11 - Mineral Bible - HydorthermalMinerals

The Kingston Morrison Book
of Hydrothermal Minerals
Mineral Services
P134205 February 1999
The Kingston Morrison Book
of Hydrothermal Minerals
Mineral Services Division

Kingston Morrison Limited
EIGHTH EDITION
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P134205 February 1999
Contents
Page
1.0 Introduction 2
2.0 Compilation of Data 4

Phyllosilicates 4
Zeolites 17
Silica Species 26
Feldspars 29
Epidote Group and Pumpellyite (Similar Structure) 32
Other Silicates 35
Carbonates 47
Sulphates, Phosphates, Halides, Arsenates 51
Oxides and Hydroxides 62
Sulphides, Antimonides, Arsenides, Tellurides, Native Elements, Sulphosalts 65
Opaque Assemblages 78
3.0 Preferred Abbreviations for Hydrothermal Minerals 79
Listed alphabetically (by abbreviation) 79
Listed alphabetically (by mineral) 82
4.0 References 85
4.1 Specific References 85
4.2 General References Used in This Compilation 89
5.0 Graphical Summary of Temperature Ranges 90
6.0 Index of Minerals 96
Appendix 1: Glossary and Definitions 99
Hydrothermal Minerals and their Significance: P134205\Feb 99

1.0 Introduction
The main objective of this compilation of hydrothermal mineralogy is to provide workers in

the geothermal and mineral exploration industries with a convenient summary of the
significance of diagnostic hydrothermal minerals, in terms of the temperature and
chemistry of the fluids from which they were deposited. It has been derived from published
data on active and fossil hydrothermal systems, unpublished Kingston Morrison Limited
reports, and theoretical thermodynamic studies on mineral stability relations. Temperature
data from active hydrothermal systems are derived both from direct measurement and fluid
inclusion studies whereas those from fossil systems are mainly from fluid inclusion studies.
The reliability of the temperature ranges given is therefore variable. Rather than just
giving a single range, what has been presented includes data estimates from a number of
sources, with what we consider to be the most probable estimate emphasised (bold letters).
There are several reasons why different temperature stability ranges are given by different
authorities, and it is worth considering the reasons for these:
 Theoretical thermodynamic studies are limited by the accuracy of the

thermodynamic data for the minerals concerned (which are often poorly known), and
constrained by the need to limit the number of chemical parameters considered. For
example, should silica and/or aluminium saturation be assumed in the fluid in any
particular case? What polymorph of silica is controlling the solubility? Thus, while
they can be very useful for indicating general trends, they can be significantly in
error, in absolute terms, when applied to any real situation.
 Temperatures measured in wells in active hydrothermal systems are one of the most
direct indicators of mineral stability temperatures, but these data must be examined
with caution. The drilling of a geothermal well represents a profound disturbance to
a hydrothermal system. It may take years for the previous temperature regime to be
re-established. If a well has multiple permeable zones, then there can be internal
flows of fluid in the well which cause measured temperatures to be many tens of
degrees different from those in the adjacent host rocks. These points have often not
been fully appreciated by geologists reporting on hydrothermal alteration mineralogy
in geothermal wells, who present raw measured well temperatures rather than
interpreted stable formation temperatures. Thus in the compilation, in some
instances reported temperatures at which various minerals occur in certain
hydrothermal systems are given, but these may be incorrect.
 Host rock and fluid chemistry can affect secondary mineral stability temperature
ranges. For example, talc appears to be stable at lower temperatures in basaltic host
rocks. The kaolinite stability temperature field expands at lower pH. While siderite
is stable to high temperatures, and occurs in association with high temperature
assemblages in metamorphic veins, in epithermal deposits it most commonly occurs
in cooler zones because it is formed from cool, secondary fluids. Thus the
temperature ranges given are intended to apply to typical volcanic host rock and
hydrothermal fluid chemistries, not extreme cases. Significantly different
temperature ranges may apply in other geological environments.

 Minerals can persist in a metastable form outside their range of formation
temperatures. This is commonly appreciated for retrograde temperatures (otherwise
we would never be able to observe high-temperature minerals under ambient
conditions), but it may be less well appreciated that it can apply to prograde
situations as well. The kinetics of some mineralogical transformations are sluggish
even in terms of geological time. Thus low-temperature phases can persist to higher
temperatures, especially where rocks have a low permeability to fluid. Alternatively
where there have been extremely rapid rates of reaction (most marked in advanced
argillic alteration assemblages or where there has been extremely rapid deposition of
silica) the mineral assemblage formed will be that with the least change in entropy
(Ostwalds step rule) rather than the equilibrium assemblage.
 To obtain entrapment temperatures from fluid inclusion homogenisation

temperatures requires that assumptions must be made in order to obtain a pressure
correction. The accuracy of the temperatures will therefore be dependent upon the
degree to which the assumptions are met. Additionally, temperatures are only rarely
obtained from other than a limited number of minerals, most particularly quartz, and
temperatures of formation of associated minerals are then assumed to be equal to
that of the quartz, which need not always be the case.
It must be noted that the data has been gathered from active hydrothermal systems and
their fossil analogues (epithermal and porphyry-type deposits). The direct application of
this data to other types of hydrothermal ore deposits, most particularly volcanic hosted
massive sulphide (VHMS) and Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) deposits, may not be
appropriate. For those minerals which also form during diagenesis and metamorphism, the
formation temperatures may be significantly different, because of the much greater time
available for reactions to occur in these environments.
Section 2.0 is a compilation of data for diagnostic hydrothermal minerals according to their
respective mineral groups, detailing; (i) chemical formula; (ii) mode of occurrence; (iii)
physicochemical environment of formation; (iv) inferred temperature of formation; (v)
alteration assemblage; (vi) associated ore deposits; (vii) typical associated mineralogy; and
(viii) physical properties, including hand specimen, thin section/polished mount and XRD
data, and (ix) distinguishing features. XRD data in are given as d-spacings (in Å) and also
in degrees 2 for Cu K radiation. Preferred abbreviations for each mineral are given for
each mineral, and used throughout this document. Numbers in brackets in the data
compilation refer to the references listed in Section 4.0. Figures summarising the most
probable temperature stability data for the more significant minerals are included in
Section 5.0. An index is provided in Section 6.0 and a glossary is given in the Appendix.
Other abbreviations used are H: hardness, HS: hand specimen, TS: thin section, RI:
refractive index

2.0 Compilation of Data
Phyllosilicates
Allophane (Alp)
CHEMICAL FORMULA Al2SiO5.nH2O (Kandite Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and vein filling. Occurs as crusts resembling hyalite.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Weathering and supergene. Strong leaching.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Very low temperature (1)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic, weathering
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS May occur with coal deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Precursor to other kandites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive or powdery. H2-3. Waxy, resinous, translucent, with uncoloured
streak. Colour variable.
XRD: Usually amorphous; best peaks at 11.0, 3.3, 2.2Å [8.0, 27.0, 41.0°]
TS: Physically resembles opal (RI 1.48), but much softer.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
Endellite (End) (Hydrohalloysite)

Al4Si4O10(OH)8.4H2O (Kandite Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replaces primary rock components, commonly after plagioclase. Cavity fillings.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Most commonly due to weathering but may also form by very low temperature
hydrothermal alteration of feldspars and other aluminous silicate minerals.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 70 (1)
< 80 (3, 27)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Typical occurrence as for Hal, Ka.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Op, Cris, Hal, Ka.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tubular, compact to mealy mass. H2-2.5. Translucent. White, colourless,
various tints. Pearly to dull earthy.
XRD: 9.8 - 10.0Å [<9.0 - 8.8°], plus numerous other peaks, especially 4.4Å [20.2°].
Collapses on heating. Peaks typically broad. Peak at 4.4Å often larger than that at
7.5Å, unlike Ka.
TS: Resembles other kandites; low birefringence, positive relief (RI 1.537).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Tubular form is characteristic of endellite and halloysite, and often visible in thin
section. XRD required for specific identification.
Halloysite (Hal) (Metahalloysite)

Al4Si4O10(OH)8.2H2O (Kandite Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replaces primary rock components, commonly after plagioclase. Cavity fillings.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Commonly due to weathering but also forms by low temperature hydrothermal
alteration of feldspars and other aluminous silicate minerals.
< 80 (3, 27)
> 70 metahalloysite (1)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Typical occurrence as for End, Ka.

ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Op, Cris, End, Ka.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tubular, compact to mealy mass. H2-2.5. Translucent. White, colourless,
various tints. Pearly to dull earthy.
XRD: 7.5 - 7.2Å [11.8 - 12.3°] plus numerous other peaks, especially 4.4Å [20.2°].
Collapses on heating. Peaks typically broad. Peak at 4.4Å often larger than that at
7.5Å, unlike Ka.
TS: Resembles other kandites, positive relief (RI 1.555).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Tubular form is characteristic of endellite and halloysite, and often visible in thin
section. XRD required for specific identification.
Kaolinite (Ka)
Al4Si4O10(OH)8 (Kandite Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components, commonly after feldspars. Also fills veins
and vugs.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low cation/pH ratio, most commonly acid, depending on association, but can also
form from low salinity, low temperature waters. Can be supergene or from
weathering. Common mineral in cool, late-stage hydrothermal overprints due to low
pH. Occurs in sedimentary clay deposits due to leaching by organic-derived acid
fluids.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 220 (1), but pH dependent
< 140 (2)
< 200 Cerro Prieto (10), Los Azufres (57), Philippines (48), Japan (7)
< 160 (15), Cerro Prieto (7, 14)
< 60 NZ (7)
50 - 130 (8)
0 - 265 (4)
< 180 (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic, Advanced argillic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Late stage overprint or supergene mineral in many hydrothermal ore deposits. Can
be hypogene in high sulphidation deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, maybe Op, Alu and Py (acid) or Sm (neutral). Sometimes carbonates, especially
Ank, Sid.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Thin hexagonal platelets or scales, as elongate plates. Massive, compact, friable
or mealy. H2-2.5. Translucent, colourless, white, various tints (yellow, brown, red
or blue). Pearly to dull earthy streak.
XRD: 7.1Å [12.5°] - disappears with heating to 550°C. Peak at 7.1Å larger than
that at 4.4Å [20.2°]. Distinguished from Chl by lack of 14.1Å [6.3°] peak. Also
distinguished from Chl and other kandites by heat-treated XRD analysis.
TS: Resembles other kandites, zeolites. RI 1.55-1.57. Low-birefringence (first order
grey) fibres. Ka has a smaller extinction angle than Dic.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Low birefringence, XRD peaks (collapse on heating).
Dickite (Dic)
Al4Si4O10(OH)8 (Kandite Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components, commonly after feldspars. Also fills veins
and vugs.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Commonly acid, depending on association. Never supergene or sedimentary.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 200 - 250 (1)
< 260 (2)

140 - 150 NZ (7)
150 - 250 Japan (7)
180 - 190 (15)
110 - 270 Philippines (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic, Advanced argillic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High-sulphidation type deposits, less common as late stage overprint in other types
of deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Ka, sometimes Alu, sulphides in ore deposits, rarely carbonates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Thin, tabular, minute, pseudohexagonal crystals. Usually massive. May be
friable or compact. H2-2.5. Translucent, colourless, white or tinted. Waxy.
XRD: Similar to kaolinite, but distinguished by peak around 2.5Å. [35.9]. Ka has
largest peak in this range at 2.49Å [36.0°] and one at 2.526Å [35.5°]. Dic has its
largest peak at 2.509Å [35.8°], none at 2.526Å [35.5°]. Dic distinguished from
chlorite and other kandites by heat-treatment. More crystalline than Ka.
TS: Resembles other kandites, but generally coarser, more crystalline. RI 1.56-1.57.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Low birefringence, XRD peaks (do not collapse on heating).
Smectite (Sm)
(½Ca,Na) 0.66(Al,Mg,Fe)4(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4.nH2O
The Smectite Group can be subdivided according to the major octahedral ions into:
montmorillonite (Al,Mg), beidellite (Al), nontronite (mainly Fe), saponite (Mg),
hectorite (Mg,Li), sauconite (Zn,Mg,Al,Fe)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components (commonly after plagioclase), in veins and
vugs. Typically replaces Fe-mags during deuteric alteration of basalts and basaltic
andesites. Replaces glassy fraction of tuffs, especially in the marine environment.
Also common weathering product. Occurs in geothermal well blockages (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Produced from near-neutral pH, chloride hydrothermal waters, deuteric processes, or
weathering. The Na:K:Ca ratio of Sm depends on both protolith composition and
fluid chemistry. Hydrothermal smectites are usually calcic montmorillonites. Those
formed under marine conditions may be sodic. Drilling mud (bentonite) is sodic.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 150 - rarely to 200 (2)
< 180 (1), Philippines (37)
< 150 Cerro Prieto (10, 15), Yellowstone (26), Fiji (31)
< 100 Salton Sea (7)
< 160 Cerro Prieto (7, 14)
< 100 NZ (8)
20 - 140 (4)
50 - 150 (17)
< 170 Philippines (48)
< 140; rarely to 220 (27)
< 130 Kyushu, Japan (45)
< 180, rarely up to 210 Los Azufres (57)
< 200 Iceland (58)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Shallowest part of low-sulphidation epithermal deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Py, Cc, zeolites, Op.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fine-grained aggregates, may be vermiform, lamellar or spherulitic. H1-2.
Commonly dull white to grey, sometimes yellow or green. May be stained dark
purple-blue by other minerals.

XRD: >13.0Å [<6.8°] (usually 14 - 15Å [6.3 - 5.9°]); expands on glycolation to
~17Å [5.2°] and minor peaks appear at 8.5Å [10.4°] and 5.6Å [15.8°]; collapses to
10Å [8.8°] on heating. The various species can be distinguished from the position of
the 060 peak.
TS: Small, almost clear fibres with slight relief change - highest perpendicular to
polariser (RI 1.48-1.60). Birefringent, but this may not be obvious if fine-grained or
iron-stained. Resembles I-Sm, Tlc.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Positive and quantitative reaction to methylene blue. Requires XRD to distinguish
from interlayered clays
Illite - Smectite (I-Sm)

Randomly or regularly interlayered illite and smectite, variable ratio.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components (commonly after plagioclase), also in vugs
and veins. I-Sm also commonly replaces Fe-mags during deuteric alteration of
basalts and basaltic andesites.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH to slightly acid fluids.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 150 - 230; > 11Å = 150 - 190,
< 11Å = 190 - 230 (4)
< 230 Cerro Prieto (10)
100 - 210 Salton Sea (7)
< 210 NZ (8)
130 - 230 (1), 140 - 230 (2)
60 - 160 Cerro Prieto (14)
80 - 210 (15)
140 - 220; rarely 100-260 (27)
10 % Sm @ 190, 5% @ 210 at Salton Sea (32)
150 - 225 Meager Creek, Canada (38)
< 220 (41)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS In shallow epithermal gold deposits and late stage overprint on porphyry-type
deposits. In some mesothermal deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Py, Cc, Chal, zeolites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: For physical properties see illite.
XRD: 10.3Å - 12.5Å [8.6 - 7.1]; expands to somewhere between 8.5 - 10 Å [8.8 -
10.4] on glycolation, depending on the ratio of illite to smectite (therefore on
temperature); collapses to ~10A [8.8] on heating. See (40) for correlation between
temperature and composition. Can express I-Sm crystallinity in terms of a
numerical ratio or "illite crystallinity" based on shape of basal spacing XRD peak
(Kubler Index).
TS: Fine grained moderately birefringent flakes and masses. Resembles Sm, I, Tlc
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES XRD - can determine specific proportions of I and Sm from glycolated XRD chart
Illite (I)
K1-1.5Al4(SiAl)8O20(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components (commonly after plagioclase). Occurs in
vugs and veins. Appears to be more abundant in permeable zones.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH to slightly acid fluids.

> 230 (1, 4), > 220 NZ (7)
> 210 (7), < 275 for no Sm layers (32), both Salton Sea
140 - 310 (10) Cerro Prieto, Mexico detrital
240 - 300 (17)
> 200, rarely 130 (27); Philippines
220 - 310 (48), Philippines
100 to >300 Los Azufres: suspect nomenclature (57)
< 150 (38): probably wrong
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Phyllic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal gold and porphyry style deposits (as well as many other types of
hydrothermal ore deposits).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Commonly with Q, Ad, Py, Cc. But Ad, Cc lacking in acid associations.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, extremely fine-grained. Usually white to pale coloured. H1-2. Perfect
cleavage. Sometimes occurs as hexagonal microflakes. Often admixture with other
clay minerals, intermediate between smectite and sericite.
XRD: 9.8 - 10.3Å [9.0 - 8.6], 5.00 - 4.98Å [17.7 - 17.8]. Can express crystallinity
in terms of Kubler Index.
TS: Resembles Tlc, Pyp. RI 1.57-1.60. Fine-grained, colourless flakes with
moderate birefringence.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES XRD
Sericite (Ser)
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components (commonly after plagioclase). Occurs in
vugs and veins. Also contact or regional metamorphism.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION As for illite.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 270 (1), but where illite replaces primary micas, it can appear to be highly
crystalline at lower temperatures.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Phyllic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in a wide range of higher temperature hydrothermal ore deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Act, Ep, Bt, Ad, Ga.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Similar to illite, but often coarser flakes.
XRD: As for illite, but very sharp basal peaks.
TS: Well-crystalline, strongly birefringent colourless flakes resembling muscovite.
Nomenclature inconsistent; some include all "hydromicas" as sericite, even I-Sm.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES XRD, coarse birefringent flakes.
Fuchsite (Fu) also known as Mariposite

K2(AlCr)4[Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4
Cr-bearing variety of muscovite
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of primary rock components (commonly after plagioclase), also in vugs
and veins. Common in some ultramafics.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION As for sericite
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Similar to sericite(?)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Phyllic (?)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Mesothermal and VHMS deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Cc, Tlc, Py.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Distinguished in hand specimen by green colour.
XRD: See sericite.

