‘Accuracy of observation is the

equivalent of accuracy of thinking’

Wallace Stevens

LAB 1

This lab is adapted from Deline B, Harris R, & Tefend K. (2015)

“Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology”. First Edition.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this lab, you should be able to:
*Describe how erosion and weathering relate to the formation of
sedimentary rocks.
*Identify, in a broad perspective, sedimentary rocks and their
features.
*Reach a general sight about the formation and history of
different types of sedimentary rocks.
*Describe the formation of different sedimentary structures.
*Discuss the distribution of sedimentary rocks, sedimentary
structures, and types of weathering in varying sedimentary
environments.

WEATHERING AND EROSION

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering, erosion,

deposition, and lithification of sediments. Sedimentary rocks
are composed of pieces of other rocks, which are broken down by
a process called weathering. There are two basic ways that
weathering occurs in nature. First, rocks can be physically
broken into smaller pieces (e.g. hitting a rock with a hammer),
which is called mechanical weathering. Alternatively, rocks can
be broken down and altered at the atomic level (e.g. dissolving
salt in water), which is called chemical weathering. There are
multiple ways each type of weathering can occur and, therefore,
both the rate the rock breaks down and how it breaks down varies
dramatically depending on the area and environment.

The most prevalent type of mechanical weathering is the

collision, breaking, and grinding of rock by the movement of a
fluid, either water or air. The size of the carried sediment
depends on the type of fluid and speed of the movement. A fast
fluid (e.g. a rapidly flowing river) can carry large particles
and cause immense amounts of weathering, while a slow fluid
(e.g. a calm stream) would hardly cause any weathering. The
density of the fluid also controls the size of particle that can
be transported; for instance, a denser fluid, like water, can
carry larger particles than a less dense fluid, like air.
Another common method of mechanical weathering is called frost
wedging, which occurs when water seeps into cracks in the rock
and freezes. Water expands when frozen, which puts pressure on
the rock and can potentially split boulders. The addition and
subtraction of heat or pressure can also cause rock to break,
which can cause rocks to shatter when cooled very quickly or
immense pressure is released. Finally, plants, animals, and
humans can cause significant amounts of weathering. These
sediments then undergo erosion, which is the transport of
sediment from where it is weathered to where it will be
deposited and turned into a rock.

Rocks can also be chemically weathered, most commonly by one of

three processes. The first is called dissolution, where a
mineral or rock is completely broken apart in water into
individual atoms or molecules. These ions can then be
transported with the water and redeposited as the concentration
of ions increases, generally due to evaporation. Chemical
weathering can also change the mineralogy and weaken the
original material, which is also caused by water. A mineral can
undergo hydrolysis, where a hydrogen atom from the water
molecule replaces the cation in a mineral; this normally alters
minerals like feldspar into a softer clay mineral. Additionally,
a mineral can undergo oxidation, where oxygen atoms alter the
valence state of a cation; this normally occurs on a metal and
is commonly known as rusting.

Chemical and mechanical weathering can work together to increase

the overall rate of weathering. Chemical weathering weakens
rocks, making them more prone to breaking physically, while
mechanical weathering increases the surface area of the
sediment, which increases the surface area that is exposed to
chemical weathering. Therefore, environments with multiple types
of weathering can erode very quickly.

IDENTIFYING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Classification of sedimentary rocks is largely based on

differentiating the processes that lead to their formation. The
biggest division in sedimentary rock types is based on the
primary type of weathering that leads to the material building
the sedimentary rock. If the rock is largely made from pieces of
rock (called clasts) that have been mechanically weathered, the
rocks are referred to as Detrital or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks.
These rocks are composed of broken pieces of other rocks. In
this case, the mineralogy of the clasts is not important, but we
need to note the properties of the sediment itself.

Alternatively, if the rock is largely the product of chemical

weathering, the classification is based on the composition of
the material and the processes involved in the materials
precipitation from solution. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks form
from the inorganic precipitation of minerals from a fluid.
Crystals begin to form if the ions present within a fluid, such
as water, become very concentrated, either by the addition of
more ions or the removal of water by freezing or evaporation. In
this case, the identification of the type of sedimentary rocks
is based on the minerals present. If organisms facilitate the
precipitation of these minerals from water we refer to the rocks
as Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks. An example of biochemical
precipitation is the formation of skeletal minerals in many
organisms: from starfish and clams that grow calcite, to sponges
that grow silica-based material, to humans that have bones made
of hydroxyapatite. Now we can discuss the identification and
formation of particular sedimentary rocks.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Weathering and erosion occur normally in areas that are at high

elevation, such as mountains, while deposition occurs in lower
areas such as valleys, lakes, or the ocean. The sediment is
transported from the area of erosion (e.g. the “source”) to area
of deposition (e.g. the “sink”) by ice, water, or air. The
sediment changes during its journey; we can recognize the amount
of change, the distance traveled, and the transport mechanism,
by looking at its maturity (e.g. Figure 1).

