and the point held upright. The “wards”or parries were made from these middle positions by
moving the sword to the right or left. Silver was also the first author of any nationality to distinctly advocate parrying
and riposting, to which he devoted an entire chapter.* [5]

7.4 See also

• Backsword
• Claymore

7.5 Notes
[1] “Broadswords”. thearma.org. Retrieved 2014-05-27.

[2] Oakeshott, Ewart (2012) [1980]. European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution.
Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. pp. 156, 173, 175. ISBN 978-1-84383-720-6.

[3] BBC News, "Sword from Mary Rose on display", 26 July 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2010.

[4] Oakeshott, Ewart, The Sword in the Age of Chivalry (1964).

 7.5. NOTES 61

“The Advantage of Shifting the Leg”, plate from Henry Angelo & Son's Hungarian and Highland Broadsword (1799).

[5] Henry Charles Howard Suffolk and Berkshire (Earl of), Hedley Peek, Frederick George Aflalo, The Encyclopaedia of Sport
& Games, Volume 1 (1911), p. 349-355.

[6] “Forms of European Edged Weaponry”. MyArmoury.com.

[7] Robinson, Nathan. "The Schiavona and its influences.”MyArmoury.com. Retrieved on 4 December 2008.

[8] Goodwin, William. "Mortuary Hilt Sword.”MyArmoury.com. Retrieved on 4 December 2008.

[9] Bink, J, A 17th century Masterpiece (Dec 8 2008)

[10] Schiavona

[11] Schiavona at Everything2.com

[12] Ross Dean, Antique andReplica Schiavonas (Dec 8 2008)

[13]“Many of these baskets were decorated with embossed heads‥taken to represent the executed King Charles I, and for
this reason they are often described as mortuary swords.”Frederick Wilkinson, Swords & daggers (1967), i.24. See also
Cromwellian Scotland - Mortuary Sword

[14] Oakeshott, E. (2012) [1980]. European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution. Wood-
bridge: The Boydell Press. pp. 172–173. ISBN 978-1-84383-720-6.

[15] Replica Sinclair Hilt Sword. Retrieved on 4 December 2008.

[16] Main Gauche Dagger with sinclair hilt. Retrieved on 4 December 2008.

[17] Forms of European edged weaponry. Retrieved on 4 December 2008

[18] Mad Piper. Retrieved on 4 December 2008.

62 CHAPTER 7. BASKET-HILTED SWORD

[19] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh,
ed. (1911). “Claymore”. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[20] Acts of Union. Retrieved on 4 December 2008.

[21] Vladimir Brnardic, Darko Pavlovic, Imperial Armies of the Thirty Years' War (2): Cavalry, Osprey Publishing, 2010, ISBN
978-1-84603-997-3, p.20.

[22] Pappenheimer

[23] Grandy, B, Phoenix Metal Creations Pappenheimer Sword (Dec 5 2009)

[24] Fitzwilliam Museum

[25] MyArmoury - Walloon Swords

[26] Armemuseum - Varjor

7.6 References
• R. E. Oakeshott, European weapons and armour: From the Renaissance to the industrial revolution (1980).

7.7 External links

• Scottish basket-hilted swords in the National Museum of Scotland, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, and
the Trades House of Glasgow.

• The basket-hilted sword. Description and photos (interestingswords.com)

• Schiavona – Venetian basket-hilted sword (interestingswords.com)
Chapter 8

Falchion

This article describes the medieval weapon. For the Finnish heavy metal band, see Falchion (band).

Falchion

A falchion (/ˈfɔːltʃən/; Old French: fauchon; Latin: falx,“sickle”) is a one-handed, single-edged sword of European
origin, whose design is reminiscent of the Persian scimitar, the Chinese dadao, and modern machete.* [1]
The weapon combined the weight and power of an axe with the versatility of a sword. Falchions are found in different
forms from around the 11th century up to and including the sixteenth century. In some versions the falchion looks
rather like the weapon-seax and later the sabre, and in some versions the form is irregular or like a machete with a
crossguard.

8.1 Types
The blade designs of falchions varied widely across the continent and through the ages. They almost always included
a single edge with a slight curve on the blade towards the point on the end and most were also affixed with a quilloned
crossguard for the hilt in the manner of the contemporary arming swords. Unlike the double-edged swords of Europe,
few actual swords of this type have survived to the present day; fewer than a dozen specimens are currently known.* [2]
Two basic types can be identified:

• Cleaver falchions: One of the few surviving falchions (the Conyers falchion) is shaped very much like a large

63
64 CHAPTER 8. FALCHION

Falchion from medieval painting

meat cleaver, or large bladed machete. This type is also illustrated in art (e.g. the Westminster Hall mural,
shown to the right) The type seems to be confined to the 13th. and 14th. Centuries.* [3]

• Cusped falchions: The majority of the depictions in art reflect a design similar to that of the großes Messer. A
surviving example from England's thirteenth century (The Thorpe Falchion) was just under 2 pounds (0.91 kg)
in weight. Of its 37.5 inches (95.25 centimetres) length, 31.5 inches (80.01 cm) are the straight blade which
8.2. STATUS 65

Image of the Battle of the Golden Spurs, showing men with falchions

bears a cusped or flare-clipped tip similar to the much later kilij of Turkey.* [4] This blade style may have been
influenced by the Turko-Mongol sabres that had reached the borders of Europe by the thirteenth century. This
type of sword continues in use into the 16th. century* [5]

In addition, there are a group of 13th. and early 14th. century weapons sometimes identified with the falchion. These
have a falchion-like blade mounted on a wooden haft 1–2 ft (30–61 cm) long, sometimes ending in a curve like an
umbrella. These are seen in numerous illustration in the mid-13th. century Maciejowski Bible.* [6]
A number of weapons superficially similar to the falchion existed in Western Europe, including the Messer, hanger
and the backsword.

8.2 Status
It is sometimes presumed that these swords had a lower quality and status than the longer, more expensive swords.
It is possible that some falchions were used as axe-like tools between wars and fights, since they were practical
pieces of equipment. While falchions are commonly thought to be peasants' weapons* [7] this is not always the case;
the Conyers falchion belonged to a landed family,* [8] and the falchion is shown in illustrations of combat between
mounted knights.* [9] Some later falchions were ornate and used by the nobility; there is an elaborately engraved and
gold plated falchion from the 1560s in the Wallace Collection, engraved with the personal coat of arms of Cosimo I
de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.* [10]

8.3 References
[1] 1.

[2] The Conyers Falchion accessed January 27, 2007.

[3] Oakeshott, Ewart (1980). European Weapons and Armour. Guildford & London: Lutterworth Press. p. 152. ISBN
0-7188-2126-2.

[4] Nathan Robinson. “German Falchion -- myArmoury.com”. Retrieved 26 October 2014.

[5] Oakeshott (1980), p.152

[6] e.g. folio 3v., folio 14v

[7] Alchin, Linda. “Falchion sword”. The Middle Ages. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
66 CHAPTER 8. FALCHION

[8] Conyers Falchion, op cit

[9] e.g.media:bannockburn.jpg

[10] • Capwell, Tobias; David Edge; Jeremy Warren (2011). Masterpieces of European Arms and Armour from the Wallace
Collection. London: Wallace Collection. pp. 98–9. ISBN 978-0-900785-86-3.
Catalogue Reference A710

8.4 External links

• The Falchion sword – a wonderful curved sword
 Chapter 9

Flame-bladed sword

This article is about historical swords. For mythological weapons, see Flaming sword (mythology). For entertain-
ment/performance props, see Flaming sword (effect).
A flame-bladed sword or wave-bladed sword has a characteristically undulating style of blade. The wave in the
blade is often considered to contribute a flame-like quality to the appearance of a sword. While largely decora-
tive, some attributes of the waved blade were useful in combat. The two most flame-bladed swords are rapiers or
zweihänders, although there have been other sword types with flame-blades.

9.1 Flambard, flammard, and Flammenschwert

The two-handed flame-bladed sword is called flambard, flammard or by the German Flammenschwert (literally
“flame sword”). These swords are very similar to two-handed sword or Zweihänder, the only difference being
the blade. Like other Zweihänder they were used during the 16th century by the Landsknechts, well-trained and
experienced swordsmen, who were called Doppelsöldner (double mercenary) because they received double pay.