TS: As for sericite, occasionally weakly pleochroic. Forms well crystalline, strongly
birefringent flakes. RI increases with Cr content.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Greenish colour.
Roscoelite (Ros)
K(V,Al,Mg)3(AlSi3)O10(OH)2
V-bearing muscovite
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of primary rock components (commonly after plagioclase), also in vugs
and veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION As for sericite
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Similar to sericite(?)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Phyllic (?)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS In some epithermal deposits, especially where shoshonitic lavas present. Also
mesothermal
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Cc, Tlc, Py.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Brown to greenish, H2.5. Minute scales.
XRD: 10.0, 4.54, 3.35Å [8.8, 19.5, 26.6].
TS: Optically similar to sericite but may be slightly pleochroic (green-brown). RI
1.61-1.70.
Chlorite-Smectite (Chl-Sm)
Randomly interlayered chlorite and smectite
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of matrix and less commonly Fe-mags and plagioclase.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH. Abundant where there is little circulation of geothermal water, as in
impermeable fine grained clastics.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 230 - usually < 200 (2)
200 - 230 Iceland (7, 58)
< 140 (15)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc, Ab, Q, Dol.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, spherical or botryoidal aggregates, foliated. H2-3.
XRD: 34 - 14.7Å [2.6 - 6.0]. The basal peak does not shift on glycolation
TS: Resembles Chl - although it may be more birefringent.
Corrensite (Cor)
Regularly 1:1 interlayered Chl-Sm or Chl-Vm
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of matrix and less commonly Fe-mags and plagioclase.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH.
Weathering (48) ?
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc, Ab, Q, Dol.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Physical properties are similar to chlorite.
XRD: Similar to chlorite, but with 29.0-28.3Å superorder peak and slight
differences in relative peak heights. On heating, the 12.3° peak may collapse while
the 6.1° peak is enhanced.
TS: Resembles Chl optically.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES XRD; especially the superorder peaks and behaviour on heating.
Rectorite (Rect)
Regularly interlayered dioctahedral mica - Sm
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of matrix, Fe-mags and plagioclase.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION In permeable zones (27).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 220 Philippines (27)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Ad, Py.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Physical properties are similar to Pyp.
XRD: 25.5, 12.5, 3.13Å [3.5, 7.1, 28.5].
TS: RI 1.52-1.55.
Chlorite (Chl)
(MgAlFe)12(SiAl)8O20(OH)16
The Chlorite Group minerals can be subdivided into many different individual
mineral species according to the major ions present.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs as a replacement for Fe-mags, plagioclase and matrix minerals, also fills
veins and vugs. Occurs as retrograde alteration of Bt or Act. Forms various
interlayered minerals with Sm and Vm.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH. Composition is temperature dependent (54, 56). If Mg-rich, may
indicate a cool inflow (48). Reported optical methods for determining composition
sometimes produces inconsistent results. Requires microprobe to resolve.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Ambient - 300+ (2)
> 230 Iceland (7)
> 145 Cerro Prieto (7)
~ 70 - 300 NZ (8), > 100 (4)
> 80 (15), Philippines (27)
> 200 Kyushu, Japan (45)
> 125 Sulawesi (53)
> 120 to > 340 Philippines (48)
Rarely < 240 Iceland (57)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Propylitic, minor component in phyllic and hydrous skarn assemblages.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in a wide range of hydrothermal ore deposits. In epithermal and porphyry
systems usually indicates a lack of intense ion exchange, hence usually found in
distal (but hot) and impermeable zones.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Occurs with most hydrothermal mineral assemblages, except those indicative of
strongly acidic assemblages (e.g. Alu, Dsp, Pyp).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Group of minerals with layered structure. Often occurs in coarsely crystalline
blocks with perfect cleavage, with inelastic basal laminae. Common as fine-grained
scaly or massive aggregates. H2-3. Pale to dark green, white, tinted. Commonly
has a greasy appearance.
XRD: 14.0, 7.1, 3.53Å [6.3, 12.5, 25.2°]
lacks 4.3Å [20.7°] and 2.3Å [39.2°] peaks of kaolinite, and has extra 14Å [6.3°]
peak
TS: Pale to dark green, often weakly pleochroic. Usually fibrous. Commonly strong
anomalous blue birefringence. Resembles Chl-Sm or other clays if fine-grained.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Green colour, anomalous blue birefringence, XRD peaks.
Biotite (Bt)
K2(MgFe)6-4(FeTiAl)0-2Si6-5Al2-3O20(OH,F)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs as a replacement of Fe-mags, plagioclase, matrix, and in veins. Also near
dykes, due to both hydrothermal and contact metamorphic processes.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH to somewhat acid, moderate to high Cl fluids. High K.
In porphyry environments formed under acid conditions, but since the fluid is saline
the K+/H+ ratio is the same as for less saline, less acid conditions.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 300 (5) (17)
> 260 (1), > 320 (4)
> 280 Philippines (48)
> 240 - 250; dyke? (27)
> 325 Salton Sea (32)
> 500 - 600 in porphyries (72)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Potassic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Porphyry deposits, skarns.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Act, Mt, Ga.
Retrogrades to Chl, Tt, Cc, I, Rt, FeO. (Associated with And and Crd in low-grade
hornfelses)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Transparent to opaque. Black, brown, reddish-brown or green. Hexagonal
plates. Perfect cleavage. H2.5-3. Vitreous, often pearly. Streak uncoloured.
XRD: Similar to illite/sericite: 10.1, 3.37, 2.66Å [8.7, 26.4, 33.7°].
TS: Usually small pleochroic brown or green flakes with hexagonal basal sections.
Mottled, straight extinction. Hydrothermal examples usually fine-grained and paler
than primary biotite.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Hexagonal brown flakes. Green types more birefringent than Chl
Phlogopite (Phg)
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs as a replacement mineral and in veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Chiefly occurs in limestones, marbles and ultramafic rocks. Skarns formed from
dolomites, particularly as endoskarns.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 500 - 600 in porphyry environments (72)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Skarn
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Magnesian skarns
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Mt.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Thin laminae, elastic and flexible. Prismatic (tapered) crystals. H2-2.5.

XRD: Similar to biotite. 10.1, 3.37, 2.01Å [8.7, 26.4, 45.1°].
TS: Paler in colour (usually yellowish brown to brownish red) and less pleochroic
than biotite, but has birdseye extinction. Smaller 2V than muscovite, and
pleochroic.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Pale brown flakes.
Pyrophyllite (Pyp)
Al4Si8O20(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of primary rock components, veins: i.e. similar to occurrence of I.
Hydrothermal alteration of feldspar, accompanied by Q.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Hot acid waters, pH<4, depending on associated sulphate and oxide mineralogy (2).
pH<4 (4).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 260 with Dsp and Dic/Ka, but less without (2, 83)
> 260 if saturated with respect to Q
< 260 if supersaturated with respect to Q (41)
240 - 320 (1), > 265 (4)
May coexist with Op (i.e. <120) in Philippines (22), on Vancouver Island (24), and
Kaipohan solfataras (1)
200 - 280, less if high silica
I + Pyp = 220-280 (48).
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic.
Origin of Pyp as a supergene mineral has been inferred, but is yet to be rigorously
established.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in some high sulphidation deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Commonly with Q, Dsp, Dic, Alu. Not Ka (27).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Subhedral, tabular crystals, elongated but often curved or distorted. Radiated
lamellar or fibrous, also granular to compact. Perfect cleavage with flexible
laminae. H1-2. Transparent to translucent, white or pale greyish, yellowish, pale
coloured. Pearly lustre.
XRD: 3.08, 9.21, 4.58Å [29.0, 9.6, 19.4°].
TS: Colourless, with third to fourth order interference colours. Biaxial (-). RI 1.55-
1.60. Near indistinguishable from Tlc/I, but has larger optic angle. Ka has lower
birefringence. Distinguished from talc using chemical test for aluminium; deep blue
colour produced by heating specimen after moistening with a cobalt solution.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES XRD to distinguish from I, Ser
Talc (Tlc)
Mg6Si8O20(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components, especially mafics. Commonly replaces
olivine during deuteric alteration of basalts. Can occur in veins. Also in altered
ultramafics and retrograde skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH, high Cl, Mg (2) Mafic parent (1). May indicate cool inflow (48).
Hydrothermal alteration of ultramafic rocks or associated with thermal
metamorphism of siliceous dolomites.

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 300 (2, 4), Iceland (11), in a hydrothermal setting, but may be lower
deuterically.
125 - 180 (15)
> 115 some possibly relict, but can apparently be formed by weathering in
Philippines (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Magnesian skarns
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Skarn deposits
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Act, Dol. In low-T greenschist facies, Trm and Chl are converted to talc by CO 2
metasomatism; at lower temperature talc is unstable and may be replaced by
magnesite.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually massive, fine-grained compact, foliated or fibrous. Crystals thin
tabular. Soft, H1. Pale green to dark green, greyish. Perfect cleavage.
XRD: monoclinic: 9.35, 1.35, 4.59Å [9.5, 69.6, 19.3°];
triclinic: 9.34, 4.56, 3.12Å [9.5, 19.5, 28.6°]
TS: Colourless and typically similar in thin section to illite, but may be darker
coloured or very weakly pleochroic. Biaxial (-). RI 1.55-1.60. To upper third order
interference colours (basal section low first order). May be recognised from host
rock composition.
Paragonite (Par)
Na2Al6Si6O20(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of primary minerals.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Most commonly in low grade schists and phyllites, blueschists. Also in regional
alteration haloes around some porphyry systems.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 260 (4)
> ~250 Philippines (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Propylitic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Peripheral to some porphyry deposits
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, fine scales. H2.5. Colourless to pale yellow, with a pearly lustre.
XRD: 9.70, 2.522, 3.203Å [9.1, 35.6, 27.9°].
TS: Colourless birefringent flakes that resemble I and Mus. RI 1.56-1.61.
Vermiculite (Vm)
(Mg,Ca)0.7(MgFeAl)6 (AlSi)8O20(OH)4.8H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of original rock components, especially Fe-mags and matrix minerals.
Geothermal well blockages (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH fluids, also weathering (27). May indicate cool inflow (48).
Also contact between acid intrusives and basic/ultramafic rocks, associated with
Cnd, Ap, Spt, Chl or Talc.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 270 (27); including weathering
325 - 350 (10) - misidentified?
60 - 70 (15)
> 325 as interlayers in Bt at Salton Sea (32)
< 200 (37), but hotter if after Chl
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE

ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Chl, Sm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute particles, also large crystalline plates when alteration product of biotite.
Colourless, yellow, green or brown. H1.5. Perfect cleavage.
XRD: 14.5 - 14.2Å [6.1 - 6.2°], 7.14, 4.60Å [12.4, 19.3°].
TS: Usually brown in thin section, but varieties containing Ni are green. Maximum
upper second order interference colours. Biaxial (-); RI 1.52-1.61, higher if Ni-rich.
Typically subhedral. Resembles Chl or Sm if fine-grained; may resemble Bt, but
lacks mottled extinction.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Less pleochroic and lower birefringence than Bt, and lacks birdseye mottling
Lepidolite (Lep)
K2(Li,Al)5-6Si6-7Al2-1O20(OH,F)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION More common in pegmatites than in a hydrothermal setting.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 130 - 140 Yellowstone (7)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Sn-bearing veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other Li minerals and those common in greisens.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Thick cleavable mass, tabular crystals. H2.5-3. Typically in various shades of
pink.
XRD: ~10Å [8.8°], usually 9.93Å [8.9°]. Also 3.32-3.34 and 2.58-2.61Å [26.7-26.9
and 34.4-34.8°].
TS: Colourless, low birefringence. RI 1.53-1.59. Similar to sericite.
Chrysotile (Cry)
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 (Serpentine Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement, particularly of olivine, and in veins; retrograde alteration of
magnesian skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION In ultramafic rocks.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) High temperature
< 570
Probably over 300
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ant, Tlc, Mt.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, fine, fibrous. Soft, H2.5. Flaky. Translucent. Typically white, grey.
XRD: 7.36, 3.66, 2.456Å [12.0, 24.4, 36.6°].
TS: Colourless, faint pleochroic tint. RI 1.54-1.56. Low birefringence.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Asbestiform, low RI and birefringence; best distinguished from Ant with XRD
Antigorite (Ant)
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 (Serpentine Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Usually as hydration product of ultramafics or from retrograde alteration of
magnesian skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Widespread, often admixed with Cry, alteration of ultramafic rocks.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 570

ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Skarn deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cry, Tlc, Mt
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, fine grained or compact. Soft, H2.5-3.5. Greenish. Translucent.
Waxy. White streak.
XRD: 7.33-7.10, 3.53-3.65, 2.50-2.52Å [12.1-12.5, 25.2-24.4, 35.9-35.6°].
TS: Colourless to pale green, weakly pleochroic. RI 1.55-1.57. Low birefringence.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Commonly lamellar, meshlike form; use XRD to distinguish from Cry
Scapolite (Scp)
Na4Al3Si9O24Cl - Ca4Al6Si6O24,CO3
The Scapolite Group is divided into Marialite (Na) and Meionite (Ca) end-members,
with Dipyre (Ma80-50) and Mizzonite(Ma 50-20) as intermediate species.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In regionally metamorphosed rocks, contact zones, skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
320 - 400°C Nickel Plate (82)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Gold skarns.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ga, Cpx
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, granular, pyramidal crystals. H5.5-6. Colourless, whitish.
XRD: 3.44-7, 3.81, 3.08 Å [25.7-25.9, 23.3, 29.0-29.5°]
TS: Colourless. RI 1.55-1.57. First order grey to third order blue (higher for
Meionite end-member). Uniaxial (-).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Resembles Q (uniaxial +), Crd (biaxial), Wo and And (higher relief and biaxial)
Cordierite (Crd)
(Mg,Fe3+)2Al4Si5O18
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In regionally metamorphosed rocks, contact zones and hornfels.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Some skarn deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, And, spinel, Bt
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, massive. Bluish or brownish. Vitreous. H7-7.5.
XRD: 3.13, 8.54, 8.45Å [28.5, 10.3, 10.5°]
TS: Colourless, lamellar twinned, low relief (RI 1.52-1.57), low birefringence,
biaxial (- rarely +).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES May resemble Q, but biaxial. Usually twinned, and commonly altered to pinite.

Zeolites
Many zeolites form as deuteric amygdule fillings in basalts.
Zeolites generally indicate low CO 2, neutral pH conditions (41)
Most except Wai are difficult to resolve optically, and require use of XRD.
Heulandite (Heu)
(CaNa)2Al2Si7O18.6H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins. Also in low-grade metamorphic rocks and devitrified glass.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH
< 100 Japan (7)
< 200 (5)
~40 - 140 (4)
70 - 130 (17)
<120 Nicaragua (49)
Usually < 100 Iceland (58)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other zeolites, Chal.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Subparallel aggregates and trapezoidal crystals, or massive. H3.5-4.
Transparent to translucent. White, colourless, grey, pink, yellow. Vitreous.
Uncoloured streak.
XRD: 3.917, 2.959, 8.85Å [22.7, 30.2, 10.0°].
TS: Colourless. Tabular to nearly equant. Low RI (1.488), low birefringence
(maximum interference colour is first order white). Biaxial (+).
Stilbite (Stil)
(CaNa2K2)Al2Si7O18.7H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mostly in amygdules. Hydrothermal veins and replacement. Low-grade
metamorphic.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH
100 - 200 Iceland (7)
90 - 115 Iceland (11)
64 - 73 Montana Springs (9)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS May be indicative of “satellite” epithermal boiling zone deposits when in veins
(75).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Sm, other zeolites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Sheaf-like, acicular aggregates. Translucent. H3.5-4. White, grey, yellowish
brown. Vitreous. Uncoloured streak..
XRD: 9.04, 4.07, 3.04Å [9.8, 21.8, 29.4°].
TS: Colourless. Maximum first order interference colours. RI (1.49) < Q, but
birefringence can be greater than Q. Biaxial (–). Twinned

Tobermorite (Tob)
Ca5Si6O17.5H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Filling cavities.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 55 - 150 Iceland (23)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, fibrous. H2.5. White. Translucent.
XRD: 11.3, 2.83, 5.55Å [7.8, 31.6, 16.0°].
TS: RI (1.56) > Q, but birefringence < Q.
Ferrierite (Fer)
(NaK)4Mg2Al6Si30O72(OH)2.18H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Filling cavities.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low temperature (1)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY I-Sm, Chal, other zeolites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Thin tabular crystals, in radiating groups. H3-3.5.
XRD: 3.537, 3.781, 9.51Å [25.2, 23.5, 9.3°].
TS: RI (1.48) < Q.
Wairakite (Wai)
CaAl2Si4O12.2H2O (i.e. Ca analogue of analcite)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs in cavities, vugs and veins. It replaces plagioclase and matrix minerals, but
rarely Fe-mags. Occurs rarely in well scales (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Relatively low CO 2. Permeable zones (27, 48). Can indicate boiling.
Neutral pH.

200 - 250, rarely 300 (2)
200 - 250 Wairakei, NZ (16)
232 - 276 Broadlands, NZ (8)
142 - 250 Wairakei, NZ (8)
222 - 260 Tauhara, NZ (8)
140 - 215 NZ (7)
100 - 200 Japan (7)
200 - ~300 (5)
> 210 Iceland (11)
180 - 320 (4), Iceland (58)
200 - 310; usually >250 (17)
200 - 280+; rarely to 125 (27)
< 275 Waiotapu, NZ (42)
> 210 Ngatamariki, NZ (35)
> 215 - 220 Nicaragua (49)
150 - 280 Los Azufres (57)
160 - 280+ Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Cc, Ep, Ab, Ad, I, Pre (16).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Subhedral crystals, showing octahedral-like faces. H5.5-6. Colourless to white.
Vitreous to dull lustre.
XRD: 3.41, 5.57, 2.90Å [26.1, 15.9, 30.8°].
TS: Colourless. Low birefringence (first order grey interference colours), commonly
two sets of ‘cross-hatch’ twin lamellae. May appear cubic or as needles. RI (1.50) <
Q. Resembles microcline, although distinguished by association.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Cross-hatch twinning, XRD
Mesolite (Mes)
Na2Ca2(Al2Si3O10)3.8H2O
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Usually < 100 Iceland (58)
80 - 90 Iceland (7)
60 - 95 Yellowstone (11)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Crystals are acicular or fibrous. H5. White, colourless. Vitreous.
XRD: 2.86, 5.79, 4.35Å [31.3, 15.3, 20.4°].
TS: Acicular, almost isotropic, twinned. RI (1.50) < Q.

Scolecite (Scl)
CaAl2Si3O10.3H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins. Low-grade metamorphic mineral.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 80 - 90 Iceland (7)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals or fibrous, radiating masses. Colourless, white. H5.
Vitreous.
XRD: 6.64, 4.44, 2.89Å [13.3, 20.0, 30.9°]
TS: Prismatic, RI (1.50-1.52) and birefringence < Q. Twinning common.
Clinoptilolite (Cpt)
(Na2K2CaMg)Al2Si9-10O22-24. 6-7H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins, also in devitrified glass. Also low-grade metamorphic
mineral (disseminated in some shales). Occurs in zones of high permeability (89).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 150 NZ (7)
< 69 Iceland (11)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Common in bedded economic zeolite deposits in New Zealand
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, platy crystals. Colourless, white. H3.5-4. Vitreous.
XRD: 8.92, 2.974, 3.897Å [9.9, 30.0, 22.8°]
TS: Low RI (1.48) and birefringence.
Laumontite (Lau)
CaAl2Si4O12.4H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Cavities and fractures, and in plagioclase and veins (16). Also low-grade
metamorphic rocks.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low permeability (27) if abundant (48).
Neutral pH.

140 - 220 Wairakei NZ (16)
150 - 250 rarely (2)
100 - 200 Japan (7)
> 120 Iceland (7)
< 200 (5)
130 - 200 (4)
195 - 220 (9)
140 - 200 (17)
120 - 200 (18)
< 220 (42) Waiotapu
120 - 230 Nicaragua (49)
> 140 Los Azufres (57)
Replaces other zeolites, from 100, in Iceland (58)
(75).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Wai, Ab, Sm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually crystals form elongate, square prisms. Also fibrous, columnar, radiating
masses. H3-4. White, grey, brownish, yellowish. Translucent to transparent.
Uncoloured streak.
XRD: 9.49, 4.156, 6.86Å [9.3, 21.4, 12.9°]
TS: Colourless. Generally elongate prismatic crystals, with three directions of
cleavage. Maximum first and second order interference colours. Higher
birefringence than Phil. Can resemble Q but RI (1.50-1.52) < Q. Distinctive
alteration to leonhardite (partly dehydrated variety of Lau).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Good cleavage, moderate birefringence, XRD
Mordenite (Mord) also known as Ptilolite

(CaNa2K2)(Al2Si10)O24.7H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In vesicles, cavities, often with Q. Rarely as replacement (16). Can be
pseudomorphed in Q veins. Occurs with Cpt in zones of high permeability (89).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Si-rich host rocks (7).
Neutral pH.
60 - 170 Ohaaki NZ (8)
60 - 160 Wairakei NZ (8)
110 - 160 Wairakei NZ (16)
~50 (7) NZ
~60 - 170+ Yellowstone (12)
30 - 80 (11)
< 90 (4)
< 120 Nicaragua (49)
< 140 Los Azufres (57)

(75).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, acicular, vertically striated prismatic crystals. Colourless, white, pale
green. H4-5. Vitreous.
XRD: 9.10, 4.00, 3.48Å [9.7, 22.2, 25.6°].
TS: Colourless to pale green. Minute, acicular crystals. Low RI (1.47-1.48) and
birefringence.
Erionite (Er)
(Na2K2CaMg)4.5Al9Si27O72. 27H2O
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 110 Yellowstone (7)
43 Yellowstone (12)
~ 80 Yellowstone (26)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Sm, other zeolites, Op.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, radiating crystals; usually fibrous, wool-like. White.
XRD: 11.41, 6.61, 4.322Å [7.7, 13.4, 20.5°].
TS: Hexagonal, prismatic crystals. Low RI (1.47-1.48) and birefringence.
Chabazite (Chab)
CaAl2Si4O12.6H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Generally infilling vugs in igneous rocks. Also fractures in schists and limestones
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low-Si protolith (7).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 80 Iceland (7)
25 - 75 Iceland (11)
< 68 - 92 Iceland (23)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY With other zeolites, Cc, Q
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Crystals usually rhombohedra. H4-5. Streak uncoloured.
XRD: 2.93, 4.32, 9.35Å [30.5, 20.5, 9.5°].
TS: Colourless. Cuboid, equant crystals. RI (1.49-1.49) and birefringence both < Q
(first order grey to white interference colours).
Thomsonite (Thom)
NaCa2[(AlSi)5O10]2.6H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Amygdules in basalt, also in schists.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low-Si protolith.

ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other zeolites, Sm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Radiating aggregates. Rarely acicular or blade-like crystals.
XRD: 2.86, 2.95, 2.68, 4.64Å [31.3, 30.3, 33.4, 19.1°].
TS: Colourless. Biaxial (+). RI (1.50-1.54) < Q but birefringence > Q.
Phillipsite (Phil)
(K2Na2Ca)Al2Si4O12.4.5H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Isolated crystals or in druses, also in spherulites.
55 - 150 Iceland (23)
< 50 Iceland (61)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Colourless, white. Transparent. Vitreous. H4-4.5.
XRD: 7.15, 3.19, 4.12Å [12.3, 28.0, 21.5°].
TS: RI (1.48-1.50) and birefringence < Q.
Xonotlite (Xon) also known as Jurupaite

Ca3Si3O8(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veinlets in serpentine or in contact zones.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ~147 Iceland (23)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually massive, fibrous. Acicular crystals. H6. Dull.
XRD: 3.08, 3.24, 2.82Å [29.0, 27.5, 31.7°].
TS: RI (1.58-1.59) > Q, birefringence = Q.
Analcite (Anl) also known as Analcime

NaAlSi2O6.H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE As a hydrothermal mineral in vesicles.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 130 - 140 Yellowstone (7)
55 - 150+ Iceland(23)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Pre and zeolites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Trapezohedra or cubes. Also radiating, massive. H5-5.5.
XRD: 3.43, 5.61, 2.925Å [26.0, 15.8, 30.5°].

TS: Colourless, very low relief (1.48-1.49). Usually isotropic, although weakly
birefringent analcite may show lamellar twinning.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Isotropic with very low RI, XRD
Natrolite (Nat)
Na2Al2Si3O10.2H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs chiefly in cavities, or alteration of plagioclase.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc and zeolites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Slender to acicular, commonly fibrous. H5.
XRD: 6.53-6.49, 5.9, 2.85Å [13.55-13.64, 15.0, 31.4°].
TS: Colourless. Very low relief. RI (1.47-1.49) < Q, birefringence > Q, length slow.
Yugawaralite (Yu)
CaAl2Si6O16.4H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Networks, veins and as crystals in cavities.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION In cavities in andesite tuff at Yugawara hot springs, Japan
Katayama, Japan (7)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Lau.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Flat crystals, brittle. H4.5. Colourless, white.
XRD: 3.056, 5.82, 4.68Å [29.2, 15.2, 19.0°].
TS: RI (1.50) and birefringence < Q. Commonly iridescent
Epistilbite (Epis)
CaAl2Si6O16.5H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Deuteric, pegmatites, can be hydrothermal (1).
< 100 Iceland (58)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Twinned, prismatic crystals, radiating. H4. Pale pink, colourless.
XRD: 3.45, 8.89, 3.21Å [25.8, 10.0, 27.8°].
TS: RI (1.49-1.52) < Q, birefringence > Q.

Edingtonite (Ed)
BaAl2Si3O10.4H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Deuteric in basic rocks, can be hydrothermal (1).
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal gold deposits (1).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other zeolites, Bar.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, pyramidal crystals. White, grey. H4. Vitreous.
XRD: 3.58, 2.749, 4.80Å [24.9, 32.6, 18.5°].
TS: RI (1.54-1.56) = Q, birefringence > Q.
Truscottite (Tru)
(CaMn) 2Si4O9(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In veins and vugs.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High grade epithermal gold deposits. Boiling zone of “satellite” epithermal
deposits (75).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ad
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, spherical aggregates. White. Pearly on cleavage.
XRD: 19.00, 9.48, 3.14Å [4.7, 9.3, 28.4°].
TS: In thin section has low relief (RI 1.53-1.55) and birefringence.
Inesite (In)
Ca2Mn7Si10O28(OH)2.5H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In veins and as fine crystal aggregates.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal gold deposits. Indicative of “satellite” epithermal boiling zone
deposits (75).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Occur in veins in association with Rhc and other Mn-bearing minerals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Crystals and radiating aggregates. H5.5. Shades of pink to orange and brown.
Vitreous.
XRD: 9.16, 2.92, 2.84Å [9.75, 30.0, 30.9°].
TS: Pink, radiating aggregates and chisel-shaped crystals.

Silica Species
Note that several silica species may be stable in any given temperature range, the phase deposited is controlled by
kinetics.
Opal (Op)
SiO2.nH2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of original rock components, in vugs and veins. Sinters, well scales
(37). Deuteric alteration of marine volcanics.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid or neutral pH conditions, but commonly acid, where it occurs as an alteration
product.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 120 (2), Philippines (48)
< 104 Yellowstone (7)
< 80 Iceland (7)
< 70 (15), Yellowstone (26)
< 110 (41)
< 130 for "amorphous silica", Los Azufres (57)
<110 - 140 for "amorphous silica”, Kawerau, NZ (67)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic, argillic.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ka, sulphates (especially Na-Alu, Alg, Gyp) and other precipitates. Opal
recrystallises to very fine grained anhedral Q over time.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, compact, porous. Microcrystalline aggregates of Cris often present.
Commonly botryoidal, reniform. Colourless, white, and various colours.
Transparent to opaque. Brittle, conchoidal fractures. H5.5-6.5. Vitreous, pearly,
waxy. White streak. May fluoresce green under UV light. Iridescent when wet.
XRD: Opal is amorphous, and characterised by a broad hump at about 20-25°, but
may contain poorly crystalline Cris and/or Trid.
TS: Low RI (1.43), but high negative relief, isotropic. May be coloured or have
pseudomorph textures where it replaces igneous rocks. See (36) for discrimination
and nomenclature of varieties. May resemble some zeolites.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES High negative relief, isotropic, XRD amorphous
Tridymite (Trd)
SiO2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Common as a deuteric component in cavities in felsic tuffs. Also as a replacement
around fumaroles (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid or neutral pH conditions.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) <160 (1)
50 - 100 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic, argillic
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Op, Q, Cris, Ka. Recrystallises to -cristobalite (27).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, tabular crystals. Hard, brittle. Colourless to white. H7. Transparent.
Vitreous.

XRD: : 4.30, 4.09, 3.80Å [20.7, 21.7, 33.4°];
 : 4.12, 4.37, 3.86Å [21.5, 20.3, 23.0°].
TS: Colourless, resembles Cris RI 1.47-1.48.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES High negative relief, XRD
Cristobalite (Cris)
SiO2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of primary rock components; common in solfataras. Well scales (37).
Also as deuteric vug filling in siliceous lavas. Destruction of primary Cris is often
an early effect of prograde low-temperature alteration.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid or neutral pH conditions, but often acid.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 200 (metastable) (2)
80 - 210 (1)
46 - 176 Broadlands NZ (8)
< 100 NZ, Japan (7)
< 115 -cristobalite; 45 - 170 + 
cristobalite (12)
~ 80 -cristobalite; ~ 80 - 170 -
cristobalite (26)
< 50 -cristobalite, Philippines (27)
100-160 Philippines (48)
< 100 Nicaragua (49)
50 - 140 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic, argillic
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Commonly with Q, Trid, Alu, S. Recrystallises to Q.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fine, granular octahedral crystals. Also massive, spherulitic crusts and
botryoidal aggregates. White or milky white, greyish. H6.5. Translucent to opaque.
XRD: : 4.05, 2.485, 2.841Å [21.9, 36.1, 31.5°];
 : 4.15, 2.53Å [21.4, 35.5°]. Peaks can be broad.
TS: Forms colourless, pseudohexagonal aggregates, some with curving fractures. RI
(1.48) and birefringence < Q. Uniaxial (-) or isometric.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES High negative relief, XRD
Chalcedony (Chal)
SiO2 (var. of quartz)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Typically in vugs and veins. Well scales (37). Chal often pseudomorphic after
primary minerals. Never contains fluid inclusions.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid or neutral pH conditions. Rapid cooling, boiling (41) (= over-simplification ?).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) mostly < 190 (1)
~ 50 - 80 Yellowstone (26)
100 - 190 (41)
< 100 Iceland (58)
140 - 200 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Shallow epithermal gold deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Ka, Sm, I-Sm, Py. Recrystallises to Q, but texture may be preserved.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Microscopic fibres. Mamillary, botryoidal. White, greyish. Lustre waxy. Agate
is colour-banded.

XRD: as for Q.
TS: Colourless to light brown. Distinctive colloform radiating texture of
microscopic fibres. Often fluorescent in various shades of green.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Colloform texture is diagnostic.
Quartz (Q)
SiO2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Ubiquitous; replaces almost everything, also occurs in veins, vugs and druses.
Primary quartz very resistant to alteration. Important host for fluid inclusions.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Either acid or neutral pH conditions, high Si (2). Most abundant in permeable zones
over 100° (8).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Ambient to very high. (2)
150 - 330 (10)
mostly > 100 Cerro Prieto (8)
< 300 if pressure low and deposited from a cooling fluid (41)
> 180 Philippines(48)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE All
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal gold deposits. Stockworks in porphyry deposits
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Virtually anything. Amethyst has an empirical correlation with Au. Q often
pseudomorphs platy Cc, which also accompanies Au. May replace Bar.
Recrystallisation from Chal indicated by remnant fibrous texture.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Hard, hexagonal crystals. Commonly white or grey. Massive, granular to
cryptocrystalline. Conchoidal fractures. Usually colourless, but various. H7. White
streak, with faint tint. Vitreous, sometimes greasy or waxy.
XRD: 3.343, 4.26, 1.817Å [26.7, 20.9, 50.2°].
TS: Resembles feldspars and zeolites, but if other properties not obvious can be
distinguished by lacking cleavage and alteration (though may have many
inclusions). Wispy trails of inclusions indicate high-temperature veins ("bull-
quartz"). Undulose extinction or Boehm lamellae may indicate strain.

Feldspars
Albite (Ab)
NaAlSi3O8
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Common in altered plagioclase, but not temperature-diagnostic in this setting.
Rarely in veins, or as replacement of matrix and Fe-mag minerals.
Albite occurs in contact metamorphic veins, and very rarely in hydrothermal veins
(48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High Na/H neutral Cl fluid (2). Generally associated with low permeability -
hence rarely in veins (6).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) usually > 200 (1)
usually 230 - 280, but rarely 120 at Broadlands, NZ (8)
230 - 250 Wairakei, NZ (9)
150 - 250 Japan (7)
usually > 230 (7)
< 280 (2)
> 170 (4)
> 100 (15)
> 180 Waiotapu, NZ, where Ab/Or is temperature dependant (42)
Can be down to 220, common >300 Iceland (58)
mostly >150 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ad, Cc, Chl.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually massive, lamellar or granular. Crystals commonly tabular. H6-6.5.
White to colourless, occasionally bluish, grey. Transparent to translucent. White
streak.
XRD: 3.19, 3.78, 6.4Å [28.0, 24.5, 13.8°].
TS: Colourless, cloudy. Grey-white first order interference colours. Albite twinning
is distinctive. Biaxial (+). Composition can be determined optically or by XRD: but
note that variations in composition due to zoning are common.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Clouded crystals with albite twinning in TS
Hyalophane (Hyl)
(K,Ba)(Al,Si)2Si2O8
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins. Permeable zones (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH conditions.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 180 - 310 Philippines (48)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals, also massive. H6-6.5. Colourless, white.
XRD: 3.24, 3.31, 3.00Å [27.5, 26.9, 29.8°].
TS: Resembles Ad, but has a slightly higher RI (1.52-1.54), birefringence and 2V.

Adularia (Ad)
(K,Na)AlSi3O8
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Common in altered plagioclase, also in matrix and veins (the only common feldspar
in epithermal veins), especially in boiling zones (41).
Important indicator mineral for epithermal mineralisation.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High K, Si, near-neutral pH to alkaline. Association with good permeability
when in veins. Forms at shallow levels.
150 - 330 (10)
> 230 (9), Wairakei NZ (16)
> 230 Japan (7)
> 150; but can co-exist with Sm (1)
Usually > 220, but rarely 75 at Broadlands, NZ (8)
> 150 (4)
> 90 (15)
> 180 Waiotapu, NZ, where Ab/Or is temperature dependant (42)
> 250 Los Azufres (57)
> 150 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in some epithermal gold deposits, especially where mineralisation is
related to boiling of the primary fluid.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, I, Cc, Py, Ah.
NOT with Act, Bt, Pyp, Dsp.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Typically short, stubby, prismatic crystals. Moderately hard, H6-6.5.
Colourless, white, grey, rarely reddish, yellow or green. Vein Ad is often
microscopic, but can be larger.
XRD: very similar to Or, but subtle differences. 3.23, 3.78, 3.33Å [27.6, 23.5,
26.8°].
TS: Colourless, rhomb-shaped crystals, which are often missed when enclosed in Q.
Ad has slightly lower relief (RI 1.52) and birefringence than Q. It is biaxial (-) and
can display distinctive sector twinning.
Orthoclase (Or)
KAlSi308
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of plagioclase, particularly of intrusives. Also in veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral to somewhat acid, usually saline fluids.
Higher temperature than Ad.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Potassic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in porphyry deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Bt, Mt, Act, Ah.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Crystals usually short, stubby, prismatic. Typically colourless, white or pink.
H6-6.5.
XRD: 3.18, 4.02, 3.80Å [28.1, 22.1, 23.4°].
TS: Usually coarser grained than adularia, lacks sector twinning.

Plagioclase (Plag)
NaAlSi308 - CaAl2Si208
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Secondary oligoclase occurs as a vein mineral in some potassic altered intrusives
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Porphyry deposits
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Bt, Mt
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Equant to elongate. Colourless, white. H6-6.5.
XRD: 4.03, 3.17-3.21, 2.92-2.95Å [22.1, 28.1-27.8, 30.6-30.3°].
TS: Colourless, low birefringence. Secondary crystals generally unzoned, but
twinned. Composition can be determined optically.

Epidote Group and Pumpellyite (similar structure)
XRD is not very sensitive to epidote group minerals
Clinozoisite (Clz), Zoisite (Zoi)
Ca2Al3SiO12(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Similar to epidote, but more common in contact or regional metamorphics, skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH, sufficient Ca.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ep, Tt, Chl, Cc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, striated or acicular crystals or massive, granular. H6.5. Colourless,
pale green/yellow.
XRD: Clz: 2.89, 2.79, 2.59Å [30.9, 32.1, 34.6°];
Zoi: 2.69, 2.87, 4.03Å [33.3, 31.2, 22.1°].
TS: Colourless. May resembles Ep but birefringence of Clz lower and Zoi often has
anomalous blue/yellow colour. Zoi has straight extinction, whilst Clz has oblique
extinction.
Tawmawite (Taw)
Ca2(Cr,Fe,Al)2Si3O12(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Observed in some high-T veins. More common in contact metamorphics.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) High temperature (1)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Bt, Q, Ap.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Physical properties similar to epidote.
XRD:
TS: High relief pleochroic brown tabular crystals. May resemble hornblende.
Allanite (All)
(Ca,REE) 2FeAl2Si3O12(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Observed in some high-T hydrothermal veins. A primary mineral in many diorites
and granodiorites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Black to brown. H5.5. Tabular, acicular. Resinous.
XRD: Metamict: 2.96, 3.50Å [30.2, 25.4°]; Non-metamict: 2.91, 2.92Å [30.7,
30.6°].

TS: Dark brown, pleochroic; may be zoned. Simply twinned. Often metamict.
Epidote (Ep)
Ca2FeAl2Si3O12(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs replacing plagioclase, Fe-mags, Cc, Ah, rarely Mt and Tt. Occurs in matrix,
also in veins and vugs.
Retrogrades to Lx, Chl, Cc.
Commonly indicates the base (upper temperature limit) of epithermal
mineralisation.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH, moderate to high Cl, low/mod CO 2
High Si, moderate fO2 (2).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 240 as replacement, > 270 in veins (1)
200 - 230 as small brown grains (2)
230 - 250 in matrix (2)
~260 replacing plagioclase, Fe-mags (2)
260 - 280 in veins, vugs (2)
> 235 Wairakei, NZ (16)
> 260 Broadlands, NZ (8)
> 250 Tauhara, NZ (8) and Iceland (11)
120 - 130+ Iceland (8)
> 255 (7), Cerro Prieto (14)
> 260 Iceland (7)
>240 (4), 230 - 325 + (5)
230 - 350+ Cerro Prieto (10)
200 to >340: several sub-types (48)
> 220; rare to 100, Philippines (27)
> 250 Ngatamariki, NZ (35), (17)
>190 but mainly >255, Sulfur Springs (34)
Down to 200 but common, >260, Iceland (58)
>170, usually > 210 Los Azufres (57)
>250 Kawerau, NZ (67)
>250 Philippines (71)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Propylitic, skarns, may also be part of a potassic assemblage (78).
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Common in metamorphic rocks and skarns. It can be peripheral to the high
temperature end of epithermal deposits or distal porphyry deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Chl, I, Q, Cc, Ah, Ad. Should not occur with Zoi or Clz, but sometimes does. May
find Ep-Chl-Q in less permeable host rocks (propylitic), with I-Q (phyllic) near
veins; indicates increased metasomatism / lower pH in proximal rocks. May occur
with Act and Or in potassic assemblages.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, short to long crystals. Also thick tabular or acicular. Commonly
massive. Also fibrous. Usually yellowish-green to brownish-green, rarely
colourless. Transparent to opaque. H6-7. Vitreous to pearly or resinous. Streak
uncoloured or greyish.
XRD: 2.90, 2.68, 2.69Å [30.8, 33.4, 33.3°].

TS: Colourless to pale yellow, pleochroic, high relief (RI 1.74-1.78). Colour may be
irregularly distributed. Upper first order to middle second order interference
colours, although birefringence shows a distinctive mottled effect. Biaxial (-). Can
resemble Jar, or olivine, but association is different.
Zoisite forms prismatic, moderately hard, greenish grey to white crystals, which are
striated and have straight extinction. Clinozoisite has lower birefringence than
epidote. Ep morphology may be used as a geothermometer (68).
Pumpellyite (Pump)
Ca4(MgFe)(AlFe)5Si6O23(OH)3.2H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs replacing plagioclase, Fe-mags and matrix minerals, also in veins. Indicates
poor permeability (48). Common metamorphic mineral.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Particularly in mafic hosts. Common in spilites.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ~ 270+ Philippines (27)
~ 200 El Tatio (27)
~ 200 - 260 Iceland (27)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Chl, Ep, Wai, Ab, Pre.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fibrous, platy crystals. Moderately hard. Green, bluish-green. H6.
Translucent.
XRD: 2.90, 3.79, 2.74Å [30.8, 23.4, 32.7°]
TS: Colourless to dark green. May resemble Chl if fine-grained, but more
pleochroic. RI 1.67-1.72. High birefringence. Biaxial (+), rare (-).