Maturity is defined as the texture and composition of a

sedimentary rock resulting from varying amounts of erosion or
sedimentary transport. Imagine a mountain composed of granite,
and let us explore how the sediment from this mountain changes
as it makes the long journey via river to the ocean. First, the
rock is mechanically breaking down into smaller pieces, which
creates sediment that has jagged large and small clasts, and all
of the minerals remain.

The sizes of clasts in these rocks can range from large

boulders, to cobbles, to pebbles, to the smallest particles,
clay. As this sediment is transported in the river, the clasts
collide with each other and the rocks get smaller and the sharp
edges are broken off. Also, as the slope of the land decreases
the river slows, leaving behind the large boulders and cobbles,
while carrying away the smaller particles.

Now, sediments further from the source will be more uniform in

size, which is a process called sorting. Chemical weathering
also occurs, altering the feldspars into clay-sized particles.
In the end, the granite is reduced from boulders and cobbles
close to the mountain, to pebbles in the rivers, to pure and
uniform quartz sand at the beach, and miniscule clay grains on
the ocean floor. Therefore, different clastic rocks are found in
different areas and have traveled different distances.

In the lab, YOU will look at four types of clastic rocks,

conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, and shale. Conglomerate is an
immature sedimentary rock (e.g. it has been transported a short
distance) that is a poorly sorted mixture of clay, sand, and
rounded pebbles. The mineralogy of the sand and pebbles (also
called clasts) can vary depending on its source. These rocks
would be found on the continent in several types of deposits,
such as ancient landslides or pebble beds in rivers.

Breccia is an immature sedimentary rock that is a poorly sorted

mixture of clay, sand, and angular pebbles. The mineralogy of
the clasts can vary depending on its source. These rocks would
be found on the continent in several types of deposits, such as
next to fault zones and debris flows.

Sandstone is defined as a clastic sedimentary rock that consists

of sand-sized clasts. These clasts can vary from jagged to
rounded, and can contain many minerals or just quartz.
Therefore, sandstone ranges from being relatively immature to
mature, which makes sense, since we can find layers of sand
associated with mountain rivers, to pure white quartz beaches.

Last we have shale, which is composed of clay particles and has

a finely layered or fissile appearance. This extremely mature
sedimentary rock is made from the smallest particles that can be
carried by wind or barely moving water and can be found
thousands of miles away from the original source.
Figure 1 | Maturity in clastic sedimentary rocks showing how the
sediments change as they are eroded further from their source.
Source: Bradley Deline (2015) CC BY-SA 3.0.

Biochemical and Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

As mentioned before, biochemical and chemical sedimentary rocks

either precipitated directly from water or by organisms. The
most recognizable chemical sedimentary rocks are evaporites,
which are minerals that are formed by the precipitation of
minerals from the evaporation of water.

You have already examined multiple examples of evaporites in

previous classes, such as halite and gypsum. In this lab, we
will focus on siliceous and carbonate biochemical sedimentary
rocks. Chert is a rock composed of microcrystalline varieties of
quartz, and thus it has properties that are associated with
quartz itself, such as conchoidal fracturing and hardness
greater than glass.

Chert is often formed deep in the ocean from silicious material

that is either inorganic (e.g. silica clay) or biologic (e.g.
skeletons of sponges and single-celled organisms) in origin.
Carbonates are one of the most important groups of sedimentary
rocks and can result in distinctive landscapes (e.g. karst) and
human hazards (e.g. sinkholes).
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of the carbonate
mineral calcite and can vary greatly in its appearance,
depending on how it is formed, but can easily be identified by
its chemical weathering. Limestone composed of calcite undergoes
dissolution in acids, meaning it effervesces dramatically when
we apply dilute HCl. As with chert, limestone can be formed
inorganically from a supersaturation of calcium and carbonate
ions in water in varying environments, from caves to tropical
beaches. Limestone that consists of crystals of calcite or
microcrystalline masses of calcite is called crystalline
limestone. Alternatively, limestone can be formed biologically
with the most striking example called a fossiliferous limestone,
which are rocks made of fragmented carbonate (calcite or its
polymorph aragonite) shells or coral.
Table 1 | Classification of sedimentary rocks. Source: Lyndsay
Hauber & Joyce M. McBeth (2018) CC BY-SA 4.0 after Bradley
Deline (2015) CC BY-SA 3.0.