9.2 Flamberge
The term flamberge, meaning “flame blade”, is an undulating blade that is found on both long blades and rapiers.
When parrying with such a sword, unpleasant vibrations may be transmitted into the attacker's blade. These vibrations
caused the blades to slow contact with each other because additional friction was encountered with each wave. The
term flamberge was misapplied to refer to two-handed swords and was used later to refer to cup hilt rapiers with a
straight blade.* [1] Very large blades of the flamberge variety were viable for destroying halberds mid-combat, as an
undulating edge causes far more damage when dragged along a tough material than a straight edge.

9.3 See also

• Flaming sword (mythology)

• Colichemarde blade

• Kris

9.4 References

[1] ARMA. “Sword Forms”. Definitions & Study Terminology.

67
68 CHAPTER 9. FLAME-BLADED SWORD

A Flammenschwert. This is a two-handed sword featuring an exceptionally long blade and hilt, a wide crossguard, and a ricasso
with a pair of parrying hooks

9.5 External links

Media related to Flame-bladed swords at Wikimedia Commons
9.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 69
70 CHAPTER 9. FLAME-BLADED SWORD

A flame-bladed swept hilt side-sword(right)

Chapter 10

Sabre

For other uses, see Sabre (disambiguation).

Saber redirects here. For other uses, see Saber (disambiguation)

The sabre or saber (see spelling differences) is a sword that usually has a curved, single-edged blade and a rather
large hand guard, covering the knuckles of the hand as well as the thumb and forefinger. Although sabres are typically
thought of as curved-bladed slashing weapons, those used by the world's heavy cavalry often had straight and even
double-edged blades more suitable for thrusting. The length of sabres varied, and most were carried in a scabbard
hanging from a shoulder belt known as a baldric or from a waist-mounted sword belt, usually with slings of differing
lengths to permit the scabbard to hang below the rider's waist level. Exceptions not intended for personal carry include
the Patton saber adopted by the United States Army in 1913 and always mounted to the cavalryman's saddle.

10.1 Etymology

The English word saber derives from the French sabre which is akin to the Hungarian szablya, Polish szabla, and
Russian сабля (sablya). The word is believed to originate from the Kipchak Turkic selebe, with contamination from
the Hungarian verb szab, which means “to cut”.* [1]

10.2 Origins of the weapon

Medieval (12th century) Eastern European szabla blade.

Sabre-like curved backswords have been in use in Europe since the medieval period (falchion, Byzantinian paramērion
which was inspired by the Avar Cavalry sword), but the introduction of the sabre proper in Western Europe, along
with the term sabre itself, dates to the 17th century, via influence of the Eastern European szabla type.
The original type of Szabla, or Polish sabre, was used as a cavalry weapon, possibly inspired by Hungarian or wider
Turco-Mongol warfare. The Karabela was a type of szabla popular in the late 17th century, worn by the Polish,
Lithuanian, and Ukrainian nobility class, the Szlachta. While designed as a cavalry weapon, it also came to replace
various types of straight-bladed swords used by infantry.* [2] The Swiss sabre originates as a regular sword with a
single-edged blade in the early 16th century, but by the 17th century begins to exhibit specialized hilt types.

71
72 CHAPTER 10. SABRE

A British Hussar general with a scabbarded kilij of Turkish manufacture (1812)

10.2.1 Mameluke sword

Europeans rekindled their interest in sabres inspired by the Mameluke sword, a type of Middle Eastern scimitar,
encountered due to their confrontations with the Mamelukes in the late 18th century and early 19th century. The
Mamluks were originally of Turkish descent; the Egyptians bore Turkish sabres for hundreds of years. During the
Napoleonic Wars, the French conquest of Egypt brought these beautiful and functional swords to the attention of
Europeans. This type of sabre became very popular for light cavalry officers, in both France and Britain, and became
a fashionable weapon for senior officers to wear.
In 1831, the “Mamaluke”sword became a regulation pattern for British general officers (and is still in use today).
The American victory over the rebellious forces in the citadel of Tripoli in 1805, during the First Barbary War, led
to the presentation of bejewelled examples of these swords to the senior officers of the US Marines. Officers of the
10.3. USE 73

US Marine Corps still use a mameluke-pattern dress sword. Although some genuine Turkish kilij sabres were used
by Westerners, most “mameluke sabres”were manufactured in Europe; although their hilts were very similar in
form to the Ottoman prototype, their blades, even when an expanded yelman was incorporated, tended to be longer,
narrower and less curved than those of the true kilij.

10.3 Use

The briquet, typical infantry sabre of the Napoleonic Wars.

The sabre saw extensive military use in the early 19th century, particularly in the Napoleonic Wars, during which
Napoleon used heavy cavalry charges to great effect against his enemies. Shorter versions of the sabre were also used
as sidearms by dismounted units, although these were gradually replaced by fascine knives and sword bayonets as the
century went on. The sabre faded as a weapon by mid-century, as longer-range rifles made cavalry charges obsolete,
even suicidal.
In the American Civil War, the sabre was used infrequently as a weapon, but saw notable deployment in the Battle of
Brandy Station and at East Cavalry Field at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. Many cavalrymen̶particularly on the
Confederate side̶eventually abandoned the long, heavy weapons in favour of revolvers and carbines. Although there
was extensive debate over the effectiveness of weapons such as the sabre and lance, the sabre remained the standard
weapon of cavalry for mounted action in most armies until World War I. Thereafter it was gradually relegated to the
status of a ceremonial weapon, and most horse cavalry was replaced by armoured cavalry from 1930 on.
In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (16–18th century) a specific type of sabre-like melee weapon, the szabla,
was used. The Don Cossacks used the shashka, (originating from Circassian “sashho”- big knife) and sablja (from
Circassian“sa”- knife and“blja”- snake), which also saw military and police use in the Russian Empire and early
Soviet Union.

10.3.1 Adoption by Western forces

The elegant but effective 1803 pattern sword that the British Government authorized for use by infantry officers
during the wars against Napoleon featured a curved sabre blade which was often blued and engraved by the owner in
accordance with his personal taste.
74 CHAPTER 10. SABRE

French Navy sabre of the 19th Century, “boarding sabre”.

During the 19th and into the early 20th century, sabres were also used by both mounted and dismounted personnel
in some European police forces. When the sabre was used by mounted police against crowds, the results could be
appalling, as portrayed in a key scene in Doctor Zhivago. The sabre was later phased out in favour of the baton,
or nightstick, for both practical and humanitarian reasons. The Gendarmerie of Belgium used them until at least
1950,* [3] and the Swedish police forces until 1965.
In the late 20th and early 21st century, swords with sabre blades are worn by most national Army, Navy, Air Force,
Marine and Coast Guard officers as a component of the dress uniform. Some militaries also issue ceremonial swords
to their highest-ranking non-commissioned officers; this is seen as an honour since, typically, non-commissioned,
enlisted/other-rank military service members are instead issued a cutlass blade rather than a sabre. Sword deploy-
ments in the modern military are no longer intended for use as weapons, and now serve primarily in ornamental or
ceremonial functions. As such, they are typically made of stainless steel, a material which keeps its shine bright but is
much too brittle for direct impacts, let alone full blade-on-blade combat, and may shatter if such usage is attempted.
One distinctive ceremonial function a sabre serves in modern times is the Wedding Arch or Sabre Arch, performed
for servicemen or women getting married.
10.4. MODERN SPORT FENCING 75

Lieutenant Colonel Teófilo Marxuach's M1902 Officer's Sabre and Scabbard at the National Historic Trust site at Castillo San
Cristobal in San Juan, Puerto Rico

10.4 Modern sport fencing

Main article: Sabre (fencing)

The modern fencing sabre bears little resemblance to the cavalry sabre, having a thin, 88 cm (35 in) long straight
blade. One of the three weapons used in the sport of fencing, it is a very fast-paced weapon with bouts characterized
by quick footwork and cutting with the edge. The only allowed target area is from the waist up - the region a mounted
man could reach on a foe on the ground.
The concept of attacking above the waist only is a 20th-century change to the sport, previously sabreurs used to pad
their legs against cutting slashes from their opponents. The reason for the above waist rule is unknown* [4] as the
sport is based on the use of infantry sabres and not cavalry sabres

10.5 Colorguard

In a marching band or a drum & bugle corps, the colorguard is a non-musical section that provides additional visual
aspects to the performance. The marching band and colorguard performance generally takes place on a football
field while the colorguard interprets the music that the marching band or drum & bugle corps is playing via the
synchronized spinning of flags, sabres, rifles, or through dance. In the Winter colorguards, or Winter guard perform
indoors on gymnasium floors and usually performs to interpret recorded music.
Unlike in traditional, military colorguards, the sabre, and rifle are used as apparatus for spinning, tossing and as an
extension to interpretative movement. The sabre is considered one of the more advanced of the equipment used by
the guard members.
76 CHAPTER 10. SABRE

10.6 See also

• Pattern 1796 light cavalry sabre

• Pattern 1908 and 1912 cavalry swords

• Szabla wz. 34

• Sabrage, the act of opening a Champagne bottle with a sabre

• Buffalo Sabres, takes their name from the sword

• Cutlass

• Dao or tao, the Chinese equivalent

• Scimitar, the Arab equivalent

• Shamshir, the Persian equivalent

• Szabla, the Eastern European equivalent

• Talwar, the South Asian equivalent

• Zulfiqar

• Barbourofelidae and Nimravidae, feliforms of which some members are called “sabre-toothed cats”
• Machairodontinae, the group of felids commonly called “sabre-toothed cats”

10.7 References
[1] Marek Stachowski (2004).“The origin of the European word for sabre”(PDF). Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia (Krakow)
9.