Other Silicates
Prehnite (Pre)
Ca2Al2Si3O10(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replaces plagioclase, Fe-mags, matrix, veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Mostly in basic volcanics, calcareous sediments (5). Low permeability (27, 48).
Also occurs in regional and contact metamorphism.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ~ 210 - 300 (1)
> 200 Wairakei, NZ (16)
> 250 Iceland, Los Azufres (7, 57)
250 - 350; mostly > 300 (5)
> 215 Iceland (11)
240-310 Philippines (48)
>220 Ngatamariki, NZ (35)
250 - 300+ Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Chl, Ah, Ep, Wai, Act, Pump.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually compact, granular masses, or in botryoidal form with columnar, radial
structure. Pale to dark green, yellow, grey or colourless. H6-6.5. Transparent to
translucent. Pearly. Colourless streak.
XRD: 3.08, 2.55, 3.48Å [29.0, 35.2, 25.6°].
TS: Colourless/weakly tinted. High relief. Strongly birefringent (low to upper
second order interference colours). May be radiating aggregates. Resembles I if
fine-grained. Sometimes shows characteristic "bow-tie" twinning.
Amphibole (Amph)
Actinolite-Tremolite (Act-Trm)
Ca2(MgFe)5Si8O22(OH,F)2
Gedrite (Ged) is aluminan anthophyllite (Anth):
(MgFeAl)7(SiAl)8O22(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of original rock components (especially Fe-mags). In veins and vugs.
Hydrothermal, contact metamorphic, hydrous skarns. Can be deuteric. Gedrite
usually metamorphic.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH, moderate to high Cl fluids. Common in impermeable rocks.
> 280 (7), Philippines (48), Iceland (2, 58)
> 250-300; usually > 300 (5)
> 300 (4, 17)
> 250; rare 120 Philippines (27)
220 -250 Gedrite at Los Azufres (57)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE High-temperature propylitic
Mixed potassic-propylitic
Retrograde skarn

ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Porphyry deposits (generally peripheral).
Skarns
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Bt, Mt, Ep, Tlc, Crd. Alters to Chl, Cc, Tt.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, granular. Amphibole crystals are well formed trapezohedra.
Colourless, dark green to black. Brittle. H5-5.5. Transparent to translucent.
Vitreous.
XRD: 8.5, 3.1Å [10.4, 28.8°].
TS: Pleochroic, colourless to dark green crystals, generally needles, but can be
fibrous, when it has a "smoky" appearance. May resemble tourmaline but typically
less pleochroic, and strongest colour when oriented parallel with the lower polariser.
Pectolite (Pect)
NaCa2Si3O8(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In cavities.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 130 - 140 Yellowstone (7)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Zeolites
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Needle-like crystals. H4.5-5. Colourless, white. Vitreous.
XRD: 2.921, 3.10. 3.90Å [30.6, 28.8, 22.8°].
TS: Colourless. RI 1.60-1.64. Similar to Wo, but has greater birefringence.
Wollastonite (Wo)
CaSiO3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins, skarns. Also a metamorphic mineral.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High Ca.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 300 Iceland (11, 58)
200 - 340 Iceland (5)
~ 300 Philippines (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Skarns
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Mt, Bt, Act, Ah, Cc.
Gt, Cpx in skarns
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, fibrous, cleaves readily. White to greyish, colourless. H4.5-5.
Vitreous.
XRD: 2.97, 3.83, 3.52Å [30.1, 23.2, 25.3°].
TS: Colourless to turbid. Resembles amphiboles but cleavage different. RI 1.62 –
1.65. Upper first order interference colours. Sometimes fluoresces under UV light.

Reyerite (Rey)
(Na,K)4Ca14Si24O60(OH)5. 5H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins and vugs: deuteric and hydrothermal.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Chl ?
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, micaceous, spherical aggregates. H3-4. White.
XRD: 3.17, 2.855, 2.659Å [28.1, 21.3, 33.7°].
TS: White, moderate RI (1.56), low birefringence.
Gyrolite (Gyr)
Ca2Si3O7(OH)2.H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins and vugs.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High Ca.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY App.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, lamellar, radiate structure.
XRD: 22, 3.12, 11.0Å [4.0, 28.6, 8.0°].
TS: Colourless, moderate RI (1.54-1.55), and low birefringence.
Garnet (Ga)
(CaMgFeMn)3(AlFeCr)2Si3O12-n.4n(OH)
Of the various Garnet Group minerals, andradite (Ca-Fe) and hydrogrossular (Ca-
Al) are most common in the hydrothermal setting.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of original rock components, and Cc, Ah, Ep. In veins. Replaces Bt?
(32). Common in metamorphics and proximal skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH, moderate to high Cl, fluids with moderate/low CO 2.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 280 (2), Iceland (11)
>~290 (1, 17)
> 270 (4) – hydrogarnet
~ 215 Tauhara, NZ (28)
> 260, rarely 180 Philippines (27)
> 300 Philippines (27), Hawaii (5)
> 360 Salton Sea (andradite) (32)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE High-temperature propylitic, skarn.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Skarns
In the core of some porphyry deposits
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ah, Ep, Cc, Wai, Q, Bt, Act, Cpx, Wo.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Dense (>3.1), dodecahedral or trapezohedral crystals. Also massive, compact.
Deep red, brownish, brownish-black. H7. Vitreous. White streak.
XRD: varies with composition

TS: High relief (RI 1.67-1.70 hydrogrossular; 1.71-1.90 others), isotropic crystals,
often with hexagonal sections. Calcic varieties may be weakly anisotropic. Often
zoned and contain common inclusions. May resemble Spl.
Clinopyroxene (Cpx)
Ca(MgFe)Si2O6
Of the various clinopyroxene species, Diopside (Diop), Augite (Aug) and
Hedenbergite (Hed) are most commonly of hydrothermal origin.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Commonly primary. Replaces plagioclase, Fe-mags, rarely in veins, skarns (often
zoned from pale green Diop (proximal) to dark green Hed (distal) in skarns).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 300 (5) Larderello (11)
250 - 260 Los Azufres (57)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Skarns
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ga, Wo, Ep, Cc, Q, Py, Mt.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Stout, prismatic crystals. Massive. Brown, greenish. H5.5-6. Vitreous. Grey-
green streak.
XRD: varies with composition. Diop: 2.99, 2.52, 2.89Å [29.8, 35.6, 30.9°].
Aug: 2.99, 1.62, 1.43Å [29.8, 56.8, 65.2°]
Hed: 2.97, 2.53, 2.56Å [30.1, 35.5, 35.0°]
TS: Colourless, with high relief (RI 1.66-1.76) and birefringence. Two cleavages at
right angles.
Aegirine (Aeg)
NaFeSi2O6 (pyroxene)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs as a replacement of primary components.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION In metasomatically altered wallrocks, also associated with carbonatites and alkaline
intrusives. Found as authigenic minerals in Green River Fm.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Usually high temperature (1)
> 130 - 160 (7), Yellowstone: but is probably wrong.
300 - 400 in fenites.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Sm, Anl?, Ab, sodic Amph.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals. H6. Dark green, vitreous. Yellowish-grey streak.
XRD: 2.90, 6.37, 4.42Å [30.8, 13.9, 20.1°]
TS: Pleochroic colourless-green, high relief (RI 1.75-1.83), high birefringence. Two
cleavages at right angles.
Rhodonite (Rd)
MnSiO3 (pyroxenoid)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs in vein breccias. Rarely hydrothermal.

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 260 ? Mexico (46)
> 290 (52)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Manganese-bearing ore bodies, also possibly in gold deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Chl, Ad, Cc, Rhc, Ala, sulphides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, cleavable. H5.5-6.5. Pinkish.
XRD: 2.772, 2.980, 2.924Å [32.3, 30.0, 30.6°]
TS: High relief (RI 1.71-1.75) and birefringence. Pink with black mottles.
Zeophyllite (Zpy)
Ca4(Si3O7)(OH)4F2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Deuteric or hydrothermal ?
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION In basalts.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY App, zeolites.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Platy crystals, spherical radiating aggregates. White, often with opaque
terminations. H3.
XRD: 12.0, 3.03, 6.09Å [7.4, 29.5, 14.5°].
TS: Moderate relief (RI 1.57), low birefringence.
Tourmaline (Tour)
Na(MgFeMnLiAl)3Al6Si6B3O27 (OH,F)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In matrix and veins, especially in greisens and pegmatites.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Commonly low pH, depending on association.
Indicates B- or F-rich fluids, usually either magmatic or connate in origin.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Usually high temperature (1)
>~250 (27)
> 370 Larderello, although dravite (Na-Mg variety) can be >250 (51)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Greisens.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Bt, Act, Mt, Ep, Q.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Short to long prismatic crystals. Striated, also acicular. H7. Black, brown,
green, blue, red, pink, yellow, colourless (Achroite). Translucent to opaque.
Colourless streak.
XRD: 2.576, 3.99, 2.961 [34.8, 22.3, 30.2°].
TS: Strongly pleochroic green-brown crystals, can occur in radiating bundles.
Greatest absorption perpendicular to lower polariser. Commonly pseudo-triangular
X-sections. Often zoned.

Topaz (Tz)
Al2SiO4(F2OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE More common in greisens. Replacement and veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Si and F- rich fluids, may be magmatic and/or acid.
~ 270 - 300 Philippines (27)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High temperature Q veins.
High sulphidation systems (epithermal and porphyry)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Ser.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Stubby prismatic crystals. Colourless or variously coloured. Transparent to
translucent. H8. Colourless streak.
XRD: varies with composition. 2.937, 3.195, 3.693Å [30.5, 27.9, 24.1°].
TS: Colourless. High relief (RI 1.62), weak birefringence. Very similar to Q, but
greater RI.
Datolite (Dat)
CaBSiO4(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins. Late-stage replacement of danburite in skarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION B-rich fluids, may be magmatic.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ~ 250 Larderello (20)
200 - 350 Larderello (51)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Skarns.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Tour, Dan.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Short prismatic crystals. H5-5.5.
XRD: 3.114, 2.855, 2.189Å [28.7, 31.3, 41.2°].
TS: May resemble prehnite and olivine, moderate relief (RI 1.62-1.67), high
birefringence.
Titanite (Tt) also known as Sphene

CaTiSiO5
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Common in matrix and altered Fe-mags. Rare in veins. Also primary.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION May indicate low permeability if it occurs instead of epidote.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 100; usually > 200 (27)
180 – 350+ Cerro Prieto(10)
> 130 (15)
> ~150 (5) Cerro Prieto
< 200 titanite; >150 anatase, but usually>200, at Los Azufres (57), may be wrong.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Most common in propylitic, phyllic
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Mt, Py, Ep, Chl.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Hard, wedge-shaped crystals where primary. Anhedral hydrothermal crystals.
Brown, black, various colours. H5-5.5. White streak.

XRD: 3.233, 2.989, 2.595Å [27.6, 29.9, 34.6°].
TS: Very high relief (RI 1.84-2.11), generally small pleochroic brownish crystals.
Can be lost amongst Lx. Birefringence high, but usually obscured.
Zunyite (Zu)
Al3Si5O20(OH,F)18Cl
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement (especially of feldspar) and veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid fluids, may be magmatic.
>250 Philippines (71)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High sulphidation systems.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Pyp, Dsp.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, euhedral tetrahedral or octahedral crystals. H7. Colourless, greyish.
XRD: 8.07, 4.21, 2.68Å [11.0, 21.1, 33.4°].
TS: Generally small, equant, isotropic crystals with moderate RI (1.56-1.60).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Isotropic crystals, XRD
Axinite (Ax)
(Ca,Fe,Mn,Mg)Al 2BSi4O15(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Common in greisens. Found occasionally in skarns, but more commonly replacing
hornfels enclosed in skarns or cavities in endoskarns.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION B-rich fluids, may be magmatic.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 220 - 300 Mexico (47)
410 - 490 Canada (84)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Skarn / hornfels
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc, Q, Pre, Zoi, Act.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually tabular, wedge shaped. Bladed. H6.5-7. Violet-brown. Colourless
streak. Resembles amethyst.
XRD: 2.81, 3.16, 3.46Å [31.8, 28.2, 25.7°].
TS: Colourless to lavender. Weakly pleochroic. Moderate relief (RI1.67-1.70). First
order yellow-grey to orange interference colours. Biaxial (-)
Dumortierite (Du)
Al8BSi3O19(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement mineral. Rare in pegmatites.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low pH, B-rich fluids, may be magmatic.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ~250 Philippines (72)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High sulphidation systems
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Dic, Dsp.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Blue, pinkish, brown. Massive, columnar or fibrous. H8.5.
XRD: 2.549, 5.89, 5.09Å [35.2, 15.0, 17.4°].
TS: Distinctive violet colour and pleochroism. Middle first to second order
interference colours. RI 1.69-1.72. Biaxial (-). Striated.

Danburite (Dan)
CaB2Si2O8
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In skarns. Later than garnet, earlier than epidote.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Indicator of B-rich fluids
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Dat
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, colourless to coloured, similar to topaz.
XRD: 3.564, 2.654, 2.961 Å [25.0, 33.8, 30.2°]
TS: Colourless, low birefringence, mod relief (RI 1.63), may resemble Ksp.
Ilvaite (Ilv)
CaFe3Si2O8(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Chiefly a metasomatic mineral.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Diamond shaped crystals. Black. H5-6.
XRD: 2.709, 2.839, 7.28Å [33.1, 31.5, 12.1°]
TS: Pleochroic (dark green to brown), good cleavage, high relief (RI 1.72-1.88).
Andalusite (And)
Al2SiO5
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Rarely hydrothermal (replaced by Pyp): more often metamorphic. In veins and as a
replacement.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Aluminous rocks, e.g. slates.
Some high temperature hydrothermal systems, including porphyries.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 240 - 320 Philippines (48), usually higher.
> 320 (83)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Dsp, Cnd, Crd
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals, also massive. H6.5-7. Whitish-brown. Colourless streak.
XRD: 5.54, 4.53, 2.77Å [16.0, 19.6, 32.3°].
TS: Pleochroic (pink-yellow-green), may be colourless. Moderate-high relief (RI
1.63-1.65), with maximum interference colours middle first order. Biaxial (-).

Apophyllite (App)
KCa4Si8O20F.8H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In hydrothermal veins and cavities; also skarns.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Low T sulphide veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc, Pre, Dat, Pect, Py, Cpy, Zeo
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Pseudocubic. H4.5-5. Colourless, grey.
XRD: 3.943, 2.976, 1.578Å [22.5, 30.0, 58.5°].
TS: Colourless, moderate relief (RI 1.53-1.54). Low birefringence (first order grey)
or abnormal interference colours. Uniaxial (+)
Vesuvianite (Ves) also known as Idocrase

Ca10(MgFe)2A14Si9O34(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE As a replacement and vein mineral in skarns.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ga, Ep, Wo, Cc
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Short, prismatic. Various colours. White streak.
XRD: 2.752, 2.593, 1.621Å [32.5, 34.6, 56.8°].
TS: Usually colourless; similar to apatite, but with higher relief (RI 1.70-1.74). Can
have anomalous (brown, blue) interference colours. Parallel extinction, length fast.
Chrysocolla (Crys)
Cu2H2Si2O5(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Supergene.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Oxidising, probably low pH.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Copper deposits
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Mal, Az.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Acicular, radiating; usually cryptocrystalline, like opal. Soft (H2-4). Shades of
bluish-green.
XRD: usually amorphous; 1.494, 2.92Å [62.1, 30.6°].
TS: moderate relief (RI 1.57-1.63), high birefringence, biaxial (-).
Hemimorphite (Hem)
Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O

ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Base metal deposits
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Thin tabular crystals, fan-shaped aggregates. White, colourless, or pale
coloured, vitreous. H4.5-5.
XRD: 3.104, 6.60, 3.288Å [28.8, 13.4, 27.1°].
TS: Colourless, moderate relief (RI 1.61-1.63) needles.
Dioptase (Dpt)
CuSiO2(OH)2
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Copper deposits
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Bright green. Brittle crystals. H5. Greenish-blue streak.
XRD: 2.60, 7.28, 2.12Å [34.5, 12.1, 42.7°].
TS: Moderate - high relief (RI 1.64-1.71), weakly pleochroic, very high
birefringence.
Merwinite (Mer)
Ca3MgSi2O8
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Magnesian skarns, contact zones.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Mon
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Colourless to pale green. H6.
XRD: 2.672, 2.749, 2.213Å [33.6, 32.5, 40.8°].
TS: Rounded, pitted grains with polysynthetic twinning, high relief (RI 1.71).
Chondrodite (Chn)
Mg5Si2O8 (F,OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Magnesian skarns.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Habit varies. H6.5. Yellow, brown, red. Vitreous, transparent.
XRD: 2.272, 2.252, 1.737Å [39.7, 40.0, 51.7°].
TS: Yellow-brown, lamellar twinned. RI 1.59-1.64

Monticellite (Mon)
MgCaSiO4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Magnesian skarns (proximal). Primary in some rocks (e.g. lamprophyres).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ves, Diop, Wo
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Colourless, grey, green. H5.5. Vitreous.
XRD: 2.666, 3.637, 2.586Å [33.6, 24.5, 34.7°].
TS: Moderate relief (RI 1.64-1.67), low to moderate birefringence. Usually
anhedral.
Forsterite (Fo)
Mg2SiO4 (Olivine Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Magnesian skarns; primary in many mafic rocks.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ga, Phg, Diop
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, granular, tabular with wedge shaped terminations. Green, lemon
yellow. H7. Transparent. Readily alters to clay.
XRD: 2.458, 3.883, 2.512Å [36.5, 22.9, 35.7°].
TS: Colourless to light olive green. Moderate to high relief (1.63-1.77), high
birefringence (upper second to lower third order). Biaxial. Phenocrysts may be
rounded or corroded, with curving fractures.
Clintonite (Cln)
Ca(Mg,Al) 3(Al3Si)O10(OH)2 (Mica Group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE (Hydrous) skarns
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Pseudohexagonal. Foliated. Colourless, reddish. H3.5.
XRD: 9.68, 2.56, 3.21, 2.11Å [9.13, 35.05, 27.8, 42.9°].
TS: Tabular, weakly coloured.
Staurolite (Stau)
Fe2Al9Si4O22(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Contact metamorphic.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals. H7-7.5. Dark brownish-red. Grey streak.
XRD: 3.012, 2.693, 2.372Å [29.6, 33.3, 37.9°].
TS: Colourless to dark brown, distinctly pleochroic (colourless-yellow-brown). High
relief (RI 1.74-1.76), low birefringence (mid to upper first order colours). Can occur
with twin crosses. Biaxial (+).

Carbonates
Most carbonates are best specifically identified using XRD, or by staining.
Calcite (Cc)
CaCO3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replaces plagioclase, Fe-mags, matrix, Act, secondary Bt, and Ah. In veins and
vugs. Well scales (37). Primary in many sedimentary rocks.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High CO2, neutral pH to slightly acid (2). Platy calcite is diagnostic of boiling
fluids, probably > 160°. In permeable zones (27). Cc has retrograde solubility (so
is often replaced).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ambient - 300+ (1)
ambient - 350+ (10)
> 60 (15)
> ambient Philippines (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic, propylitic, skarns.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Common in mesothermal veins and some epithermal Au deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY All except acid minerals (e.g. Alu, Dsp, Pyp). Alters to Ep, Act, Ah, and often
replaced by Q in epithermal veins.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Habit varies. White or colourless rhombic crystals. H3 Transparent to
translucent. Pearly to vitreous. Pale grey streak.
XRD: 3.035, 2.29Å [29.4, 39.4°], Mg-Cc: 2.95-2.99Å [30.3-29.9°]
TS: Resembles other carbonates, but least coloured, and least commonly in rhombs.
Highly birefringent. Often fluorescent and phosphorescent under UV light. May
need XRD to resolve.
Aragonite (Ara)
CaCO3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins, pipeline scales where mass flows are high (37, 48). Also fossiliferous
limestones.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High flow rates; extremely permeable zones (27). Mg-rich waters. Oxidised zones.
< 50 (61)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Acicular, six-sided, chisel shape crystals. Various colours. Vitreous. H3.5
XRD: 3.396, 1.977, 3.273Å [26.2, 45.9, 27.2°].
TS: Similar to Cc. Rhombs common. Phosphoresces greenish.
Dolomite (Dol)
CaMg(CO3)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of plagioclase, Fe-mags and matrix minerals. In veins and vugs. May
overprint calcite.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH fluids (2). Mg-rich meteoric fluids (27, 48). May indicate poor
permeability if persists to high temperature.