LAB EXERCISES PART A – SEDIMENTARY ROCK IDENTIFICATION

Before attempting to answer the following questions, obtain the

10 rock samples from the drawer; they will be numbered 1-10. It
is recommended that you have your glass plate, streak plate, and
magnifying glass readily available.

Using as an example Table 1-E1, start identifying the rocks by

separating out the chemical and biological sedimentary rocks
from the clastic sedimentary rocks. Make sure to use all of the
tools available, including the glass plate, to identify the
chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks (chert will be harder
than glass). The streak plate can be helpful in identifying rock
salt (potash), which will produce a white streak. Finally, use
the hand lens to closely examine the size of the grains in the
clastic sedimentary rocks. Once you are confident of your
identifications, answer the following questions.

Table E1 | Sedimentary Rock Notation Chart. Source: Lyndsay

Hauber (2018) CC BY 4.0
Name: _______________
Date and lab section time: _____________

1. Sample 1: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone
•
2. Sample 2: What is this rock composed of?
• fragments of calcite shells
• clay-sized sediments
• sand-sized sediments
• oolites
• calcite crystals

3. Sample 1: Closely examine the individual grains in this rock.

Which of the following is true about its maturity?
• It is mature because it contains a variety of
different minerals.
• It is immature because it is poorly sorted.
• It is mature because it contains mostly rounded quartz
grains.
• It is immature because the grains are jagged.

4. Sample 1: What does the formation of this rock include?

• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification

5. Sample 2: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
 • Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

6. Sample 2: What is this an example of?

• Clastic Sedimentary Rock
• Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock

7. Sample 2: Closely examine the individual grains in this rock.

Which of the following is true about its maturity?
• It is immature because it is poorly sorted.
• It is mature because it is poorly sorted.
• It is mature because it contains mostly rounded
grains.
• It is immature because it contains mostly rounded
grains.
• It is immature because it has clay-sized particles

8. Sample 2: What does the formation of this rock include?

• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification

9. Sample 3: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone
• 10. Sample 3: Compared to Sample 1, how mature is this
rock?
• more mature
• less mature
 • same level of maturity

10. Sample 3: What does this rock consist of?

• fragments of calcite shells
• clay-sized sediments
• sand-sized sediments
• oolites
• calcite crystals

11. Sample 3: This rock can be easily recognized by which of the

following properties?
• conchoidal fracturing
• shiny, crystalline appearance
• fissile appearance
• a sandpaper texture
• cubic appearance

12. Sample 4: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

13. Sample 4: What is this an example of?

• Clastic Sedimentary Rock
• Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock

14. Sample 4: What does the history of the formation of this

rock include?
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification

15. Sample 5: What is this rock called?

 • Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

16. Sample 5: What is this an example of?

• Clastic Sedimentary Rock
• Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock

17. Sample 5: Closely examine the individual grains in this

rock. Which of the following is true about its maturity?
• It is immature because it is poorly sorted.
• It is mature because it is poorly sorted.
• It is mature because it contains mostly angular
grains.
• It is immature because it contains mostly angular
grains.
• It is immature because it has clay-sized particles

18. Sample 5: What does the formation of this rock include?

• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification

19. Sample 6: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone
20. Sample 6: What does the history of the formation of this
rock include?
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification

21. Sample 6: What is this rock composed of?

• clastic sediments
• microcrystalline calcite crystals
• calcite concretions
• microcrystalline quartz crystals

22. Sample 6: This rock can be easily recognized by which of the

following properties?
• conchoidal fracturing
• shiny, crystalline appearance
• fissile appearance
• a sandpaper texture
• cubic appearance

23. Sample 7: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

24. Sample 7: What is this rock an example of?

• Clastic Sedimentary Rock
• Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock

25. Sample 4: What is this rock composed of?

• clastic sediments
• microcrystalline calcite crystals
 • calcite concretions
• microcrystalline quartz crystals