[2] Alaux, Michel. Modern Fencing: Foil, Epee, and Sabre. Scribner's, 1975, p. 123.

[3] BELGIUM SAYS 'NO' TO LEOPOLD (Newsreel). Pathé News. 3 August 1950.

[4] J. Christoph Amberger, The Secret History of the Sword, 1996 Hammerterz Forum, revised edition 1999 Multi-media
Books, Inc.. ISBN 1-892515-04-0

10.8 External links

Chapter 11

Katana

For the Mortal Kombat character, see Kitana. For Other uses, see Katana (disambiguation).

Historically, katana (⼑) were one of the traditionally made Japanese swords (⽇本⼑ nihontō)* [2]* [3] that were
used by the samurai of feudal Japan.* [4] Modern versions of the katana are sometimes made using non-traditional
materials and methods. The katana is characterized by its distinctive appearance: a curved, slender, single-edged
blade with a circular or squared guard and long grip to accommodate two hands.

11.1 History
The production of swords in Japan is divided into specific time periods:

• Jokoto (ancient swords, until around 900 A.D.)

• Koto (old swords from around 900–1596)
• Shinto (new swords 1596–1780)
• Shinshinto (newer swords 1781–1876)
• Gendaito (modern swords 1876–1945)* [5]
• Shinsakuto (newly made swords 1953–present)* [6]

The first use of “katana”(gatana) as a word to describe a long sword that was different from a tachi occurs as early
as the Kamakura Period (1185–1333).* [7] These references to "uchigatana" and "tsubagatana" seem to indicate a
different style of sword, possibly a less costly sword for lower-ranking warriors. The evolution of the tachi into the
katana seems to have started during the early Muromachi period (1337 to 1573). Starting around the year 1400, long
swords signed with the“katana”signature were made. This was in response to samurai wearing their tachi in what is
now called “katana style”(cutting edge up). Japanese swords are traditionally worn with the signature facing away
from the wearer. When a tachi was worn in the style of a katana, with the cutting edge up, the tachi's signature would
be facing the wrong way. The fact that swordsmiths started signing swords with a katana signature shows that some
samurai of that time period had started wearing their swords in a different manner.* [8]* [9]
The rise in popularity of katana amongst samurai came about due to the changing nature of close-combat warfare.
The quicker draw of the sword was well suited to combat where victory depended heavily on fast response times. The
katana further facilitated this by being worn thrust through a belt-like sash (obi) with the sharpened edge facing up.
Ideally, samurai could draw the sword and strike the enemy in a single motion. Previously, the curved tachi had been
worn with the edge of the blade facing down and suspended from a belt.* [10]* [7]
The length of the katana blade varied considerably during the course of its history. In the late 14th and early 15th
centuries, katana blades tended to have lengths between 70 and 73 cm (27½ and 28½ in). During the early 16th
century, the average length approached closer to 60 cm (23½ in). By the late 16th century, the average length
returned to approximately 73 cm (28½ in).

77
78 CHAPTER 11. KATANA

Japanese Edo period wood block print of a samurai with a tachi.

The katana was often paired with a similar smaller companion sword, such as a wakizashi or it could also be worn with
the tantō, a smaller, similarly shaped dagger. The pairing of a katana with a smaller sword is called the daishō. Only
samurai could wear the daisho: it represented the social power and personal honor of the samurai.* [10]* [7]* [11]

11.2 Modern katana (gendaito)

During the Meiji period the samurai class was gradually disbanded and the special privileges granted to them were
taken away including the right to carry swords in public. The Haitōrei Edict in 1876 forbade the carrying of swords
in public except for certain individuals, such as former samurai lords (daimyo), the military, and police.* [12] Skilled
swordsmiths had trouble making a living during this period as Japan modernized its military and many swordsmiths
started making other items such as farm equipment, tools, and cutlery. Military action by Japan in China and Russia
during the Meiji period helped revive interest in swords but it was not until the Showa period that swords were
produced on a large scale again.* [13] Japanese military swords produced between 1875 and 1945 are referred to as
guntō (military swords).* [14]
During the pre World War II military buildup and throughout the war, all Japanese officers were required to wear a
sword. Traditionally made swords were produced during this period, but in order to supply such large numbers of
swords blacksmiths with little or no knowledge of traditional Japanese sword manufacture were recruited. In addition,
11.3. POST-WORLD WAR II 79

supplies of the Japanese steel (tamahagane) used for sword making were limited, so several other types of steel were
used, as well. Quicker methods of forging were also used, such as the use of power-hammers, and quenching the
blade in oil, rather than hand forging and water quenching. The non-traditionally made swords from this period are
called “showato”after the regnal name of the Emperor Hirohito, and in 1937, the Japanese government started
requiring the use of special stamps on the tang (nakago) to distinguish these swords from traditionally made swords.
During this period of war, older antique swords were remounted for use in military mounts. Presently, in Japan,
showato are not considered to be “true”Japanese swords and they can be confiscated. Outside of Japan, however,
they are collected as historical artifacts.* [12]* [13]* [15]

11.3 Post-World War II

Japanese girl practicing iaido with a modern katana. The example in the photograph shows a training katana or iaitō. This sword
was custom made in Japan according to the weight and size of the student. As most iaitō, the blade is made of aluminum alloy and
it lacks of the exquisite sharpness typical of the traditional steel katanas for the student's safety.

In Japan, from 1945 to 1953, sword manufacture and sword-related martial arts were banned. Many swords were
confiscated and destroyed, and swordsmiths were not able to make a living. Since 1953, Japanese swordsmiths have
been allowed to work, but with severe restrictions: swordsmiths must be licensed and serve a five-year apprenticeship,
and only licensed swordsmiths are allowed to produce Japanese swords (nihonto), only two longswords per month are
allowed to be produced by each swordsmith, and all swords must be registered with the Japanese Government.* [16]
Outside Japan, some of the modern katanas being produced by western swordsmiths use modern steel alloys, such as
L6 and A2. These modern swords replicate the size and shape of the Japanese katana, and are used by martial artists
for Iaido and even for cutting practice, called (tameshigiri). The use of modern steel and technology can create strong
blades without the risk of damaging or destroying the artisan's hard work.
Mass-produced swords including iaitō and shinken in the shape of katana are available from many countries, though
China dominates the market.* [17] These types of swords are typically mass-produced and made with a wide variety
of steels and methods.
 80 CHAPTER 11. KATANA

11.4 Description

Antique Japanese (samurai) daishō, the traditional pairing of two Japanese swords which were the symbol of the samurai, showing
the traditional Japanese sword cases (koshirae) and the difference in size between the katana (top) and the smaller wakizashi (bottom).