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) usually < 200; rarely > 250 (2)
< 180 Philippines (4, 48)
< 160 - 180 (18)
60 - 160, 280 in limestone (27)
< 120 - 170 Los Azufres (57)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Propylitic, argillic.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Mesothermal veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc, Q, Sm, Hm, Ah.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Rhombohedra with curved faces. Massive, rarely fibrous. H3.5-4. Colourless,
white, greyish. Vitreous.
XRD: 2.883, 1.785, 2.191Å [31.0, 51.2, 41.2°].
TS: Colourless to turbid grey. Interference colours are high order white, grains
twinkle when stage is rotated. Uniaxial (-). High relief. More euhedral than Cc,
may be difficult to distinguish.
Ankerite (Ank)
Ca(FeMgMn)(CO3)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of plagioclase, Fe-mags and matrix minerals. In veins and vugs.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH to slightly acidic, may be oxidising. Common in late-stage
overprints. Meteoric influx (48, 50).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 120 Salton Sea (7)
< 170 (1): can be higher
~ 140 Philippines (27)
350 Bralorne, Canada (70)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Mesothermal veins. Late-stage epithermal, especially in fluid mixing zones.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other carbonates, especially Sid, Dol.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Small, simple rhombohedra, massive to granular. White, grey, brownish. H3.5-
4. Vitreous.
XRD: 2.899, 2.199, 1.812Å [30.8, 41.1, 50.4°].
TS: Dusty appearance. Resembles Sid, often brownish, but usually paler colour.
Siderite (Sid)
FeCO3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Alteration of plagioclase, Fe-mags and matrix. In veins and vugs. Late-stage
overprints. Rare as well scale (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH to slightly acidic, may be oxidising. Common in late-stage
overprints. Ankerite and siderite usually associated with the encroachment of low
temperature secondary fluids.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 170 (1) hydrothermal: but can be higher
37 - 130 Broadlands, NZ (8)
~400 Olympic Dam (63)
Up to 375 (66)

ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Mesothermal veins. Late-stage epithermal, especially in fluid mixing zones.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY FeO, other carbonates, especially Ank.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Rhombohedra, also tabular, prismatic, commonly massive. H3.5-4.5.
Yellowish, greyish, brown. Translucent. Vitreous. White streak.
XRD: 2.79, 1.734, 3.59Å [32.1, 52.8, 24.8°].
TS: Dusty appearance, pale brown to yellowish colour. Extreme relief. Uniaxial
(-). High birefringence. Readily alters to iron oxides.
Teschemacherite (Tsch)
NH4HCO3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs in well scales and precipitates.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Requires high gas content.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 60 Philippines (27)
Ambient Broadlands, NZ (27)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Guano deposits.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive. Colourless, yellowish. Very soft H1.5. Soluble in water
XRD: 3.00, 5.34, 3.62Å [29.8, 16.6, 24.6°].
TS: Low relief (RI 1.42-1.55).
Kutnahorite (Kut)
(CaMnMgFe)CO3
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH to slightly acidic. Common in late-stage overprints.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Probably similar to Dol, Sid: but may be higher.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in base metal-rich epithermal gold deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Commonly with Au. Also Q, Cc
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Anhedral masses and cleavable aggregates. H3.5-4. Whitish, pink.
XRD: 2.94, 1.814, 1.837Å [30.4, 50.3, 49.6 double peak].
TS: Resembles Cc.
Rhodochrosite (Rhc)
MnCO3
Common late-stage overprint. Rare in hot-spring deposits from neutral Cl fluids
(48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH to slightly acidic. Meteoric influx (50). Prograde solubility (85).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Probably similar to Dol, Sid, but may be higher.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Propylitic, argillic, mesothermal.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in base metal-rich epithermal gold deposits. Also mesothermal veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Commonly with Au. Also Q, Cc and other Mn-bearing minerals (e.g. Rd, Ala).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Rhombohedral crystals, commonly massive or compact. Concentric conchoidal
fractures. Pale pink to red, brown. Vitreous to pearly. Transparent to translucent.
XRD: 2.84, 3.66, 1.763Å [31.5, 24.3, 51.9°].

TS: Resembles Ank. Colourless, extreme birefringence, uniaxial.
Malachite (Mal)
Cu2CO3(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE As encrustations and fracture fillings.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Oxidising, usually low pH.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Supergene
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Cu-porphyries and skarn deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Az, Crys.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, botryoidal or mamillary. Green. H3.5-4. Dissolves in dilute acid.
XRD: 2.857, 3.693, 5.055Å [31.3, 24.1, 17.6°].
TS: High-relief (RI 1.65-1.91) greenish carbonate.
Azurite (Az)
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE As encrustations and fracture fillings.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Oxidising, usually low pH.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Cu-porphyries and skarn deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Mal, Crys.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Habit varies, tabular, prismatic. Azure blue. H3.5-4. Blue streak. Dissolves in
dilute acid.
XRD: 3.516, 2.224, 5.15Å [25.3, 40.6, 17.2°].
TS: High-relief (Ri 1.73-1.84) bluish carbonate.

Sulphates, Phosphates, Halides, Arsenates
Barite (Bar)
BaSO4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Generally in veins, can be massive in Carlin and VHMS deposits.
Can replace feldspars. May be pseudomorphed by Q.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Relatively high fO2, neutral pH (27) and acid. Common in mixing zones (2).
50-270+ Kawerau, NZ (67)
Probably has much greater range; can be associated with both low and high
temperature assemblages.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic, phyllic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occur in Ag-rich, low sulphidation epithermal gold deposits and high sulphidation
epithermal deposits, VHMS and Carlin deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, sulphides. Some empirical correlation with Au in certain deposits. Rarely
replaced by Q.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, crystalline, lamellar to fibrous. Colourless, white, grey, bluish-green.
Dense, but soft H3-3.5. Vitreous to pearly. Sub-translucent.
XRD: 3.442, 3.101, 2.120Å [25.9, 28.8, 42.6°].
TS: High relief (RI 1.64), low birefringence (first order orange), tabular crystals,
good cleavage.
Jarosite (Jar)
KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Gossans, veins. Occurs as crusts or coatings of tiny crystals.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Commonly supergene (c.f. Alu). May form by acid alteration of Py or other
sulphides.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low temperature(1)
< 50, even ambient (27)
Ambient - 100 Philippines (48)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Supergene, possibly very low temperature hypogene.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in wide range of hydrothermal deposits. Forms in oxidised cap e.g. Red
Mountain Cu-porphyry, Arizona (80).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Na-Jar, Q, Ka or Hal. Forms by reaction of K-silicates with acid produced from the
decomposition of Py.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Minute, tabular, granular mineral, rarely crystalline. Pale yellow to brown.
Soft. H2.5-3. Yellow streak. Dissolves in HCl.
XRD: 3.08, 3.11, 5.10, 2.29Å [29.0, 28.7, 17.4, 39.3°].
TS: Colourless or pleochroic yellow-greenish, high relief (RI 1.71-1.82), very high
birefringence. May resemble Ep if well crystalline, but Jar soft, soluble in HCl,
uniaxial (-), and different association.

Natrojarosite (Na-Jar)
NaFe3(SO4)2(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Gossans, veins. Occurs as a crust or coating.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Commonly supergene (c.f. Alu).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Lower temperature than Jar
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in wide range of hydrothermal deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Jar, Alg, Ka or Hal.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Physical properties resemble Jar. Minute crystals. Ochre yellow, brown. H3.
XRD: 5.06, 3.06, 3.12Å [17.5, 29.2, 28.6°].
TS: As for jarosite, but slightly higher RI (1.75-1.83).
Ammoniojarosite (A-Jar)
NH4Fe3(SO4)2(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Hot-spring deposit (rarely) (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Lower temperature than Jar
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Hg-deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Op, Bud.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Flattened nodules. Pale yellow. Dull, waxy.
XRD: 3.10, 5.10, 1.99Å [28.8, 17.4, 45.6°].
TS: Similar to jarosite and natrojarosite, but less coloured. RI 1.75-1.80.
Alunogen (Alg)
Al2(SO4)3.16H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Supergene, acid hot-spring deposits and around fumaroles.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Op, other sulphates, native sulphur.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Forms as an efflorescence or crust. H1.5-2. Colourless, transparent, vitreous.
Soluble in water, acid taste.
XRD: 4.48, 13.34, 4.39Å [19.8, 6.6, 20.2°].
TS: Seldom observed in TS (dissolves from rock); low RI (1.48), colourless.
Alunite (Alu)
KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replaces plagioclase and matrix; commonly enclosed in ‘vuggy silica’. Veins and
vugs, as druses or aggregates. Acid hot springs. Also supergene, especially in arid
environments.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Strong acid: pH < 3, high SO 4 (2). Common in seawater systems, high
sulphidation, and mixing zones. May be supergene or hypogene. Temperature
stability range and isotopic composition diagnostic of fluid chemistry (65).

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide temperature range
Usually < 120; rarely 250 (2)
Ambient - 250+ (4)
< 230 Japan (7), < 190 (15)
< 100 Wairakei, NZ (16)
> 50 Kawerau, NZ (67)
Up to 400 (isotopically) (65)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic, supergene.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High sulphidation, epithermal Au/base metal deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Hal, Ka or Dic, Q, Py, Op, Cris, Pyp, Dsp, S, Zu. Alu with phosphate minerals
typical of high sulphidation (65). En-Luz, Cov, Td-Tenn, Cpy (65).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually massive, granular or fibrous aggregates. Soft, H3.5-4. White, often
discoloured rhombohedral mineral. Transparent to nearly opaque. Vitreous. White
streak.
XRD: 2.99, 2.89, 2.293, 4.98Å [29.9, 30.9, 39.3, 17.8].
TS: Colourless. Anhedral to euhedral, rhombohedra with diamond shapes or nearly
square cross sections. Prismatic or tabular. RI 1.57-1.60. Straight extinction.
Uniaxial (-). Moderate birefringence (first order yellow, rarely second order blue
interference colours). Higher birefringence than scapolite.
Natroalunite (Na-Alu)
NaAl3(SO4)2(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replaces plagioclase and matrix. Fills veins and vugs.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Strong acid.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 75 Philippines (27)
Ambient - 100 Philippines (48, 60)
Lower than alunite.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Shallow-level high sulphidation systems.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Ka or Hal, Op, Cris.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS and TS: Similar to alunite.
XRD: 2.96, 4.90, 2.97Å [30.2, 18.1, 30.1°].
Anhydrite (Ah)
CaSO4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of original rock components, veins, vugs. Well scales (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION pH ~ 5 - 6 (2). Neutral pH and acid zones (27). Abundant in permeable zones,
especially where acid and neutral fluids mix. Can indicate boiling. Can form
directly from magmatic SO2, and from heating of seawater.

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 160 - 300+ (1)
> 180 Philippines (2,48)
> 150 (4)
> 80 (15)
> 175 (18)
24 - 150+ Iceland (23)
110 - 300+ (27) - fluid incl. to 405
170 - 270 Los Azufres (57)
50-230 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Potassic, phyllic, argillic, propylitic, skarn
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Cu-porphyries, skarns, VHMS
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, I, Ad, Py. Alters to Gyp, even in drillcore. Replaced by Cc, Ep, Act.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, equant crystals, granular. Rarely fibrous. Colourless, white, grey,
bluish, pinkish, brown. Soft, H3.5. Transparent to translucent. Vitreous to pearly.
Streak white to greyish white.
XRD: 3.49, 2.849, 2.328Å [25.5, 31.4, 38.7°].
TS: Colourless, but may be tinted. Low to moderate relief (1.57-1.61), rectangular
crystals with two perpendicular cleavages. Highly birefringent (interference colours
as high as third order green). "Twinkles" on rotation, but less than Cc. Biaxial (+).
Higher relief and usually higher birefringence than gypsum.
Brochantite (Bro)
Cu4SO4(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Drusy crusts; in oxidation zone of Cu-deposits.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Supergene and from oxidising fluids.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Cu-porphyries, skarns.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, other Cu-sulphates
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Stout prismatic to acicular crystals. H3.5-4. Emerald to blackish green. Pale
green streak.
XRD: 6.417, 2.521, 3.90, 2.678Å [13.8, 35.6, 22.8, 33.6°].
TS: Pleochroic blue-green crystals, commonly twinned.
Gypsum (Gyp)
CaSO4.2H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of original rock components, in veins and vugs. Often from hydration
of anhydrite (incl. weathering).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High sulphate: may be acid or oxidising environment.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 120; empirical maximum 150 - 175 (22)
< 70 (2), < 80 (4), < 170 (1)
< 95 Iceland (23)
~64 Montana hot springs (9)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Supergene, argillic

ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Supergene alteration of sulphide deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Sm, Py, Ah.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Acicular, lenticular, diamond-shaped crystals. Colourless and transparent, or
tinted. Soft. H2. Vitreous. White streak.
XRD: 7.56, 3.059, 4.27Å [11.7, 29.2, 20.8°].
TS: Colourless. Low birefringence, less than quartz. May be acicular to fibrous,
twinning common. Biaxial (+). Possibly fluorescent and phosphorescent greenish-
white under UV light.
Celestite (Cel)
SrSO4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement or vein. Rare hydrothermal mineral.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid (48) ?
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Typically medium to low temperature (1)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other sulphates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: resembles barite. Elongate tabular crystals. H3.5. Colourless. Vitreous.
XRD: 2.972, 3.295, 2.731Å [30.0, 27.1, 32.8°].
TS: Mod. high relief (RI 1.62), biaxial
Pickeringite (Pic)
MgAl2(SO4)4.22H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Acid hot-spring deposits and fumaroles (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, oxidising. Also weathering product of Py-bearing rocks.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Pyritic ore deposits and coal seams.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Op, other sulphates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Acicular, fibrous. H1.5-2.5. Colourless to yellow. Vitreous. Soluble in water.
XRD: 4.82, 3.51. 4.32Å [18.4, 25.4, 20.5°].
TS: Seldom observed in TS (dissolves from rock); low RI (1.48), colourless.
Kieserite (Kie)
MgSO4.H2O
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, oxidising.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, granular. H3.5. Colourless. Vitreous. Slowly dissolved in water.
XRD: 3.409. 4.84, 3.331Å [26.1, 18.3, 26.8°].
TS: Polysynthetic twinning, low relief (RI 1.52-1.58)

Halotrichite (Htc)
FeAl2(SO4)4.22H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Acid hot-springs and fumaroles (48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, oxidising. Also weathering product of Py-bearing and aluminous rocks.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Pyritic ore deposits and coal seams.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Acicular, fibrous. H1.5-2. Transparent. White, green, colourless. Vitreous.
Soluble in water.
XRD: 4.77, 3.48, 4.29Å [18.6, 25.6, 20.7°].
TS: Moderate negative relief (1.48) needles.
Copiapite (Cop)
(Fe,Mg)Fe4(SO4)6(OH)2. 20H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Acid hot-spring deposits and fumaroles (48). Also as crusts.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid. Oxidation of pyrite and other sulphides
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Op, other sulphates, including Mln.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Loose scaly aggregates, often granular. Yellowish, orange or green. H2.5-3.
Transparent. Pearly.
XRD: 10.5, 3.43, 3.06Å [8.4, 26.0, 29.2°].
TS: Pleochroic yellow to pale yellow, low relief (1.54)
Thenardite (Thn)
Na2SO4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Neutral Cl-SO4 hot-spring deposits, fumaroles (48).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Op, other sulphates, carbonates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, dipyramidal. H2.5-3. Transparent. Greyish,
colourless. Soluble in water.
XRD: 2.783, 4.66, 3.178Å [32.2, 19.0, 28.1°].
TS: Negative relief (RI 1.48)
Antlerite (Antl)
Cu3SO4(OH)4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs as cross-fibre veins. Coatings.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Secondary mineral in oxidation zone of Cu-deposits

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low temperature
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Base metal deposits, especially Cu-ore deposits.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fibrous, acicular. H3.5. Emerald green. Vitreous. Green streak.
XRD: 4.86, 2.566, 3.60Å [18.3, 35.0, 24.7°].
TS: Pleochroic yellow-green to blue-green to green high relief (RI 1.73-1.79)
needles.
Tamarugite (Tam)
NaAl(SO4)2.6H2O
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, oxidising.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fine-grained, fibrous. H3. Transparent. Colourless. Soluble in water.
XRD: 4.223, 4.207, 3.647Å [21.0, 21.2, 24.4°].
TS: Polysynthetic twinning, very low relief (RI 1.49)
Woodhouseite (Woo)
CaAl3PO4SO4(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs in veins with Q. Replaces apatite.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide range (86)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Advanced argillic, mostly hypogene but can be supergene.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High sulphidation epithermal gold.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Alu, Q, Pyp, Dsp, And.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Pseudocubic crystals. H4.5. White to pink.
XRD: 2.94, 1.89, 2.19Å [30.4, 48.1, 41.2°]
TS: Resembles (often mistaken for) apatite but cleavage distinctive. RI 1.64-1.66
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Cleavage, XRD
Svanbergite (Svn)
SrAl3PO4SO4(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Occurs in veins with Q. Replaces apatite.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Alu, Q, Pyp, Dsp, And.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Rhombohedral or pseudocubic crystals. H4.5. Colourless, yellow, red, brown.
XRD: 2.98, 2.22, 5.74Å [30.0, 40.6, 15.4°]
TS: Not readily distinguished from woodhouseite
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES XRD, chemical analysis (Sr and PO4)

Fluorite (Fl)
CaF2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins or replacement. Acid alteration zones with magmatic minerals (Philippines,
48). Skarns and greisens.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION May indicate magmatic component. Also from connate brines.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 160 Yellowstone (12)
110 - 200 (fluid inclusion data) USA (29)
> 250 Sulfur Springs USA (42)
119 - 684 (fluid inclusion data) Mexico (87)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in some Te-rich epithermal Au deposits, Sn and Zn-Pb skarns and MVT
deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, sulphides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubic, prismatic, tabular, massive, compact to granular. H5 Colourless, white,
coloured. Transparent to opaque. White streak.
XRD: 1.931, 3.153, 1.647Å [47.1, 28.3, 55.8°].
TS: Usually colourless, but may be tinted, with pleochroic halos. Negative relief.
Cleavage particles triangular in outline. Isotropic. Fluorescent, phosphorescent or
thermoluminescent.
Halite (Ht)
NaCl
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Neutral Cl hot spring deposits, evaporites; commonest daughter mineral in fluid
inclusions. Preserved only in arid climates due to solubility.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid or neutral pH, saline fluids; can be supergene in arid climates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, compact to granular. Cubic. Colourless, white, coloured. H2.
Transparent to translucent. Soluble. Salty taste.
XRD: 2.82, 1.994Å [31.7, 45.5°].
TS: Colourless, but may be tinted. Cubic cleavage, isotropic, low relief. Sometimes
fluoresces orange, reddish or greenish.
Sylvite (Syl)
KCl
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Hot-spring deposits, fumaroles, evaporites, fluid inclusions.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Usually neutral pH, must be highly saline.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ht, other precipitates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubic, massive, compact. Colourless. Very soluble. H2. Transparent.
XRD: 3.15, 2.22, 1.82Å [28.3, 40.6, 50.1°]

TS: Colourless, similar to halite. Negative relief.
Melanterite (Mln)
FeSO4.7H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Frequently after Mar.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, oxidising. Weathering product of Py, Mar, cupriferous Py ores.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Equant, short cubic, prismatic crystals, fibrous. Soft, H2. Green, blue to white
in hand specimen. Yellow on exposure. Vitreous. Translucent. Soluble in water.
XRD: 4.90, 3.78, 3.23Å [18.1, 23.5, 27.6°].
TS: Low negative relief (RI 1.47)
Cerargyrite (Cer)
AgCl ( Br, I)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins, supergene cements in arid climates.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Supergene (1), especially in arid climates.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Oxidation zone of Ag deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other Ag halides: full solid solution series exists.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubic, massive, rarely fibrous. Greyish. H2.5. Transparent to translucent.
Resinous.
XRD: 2.774, 1.962, 3.20Å [32.3, 46.3, 27.9°]; can be amorphous.
TS: Pale green-grey.
Apatite (Ap)
Ca(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Commonly within altered plagioclase, but mostly primary. In high-temperature
veins (1), rarely as replacement. Also in skarns, often associated with garnet.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Neutral pH or acid. Dissolves in strong acid.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 180 - 270 (42) Waiotapu, NZ
150 - 240 replacement (27)
>300 veins (1)
170 - 210 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Most igneous minerals, usually as primary inclusions. With Q when secondary.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals, also massive, compact. H5. Colourless, white, coloured.
Transparent to opaque. Vitreous. White streak.
XRD: depends on composition.