26. Sample 7: Which of the following characteristic(s) does this

rock have?
• contains aggregates of oolites
• salty taste and cubic cleavage
• contains fossil shells
• contains pebbles and finer sediments
• scratches glass and has conchoidal fracturing

27. Sample 8: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

28. Sample 8: What is this rock composed of?

• clastic sediments
• microcrystalline calcite crystals
• calcite concretions
• microcrystalline quartz crystals

29. Sample 8: This rock can be easily recognized by which of the

following properties?
• conchoidal fracturing
• shiny, crystalline appearance
• fissile appearance
• a sandpaper texture
• cubic appearance

30. Sample 8: What does the formation of this rock include?

• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification
31. Sample 9: What is this rock called?
• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

32. Sample 9: What is this rock an example of?

• Clastic Sedimentary Rock
• Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock

33. Sample 9: This rock can be easily recognized by which of the

following properties?
• conchoidal fracturing
• shiny, crystalline appearance
• fissile appearance
• a sandpaper texture
• cubic appearance

34. Sample 10: What is this rock called?

• Conglomerate
• Limestone
• Rock Salt
• Shale
• Sandstone
• Oolitic Limestone
• Breccia
• Chert
• Fossiliferous Limestone

35. Sample 10: What is this rock an example of?

• Clastic Sedimentary Rock
• Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock

36. Sample 10: This rock has which of the following

characteristic(s)?
• contains aggregates of oolites
• salty taste and cubic cleavage
• contains fossil shells
 • contains pebbles and finer sediments
• scratches glass and has conchoidal fracturing

37. Sample 10: What does the history of the formation of this
rock include?
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a long
distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• mechanical weathering, transport of sediment a very
short distance, deposition of sediment, lithification
• chemical weathering, transport of ions, precipitation
of minerals as shells by organisms, deposition,
lithification
LAB EXERCISES PART B – DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

A depositional environment is the accumulation of chemical,

biological, and physical properties and processes associated
with the deposition of sediments that lead to a distinctive
suite of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary environments are
interpreted by geologists based on clues within such as rock
types, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, and fossils. We
can then compare these clues to modern environments to
reconstruct ancient environments. We can break up the numerous
depositional environments found on earth into common
environments we find on land (continental environments), in the
ocean (marine environments), and at the interface between the
two (transitional environments).

Continental Environments
There are many different environments on the continents, but
again we are limited to those that are dominated by the
deposition rather than the erosion of  sediments. Erosion occurs
in high altitude areas and although continents are overall
topographically elevated compared to the oceans, there are
several different areas on the continent where we get
distinctive depositional properties. Continental depositional
environments are dominated by clastic sedimentary rocks, largely
because of their proximity to the source of the sediments.

Glacial depositional environments are controlled mostly by the

weathering and erosion by glaciers and glacial meltwater.
Glaciers most commonly occur in areas that are both high
elevation and/or high latitudes. Glaciers are fairly slow-moving
(centimeters a day) and normally travel short distances from
their source, but they can cause immense mechanical weathering.
Glaciers grind and bulldoze rock and create piles of poorly
sorted sediment called moraines. Glaciers also produce a
significant though the fluctuating amount of melted water, which
flows through the moraines building a system of braided rivers.
These rivers carry the small sediments further from the end of
the glaciers into an area called the outwash plain, which
consists of poorly sorted sediment.

We have spent a significant amount of time in chapter five

discussing rivers and how they erode, transport, and deposit
sediment. Sediments that are deposited through the action of
rivers are referred to as fluvial depositional environments. The
gradient and discharge of a river can greatly control the shape
of the river, how it flows, and how it deposits sediment. Rivers
alter sediment both chemically and physically as well as sort
the sediment since there is a limit to the size of  particles a
river can carry. Within a meandering river we see several
different types of sediments, from the pebbles and stones within
the river channel to sandy point bars along the outer edge of
the meander where the water slows. In addition, we see multiple
types of sedimentary structures related to the flow of the river
as well as those related to flood events.

We also have sediments deposited within lakes, which are called

lacustrine depositional environments. Unlike rivers, lakes do
not have rapidly flowing water and thus there is significantly
less movement of sediment. The sediment that accumulates in
lakes can come from several sources including rainwater carrying
sediment into the lake from the shores, rivers that flow into
the lake, and sediment that is transported by the wind. Once the
sediment reaches the lake it remains undisturbed so we see thin
layers of fine sediment, with varying amounts of trace fossil.