The katana is generally defined as the standard sized, moderately curved (as opposed to the older "tachi" style featuring
more curvature) Japanese sword with a blade length greater than 60 cm (23 1 ⁄2 inches).* [7]
With a few exceptions, katana and tachi can be distinguished from each other, if signed, by the location of the
signature (mei) on the tang (nakago). In general, the mei should be carved into the side of the nakago which would
face outward when the sword was worn. Since a tachi was worn with the cutting edge down, and the katana was worn
with the cutting edge up, the mei would be in opposite locations on the nakago.* [18]
The katana is characterized by its distinctive appearance: a curved, slender, single-edged blade with a circular guard
and long grip to accommodate two hands.* [7] It has historically been associated with the samurai of feudal Japan.
Some western historians have said that katana were among the finest cutting weapons in world military history.* [19]
*
[20]

11.5 Etymology and loanwords

“Katana”is the term now used to describe nihontō that are 2 shaku (606 mm / 23.9 in) and longer, also known as
“dai”or "daito" among Western sword enthusiasts although daito is a generic name for any long sword.* [21]
As Japanese does not have separate plural and singular forms, both“katanas”and“katana”are considered acceptable
forms in English.* [22]
Pronounced [katana], the kun'yomi (Japanese reading) of the kanji ⼑, originally meaning dao or knife/saber in
Chinese, the word has been adopted as a loanword by the Portuguese language.* [23] In Portuguese the designation
(spelled catana) means “large knife”or machete.* [23]

11.6 Forging and construction

Main article: Japanese swordsmithing
Katanas are traditionally made from a specialized Japanese steel called tamahagane,* [24] which is created from
a traditional smelting process that results in several, layered steels with different carbon concentrations.* [25] This
process helps remove impurities and even out the carbon content of the steel. The smith begins by folding and
welding pieces of high and low carbon steel several times to work out most of the impurities. The resulting block of
steel is then drawn out to form a billet.
At this stage, it is only slightly curved or may have no curve at all. The gentle curvature of a katana is attained by a
process of differential hardening or differential quenching: the smith coats the blade with several layers of a wet clay
11.6. FORGING AND CONSTRUCTION 81

Cross sections of Japanese sword blade lamination methods

slurry, which is a special concoction unique to each sword maker, but generally composed of clay, water and any or
none of ash, grinding stone powder, or rust. The edge of the blade is coated with a thinner layer than the sides and
spine of the sword, heated, and then quenched in water (some sword makers use oil to quench the blade). The slurry
 82 CHAPTER 11. KATANA

causes only the blade's edge to be hardened and also causes the blade to curve due to the difference in densities of
the micro-structures in the steel.* [10] When steel with a carbon content of 0.7 percent is heated beyond 750 °C, it
enters the austenite phase. When austenite is cooled very suddenly by quenching in water, the structure changes into
martensite, which is a very hard form of steel. When austenite is allowed to cool slowly, its structure changes into
a mixture of ferrite and pearlite which is softer than martensite.* [26]* [27] This process also creates the distinct line
down the sides of the blade called the hamon, which is made distinct by polishing. Each hamon and each smith's style
of hamon is distinct.* [10]
After the blade is forged, it is then sent to be polished. The polishing takes between one and three weeks. The polisher
uses finer and finer grains of polishing stones in a process called glazing, until the blade has a mirror finish. However,
the blunt edge of the katana is often given a matte finish to emphasize the hamon.* [10]

11.7 Usage in martial arts

Katana were used by samurai in practising several martial arts and modern martial artists still use a variety of katana.
Martial arts in which training with katana is used include Iaijutsu, battōjutsu, iaidō, kenjutsu, Shinkendo, kendo,
Aikido, Ninjutsu, and Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū.* [28]* [29]* [30]

11.8 Storage and maintenance

If mishandled in its storage or maintenance, the katana may become irreparably damaged. The blade should be stored
horizontally in its sheath, curve down and edge facing upward to maintain the edge. It is extremely important that
the blade remain well-oiled, powdered and polished, as the natural moisture residue from the hands of the user will
rapidly cause the blade to rust if not cleaned off. The traditional oil used is choji oil (99% mineral oil and 1% clove
oil for fragrance). Similarly, when stored for longer periods, it is important that the katana be inspected frequently
and aired out if necessary in order to prevent rust or mold from forming (mold may feed off the salts in the oil used
to polish the katana).* [31]

11.9 Ownership and trade restrictions

11.9.1 United Kingdom

As of April 2008, the British government added swords with a curved blade of 50 cm (20 in) or over in length (
“the length of the blade shall be the straight line distance from the top of the handle to the tip of the blade”) to the
Offensive Weapons Order.* [32] This ban was a response to reports that samurai swords were used in more than 80
attacks and 4 killings over the preceding four years.* [33] Those who violate the ban would be jailed up to six months
and charged a fine of £5,000. Martial arts practitioners, historical re-enactors and people currently possessing such
swords may still own them. The sword can also be legal provided it was made in Japan before 1954, or was made
using traditional sword making methods. It is also legal to buy if it can be classed as a “martial artist's weapon”
.* [34] This ban applies to England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This ban was amended in August 2008 to
allow sale and ownership without licence of 'traditional' hand-forged katana.

11.9.2 Ireland
Under the Firearms and Offensive Weapons Act 1990 (Offensive Weapons) (Amendment) Order 2009, katanas made
post-1953 are illegal unless made by hand according to traditional methods.* [35]

11.10 Gallery
• Antique Japanese (samurai) katana, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

• Antique Japanese (samurai) katana, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

11.11. SEE ALSO 83

• A katana blade made by Muramasa, 16th century, in Tokyo National Museum.

• Antique Japanese (samurai) katana with koshirae and shirasaya, attributed to Sukenao, 1600s.
• Japanese katana showing a horimono (blade carving), MOMA.

11.11 See also

• Daishō
• Iaidō, martial art associated with the katana
• Japanese sword mountings
• Japanese swords
• Nodachi
• Ōdachi
• Tachi
• Tantō
• Uchigatana
• Wakizashi

11.12 References
[1] ⼑⾦象嵌銘城和泉守所持正宗磨上本阿 (in Japanese). National Institutes for Cultural Heritage.

[2] Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani (2008). The Development of Controversies: From the Early Modern Period to Online
Discussion Forums. Peter Lang. p. 150. ISBN 978-3-03911-711-6.

[3] Evans Lansing Smith; Nathan Robert Brown (2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Mythology. Alpha Books. p.
144. ISBN 978-1-59257-764-4.

[4] Kokan Nagayama, trans. Kenji Mishina (1997). The Connoisseur's Book of Japanese Swords. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha
International Ltd. ISBN 4-7700-2071-6.

[5] Clive Sinclaire (1 November 2004). Samurai: The Weapons and Spirit of the Japanese Warrior. Lyons Press. pp. 40–58.
ISBN 978-1-59228-720-8.

[6] トム岸⽥ (24 September 2004). ⼑. Kodansha International. p. 42. ISBN 978-4-7700-2754-2.

[7] Kanzan Sato (1983). The Japanese Sword: A Comprehensive Guide (Japanese arts Library). Japan: Kodansha International.
p. 220. ISBN 978-0-87011-562-2.

[8] Stephen Turnbull (8 February 2011). Katana: The Samurai Sword. Osprey Publishing. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-1-84908-658-
5.

[9] Kōkan Nagayama (1997). The Connoisseur's Book of Japanese Swords. Kodansha International. p. 28. ISBN 978-4-7700-
2071-0.

[10] Leon Kapp, Hiroko Kapp, Yoshindo Yoshihara (1987). The Craft of the Japanese Sword. Japan: Kodansha International.
p. 167. ISBN 978-0-87011-798-5.

[11] Oscar Ratti and Adele Westbrook (1991). Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. Tuttle Publishing. p.
484. ISBN 978-0-8048-1684-7.

[12] Kōkan Nagayama (1997). The Connoisseur's Book of Japanese Swords. Kodansha International. p. 43. ISBN 978-4-7700-
2071-0.

[13] Clive Sinclaire (1 November 2004). Samurai: The Weapons and Spirit of the Japanese Warrior. Lyons Press. pp. 58–59.
ISBN 978-1-59228-720-8.
84 CHAPTER 11. KATANA

[14] John Yumoto (13 December 2013). The Samurai Sword: A Handbook. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 6, 70. ISBN 978-1-4629-
0706-9.

[15] Leon Kapp; Hiroko Kapp; Yoshindo Yoshihara (January 2002). Modern Japanese Swords and Swordsmiths: From 1868 to
the Present. Kodansha International. pp. 58–70. ISBN 978-4-7700-1962-2.

[16] Clive Sinclaire (1 November 2004). Samurai: The Weapons and Spirit of the Japanese Warrior. Lyons Press. p. 60. ISBN
978-1-59228-720-8.

[17] Steve Shackleford (7 September 2010). “Sword Capitol of the World”. Spirit Of The Sword: A Celebration of Artistry
and Craftsmanship. Iola, Wisconsin: Adams Media. p. 23. ISBN 1-4402-1638-X.

[18] ⼟⼦⺠夫 (May 2002). ⽇本⼑ 21 . Kodansha International. p. 30. ISBN 978-4-7700-2854-9.

[19] Stephen Turnbull (2012). Katana: The Samurai Sword. Osprey Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9781849086585.

[20] Roger Ford (2006). Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and Armor. DK Publishing. pp. 66, 120. ISBN 9780756622107.

[21] Sun-Jin Kim (1996). Tuttle Dictionary Martial Arts Korea, China & Japan. Tuttle Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-8048-
2016-5.