TS: Colourless, but may be tinted. Small hexagonal or tabular crystals. High relief
(RI 1.63). Birefringence < Q (first order grey-white interference, although basal
sections are dark). Uniaxial (-). May resemble topaz.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES High relief but low birefringence, usually hexagonal crystals.
Lazulite (Lz)
Mg3Al6(PO4)6(OH)6
MODE OF OCCURRENCE
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) ~250 Philippines (27)
> 325 (71)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High sulphidation?
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Pyp, other acid minerals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Pyramidal or massive. H6. Colourless. Greasy.
XRD: 3.072, 3.136, 6.15Å [29.1, 28.5, 14.4°].
TS: Pleochroic colourless to blue. High birefringence, which increases with Fe
content. Good cleavage. Biaxial (-). High relief (RI 1.60-1.67).
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Differs from dumortierite by having lower indices and higher birefringence, while
dumortierite has parallel extinction.
Scorodite (Sco)
FeAsO4.2H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Commonly lining vugs, cavities.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Usually supergene, can be low temperature hydrothermal (1). Requires high As.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Wide range.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, other supergene minerals, especially Jar.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Mass of pyramidal, tabular crystals. H3.5-4. Greyish green, brown, blue.
Vitreous.
XRD: 4.50, 5.65, 3.20Å [19.7, 15.7, 27.9°].
TS: Colloform, high relief (RI 1.78-1.81) and birefringence. Straight extinction.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Colour, relief, colloform texture.
Vivianite (Viv)
Fe3(PO4)2.8H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Late stage infill in some breccias and veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Alteration product of primary phosphate minerals.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low temperature (?)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Rounded, prismatic, radial clusters. Colourless when fresh, darkens to green or
blue, and darker with further exposure to light. H1.5-2. Colourless streak.
XRD: 6.80, 2.71Å [13.0, 33.1°].
TS: Striking pleochroism; X deep blue, Y pale blue; Z olive to brown.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Colour and pleochroism.

Oxides and Hydroxides
Diaspore (Dsp)
AlO(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of plagioclase and matrix minerals. Also in veins. Also in bauxite
from dehydration of gibbsite.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION At high temperature is antipathetic with quartz. Acid fluids (2) when
hydrothermal. Also in weathering.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Usually > 280; rarely down to ambient, depending on fluid chemistry (1, 2, 83)
Usually >290; rarely 100 (4)
170 - 320, and rarely down to 120 Philippines (48)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Pyp, Ah, Py, Rt. Boehmite is a polymorph, probably indicates lower
temperatures.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Commonly, fine grained, thin elongated plates, often acicular, tabular or
striated. Hard, H6.5-7. Colour various. Transparent to subtranslucent. Vitreous or
pearly.
XRD: 3.99, 2.317, 2.131Å [22.2, 38.9, 42.4°].
TS: Colourless, but may be tinted. High relief (RI 1.70-1.75) and birefringence
(maximum interference colours are middle third order). May resemble Ah in thin
section, but higher relief.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES High relief and birefringence, colourless. Parallel extinction, length fast
Magnetite (Mt)
Fe3O4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of matrix, Fe-mags, and in veins. Common in skarns. Well scales
(37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION High fO2 (2), but less than Hm.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 300? (2) Can be lower.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Potassic, skarn, high-temperature propylitic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Gold rich porphyry deposits, Au and Cu skarns.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Bt, Act, Py. Alters to maghemite at low T. May have exsolved ilmenite.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Octahedral crystals, commonly massive, compact. H5.5-6.5. Greyish-black to
black, opaque crystals. Metallic to dull. Black streak. Magnetic.
XRD: 2.530, 1.614, 1.483Å [35.5, 57.1, 62.6°]
MIN: Pale grey.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Black, magnetic.
Hematite (Hm)
Fe2O3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of Mt, Fe-mags. Veins, vug linings. Well scales (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Common near-surface with cold water incursion (2). Acid/neutral pH (27); neutral
(48). Often taken to mean highly oxidising, but incorrect.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide temperature range (1)

ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Potassic, skarn, propylitic (?)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Skarns. Hm and Goe are oxidation products of chalcocite blankets and are
characteristic of leached caps.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, FeO.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, sometimes in ‘iron roses’. Massive, botryoidal, reniform. Steel-grey to
black to red. H5-6. Deep red streak.
XRD: 2.69, 1.69, 2.51Å [33.3, 54.3, 35.8°]
TS: Almost opaque in transmitted light, except conoscopic.
MIN: Red internal reflections.
Iron hydroxides (FeO)

especially Goethite (Goe), Limonite (Lm)
FeO(OH).nH2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of magnetite, Fe-mags, matrix. In veins, vugs. Well scales (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Oxidising environment (2). Cold water inflow, commonly acid fluids (27, 48).
Maghemite neutral (48).
<~240 Philippines (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Supergene (gossans)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs in a wide range of supergene deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Hm, clays. Often a mixture of Fe oxides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Colloform masses, radial, fibrous, bladed, concretionary. Usually non-
crystalline. H5-5.5. Black, reddish, ochre. Opaque. Orange streak.
XRD: Poor peaks with Cu radiation, which may cause interference.
TS: Orange staining of other minerals. Individual species may be difficult to
distinguish. Lm less birefringent than Goe.
Leucoxene (Lx)
TiO2 ±H2O
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement of Tt, Ilm, Ti-magnetite, Fe-mags and matrix.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION In oxidising environment, including weathering.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Occurs as alteration of Ilm, Tt and other Ti-bearing minerals.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Hm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, anhedral. Brownish. Transparent to opaque.
XRD: Amorphous, chemically variable, with patterns similar to rutile.
TS: Small brownish, opaque, high relief crystals.
MIN: white to grey
Rutile (Rt)
TiO2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement (with quartz in acid leached zones).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid/neutral pH (27).

Wide range Philippines (27)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Most common in high sulphidation, but also in low sulphidation zones.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Lx, Hm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, striated crystals, although habit varies, commonly long needles or
hexagonal prisms, may be enclosed in Q. Moderately hard, H6. Reddish-brown
crystals. Brownish streak.
XRD: 3.245, 1.687, 2.489Å [27.5, 54.4, 36.1°]
TS: Red brown, amber or yellow brown, weakly pleochroic. High birefringence,
although interference colours are masked. Uniaxial (+), parallel extinction.
Manganite (Mang)
MnO(OH)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Hydrothermal veins or massive (in bundles).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Oxidising.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY FeO.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, striated crystals. H4. Opaque. Grey to black, with brown streak.
XRD: 3.40, 2.64, 2.28Å [26.2, 34.0, 39.5°]
TS: ---
Corundum (Cnd)
Al2O3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Occurs in high temperature, acid environment with advanced argillic assemblages.
Also in metamorphic rocks.
> 370 (83)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY And, Crd.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Pyramidal. Variable habit and colour (blue = sapphire, red = ruby). H9. High
relief, low birefringence.
XRD: 2.085, 2.552, 1.601Å [43.4, 35.2, 57.6°]
TS: Usually colourless. Zoned, with hematite or rutile inclusions. Detrital grains
may be pleochroic. Low birefringence (slightly higher than quartz). High relief.
Uniaxial (-).

Sulphides, Antimonides, Arsenides, Tellurides, Native Elements, Sulphosalts
Pyrite (Py)
FeS2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacing Fe-mags, matrix, and plagioclase. In veins. Can be primary in massive
sulphides.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Wide range; both acid and neutral pH conditions (27).
Cubic = neutral pH conditions, Pyritohedral = acid conditions (4, 43).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Ambient - maximum temp. (2)
< 240 where it is a pseudomorph of marcasite (73)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Ubiquitous
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Ubiquitous
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Virtually anything.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually cubic, brass yellow, H6-6.5. Parallel striations. Opaque iridescent
tarnish, metallic.
XRD: 1.633, 2.709, 2.423Å [56.3, 33.1, 37.1°].
MIN: Pale brassy or greenish yellow cubes or pyritohedra. Hard, reflectant,
isotropic.
Pyrrhotite (Pyrr)
Fe7S8 - FeS
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Impermeable zones, Philippines (48), Broadlands and Ngawha, NZ (8, 81).
Philippines in permeable and impermeable zones (27), or permeable zones only (43).
Acid and neutral pH, high steam fraction (27). Not in highly saline fluids, Iceland
(58).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) < 250 monoclinic;
> 250 hexagonal (1, 21)
> 180 (6)
> 150 Broadlands, NZ (8)
25 - 300 inclusions in pyrite;
> 280 free crystals (27)
75 - 254 monoclinic (27)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py and base metal sulphides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Platy to tabular to bipyramidal crystals. Massive, granular. H3.5-4.5. Bronze
yellow to reddish brown. Opaque. Metallic. Greyish to black streak.
XRD: 2.057, 2.966, 2.635Å [44.0, 30.1, 34.0°] (monoclinic).
MIN: Pitted appearance, magnetic. Pinkish brown. Anisotropic.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Bronze colour, moderately magnetic.
Marcasite (Mar)
FeS2 (var. of pyrite)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins, can replace Py and Pyrr. Hot spring deposits, especially
acid, and fumaroles.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid and neutral pH (27). Often shallow (1). Can be supergene. pH<5 (64).

< 160 (1), Salton Sea (21)
< 200 Philippines (27,48), also NZ and Iceland
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Shallow epithermal gold.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Pyrr.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Commonly massive, granular. H6-6.5. Pale brass yellow to tin white. Opaque.
Metallic.
XRD: 2.71, 1.76, 3.44Å [33.1, 52.0, 25.9].
MIN: Paler than Py, anisotropic. May be in rosettes or aggregates.
Arsenopyrite (Aspy)
FeAsS
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and veins. Well scales (37).
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Mesothermal gold, can also be epithermal.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, compact. H5.5-6. White, steel grey. Black streak.
XRD: 2.677, 2.662, 2.418Å [33.5, 33.7, 37.2°].
MIN: Creamy-white, anisotropic with blue-green-brown.
Loellingite (Loe)
FeAs2
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Aspy. Cc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, massive. H5-5.5. White, steel grey colour. Grey streak.
XRD: 2.61, 2.33, 1.638Å [ 34.4, 38.6, 56.2°].
MIN: White, bireflectant, strongly anisotropic, especially blue. May be twinned.
Sphalerite (Spl)
ZnS (± Wurtzite)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and in veins. Inclusions in Cpy. Well scales (37, 48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH (27).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide range
Possibly higher with Cpy inclusions (1), previously reported > 300
>~220 Philippines (27)
100 - 280 Kawerau, NZ (67)

ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High salinity epithermal vein gold - base metal deposits. VHMS, MVT and late-
stage porphyry veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Cpy, Gn.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tetrahedral crystals. Also massive, granular, botryoidal. H3.5-4. Coloured.
Pale brown streak.
XRD: 3.123, 1.912, 1.633Å [ 28.6, 47.6, 56.3°].
MIN: Grey, strong internal reflections. Darker colour indicates high Fe. Resembles
Mt. Cpy inclusions diagnostic.
Chalcopyrite (Cpy)
CuFeS2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and in veins. Inclusions in Spl. Well scales (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid and neutral pH (27).
> 150 inclusions in Py;
> 230 free crystals;
> 280 most abundant (27)
> 300 if with Spl inclusions (4)
230 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Cpy common with potassic alteration and skarns.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Common in VHMS, Cu-porphyries and skarns, less abundant in epithermal and
mesothermal veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Gn, Spl.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Spheroidal crystals, or massive, compact, botryoidal. Brass yellow, tarnishes
iridescent. H3.5-4. Opaque. Metallic. Greenish black streak.
XRD: 3.03, 1.854, 1.591Å [29.5, 49.1, 58.0°].
MIN: Yellow, generally interstitial. Soft. Anisotropic.
Galena (Gn)
PbS
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and in veins. Well scales (37).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH, permeable zones (27).
> ~ 200 Philippines (27)
220-280 Kawerau, NZ (67)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High salinity epithermal vein gold - base metal deposits. VHMS, MVT and late-
stage porphyry veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Spl, Cpy.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubic, also tabular, commonly massive. H2.5. Grey. Opaque. Metallic. Grey
streak.
XRD: 2.969, 3.429, 2.099Å [30.1, 26.0, 43.1°].
MIN: Pale grey, isotropic, soft. Cubic, with distinct triangular pits.

Cubanite (Cub)
CuFe2S3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mainly veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION < 200 orthorhombic;
> 200 cubic (1)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cpy, Pyrr, Py, Mt, Spl.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, tabular crystals. Bronze to brass yellow. H3.4. Opaque. Metallic.
XRD: 3.22, 1.867, 1.750Å [27.7, 48.8, 52.3°].
MIN: Creamy yellow, brownish, anisotropic.
“Iss”
solid solution series of:
talnakhite (Cu9Fe8S16), haycockite (Cu4Fe5S8), mooihoekite (Cu9Fe9S16).
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Intergrown with Cpy.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Ratio of "iss" end-members is temperature dependant (43).
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cpy, Cub
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive. Brass yellow. Opaque. Metallic.
XRD: Tln 3.04, 1.879, 1.598 [29.4, 48.5, 57.7°]
Hay 3.07, 1.88, 1.89 [29.0, 48.4, 48.0°]
Moo 3.07, 1.89, 1.60 [29.0, 48.0, 57.6°]
MIN: Similar to Cpy.
Bornite (Bor)
Cu5FeS4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Replacement and in veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Near-neutral pH.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 180 Philippines (27), but higher temperature than Cpy.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Potassic, skarn
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Cu-porphyry, skarn.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Py, Pyrr, Cpy, Spl, Chc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive. Rare crystals. H3. Opaque. Metallic.
XRD: 1.937, 3.18, 2.74Å [46.9, 28.1, 32.7°].
MIN: Pink to orange-brown, blue tarnish.

Chalcocite (Chc)
Cu2S - Cu9S5
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mainly in veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Usually acid, may be oxidising. May be supergene.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Supergene, also high sulphidation.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Where hypogene: high sulphidation.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cpy, Mal, Az, Co, Py, high-sulphidation assemblages.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Usually massive, pseudohexagonal. H2.5-3. Dark grey.
XRD: 1.870, 1.969, 2.40Å [48.7, 46.1, 37.5°].
MIN: Bluish grey-white, weakly anisotropic.
Covellite (Cov)
CuS
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mostly in veins, can be in massive sulphides, mainly supergene.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Usually acid, may be oxidising.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) 160-240 Philippines (48)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Supergene, also high sulphidation.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Where hypogene; high sulphidation.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cpy, Py, Chc, Bor and high-sulphidation assemblages.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, hexagonal plates. Often massive. Indigo blue. H1.5-2. Opaque.
Submetallic.
XRD: 2.813, 1.896, 3.048Å [31.8, 48.0, 29.3°].
MIN: Blue-violet, strongly bireflectant, with orange-brown. Soft.
Enargite (En)
Cu3AsS4
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mostly in veins, can be in massive sulphides.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, possibly also neutral pH (27). Oxidising.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 275 (31) (probably wrong)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS High sulphidation Cu-Au.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Alu, Bar, Luz and high-sulphidation assemblages.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, prismatic. Dark grey. H3. Opaque. Grey streak.
XRD: 3.22, 1.859, 2.87Å [27.7, 49.0, 31.2°].
MIN: Grey-brown-pink, strongly anisotropic. Not twinned
Luzonite (Luz)
Cu3AsS4 - dimorph of En
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, possibly also neutral pH. Oxidising.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Alu, Bar, En and high-sulphidation assemblages.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fine-grain, massive. Dull, metallic. H3.5. Black streak.
XRD: 3.046, 1.855, 1.592Å [29.3, 49.1, 57.9°].
MIN: Pinkish-orange, pleochroic, twinned, anisotropic.
Famatinite (Fam)
Cu3SbS4 - solid solution with luzonite
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid, possibly also neutral pH. Oxidising.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Similar to luzonite.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Alu, Bar, En.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Fine-grain, massive. Dull, metallic. H3.5. Black streak.
XRD: 3.08, 1.89, 1.61Å [29.0, 48.2, 57.2°].
MIN: Similar to luzonite except has a more purple tint.
Stibnite (Stb)
Sb2S3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins and replacements. In metamorphic veins as well as hydrothermal.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low temperature (1) (but can be higher)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Shallow epithermal and Carlin-type mineralisation.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Chal, Sb, other sulphides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, slender, striated crystals. H2. Lead grey (iridescent). Opaque. Grey
streak.
XRD: 2.764, 3.053, 3.556Å [32.4, 29.3, 25.0°].
MIN: Usually prismatic, often twinned. Grey-white, anisotropic, soft.
Tetrahedrite (Td)
Cu12Sb4S13
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mostly in veins, also in well scales (37, 48).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid (37).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide range
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE May occur as distal advanced argillic
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Can occur in distal high sulphidation.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Bar, Fl, tellurides, other sulphides and carbonates.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tetrahedral crystals. Grey to black. H3-4.5.
XRD: 3.00, 1.831, 1.563Å [29.8, 49.8, 59.1°]
MIN: Greenish-brown.

Tennantite (Tenn)
(Cu,Fe)12As4S13
("Fahlore series")
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Low-high temperature veins.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE May occur as distal advanced argillic.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Can occur in distal high sulphidation.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Sulphides, carbonates, Bar, Fl, Q.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, tetrahedral crystals. Grey to black. H3-4.5. Brown streak.
XRD: 2.94, 1.801, 1.535Å [30.4, 50.7, 60.3°].
MIN: ---
Goldfieldite (Gf)
Cu3(Te,Sb,As)S4 (Tetrahedrite group)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In veins and as crusts.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Other tellurides, Mar.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, H3. Lead grey colour.
XRD: ---
MIN: ---
Molybdenite (Moly)
MoS2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Usually porphyry or skarn-related.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 270, generally > 300 Baca (62)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Usually potassic.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Mo-porphyry.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Copper sulphides, Ad, Bt.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Foliate, radial. Lead grey. Opaque. H1-1.5. Metallic. Green streak.
XRD: 6.09 - 6.15Å [14.5 - 14.4°], 2.71 - 2.77Å [33.1 - 32.3°], 1.581 - 1.830Å [58.4
- 49.8°].
MIN: Extremely anisotropic, soft.
Alabandite (Ala)
MnS2
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Suphide veins.

ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Rhodonite, rhodochrosite, sulphides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubic or octahedral crystals, usually massive, granular. Black, tarnishes brown.
Opaque. H3.5-4. Submetallic. Green streak.
XRD: 2.612Å [34.3°], 1.847Å [49.3°], 1.509Å [61.4°].
MIN: Similar to sphalerite, may contain minute cpy inclusions.
Tellurides (general)
(Numerous species)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE In veins, usually late-stage. Never post-date Au (55).
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Magmatic input (55) ? Associated with potassic magmatism.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Generally < 350, usually < 250 (55)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal or mesothermal gold, skarns if Bi-tellurides present.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Te, sulphides. Certain tellurides mutually antipathetic.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Acicular, striated. H2. Various habit and colour.
XRD:
MIN:
Tellurium (Te)
Te
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Massive, columnar. Veins, late-stage.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Magmatic input ? Potassic magmas.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Moderate to low temperature (55)
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal or mesothermal gold, skarns if Bi-tellurides also present.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Au and Ag-bearing tellurides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic crystals. White. Opaque. H2.5. Metallic. Grey streak.
XRD: 3.230, 2.351, 2.228Å [27.6, 38.4, 40.5°].
MIN: Silvery-grey, strongly anisotropic, weakly bireflectant. Soft.
Cinnabar (Cinn)
HgS
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mostly in veins, can be in sinters and replacements.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Hg is the only metal that can travel in the vapour phase at epithermal
temperatures.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic, possible advanced argillic.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Hg ore, may overlie epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Op, Cris, Trid, Hal, Sb and As minerals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, minute. Grey, brown-red. Submetallic. H2-2.5. Reddish streak.
XRD: 3.35, 2.863, 1.980Å [26.6, 31.2, 45.8°].
MIN: Red. Common in pan-concentrates.

Sulphur (S)
S
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Hot-spring deposits (acid) and fumaroles.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Acid and/or oxidising conditions (1).
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) > 112.8 spherules (melt?);
< 112.8 crystals (27)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Argillic, advanced argillic.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS May overlie epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation, including high sulphidation.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, massive. H2. Usually yellow. White streak.
XRD:  (orthorhombic): 3.85, 3.21, 3.44Å [23.1, 27.8, 25.9°];
 (monoclinic): 3.29, 6.65, 3.74Å [27.1, 13.3, 23.8°].
TS: Yellow-orange and highly birefringent in thin section, but often melted out
during preparation.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Flame test – burns giving off SO2.
Copper (Cu)
Cu
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Rare in hydrothermal setting. May be supergene.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low S, oxidising environment. Weathering profiles.
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Commonly supergene.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Various Cu deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Often with cuprite, Lm, Mal, Az
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Elongate, distorted. Pale rose, tarnishes. H3. Opaque.
XRD: 2.088, 1.808, 1.278Å [43.3, 50.5, 74.2°].
MIN: Bright pink, tarnishes brownish red; isotropic; never complete extinction.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Tarnish, association with cuprite.
Antimony (Sb)
Sb
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Mostly in veins.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Stb, Q.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive, lamellar. Tin white. Opaque. H3-3.5. Metallic, grey streak.
XRD: 3.109, 2.248, 1.368Å [28.7, 40.1, 68.6°].
MIN: Creamy white, anisotropic, high reflectivity, polysynthetic lamellar twins
common.
Gold (Au)
Au (most reported gold is actually El)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins, inclusions in other minerals especially sulphides, sub-microscopic
disseminations and alluvial inclusions. Also accretionary nuggets.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Wide range.

TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide range, from ambient (1)
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGE Wide range.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Various deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Q, Py, Aspy, Gn, Hm, FeO, Rhc, Kut, amethyst, platy Cc, Ag, El, tellurides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Dendritic, filiform, also massive grains. Gold yellow, varies with impurities.
H2.5-3. Opaque. Metallic. Gold yellow streak.
XRD: 2.355, 2.039, 1.230Å [38.2, 44.4, 77.6°]
MIN: Golden yellow, highly reflective, very soft. Isotropic but incomplete
extinction.
Silver (Ag)
Ag
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Hypogene or supergene.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Oxidised zones of ore deposits.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide range, from ambient (1)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Crystals, massive. H3. Silver, tarnishes grey.
XRD: 2.359, 2.044, 1.231Å [38.1, 44.3, 77.6°]
MIN: Creamy white, highly reflective.
Electrum (El)
Au-Ag (variable proportions)
MODE OF OCCURRENCE
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Wide range
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Wide range, from ambient (1,9,74)
Au/Ag ratio partly T dependant.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Various
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Physical properties: similar to gold, but less yellow according to Ag content.
XRD:
MIN: Pale yellow, highly reflective.
Argentite-Acanthite (Arg - Aca)

AgS dimorphs
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Veins.
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Low sulphidation epithermal.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Argentite transforms to acanthite when T < 177.
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal Au-Ag.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY El, Pob, Ag, Gn.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubic. H2-2.5. Massive, branching. Lead grey. Opaque. Metallic.

XRD: Arg: 3.17, 2.24, 1.819Å [28.2, 40.3, 50.1°];
Aca: 2.606, 2.440, 2.383Å [34.4, 36.8, 37.7°].
MIN: Very soft and corrodes easily, silver-grey. Pseudomorphs after argentite retain
laminar twinning.
Polybasite-Pearceite (Pob - Pea)

(Ag,Cu)16 Sb2S11 - Ag16As2S11
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal Au-Ag.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY El, Aca, Ag, Gn, other Au and Pb minerals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, thin, also massive. Iron black. H2-3. Near opaque, metallic. Black
streak.
XRD: Pob: 3.00, 3.19, 2.88, 2.69-2.64Å [29.7, 28.0, 31.0, 33.3-34.0°], last peak
absent from pearceite series. Pea: 3.00, 2.84, 3.11Å [29.7, 31.5, 28.7°].
MIN: Soft, grey-silver-green, with distinct bireflectance.
Miargyrite (Mia)
AgSbS2 ("Ruby Silver")
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Epithermal Ag-Au.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY El, Aca, Nau.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, thick, also massive. Steel grey. H2.5. Red streak.
XRD: 2.89, 3.45, 2.75Å [30.9, 25.8, 32.6°].

MIN: Strongly reflective and anisotropic with deep red internal reflections.
Naumannite (Nau)
Ag2Se beta dimorph ("Ruby Silver")
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low temperature (74), Cubic >133
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY El, Aca, Mia.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Cubes, also massive. Iron black. H2.5. Opaque. Metallic.
XRD: 2.66, 2.56, 2.23Å [33.7, 35.1, 40.5°].
MIN: Soft, reflective and anisotropic with deep red internal reflections.

Proustite-Pyrargyrite (Pru-Pyg)
Ag3AsS3-Ag3SbS3 ("Ruby Silver")
<192 transforms to xanthoconite (88)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ag, Gn, Cc, Q.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Prismatic, usually massive. Scarlet to vermilion red. H2-2.5. Submetallic.
Red streak.
XRD: Pro: 2.74, 2.48, 3.27Å [32.7, 36.2, 27.3°];
Pyg: 2.779, 2.566, 3.22Å [32.2, 35.0, 27.7°].
MIN: Soft, blue-grey (proustite is bluer and darker than pyragyrite), twinned with
intense red internal reflections.
Xanthoconite (Xa)
Ag3As3 (Dimorph of proustite)
>192 transforms to proustite (88)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Ruby silvers and other Ag minerals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Tabular, massive, rare pyramidal crystals. H2-3. Yellowish-orange.
XRD: 3.00, 2.82, 3.14Å [29.7, 31.7, 28.4°].
MIN: Soft, twinned, with orange internal reflections.
Dyscrasite (Dys)
Ag3Sb
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) Low to moderate temperature
ASSOCIATED ORE DEPOSITS Ag deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Cc and sulphides.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Pyramidal, massive. Opaque. H3.5-4.
XRD: 2.29, 2.42, 1.37Å [39.3, 37.2, 68.5°].
MIN: Silvery white, but tarnishes to yellow. Anisotropic.

Realgar (Rlg)
AsS
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Low temperature veins. Hot springs.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) <307 (melting point
<200 because solubility too high (88)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Orp, Stb, Cinn
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Massive to prismatic crystals. Dark red to orange. H1.5-2. Resinous.
XRD: 5.4, 3.19, 2.94 [16.4, 28.0, 30.4°]
MIN: Soft, greyish white, strong internal reflections (red-orange-yellow)
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Soft, internal reflections
Orpiment (Orp)
As2S3
MODE OF OCCURRENCE Low temperature veins. Hot springs.
TEMPERATURE RANGE (°C) <312 (melting point)
<200 because solubility too high (88)
ASSOCIATED MINERALOGY Rlg, Stb, Cinn
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HS: Granular powdery aggregates to prismatic crystals. Yellow-orange. H1.5-2.
Resinous.
XRD: 4.82, 2.70, 4.00 [18.4, 33.1, 22.2°]
MIN: Soft, white to grey (bireflectant), strongly anisotropic, strong internal
reflections (white to yellow)
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Soft, yellow internal reflections, association with realgar.

Opaque Assemblages
Cpy + Pyrr
< 330 (20)
Cub + Py
Cub + Py + Cpy
Py + Chc
Aspy + Cpy
NOTE: Low-T phases may persist at high-T in zones of low permeability
High-T phases may remain stable during low-T alteration.

3.0 Preferred Abbreviations for Hydrothermal Minerals
Listed alphabetically (by abbreviation)
A-Jar Ammoniojarosite Chn Chondrodite

Ab Albite Cinn Cinnabar
Aca Acanthite Cln Clintonite
Act Actinolite Clz Clinozoisite
Ad Adularia Cnd Corundum
Aeg Aegirine Cop Copiapite
Ag Silver Cor Corrensite
Ah Anhydrite Cov Covellite
Ala Alabandite Cpt Clinoptilolite
Alg Alunogen Cpx Clinopyroxene
All Allanite Cpy Chalcopyrite
Alp Allophane Crd Cordierite
Alu Alunite Cris Cristobalite
Amph Unidentified amphibole Cry Chrysotile
And Andalusite Crys Chrysocolla
Ank Ankerite Cu Copper
Anl Analcite Cub Cubanite
Ant Antigorite
Anth Anthophyllite Dan Danburite
Antl Antlerite Dat Datolite
Ap Apatite Dic Dickite
App Apophyllite Diop Diopside
Ara Aragonite Dol Dolomite
Arg Argentite Dpt Dioptase
Aspy Arsenopyrite Dsp Diaspore
Au Gold Du Dumortierite
Aug Augite Dys Dyscrasite
Ax Axinite
Az Azurite Ed Edingtonite
El Electrum
Bar Barite En Enargite
Ber Berthierite End Endellite
Bor Bornite Ep Epidote
Bro Brochantite Epis Epistilbite
Bour Bournonite Er Erionite
Bt Biotite
Fam Famatinite
Carb Unidentified carbonate FeO Iron oxides
Cc Calcite Fer Ferrierite
Cel Celestite Fl Fluorite
Cer Cerargyrite Fo Forsterite
Chab Chabazite Fu Fuchsite
Chal Chalcedony
Chc Chalcocite Ga Garnet
Chl Chlorite Ged Gedrite
Chl-Sm Interlayered chlorite-smectite Gf Goldfieldite
Gn Galena Mt Magnetite
Goe Goethite Mus Muscovite
Goy Goyazite
Gyp Gypsum Na-Alu Natroalunite
Gyr Gyrolite Na-Jar Natrojarosite
Nat Natrolite
Hal Halloysite Nau Naumannite
Hay Haycockite
Hb Hornblende Op Opal
Hed Hedenbergite Opq Unidentified opaque
Hem Hemimorphite Or Orthoclase
Heu Heulandite Org Organic matter
Hm Hematite Orp Orpiment
Ht Halite
Htc Halotrichite Par Paragonite
Hyl Hyalophane Pbg Plumbogummite
Pea Pearceite
I Illite Pect Pectolite
I-Sm Interlayered illite-smectite Phg Phlogopite
Ilv Ilvaite Phil Phillipsite
In Inesite Pic Pickeringite
Plag Plagioclase
Jam Jamesonite Pob Polybasite
Jar Jarosite Pre Prehnite
Pru Proustite
Ka Kaolinite Pump Pumpellyite
Kie Kieserite Py Pyrite
Ksp K-Feldspar Pyg Pyrargyrite
Kut Kutnahorite Pyp Pyrophyllite
Pyrr Pyrrhotite
Lau Laumontite
Lep Lepidolite Q Quartz
Lm Limonite
Loe Loellingite Rd Rhodonite
Luz Luzonite Rect Rectorite
Lx Leucoxene Rey Reyerite
Lz Lazulite Rhc Rhodochrosite
Rlg Realgar
Mag Magnesite Ros Roscoelite
Mal Malachite Rt Rutile
Mang Manganite
Mar Marcasite S Sulphur
Mer Merwinite Sb Antimony
Mes Mesolite Scl Scolecite
Mg-Cc Magnesian Calcite Sco Scorodite
Mia Miargyrite Scp Scapolite
Mll Melilite Ser Sericite
Mln Melanterite Sid Siderite
Moly Molybdenite Sm Smectite
Mon Monticellite Spl Sphalerite
Moo Mooihoekite Spt Serpentine
Mord Mordenite Stau Staurolite
Stb Stibnite
Stil Stilbite
Svn Svanbergite
Syl Sylvite
Tam Tamarugite
Taw Tawmawite
Td Tetrahedrite
Te Tellurium
Tenn Tennantite
Thn Thenardite
Thom Thomsonite
Tlc Talc
Tln Talnakhite
Tob Tobermorite
Tour Tourmaline
Trd Tridymite
Trm Tremolite
Tru Truscottite
Tsch Teschemacherite
Tt Titanite
Tz Topaz
Ves Vesuvianite
Viv Vivianite
Vm Vermiculite
Wai Wairakite
Wo Wollastonite
Woo Woodhouseite
Xa Xanthoconite
Xon Xonotlite
Yu Yugawaralite
Zeo Unidentified zeolite

Zoi Zoisite
Zpy Zeophyllite
Zr Zircon
Zu Zunyite
Listed alphabetically (by mineral) Chrysotile Cry
Cinnabar Cinn
Acanthite Aca Clinoptilolite Cpt
Actinolite Act Clinopyroxene Cpx
Adularia Ad Clinozoisite Clz
Aegirine Aeg Clintonite Cln
Alabandite Ala Copiapite Cop
Albite Ab Copper Cu
Allanite All Cordierite Crd
Allophane Alp Corrensite Cor
Alunite Alu Corundum Cnd
Alunogen Alg Covellite Cov
Ammoniojarosite A-Jar Cristobalite Cris
Amphibole Amph Cubanite Cub
Analcite Anl
Andalusite And Danburite Dan
Anhydrite Ah Datolite Dat
Ankerite Ank Diaspore Dsp
Anthophyllite Anth Dickite Dic
Antigorite Ant Diopside Diop
Antimony Sb Dioptase Dpt
Antlerite Antl Dolomite Dol
Apatite Ap Dumortierite Du
Apophyllite App Dyscrasite Dys
Aragonite Ara
Argentite Arg Edingtonite Ed
Arsenopyrite Aspy Electrum El
Augite Aug Enargite En
Axinite Ax Epidote Ep
Azurite Az Epistilbite Epis
Erionite Er
Barite Bar
Berthierite Ber Famatinite Fam
Biotite Bt Ferrierite Fer
Bornite Bor Fluorite Fl
Bournonite Bour Forsterite Fo
Brochantite Bro Fuchsite Fu
Buddingtonite Bud
Galena Gn
Calcite Cc Garnet Ga
Carbonate Carb Gedrite Ged
Celestite Cel Goethite Goe
Cerargyrite Cer Gold Au
Chabazite Chab Goldfieldite Gf
Chalcedony Chal Gypsum Gyp
Chalcocite Chc Gyrolite Gyr
Chalcopyrite Cpy
Chlorite Chl Halite Ht
Chlorite-Smectite Chl-Sm Halloysite Hal
Chondrodite Chn Halotrichite Htc
Chrysocolla Crys Haycockite Hay
Hedenbergite Hed Organic matter Org
Hematite Hm Orpiment Orp
Hemimorphite Hem Orthoclase Or
Heulandite Heu
Hornblende Hb Paragonite Par
Hyalophane Hyl Pearceite Pea
Pectolite Pect
Illite I Phillipsite Phil
Illite-smectite I-Sm Phlogopite Phg
Ilvaite Ilv Pickeringite Pic
Inesite In Plagioclase Plag
Iron Oxides FeO Plumbogummite Pbg
Polybasite Pob
Jamesonite Jam Prehnite Pre
Jarosite Jar Proustite Pru
Pumpellyite Pump
K-feldspar Ksp Pyrargyrite Pyg
Kaolinite Ka Pyrite Py
Kieserite Kie Pyrophyllite Pyp
Kutnahorite Kut Pyrrhotite Pyrr
Laumontite Lau Quartz Q

Lazulite Lz
Lepidolite Lep Realgar Rlg
Leucoxene Lx Rectorite Rect
Limonite Lm Reyerite Rey
Loellingite Loe Rhodochrosite Rhc
Luzonite Luz Rhodonite Rd
Roscoelite Ros
Magnesian Calcite Mg-Cc Rutile Rt
Magnesite Mag
Magnetite Mt Scapolite Scp
Malachite Mal Scolecite Scl
Manganite Mang Scorodite Sco
Marcasite Mar Sericite Ser
Melanterite Mln Serpentine Spt
Melilite Mll Siderite Sid
Merwinite Mer Silver Ag
Mesolite Mes Smectite Sm
Miargyrite Mia Sphalerite Spl
Molybdenite Moly Staurolite Stau
Monticellite Mon Stibnite Stb
Mordenite Mord Stilbite Stil
Muscovite Mus Sulphur S
Svanbergite Svn
Natroalunite Na-Alu Sylvite Syl
Natrojarosite Na-Jar
Natrolite Nat Talc Tlc
Naumannite Nau Talnakhite Tln
Tamarugite Tam
Opal Op Tawmawite Taw
Opaque Mineral Opq Tellurium Te
Tennantite Tenn Vivianite Viv
Teschemacherite Tsch
Tetrahedrite Td Wairakite Wai
Thenardite Thn Wollastonite Wo
Thomsonite Thom Woodhouseite Woo
Titanite Tt
Tobermorite Tob Yugawaralite Yu
Topaz Tz
Tourmaline Tour Zeolite Zeo
Tremolite Trm Zeophyllite Zpy
Tridymite Trd Zircon Zr
Truscottite Tru Zoisite Zoi
Zunyite Zu
Vermiculite Vm
Vesuvianite Ves
4.0 References
4.1 Specific References
1 KRTA Ltd. unpublished data.