Lastly, there is the  eolian depositional environment, which is

dominated by currents of wind rather than water. Since air is
less dense than water, only smaller particles can be
transported. In addition, wind is not restrained within
distinctive channels like water and, therefore, the features of
eolian deposits are more widespread than those of fluvial
deposits. Certain areas have predominant wind patterns, such
that the wind is fairly consistent in direction and strength,
which can generate significant sedimentary structures. When
water is present within these environments it is often in the
form of seasonal lakes that undergo significant evaporation and
sometimes leaving behind chemical sedimentary rocks (evaporite
deposits).

Transitional Environments
The interface between the continents and oceans are complicated
areas that can be influenced by rivers, ocean currents, winds,
waves, and tides. In addition, the sediments that are present in
these areas are a mixture of materials derived from the
continents (clastic and organic) and those from the ocean
(chemical and biochemical). Finally, with the abundant currents
(both air and water), sediments influenced by the elements, and
abundant life in these areas, which results in abundant
sedimentary structures and trace fossils. However, we can
distinguish transitional areas that are dominated by different
forces such as tides, ocean currents, and rivers.
Shorelines that are influenced by strong daily tidal currents
are called tidal mudflat depositional environments. Tides are
currents that are the result of the gravitational forces exerted
by the moon and the rotation of the earth. Shorelines that have
strong tidal currents as well as seafloors with low gradients
can have large areas that are submerged during high tide and
exposed to air during low tide. These areas often have smaller
particles than a normal shoreline since the tidal currents can
pull marine sediments into the area. In addition, the strong
bidirectional currents, daily drying out, exposure to the
elements, and abundant life create abundant indicators of these
environments.

Shorelines that are dominated by ocean currents are called beach

depositional environments. Shorelines have constant wind on and
offshore that are the result of the difference in the way the
land and water heat and cool through the day. These winds
produce the waves that are iconic at the beach, but as these
waves move onto shore they curve, mimicking the shape of the
shore and result in a current that runs parallel to the shore
itself. This current carries and deposits sand along the beach.
In addition, the wind can also produce dunes, which promote a
diverse and complicated ecosystem. Within beach depositional
environments there are areas where rivers flow into the ocean,
which are called Deltas. As a river that is carrying material
empties into the ocean the water slows and deposits sediment.
Most of the sediment is deposited at the mouth of the river with
some spilling out into the surrounding areas building a
distinctive fan of sediment. Since the sediment is coming from
the river, the delta is largely a thick sequence of clastic
sediment showing indications of the strong flow of the river.

Marine Environments
Marine depositional environments differ in multiple ways, but
the controlling factors in the rocks that are produced is
related to the proximity and supply of continental sediment, the
water depth, and the community of organisms that live in the
area. The further an environment is from the shore the less
clastic sediment will be present and the area will have a higher
concentration of the chemical and biological sedimentary rocks
that are formed within the ocean. In addition, some organisms in
the right environmental conditions can produce huge amounts of
skeletal material.

Shallow marine depositional environments are areas that are

close to shore  but always submerged. These areas have a
significant amount of mature clastic sediment along with marine
algae (like seagrass) as well as skeletal material from animals
like coral, echinoderms (sea urchins and sand dollars), and
mollusks (clams and snails). These areas can have a significant
difference in their energy level from very shallow areas
influenced by waves to deeper areas only influenced by large
storms. A better understanding of the relative depth can often
be determined based on the sedimentary structures as well as the
community of organisms and types of trace fossils, which can be
very sensitive to depth.

In warm tropical shallow water area, we often find reef

depositional environments. Reefs are formed through the growth
of coral colonies building a large three-dimensional structure
built from calcite skeletons. Corals can grow in many different
marine environments, but they can only produce reefs when their
symbiotic algae that live within their tentacles can
photosynthesize effectively, resulting in more energy for the
coral to grow faster. Reefs also create a barrier between
shallow-water environments and ocean currents producing shallow,
low-energy environment called lagoons. Lagoons can have thin
layers of fine sediment that we would expect in quiet water
along with chemical sedimentary deposits that are the result of
evaporation.
 