[22] Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers, Ann K. Farmer, Robert M. Harnish (2001). Linguistics: An Introduction to Language
and Communication. Massachusetts: The MIT Press. p. 624. ISBN 9780262511230.

[23] Sebastião Rodolfo Dalgado and Anthony X. Soares (1988). Portuguese Vocables in Asiatic Languages: From the Portuguese
Original of Monsignor Sebastiao Rodolfo Dalgado. South Asia Books. p. 520. ISBN 978-81-206-0413-1.

[24] 鉄と⽣活研究会 (2008). ト ト 鉄 本. ⽇刊⼯業新聞社. ISBN 978-4-526-06012-0.

[25] Secrets of the Samurai Sword. Pbs.org. Retrieved 2013-08-08.

[26] Richard Cohen (18 December 2007). By the Sword: A History of Gladiators, Musketeers, Samurai, Swashbucklers, and
Olympic Champions. Random House Publishing Group. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-307-43074-8.

[27] James Drewe (15 February 2009). Tàijí Jiàn 32-Posture Sword Form. Singing Dragon. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-84642-869-2.

[28] Mason Smith (December 1997). “Stand and Deliver”. Black Belt (Active Interest Media, Inc.) 35 (12): 66. ISSN
0277-3066.

[29] Graham Priest; Damon Young (21 August 2013). Martial Arts and Philosophy: Beating and Nothingness. Open Court. p.
209. ISBN 978-0-8126-9723-0.

[30] Thomas A. Green; Joseph R. Svinth (2010). Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation.
ABC-CLIO. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-59884-243-2.

[31] Gordon Warner and Donn F. Draeger (2005). Japanese Swordsmanship: Technique and Practice. Boston, Massachusetts:
Weatherhill. pp. 110–131. ISBN 978-0834802360.

[32] The Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons)(Amendment) Order 2008. Opsi.gov.uk (2010-11-19). Retrieved
2013-08-08.

[33] “Ban on imitation Samurai swords”. BBC News. 2007-12-12. Retrieved 2011-12-29. Calls for a ban came after a number
of high-profile incidents in which cheap Samurai-style swords had been used as a weapon. The Home Office estimates there
have been some 80 attacks in recent years involving Samurai-style blades, leading to at least five deaths.

[34] EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM TO THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE ACT 1988 (OFFENSIVE WEAPONS) (AMEND-
MENT No. 2): ORDER 2008. opsi.gov.uk. Retrieved 2013-08-08.

[35] “S.I. No. 338/2009 ̶Firearms and offensive Weapons Act 1990 (offensive Weapons) (Amendment) Order 2009”. Irish
Statute Book, Government of Ireland. 2009-08-28.
11.13. FURTHER READING 85

11.13 Further reading

• Perrin, Noel (1980). Giving Up the Gun: Japan's Reversion to the Sword, 1543–1879. Boston: David R.
Godine. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-87773-184-9.
• Robinson, H. Russell (1969). Japanese Arms and Armor. New York: Crown Publishers Inc.

• Dr. S. Alexander Takeuchi (aka Dr. T). “Dr. T's “Nihonto Random Thoughts”Page”. Department of
Sociology, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL.
• Yumoto, John M (1958). The Samurai Sword: A Handbook. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. p. 204. ISBN
978-0-8048-0509-4.

11.14 External links

• Media related to Katana at Wikimedia Commons

• Media related to Nihonto at Wikimedia Commons

Chapter 12

Ulfberht

Ulfberht is a modern transcription of the inscription +VLFBERH+T, found on some Early Middle Ages Germanic
swords of the 8th to 11th century. Swords so inscribed have been found in many parts of Europe, most numerously in
Scandinavia. They are believed to originate from the Taunus region of Germany in what was the Frankish realm.* [1]
There are many variations of the inscription, including +VLFBERHT+ or VLFBERH+T.* [2] The inscription is a
Frankish personal name and became the basis of a trademark of sorts, used by multiple bladesmiths for several
centuries. Stalsberg argues that a smith is unlikely to have been literate, and that the presence of crosses in the
signature suggest an ecclesiastical or monastic origin. She discusses how the swords may have reached Scandinavia,
suggesting smuggling, looting by vikings, or as ransom for dignitaries captured by vikings.* [2]
Most“Ulfberht”swords are of Oakeshott Type X form. They are forged from excellent steel with a very low content
of sulfur and phosphorus and up to 1.1% carbon. This steel was most likely acquired through trade through the Volga
trade route, where ingots of the steel were obtained from central Asian countries: who were producing crucible steel
to emulate the famous wootz steel of India.* [3]* [4]

12.1 See also

• Ingelrii, a similar inscription

12.2 References
[1] Wunderwaffen aus dem Kloster; Süddeutsche; 30 July 2014 (German)

[2] Anne Stalsberg: The Vlfberht sword blades reevaluated

[3] Alfred Pothmann (ed.): Das Zeremonialschwert der Essener Domschatzkammer. Aschendorff, Münster 1995, ISBN 3-402-
06243-7

[4] David Edge, Alan Williams: Some early medieval swords in the Wallace Collection and elsewhere, Gladius XXIII, 2003,
pp. 191-210

12.3 Further reading

• Alfred Geibig: Beiträge zur morphologischen Entwicklung des Schwertes im Mittelalter. Eine Analyse des Fund-
materials vom ausgehenden 8. bis zum 12. Jahrhundert aus Sammlungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland,
Dissertation, Neumünster, 1991
• Friedrich E. Grünzweig: Das Schwert bei den Germanen. Kulturgeschichtliche Studien zu seinem Wesen vom Al-
tertum bis ins Hochmittelalter. (= Philologica Germanica, 30) Fassbaender, Vienna 2009, ISBN 978-3-902575-
18-0
• Ewart Oakeshott: The Sword in the Age of Chivalry, 1994, ISBN 978-0851153629

86
12.4. EXTERNAL LINKS 87

• Alan R. Williams, Methods of Manufacture of Swords in Medieval Europe: Illustrated by the Metallography of
Some Examples, Gladius 13 (1977), S. 75 - 101
• Alan Williams, A Metallugical Study of Some Viking Swords PDF, Gladius 29 (2009), 121-184

• M. Müller-Wille: Ein neues ULFBERHT-Schwert aus Hamburg. Verbreitung, Formenkunde und Herkunft, Offa
27, 1970, 65-91

• Ian Peirce, Ewart Oakeshott: Swords of the Viking Age. The Boydell Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0851159140

12.4 External links

• Media related to Ulfberht swords at Wikimedia Commons
88 CHAPTER 12. ULFBERHT

12.5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.5.1 Text
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Dingley, DFRussia, Arakunem, Ludwigs2, Abrech, Uddannelse, Dislocatedthumb, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Middayexpress, Ptbot-
gourou, AnomieBOT, A. di M., Erik9bot, Dougofborg, FrescoBot, Sirtywell, Vincenzo80, OgreBot, Pinethicket, EmausBot, ClueBot
NG, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mark Arsten, Duxwing, Fylbecatulous, Radj397, MadGuy7023, Mutley1989, Ca2james, Robert2282 and
Anonymous: 48
• Classification of swords Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification%20of%20swords?oldid=654552269 Contributors: Apol0gies,
Mackeriv, D6, Dbachmann, Giraffedata, Dlatrex, Eixo, BD2412, Sjakkalle, Vegaswikian, Alex is awake, Hairy Dude, Pseudomonas,
DarkSideJedi, Anomie, Jaerom Darkwind, DeviantBoi, TBH, Gilliam, Durova, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Hibernian, Arctic
Warfare, Hebrides, Guy Macon, QuiteUnusual, Magioladitis, Anaxial, Tortoisex, Anonymous Zebra, Cyberjacob, Addbot, Markuna-
tor, Yobot, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, Davimack, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, EmausBot, John of Reading, Trofobi, Liquidmetalrob, ClueBot
NG, ZarlanTheGreen, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, 2001:db8, BG19bot, Pastaguy12, Tinynanorobots, Player017, MrBill3, 220 of Borg,
RichardMills65, Mogism, SirStrassle, Moagim, Tentinator, Andre's Possee, Zmichas, Thewikiguru1, Enigmantra and Anonymous: 48
• Zweihänder Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweih%C3%A4nder?oldid=652814791 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, MartinHarper,
Snoyes, Johan Magnus, Emperorbma, Apol0gies, DocWatson42, Tom harrison, Marcika, Stern, Bobblewik, Rich Farmbrough, Dbach-
mann, Snow steed, Rrreese, Prsephone1674, Tyr, Kensai, Svartalf, TaintedMustard, Gene Nygaard, Stemonitis, Crux, Mathmo, Canaen,
Zylinder, FlaBot, Kolbasz, Aeroknight, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Jrideout, Bachrach44, Foreigner, Bota47, Paaskynen, Wknight94, Jaerom
Darkwind, SmackBot, Impaciente, Anthonzi, Xiliquiern, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, L clausewitz, Alphathon, Sethwood-
worth, Ohconfucius, John, Big Smooth, Eliashc, JMK, Kradshutzen, RekishiEJ, Falconus, TheHerbalGerbil, Malamockq, Cydebot,
Empathogen, Thijs!bot, Wandalstouring, SkonesMickLoud, Zishan07, Mercutio.Wilder, Doremítzwr, Quintote, JAnDbot, Time3000,
VoABot II, BobTheMad, J.delanoy, Dark reaper6789, SeanR70, Shamatt, Idioma-bot, Satani, Jackfork, Onecrane, SieBot, Haggawaga -
Oegawagga, Zephyrus67, Keilana, Moonraker12, Greatrobo76, Sunrise, -The Bold Guy-, DFRussia, EoGuy, SilvonenBot, Vianello, Ad-
dbot, Komischn, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, Lit.Shadowolf, Xqbot, Ekwos, Ewhalen, GrouchoBot,
LucienBOT, Lothar von Richthofen, EndlessUnknown, Kanohara, Rashkavar, Trappist the monk, Razarax, ClueBot NG, ZarlanTheGreen,
Tinynanorobots, Duxwing, The Herald, YiFeiBot, Spiffingtea, Monkbot, Ca2james, Amoebappk and Anonymous: 114
• Claymore Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claymore?oldid=656041410 Contributors: The Epopt, Bryan Derksen, AstroNomer,
Rmhermen, Furrykef, Itai, Dogface, JorgeGG, PBS, Mirv, Academic Challenger, Premeditated Chaos, Hippietrail, Chaosgate, Xanzzibar,
DocWatson42, Oberiko, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Gracefool, Bobblewik, Lesgles, Scott Burley, Neutrality, Silly Dan, Mr Bound,
N328KF, Rama, Dbachmann, Kjoonlee, Foolip, Neko-chan, Kwamikagami, Emhoo, MPerel, Dlatrex, Jumbuck, Gary, Dcclark, Terriem,
CSkankRabbit, Snowolf, Oileanach, Bennmorland, SidP, Cal 1234, Admiral Valdemar, Dismas, Agurzil, Angr, Jdorje, PatGallacher,
Kmg90, BlaiseFEgan, Graham87, Dpr, Wandererf1, Margosbot, Mathiastck, MacRusgail, Chobot, Haldrik, Guliolopez, Cactus.man,
JPD, YurikBot, I need a name, Lincolnite, Manop, Jrideout, ENeville, Grafen, Stephen e nelson, Jigsawpuzzleman, InvaderJim42, Haoie,
RL0919, Zwobot, Ebralph, Perry Middlemiss, BBFlatt, Paul Magnussen, RockyMM, Mais oui!, Rpmillermd, Luk, SmackBot, VarunRa-
jendran, KocjoBot, Finavon, Gilliam, Durova, Chris the speller, Kurykh, Snori, Hibernian, Moralec, Joseph Crowe, Eye.of.the.dragonfly,
Bigturtle, Megalophias, Kukini, Zearin, WhiteCat, Breno, Epeeist smudge, Forpeterssake, JMK, Allenj, Courcelles, FairuseBot, Gogo
Dodo, Swahilli, Porsche997SBS, Dougweller, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Faigl.ladislav, Steve Dufour, Jack
Bethune, Mercutio.Wilder, Escarbot, Luna Santin, JAnDbot, Deflective, Robina Fox, Douglas Whitaker, .anacondabot, -=Rizzo=-, Clo-
visPt, Cholga, Johnpacklambert, Trusilver, Cheesebrain, Rikkoinva, PocklingtonDan, Somdebg, Sunderland06, Uber Cuber, Martial75,
Idioma-bot, Glossologist, Mooseguy, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Itsfullofstars, Triskele Jim, Allenj456, Grammarmonger, Philip True-
man, Rei-bot, Zealotry, Imasleepviking, Claidheamohmor, Haruyasha, ShatterstarWing, Akerbeltz, Crazymapleleaf, Crawdady, Ham-
mertime123, Falcon8765, Piecemealcranky, MCTales, The Last Melon, Uncle Scrooge, Caltas, Le Pied-bot, Leushenko, ClueBot, Sea-
mus45, PipepBot, Nick19thind, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Arodman, Cow222, JamieS93, BosnianClaymore, Life of Riley, Tealwisp, XLinkBot,
90 CHAPTER 12. ULFBERHT