Most of the ocean consists of deep-marine depositional
environments. These areas are beyond the reach of most clastic
sediment other than the dust carried by the wind. Therefore, the
sediment is being produced chemically and biologically within
the ocean. The largest source of sediment in these deep settings
is skeletal material from some of the smallest marine organisms.
Multiple types of single-celled organisms can produce shells
composed of either silica or calcite. These shells are mostly
produced in the surface waters that are bathed in sunlight
permitting photosynthesis. When the organism dies, these shells
then rain down into deeper water; this slow accumulation of
sediment produces fine layers of biochemical sedimentary rocks.
In some cases, these shells are dissolved or altered before they
reach the bottom (which can be miles away) and are precipitated
as chemical sedimentary rocks. Obviously, there is not a clear
boundary between shallow and deep-water environments given the
gradient of the ocean floor. The deep marine depositional
environment is normally thousands of feet deep and beyond the
influence of even large storms.
Name: _______________
Date and lab section time: _____________

LAB EXERCISES PART A – DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

The following exercises use Google Earth to explore the

depositional environments that are the source for sedimentary
rocks. For each locality think about the types of sediments that
are accumulating, the types of weathering that would occur, as
well as the presence of any sedimentary structures.

38. Search for 39 05 52.46N 84 30 56.16E and zoom out to an eye

altitude of ~9 km. The large-scale structures in this
sedimentary environment are asymmetrical ripples (known as dunes
at this size). Zoom in and out and examine the sedimentary
environment. What type of sedimentary environment is this?
a. Lacustrine
b. Fluvial
c. Eolian
d. Glacial

39. What type of weathering do you think is most prominent in

this sedimentary environment?
a. Mechanical weathering from a current
b. Dissolution
c. Frost Wedging
d. Hydrolysis

40. Study the large dunes in this image (zoom out to an eye
altitude of ~7 km). These structures can indicate the direction
that the wind is blowing. What is the predominant wind direction
in this area? (Hint: it is easier to see these features if we
exaggerate the vertical scale to do this go to Tools, options,
and on the 3D view tab change the Elevation Exaggeration to 3.
To do this on a Mac go to Google Earth then Preferences)
a. north to south
b. south to north
c. east to west
d. west to east

41. Search for 64 01 03.61N 16 52 56.63W and zoom out to an eye

altitude of ~7 km. What type of sedimentary environment is this?
a. Lacustrine
b. Fluvial
c. Eolian
d. Glacial
42. What type of weathering do you think is most prominent in
this sedimentary environment? (Make sure you evaluate all
choices)
a. Mechanical weathering from ice
b. Dissolution
c. Frost Wedging
d. Hydrolysis
e. Both a and c are correct

43. When the sediment you see today lithifies, what type of
sedimentary rock would you expect to be most abundant in this
area and how mature is this rock type?
a. Shale, Mature
b. Shale, Immature
c. Sandstone, Immature
d. Sandstone, Mature
e. Conglomerate, Immature
f. Conglomerate, Mature

44. Search for 44 42 16.98N 1 05 23.88W and zoom out to an eye

altitude of ~30 km. Notice the depth of this shallow bay
(Arcachon Bay, France). This bay dries out at times and later
greatly expands in size daily. What sedimentary structure would
you likely find in this area because of this?
a. graded beds
b. finely layered beds
c. cross beds
d. mud cracks

45. What type of sedimentary environment is this?

a. lacustrine
b. tidal mudflats
c. deep marine
d. beach

46. Search for 20 20 23.94S 150 38 29.14E and zoom out to an eye
altitude of ~50 km (also zoom far out to notice where you are in
the world). What type of sedimentary environment is this?
a. shallow marine
b. deep marine
c. delta
d. reef

47. Think about the origin of this marine formation and consider
the latitude to assess climatic conditions. What is the most
abundant type of rock you would expect to form in this
sedimentary environment?
a. Limestone
b. Sandstone
c. Coal
d. Shale

48. If the sea level dropped 1,000 feet and this sedimentary
environment stopped being built and began to break down, what
type of weathering would be most likely to occur on these rocks?
a. Fracturing from the addition or subtraction of pressure
b. Dissolution
c. Frost Wedging
d. Hydrolysis

49. Search for 31 00 43.61N 81 25 40.92W and zoom out to an eye

altitude of 500 m. What type of sedimentary environment is this?
a. shallow marine
b. reef
c. fluvial
d. beach
e. tidal mudflat

50. What type of sediment would you expect to find in this

depositional environment?
a. Mostly mature clastic sediments with some biochemical and
chemical sedimentary sediments
b. Mostly biochemical and chemical sedimentary sediments with
some mature clastic sediments
c. Exclusively organic sediments
d. Exclusively biochemical sediments
e. Exclusively immature clastic sediments