Nepenthes, Voltigeur, Skeletor 0, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Fieldday-sunday, Arbroath101, CanadianLinuxUser, Emmarocks4595,
Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, JEN9841, MissAlyx, Luckas-bot, Legobot II, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Rjanag, Ravinpa,
Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Naruto3696, GrimmjowJabberjack, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Lexicon215, Riotrocket8676, Star-
rpowell, FrescoBot, Vincenzo80, Martin Raybourne, Nathan43, Leondumontfollower, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, RAN1, John of Read-
ing, Immunize, Uchiha Balla, RA0808, Wikipelli, PBS-AWB, Bamyers99, Aeonx, Cooper 25, ClueBot NG, ZarlanTheGreen, Kim
Traynor, Daveco333, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sammich donkeys, Kai Ojima, Highlandjacobite, Cormag100, Radj397, Faizan, Epicge-
nius, Ziplock80, Pktlaurence, Buttholio7733, Monkbot, Sampson93, Halflang, Masters of time power and life, Biblioworm, Darth Jadus,
Patrick3541 and Anonymous: 197
• Longsword Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longsword?oldid=654191831 Contributors: Mav, Timo Honkasalo, Tarquin, Yooden,
Hephaestos, Frecklefoot, Palnatoke, Karada, Jimfbleak, RadRafe, Furrykef, Darkon, Oberiko, Mintleaf, Haeleth, Gracefool, Mackeriv,
Mike Rosoft, Eyrian, Discospinster, Rama, Dbachmann, Bender235, Dlatrex, Jeltz, CJ, TaintedMustard, Gene Nygaard, MarSch, Mic-
Tronic, KharBevNor, LeCire, Haldrik, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Koveras, Hairy Dude, Jlittlet, DanMS, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Neilbeach,
DarkSideJedi, Adaxl, Joshdboz, Ejdzej, Nick, Blu Aardvark, Elliotreed, Emersoni, Lockesdonkey, Xiphon, Jaerom Darkwind, British,
Jade Knight, Nathan Robinson, SmackBot, Asphaltbuffet, Ariedartin, Unyoyega, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Rex Germanus,
Thumperward, Xiliquiern, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Darth Panda, Moralec, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Jmn-
batista, Evil Merlin, Superjordo, Sethwoodworth, Megalophias, Kukini, ThurnerRupert, Zearin, Zahid Abdassabur, Ergative rlt, Uber555,
Edwy, Stratadrake, DabMachine, JMK, Revcasy, CmdrObot, Basawala, Thijs!bot, Fobia, Mercutio.Wilder, Stannered, AntiVandalBot,
Seaphoto, NecroBones, Gökhan, DOSGuy, JAnDbot, Ranp, Dream Focus, Ryan4314, Magioladitis, Prestonmcconkie, Fallschirmjäger,
Alex Spade, FisherQueen, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Grandia01, J.delanoy, Lapuerta, Medium69, Igno2, Shamatt, VolkovBot,
Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Gwinva, From-cary, Bob f it, Chocrates, Corvus coronoides, Luther93, SwordSmurf, EJF, SieBot, Silver
Spoon, Graham Beards, Caltas, Cactusq, Kvetcher in the Wry, Tittums, Jacob grover, Mooiehoed, Citneman, -The Bold Guy-, Finetooth,
ClueBot, Fyyer, Vegas Bleeds Neon, 7&6=thirteen, Striker57, NiveusLuna, Fred the Oyster, SilvonenBot, Sweyn78, Addbot, BAM-
ABOY93, Ishan sawant, Raymon Lull, Tide rolls, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, IRP, Ravinpa, Ulric1313, Michael Chidester,
Xqbot, Webwat, Amaury, M0tty, FrescoBot, The Great Detective, Aryeonos, Ripchip Bot, WikitanvirBot, Liuthar, ClueBot NG, Widr,
MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Wiki13, Mark Arsten, Op47, Warbowarcher, Radj397, Tutelary, Prof. Squirrel, Khazar2,
Hmainsbot1, Kbog, AnotherNotker, FrigidNinja, Ginsuloft, Sword-Site, Sam Scelza, Darkmer, Monkbot, Halflang, Koolmejacs, Piran-
hatank, Ghost Lourde, CommanderDeus and Anonymous: 220
• Basket-hilted sword Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basket-hilted%20sword?oldid=657411115 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Freck-
lefoot, Joy, PBS, DocWatson42, Discospinster, Rama, Dbachmann, Loren36, Dlatrex, Woohookitty, Chupon, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Bg-
white, Tone, Hairy Dude, Eleassar, Grafen, Bota47, Nathan Robinson, SmackBot, Lepeu1999, Brossow, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Chris the
speller, Airwolf, Will Beback, JMK, CapitalR, Cydebot, Hebrides, Altaileopard, Jack Bethune, JustAGal, Julia Rossi, JAnDbot, Urselius,
CommonsDelinker, Anglo-Norman, Triskele Jim, EH101, TXiKiBoT, StAnselm, Jdaloner, ClueBot, Nick19thind, SilvonenBot, Mm40,
Addbot, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Greencolour, The real Marcoman, Komitsuki, Vincenzo80, Ngwinc, Wyvren, Dinamik-bot, Brianann
MacAmhlaidh, WillGood II, NerdyScienceDude, Trofobi, William Goodwin, Dewritech, PBS-AWB, ClueBot NG, ZarlanTheGreen,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Demonsole666, Tinynanorobots, Metricopolus, Op47, Messalon, YiFeiBot, Halflang, Ghost Lourde, Lord Kiltridge
and Anonymous: 57
• Falchion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falchion?oldid=649790928 Contributors: Dreamyshade, Anders Törlind, Tedernst, Sky-
smith, JosephBarillari, Premeditated Chaos, Xanzzibar, JamesMLane, Oberiko, Mintleaf, Everyking, Iceberg3k, Sam Hocevar, Porges,
Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, ESkog, Kwamikagami, Richard W.M. Jones, Viriditas, Boredzo, Dlatrex, Gene
Nygaard, A D Monroe III, FlaBot, SpectrumDT, DVdm, Spasemunki, Hall Monitor, Corky842, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, RussBot,
Gaius Cornelius, Borbrav, Adaxl, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Visual77, Geoffrey.landis, Katieh5584, Bibliomaniac15, Smack-
Bot, Ashenai, Canonblack, Solacium Christiana, Carambola, Durova, Thumperward, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Keith Lehwald, VanHelsing, SpacemanAfrica, Euchiasmus, The Man in Question, Mr Stephen, JMK, Native-
Foreigner, Jakm, Blehfu, Cobes, Malirath, Sanzeron, Richard Keatinge, Thijs!bot, Nonagonal Spider, DcPimp, Jack Bethune, Thom-
prod, Deflective, Ling.Nut, AetheriusMemoria, ClovisPt, Yuanreek, MartinBot, Mufka, Super Bhaal, VolkovBot, Rayis, Falcon8765,
SieBot, Marconius666, Nummer29, ClueBot, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Niceguyedc, Nick19thind, ComputerGeezer,
Winston365, XLinkBot, Monopol, Addbot, Sikovin, Ronhjones, Chzz, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Gobbleswoggler, Askeron, Stewe007,
LlywelynII, Curtis O'Toole, Hchc2009, HRoestBot, Monstrelet, JDDJS, Roxrboxr, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, AngusWOOF, War-
bowarcher, Ašhabad, Lola Rennt, HistoryofIran, Sword-Site, Mick Coggins, LazyReader, Monkbot, User without username, Viktalen
and Anonymous: 96
• Flame-bladed sword Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame-bladed%20sword?oldid=654588852 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
JeLuF, Jimfbleak, David Latapie, Robbot, Ojigiri, Xanzzibar, Sam Hocevar, Perey, Dbachmann, MaTrIx, Angie Y., Godheval, Osprey,
Iustinus, Richard Weil, Dismas, Cuchullain, MicTronic, DoubleBlue, Radix, Stormwatch, Satanael, YurikBot, Longbow4u, DanMS,
Rsrikanth05, Thiseye, Warreed, Kungfuadam, Appleseed, DVD R W, SmackBot, Gilliam, Bluebot, Xiliquiern, Miquonranger03, TKD,
RedArrow21, DRaGZ, Ginkgo100, JMK, GiantSnowman, CmdrObot, Drifter bob, Cydebot, Chicken Soup, Aldis90, Fdsaaa, Wan-
dalstouring, Jack Bethune, DrowningInRoyalty, Ciaccona, JaGa, Caramesc, Viccce, Siliconov, Aaron Skylark, VolkovBot, Phasma Felis,
Meaningful Username, Burpen, Gaara 777, Oxfordwang, Ashnard, Xaremathras, EJF, Triwbe, Blloyd607502, Ristaron, De728631, Clue-
Bot, Rpgmonkey, Crywalt, Vivio Testarossa, BlueCaper, Sec 1971, Addbot, Bama209, BAMABOY93, Mps, Senator Palpatine, Darkan-
gel63, AnomieBOT, Mintrick, Pontificalibus, Rooboy7153, Ewhalen, AndreiMiculita, Wikipelli, Aeonx, ClueBot NG, Tinynanorobots,
Duxwing, Ca2james, Ghost Lourde and Anonymous: 112
• Sabre Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabre?oldid=657365120 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Jeronimo, Anders Törlind, Ben-Zin,
Zoe, Hephaestos, Olivier, Jimfbleak, Nanshu, Jiang, Fibonacci, Carbuncle, Robbot, Donreed, Altenmann, Sekicho, Premeditated Chaos,
Halibutt, Hlj, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Kapow, Meursault2004, Bradeos Graphon, Lefty, Tokenizeman, Naufana, Piotrus, Ary29, JulieAD-
river, Marine 69-71, Zondor, Canterbury Tail, Avriette, Rama, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Thuresson, Longhair, Keron Cyst, Cmdr-
jameson, Pearle, Dlatrex, A2Kafir, Grutness, Anthony Appleyard, Ghirlandajo, Djsasso, Alison Rowe, Schzmo, Marudubshinki, BD2412,
Graibeard, Eubot, Leesamuel, BjKa, SpectrumDT, Copperchair, Hairy Dude, Flameviper, Manxruler, NawlinWiki, Jonathan Webley,
Voyevoda, TDogg310, Iancarter, GeoffCapp, SMcCandlish, Geoffrey.landis, Markvs88, Katieh5584, Tirronan, Yakudza, SmackBot,
Emoscopes, McGeddon, TBH, The Question, Jagged 85, Delldot, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Durova, Bluebot, TimBentley, Snori, Xiliquiern,
Colonies Chris, VMS Mosaic, Midnightcomm, Ozoneocean, John, Mon Vier, JMK, Courcelles, Steve64, BulletBillTime, Ninetyone,
Cydebot, Mierlo, Galassi, VashiDonsk, AtTheAbyss, Chrislk02, Nol888, Buistr, Epbr123, Marek69, Jack Bethune, AntiVandalBot,
Hopiakuta, Bjenks, Erlyrisa, TuvicBot, JAnDbot, Aderksen, Magioladitis, Steven Walling, SaberScorpX, Coughinink, JMyrleFuller,
Urselius, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, J.delanoy, Numbo3, Darth Mike, LordAnubisBOT, Tatrgel, Hunt 4 Orange November, Master
12.5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 91

z0b, Cpt ricard, Triskele Jim, Philip Trueman, Abberley2, TXiKiBoT, Stainalive5, ElinorD, MiracleMatter, JhsBot, Broadbot, Mad-
hero88, Piratedan, EmxBot, John water, John1233, Winchelsea, Noveltyghost, BenoniBot, Mo6, Werldwayd, ClueBot, Nikolas lloyd,
Swedish fusilier, Hafspajen, P. S. Burton, Nick19thind, Redsim, Kolakowski, BurgererSF, Berean Hunter, BRPXQZME, Betamoo,
Jjrules08, Hadon, Badgernet, Jadtnr1, Passportguy, Addbot, Heavenlyblue, Willking1979, Download, Lightbot, Scagwald, Ptolomy of
Epirus, Beanchung, Evers, Yobot, Themfromspace, Renessaince, AnomieBOT, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Baron ridiculous, Clokemg, Лапоть,
FrescoBot, Dsrahdzhtdhzdj, AlexanderKaras, Sirtywell, Csatádi, Pinethicket, SeikoEn, Garmijo, Unrulyevil, EmausBot, Wikipelli, Avi-
cAWB, Darth Webber, InformationTimes, Bulwersator, Euphdude009, ClueBot NG, Turgayakar, EnglishTea4me, ZarlanTheGreen, Mer-
lIwBot, Regulov, Lioublue09, CitationCleanerBot, Rynsaha, Tutelary, Klaw44, Ulugen, Mogism, Aymankamelwiki, Raptormimus456,
Sword-Site, Nikki Louladdl, Koolmejacs, The art of sabrage, Edward hyde02, Xx234, Trackfan87543, Sabersingh and Anonymous: 161
• Katana Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katana?oldid=657364499 Contributors: Graft, SeerS, Ixfd64, Random832, Finlay McWal-
ter, Pingveno, DocWatson42, Varlaam, Jackol, Alexf, OverlordQ, Neutrality, Discospinster, Tristan Schmelcher, Dbachmann, Art LaPella,
Mairi, Craigy144, Msylvester, Cal 1234, Mikeo, Rhialto, BDD, Gene Nygaard, Tabletop, AnmaFinotera, Prashanthns, Tokek, Mandarax,
Ashmoo, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Astronaut, Marasama, Matt Deres, Chiklit, Eldamorie, Gurch, Chobot, Jared Preston,
DVdm, Hairy Dude, Saintjust, RussBot, John Smith's, Kirill Lokshin, Hydrargyrum, Mythsearcher, Manop, TheMandarin, Virek, Ospalh,
Nate1481, BusterD, Closedmouth, Pb30, Bamse, PRehse, Jeff Silvers, Xevon, Sacxpert, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, Hydrogen Iodide, DWa-
terson, Chronodm, AnOddName, Kintetsubuffalo, Geoff B, Gilliam, Endroit, Thumperward, Hibernian, Nbarth, Alphathon, Onorem,
Addshore, Wine Guy, Lpgeffen, DMacks, Gobonobo, Akupta321, Eridani, Xionbox, Focomoso, PaulGS, Krispos42, DouglasCalvert,
Wizard191, JMK, Flamelai, JHP, Richard75, Macfluffers, JForget, Rodrigja, Ale jrb, DanielRigal, NickW557, Slazenger, MC10, Gogo
Dodo, Tkynerd, Dancter, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Hazmat2, QuiteUnusual, Julia Rossi, Skyworm, Drake Wilson, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot,
Max Hyre, Rion.Motley, Dp76764, VoABot II, Jacce, Dekimasu, MyNameIsNeo, Froid, Adrian J. Hunter, Mike Searson, DerHexer,
Inclusivedisjunction, Climax Void, Bradford44, Siliconov, AmazingSyco, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Hans Dunkelberg, Uncle
Dick, Itzcuauhtli, Nothingofwater, Shawn in Montreal, McSly, WebHamster, Belovedfreak, Sagefoole, Jmcw37, Shamatt, Nat682, Win-
terSpw, CWii, Philip Trueman, Technopat, Bewarethebob, Deep Atlantic Blue, Charlesdrakew, Blahaccountblah, Corvus cornix, Alca
Impenne, Yuhani, FourteenDays, ETO Buff, Andy Dingley, Haseo9999, Lamro, Falcon8765, MCTales, Andreas Carter, Legoktm, Bo-
jack727, IndulgentReader, Fcady2007, Plinul cel tanar, Vanished user la45ij56rt, Caltas, DrHacky, Hondel1970, Daight, Larek, Reaper-
mage1990, Oxymoron83, Callidior, Hobartimus, Deejaye6, Fratrep, Chillum, -The Bold Guy-, Beemer69, YSSYguy, Martarius, ClueBot,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Uncle Milty, LizardJr8, Auntof6, Excirial, Mysticknoll, John Nevard, Lartoven, Ngebendi, SchreiberBike,
BOTarate, La Pianista, Rui Gabriel Correia, Mikhailov Kusserow, Thingg, Aitias, Babelious, NJGW, Berean Hunter, Antediluvian67,
Soviet689, Liberal Humanist, Finalnight, BlacWorks, Drmadskills, HMFS, SilvonenBot, Mifter, Addbot, Xp54321, Heavenlyblue, Jo-
jhutton, Dante4, Hellboy2hell, Fladrif, Jncraton, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Glane23, Favonian, Doniago, Idrisqu, Kajiya,
ACE444, Komischn, Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Lightbot, NHJG2, Moocowsrule, Jarble, Luckas-bot, KhanArms, QueenCake, Writerjohan,
KamikazeBot, Roger der Buschmann, Axelthehistorian, Bentecbye, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Spreadtoothin,
Goolbenjin, Materialscientist, Citation bot, OllieFury, Oneofthousands1994, LilHelpa, Thatguy321, Capricorn42, Landfritter, Bihco,
Mononomic, Chinkeeyong, Trut-h-urts man, Mlpearc, Goldylocks12345678, C+C, Iwearwristbands, Wizardist, Assman1, Schekinov
Alexey Victorovich, Joaquin008, Seoulseekers, PublicLibrarian, TerraHikaru, Broseph502, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Guerrieraspirant,
Kenya360, McCola, Vepres, Dhtwiki, ⼤和屋敷, Citation bot 1, Neilveustace, Sooperboof, Fallout3.j, Simple Bob, Riku32194, Us-
tra, Monkeyfox, A8UDI, Quade99, Ppt1973, Ardanjapan, Leandro222, Phoenix7777, Jandalhandler, WorldSlayer, FoxBot, Trappist the
monk, 65decr, Yunshui, AlanRac, Time9, Metalikid12, Dxdxdx4, Nascar1996, Reach Out to the Truth, Minimac, Kontoreg, Sebastian-
PDX, 1swords, Ripchip Bot, Homejapan, Mattbtheg, Juliahd, J36miles, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot,
Samuraiantiqueworld, RA0808, WhalesPsuchsdichs, NotAnonymous0, Tommy2010, Gottescalcus, Wikipelli, Middleschool123456789,
GxAce, Caleb8d, Halo808, Happynisousity, Awsomenisousity, Wingman4l7, Victoryleader, Mayur, Limxzero, Flubster1, ReploidZero,
ClueBot NG, Pilot350, Fashionistic, BarrelProof, ZarlanTheGreen, Widr, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Skyrmstar, Showtime34, Elob-
ster28, Lowercase Sigma, Hallows AG, Katana vs tank, Loriendrew, Miss barbie351, Aanshin, Sermadison, Khazar2, Dexbot, Dinob-
ullfrog, Frosty, Troll Face trolls you, Kevin12xd, Banjo3ie, Sereneoasis23, DeviantSerpent, Darkness walks, JakeG313, Harlem Baker
Hughes, Dead1290, Matty.007, Vilovieta, Rtydc, Strifry, Kennethaw88, Quenhitran, Sam Sailor, Jamieace, Ghostwolf181, Monkbot,
Bleyd, Bobsteve947, Manishwiki15, Timmy2640, Chrishutter3, 555nhs, ThothScribe, Gknox3, Burpa durpa, Mavidwaer, Random user69x
and Anonymous: 530
• Ulfberht Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulfberht?oldid=653256035 Contributors: Earthsound, Bearcat, Beefman, Jason Quinn,
Dbachmann, Dave.Dunford, Debivort, Malcolma, Maunus, Sandstein, Katieh5584, Evil Merlin, A876, Lfstevens, WikieWikieWikie,
R'n'B, Vincent Lextrait, Technopat, Elphion, Frans Fowler, Tananjoh, LilHelpa, Xqbot, RicHard-59, Yk49, John of Reading, K6ka,
Josve05a, ClueBot NG, Ninja of Tao, Arsaces, Dainomite, ÄDA - DÄP, AnalogyShark, Mogism, Glaisher, Ginsuloft, Rstjmurphy,
Brandontheninja, ScienceDoc13, Navie42, Blither on, Kidsmagic, International Children's Fund, Scarlettail, Seadog91, Theswordsmith55,
SwipeToTheLeft, Pagesclo and Anonymous: 47

12.5.2 Images
• File:3rdMarquessOfLondonderry.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/3rdMarquessOfLondonderry.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery Original artist: Thomas Lawrence
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tributors: Henry Charles Howard Suffolk and Berkshire (Earl of), Hedley Peek, Frederick George Aflalo, The Encyclopaedia of Sport &
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12.5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 93

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94 CHAPTER 12. ULFBERHT

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