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8 Browne, P.R.L.; Ellis, A.J. 1970: The Ohaaki - Broadlands hydrothermal area, New Zealand: Mineralogy and associated
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9 Coombs, D.S. et al.: The zeolite facies with comments on hydrothermal synthesis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
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10 Elders, W.A. et al. 1981: Distribution of hydrothermal mineral zones in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field of Baja
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11 Unpublished data from Iceland geothermal wells.
12 Keith, T.E.C.; Muffler, L.J.P. 1978: Minerals produced during cooling and hydrothermal alteration of ash flow tuff from
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14 Reed, M.J. 1976: Geology and hydrothermal metamorphism in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Mexico. Proceedings
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16 Steiner, A. 1977: The Wairakei geothermal area North Island, New Zealand. N Z Geological Survey Bulletin 90: 136p.
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20 Cavaretta, G. et al. 1980: Hydrothermal metamorphism in the Larderello geothermal field. Geothermics 9: 297-314.
21 McKibben, M.A.: unpublished course notes for "Hydrothermal mineral assemblages, oxide and sulfide systems". Penn.
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22 Leach, T.M. et al. 1985: Epithermal mineral zonation in an active island arc: the Bacon-Manito geothermal system,
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23 Jakobsson, S.P.; Moore, J.G. 1986: Hydrothermal minerals and alteration rates at Surtsey volcano, Iceland. Geological
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24 Clapp, 1915: Alunite and pyrophyllite in British Columbia. Economic Geology 10: 70-88.
25 Lombardi, G.; Sheppard, S.M.F. 1977: Petrographic and isotopic studies of the altered acid volcanics of the Tolfa-Cerite
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26 Keith, T.E.C. et al. 1978: Hydrothermal alteration and self-sealing in Y-7 and Y-8 drillholes in the northern part of the
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27 Reyes, A.G. 1985: A comparative study of "acid" and "neutral pH" hydrothermal alteration in the Bacon-Manito
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28 Kakimoto, P.K. 1983: Hydrothermal alteration and fluid rock interaction in the TH3 and THM1 drillholes, Tauhara
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29 Wilson, M.R.; Kyser, T.K. 1988: Geochemistry of porphyry-hosted Au-Ag deposits in the Little Rocky Mountains.
Economic Geology 83: 1329-1346.
30 Belkin, H.E. et al. 1986: Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal minerals from Mofete2, Mofete5 and San Vito 3 geothermal
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31 Turner, S.J. 1986: Fluid inclusion, alteration and ore mineral studies of an epithermal system: Mount Kasi, Vanua Levu,
Fiji. Proc. 5th International Volcanological Congress: 87-94.
32 McDowell, S.D.; Elders, W.A. 1980: Authigenic layer silicate minerals in borehole Elmore 1, Salton Sea geothermal
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33 KRTA Ltd unpublished data.
34 Hulen and Nielson 1986: Stratigraphy and hydrothermal alteration in well Baca-8, Sulphur Springs area, Valles
Caldera, New Mexico. Geothermal Research Council Transactions 10: 187-192.
35 Browne, P.R.L. et al. 1984: Formation rates of calc-silicate minerals deposited inside drillhole casing, Ngatamariki
geothermal field, New Zealand. American Mineralogist 74: 759-763.
36 Jones, J.B.; Segnit, E.R. 1971: The nature of opal I: Nomenclature and constituent phases. Journal of the Geological
Society of Australia 18 (1): 57-68.
37 Reyes, A.G.; Cardile, C.M. 1989: Characterisation of clay scales forming in Philippine geothermal wells. Geothermics
18 (3): 429-446.
38 Adams, M.C.; Moore, J.N. 1987: Hydrothermal alteration and fluid geochemistry of the Meager Mountain geothermal
system, British Columbia. American Journal of Science 287: 720-755.
39 Botinelly, T. 1976: A review of the minerals of the alunite-jarosite, beudanite and plumbogummite groups. Journal Res.
United States Geological Survey 4 (2) 213-216.
40 Ballantyne, J.M.; Moore, J.N. 1988: A new illite geothermometer. Proc. 13th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, Stanford University: 145-150.
41 White, N.C.; Hedenquist, J.W. 1990: Epithermal environments and styles of mineralisation: variations and their causes,
and guidelines for exploration. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 36: 445- 474.
42 Hedenquist; J.W.; Browne, P.R.L. 1989: The evolution of the Waiotapu geothermal system, New Zealand, based on the
chemical and isotopic composition of its fluids, minerals and rocks. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53: 2235- 2257.
43 KRTA Ltd unpublished data.
44 Browne, P.R.L.; Lovering, J.F. 1973: Composition of sphalerites from the Broadlands geothermal field and their
significance to sphalerite geothermometry and geobarometry. Economic Geology 68: 381-387.
45 Izawa, E.; Urashima, Y. 1989: Quaternary gold mineralisation and its geological environments in Kyushu, Japan.
Economic Geology Monograph 6: The geology of gold deposiTS: The perspective in 1988. Keyes, Ramsey and Groves
(Eds): 233-241.
46 Clark, M.; Titley, S.R. 1988: Hydrothermal evolution in the formation of silver-gold veins in the Tayoltita Mine, San
Dimas District, Mexico. Economic Geology 83: 1830-1840.
47 Grant, G.J.; Ruiz, J. 1988: The Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag deposits of the Grandena Mine, San Fransisco del Oro-Santa Barbara
District, Chihuahua, Mexico. Economic Geology 83 (8): 1683-1703.
48 Reyes, A.G. 1990: Petrology of Philippine geothermal systems and the application of alteration mineralogy to their
assessment. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 43: 279-309.
49 Darce, M. 1990: Mineralogic alteration patterns in volcanic rocks of the La Libertad gold mining district and its
surroundings, Nicaragua. Economic Geology 85(5): 1059-1071.
50 Shelton, K.L.; So, C.S.; Haeussler, G.T.; Chi, S.J.; Lee, K.Y. 1990: Geochemical studies of the Tongyoung gold-silver
deposits, republic of Korea: evidence of meteoric water dominance in a Te-bearing epithermal system. Economic
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51 Cavaretta, G.; Puxeddu, M. 1990: Schorl-dravite-ferridravite tourmalines deposited by hydrothermal magmatic fluids
during early evolution of the Larderello geothermal field, Italy. Economic Geology 85(6): 1236-1251.
52 Schandl, E.; O'Hanley, D.S.; Wicks, F.J.; Kyser, T.K. 1990: Fluid inclusions in rodingite: a geothermometer for
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53 Kavalieris, I.; Walshe, J.L.; Halley, S.; Harrold B.P. 1990: Dome-related gold mineralization in the Pani Volcanic
Complex, North Sulawesi, Indonesia: a study of geologic relations, fluid inclusions, and chlorite compositions.
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54 Walshe, J.L. 1986: A six-component chlorite solid-solution model and the conditions of chlorite formation in
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55 Afifi, A.M.; Kelly, W.C.; Essene, E.J. 1988: Phase relations among tellurides, sulfides and oxides: Applications to
telluride-bearing ore deposits. Economic Geology 83(2): 395:404.
56 Cathelineau, M.; Nieva, D. 1985: A chlorite solid solution geothermometer. The Los Azufres (Mexico) geothermal
system. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 91: 235-244.
57 Cathelineau, M.; Oliver, R.; Garfias, A.; Nieva, O. 1985: Mineralogy and distribution of hydrothermal mineral zones in
the Los Azufres (Mexico) geothermal field. Geothermics 14: 49-57.
58 Kristmannsdottir, H. 1979: Alteration of basaltic rocks by hydrothermal activity at 100-300°C. In: Mortland and
Farmer, Eds.: International Clay Conference 1978. Elsevier: 359-367.
59 Aniceto, H.G. 1982: Petrology of MO-1 Bacon Manito geothermal field, Southern Luzon, Philippines. Report
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60 Reyes, A.G. 1986: Acid hydrothermal alteration occurrences in Philippine geothermal areas. Fifth International
Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction, Reykjavik: 461-465.
61 Nesbitt, B.E.; St.Louis, R.M.; Muehlenbachs, K. 1986: Mobility of gold during hydrothermal alteration of basaltic units.
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62 Hulen, J.B.; Nielson, D.L. 1986: Hydrothermal alteration in the Baca geothermal system, Redondo Dome, Valles
Caldera, New Mexico. Journal of Geophysical Research 91(B2): 1867-1886.
63 Oreskes, N.; Einaudi, M.T. 1992: Origin of hydrothermal fluids at Olympic Dam. Economic Geology 87: 64-90.
64 Murowchick, J.B.; Barnes, H.L. 1986: Marcasite precipitates from hydrothermal solutions. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 50: 2615-2629.
65 Rye, R.O.; Bethke, P.M.; Wasserman, M.D. 1992: The stable isotope geochemistry of acid sulphate alteration. Economic
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66 Seal, R.R.; Rye, R.O. 1992: Stable isotope study of water-rock interaction and ore formation, Bayhouse base and
precious metal district, Idaho. Economic Geology 87 (2): 271-287.
67 Christenson, B.W. 1987: Fluid-mineral equilibria in the Kawerau hydrothermal system, TVZ, New Zealand. Unpub.
PhD. Auckland University. 452p.
68 Patrier, P.; Beaufort, D.; Touchard, G.; Fouillac, A.M. 1990: Crystal size of epidotes: a potentially exploitable
geothermometer in geothermal fields. Geology 18: 1126-1129.
69 Duba, D.; William-Jones, A.E. 1983: The application of illite crystallinity, organic matter reflectance, and isotope
techniques to mineral exploration: a case study in southwestern Gaspe, Quebec. Economic Geology 78 (7): 1350-1363.
70 Leitch, C.H.B.; Godwin, C.I.; Brown, T.H. 1991: Geochemistry of mineralizing fluids in the Bralorne-Pioneer
mesothermal gold vein deposit, British Columbia, Canada. Economic Geology 86: 318-353.
71 Reyes, A.G.; Giggenbach, W.F. 1992: Petrology and fluid chemistry of magmatic-hydrothermal systems in the
Philippines. Water-Rock Interaction. Kharaka and Maest (eds). Balkema, Rotterdam.
72 Kingston Morrison Ltd, unpublished data.
73 Murowchick, J.B. 1992: Marcasite inversion and the petrographic determinations of pyrite ancestry. Economic Geology
87, 1141-1152.
74 Saunders, J.A. 1994: Silica and gold textures in the bonanza ores of the Sleeper deposit, Humboldt County, Nevada;
evidence for colloids and implications for epithermal ore forming processes. Economic Geology 89: 628-638.
75 Lawless, J.V.; White, J.V.; Bogie, I.; Andrew, M.J. 1995: Tectonic features of Sumatra and New Zealand in relation to
active and fossil hydrothermal systems: a comparison. Proc. PACRIM 95.
76 Van Bemmelen 1949: The geology of Indonesia, V.II. Economic Geology. Govt Printing Office, The Hague. 265p.
77 Roberts, W.C.; Rapp, G.R.; Weber, J.; 1974: Encyclopedia of minerals. Van Hostrand Reinhold Co. 693p.
78 Bowers, T.C.; Jackson, K.J.; Helgeson, H.C. 1984: Equilibrium Activity Diagrams. Springer-Verlag 393p.
79 Beane, R.E. and Titley, S.R. 1981: Porphyry copper deposits, Part II, Hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation:
Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, p235-269.
80 Titley, S.R. 1994: Evolutionary habits of hydrothermal and supergene alteration in intrusion-centred ore systems,
southwestern North America. In. Lentz, D.R., ed., Alteration and alteration processes associated with ore-forming
systems. Geological Association of Canada, Short Course Notes Vol 11, p237-260.
81 Cox, M.E. and Browne, P.R.L. 1995: The occurrence of pyrrhotite in the Ngawha Geothermal System, New Zealand.
Proc. 17th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, Auckland University, p35-40.
82 Ettlinger, A.D. and Meinert, L.D. 1992. Gold skarn mineralization and fluid evolution in the Nickel Plate Deposit,
British Columbia. Economic Geology 87, 1541 - 1565.
83 Hemley, J.J.; Montoya, J.W.; Marinenko, J.W. and Luce, L.W. 1980: Equilibria in the system Al 2O3 - SiO2-H2O and some
general implications for alteration-mineralization processes. Economic Geology 75, 210 - 228.
84 Layne,G.D. and Spooner, E.T.C. 1991: The JC Tin Skarn Deposit, southern Yukon Territory: I. Geology, paragenesis
and fluid inclusion thermometry. Economic Geology 86, 29 - 47.
85 Wolfram, O. and Krupp, R.E. 1996: Hydrothermal solubility of rhodochrosite, Mn(II) speciation and equilibrium
constants. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 60, 3983 - 3994.
86 Stoffgren, R.E. and Alpers, C.N. 1987: Woodhouseite and svanbergite in hydrothermal ore deposits: products of apatite
destruction during advanced argillic alteration. Canadian Mineralogist 25, 201 - 211.
87 Kwak, T.A.P. 1986: Fluid inclusions in skarns (carbonate replacement deposits). Journal of Metamorphic Geology 4,
363 - 384.
88 Barton, P.B. and Skinner, B.J. 1979: Sulfide mineral stabilities. In: Geochemistry of hydrothermal deposits (ed. H.L.
Barnes).
89 Korobov, A.D. and Ulzutuez, N.M. 1985: Some distinctive aspects of the formation of high-silica zeolites in the
Kholinski perlite deposit (Burytia). Geologiya I Geofizika 26, 129 - 136.
4.2 General References Used in This Compilation
Brindley, G.W.; Brown, G. 1980: Crystal structures of clay minerals and their X-ray identification. Mineralogical
Society, 494p.
Chen, P.Y.: Table of key lines in X-ray powder diffraction patterns of minerals in clays and associated rocks. Indiana
Department of Natural Resources. Geological Survey Occasional Paper 21.68p.
Deer, W.A.; Howie, R.A.; Zussman, J. 1963/1982: Rock forming minerals (1st and 2nd Eds). Longmans, 5 Vols.
Fleischer, M.; Wilcox, R.E.; Matzko, J. 1984: Microscopic determination of the non-opaque minerals. US Geological
Survey Bulletin 1627, 453p.
Heinrich, E.W. 1965: Microscopic identification of minerals. McGraw-Hill, 414p.
Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards 1974: Search manual for selected powder diffraction files for
minerals. Swarthmore, Pa. JCPDS.
Roberts, W.L.; Rapp, G.R.; Weber, J. 1974: Encyclopedia of minerals. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 693p.
Schouten, C. 1962: Determination tables for ore microscopy. Elsevier, 242p.
Spry, P.G.; Gedlinske, B.L. 1987: Tables for the determination of common opaque minerals. Economic Geology
Publishing Co. 52p.
5.0 Graphical Summary of Temperature Ranges
6.0 Index of Minerals
Acanthite 46 (63) Chondrodite 28

Achroite (see tourmaline) 26 Chrysocolla 28
Actinolite (see amphibole) 24 (60) Chrysotile 10
Adularia 20 (60) Cinnabar 44
Aegirine 26 (60) Clinoptilolite 14 (59)
Alabandite new Clinopyroxene 24 (60)
Albite 20 (60) Clinozoisite 22 (60)
Allanite 22 Clintonite 28
Allophane 4 Copiapite 34
Alunite 32 (62) Copper 44
Alunogen 32 Cordierite 10
Ammoniojarosite 32 Corrensite 6 (58)
Amphibole 24 Corundum 38
Analcite 16 (59) Covellite 42 (63)
Andradite 24 Cristobalite 18 (59)
Andalusite 28 Chrysocolla 28
Anhydrite 32 (62) Chrysotile 10
Ankerite 30 (61) Cubanite 42 (63)
Anthophyllite (see amphibole)24 Danburite 28
Antigorite 10 Datolite 26 (60)
Antimony 44 Diaspore 38 (62)
Antlerite 34 Dickite 4 (58)
Apatite 36 Diopside 24
Apophyllite 28 (62) Dioptase 28
Aragonite 30 (61) Dolomite 30 (61)
Argentite 44 (63) Dumortierite 26
Arsenopyrite 40 Dyscrasite 46
Augite (see clinopyroxene) 24 Edingtonite 16
Axinite 26 Electrum 46
Azurite 30 Enargite 42 (63)
Barite 32 (62) Endellite 4
Beidellite (see smectite) 4 Epidote 22 (60)
Berthierite new Epistilbite 16 (59)
Biotite 8 (58) Erionite 14 (59)
Bismuth and bismuth minerals new Famatinite 42
Boehmite (see diaspore) 38 Ferrierite 12
Bornite 42 (63) Fluorite 34 (62)
Bournonite new Forsterite 28
Brochantite 32 Fuchsite 6
Buddingtonite new Galena 40 (63)
Calcite 30 (61) Garnet 24 (60)
Celestite 34 Gedrite (see amphibole) 24
Cerargyrite 36 (62) Goethite 38 (60)
Chabazite 14 (59) Gold 44
Chalcedony 18 (59) Goldfieldite 44
Chalcocite 42 (63) Goyazite new
Chalcopyrite 40 (63) Gypsum 34 (62)
Chlorite 8 (58) Gyrolite 24 (60)
Chlorite-Smectite 6 (58) Halite 34 (62)
Halloysite 4 (58) Pickeringite 34 (62)
Halotrichite 34 (62) Phlogopite 8
Haycockite (see ISS) 42 Plagioclase 20
Hectorite (see smectite) 4 Plumbogummite new
Hedenbergite new Polybasite-Pearceite 46
Hematite 38 (62) Prehnite 24 (60)
Hemimorphite 28 Proustite-Pyrargyrite 46
Heulandite 12 (59) Pumpellyite 22 (60)
Hyalophane 20 (60) Pyrite 40 (63)
Illite 6 (58) Pyrophyllite 8 (58)
Illite-Smectite 6 (58) Pyrrhotite 40 (63)
Ilvaite 28 Quartz 18 (59)
Inesite 16 Realgar 46
ISS 42 Rectorite 6 (58)
Iron hydroxides 38 (62) Reyerite 24 (60)
Jamesonite new Rhodochrosite 30
Jarosite 32 (62) Rhodonite 26 (60)
Kaolinite 4 (58) Roscoelite 6
Kieserite 34 Rutile 38 (62)
Kutnahorite 30 (61) Saponite (see Smectite) 4
Laumontite 14 (59) Sauconite (see Smectite) 4
Lazulite 36 (62) Scapolite 10
Lepidolite 10 (58) Scolecite 14 (59)
Leucoxene 38 (62) Scorodite 36 (62)
Limonite 38 (62) Sericite 6 (58)
Loellingite 40 Serpentine (see Ant, Cry) 10
Luzonite 42 (63) Siderite 30 (61)
Magnetite 38 (62) Silver 44
Malachite 30 Smectite 4 (58)
Manganite 38 Sphalerite 40 (63)
Marcasite 40 (63) Staurolite 28
Mariposite (see fuchsite) 6 Stibnite 42
Melanterite 36 (62) Stilbite 12 (59)
Melilite new Sulphur 44
Merwinite 28 Svanbergite new
Mesolite 12 (59) Sylvite 34 (62)
Miargyrite 46 Talc 8 (58)
Molybdenite 44 Talnakhite (see ISS) 42
Montmorillonite (see smectite)4 Tamarugite 34
Monticellite 28 Tawmawite 22 (60)
Mooihoekite (see ISS) 42 Tellurides 44 (63)
Mordenite 14 Tellurium 44
Natroalunite 32 (62) Tennantite 42
Natrojarosite 32 (62) Teschemacherite 30 (61)
Natrolite 16 Tetrahedrite 42
Naumannite 46 Thenardite 34
Nontronite (see smectite) 4 Thomsonite 14 (59)
Opal 18 (59) Titanite 26 (60)
Orpiment 46 Tobermorite 12 (59)
Orthoclase 20 Topaz 26 (60)
Paragonite 10 (58) Tourmaline 26 (60)
Pearceite 46 Tremolite (see amphibole) 24
Pectolite 24 (60) Tridymite 18 (59)
Phillipsite 16 (59) Truscottite 16 (59)
Vermiculite 10 (58)
Vesuvianite 28
Vivianite 36
Wairakite 12 (59)
Wollastonite 24 (60)
Woodhouseite 34
Xanthoconite 46
Xonotlite 16 (59)
Yugawaralite 16
Zeophyllite 26 (60)
Zoisite (see epidote) 22
Zunyite 26
( ) page of graphical summary.
Appendix 1: Glossary and Definitions
ALTERATION ASSEMBLAGES:
Argillic: Clay-rich assemblages dominated by low-temperature clays such as kaolinite, smectite,

and interlayered illite-smectite. These are formed by low temperature (<230°C), acid to
neutral, low salinity hydrothermal fluids.
Phyllic: Dominated by illite or sericite and quartz, together with pyrite and possibly anhydrite.
May also contain minor chlorite, calcite, titanite and rutile. Formed in the presence of
moderate to high temperature (approx. 230-400°C), acid to neutral fluids at a range of
salinities, commonly in permeable zones and adjacent to veins.
Propylitic: Characterised by chlorite, with some of illite/sericite, epidote, quartz, albite, calcite, and
anhydrite. Formed at moderate temperatures (mostly 200-300°C), in the presence of near-
neutral pH fluids with a range of salinities, commonly in low permeability areas.
High-temperature
propylitic: Contains secondary actinolite and/or garnet in addition to the above assemblage. Forms
under similar conditions, but higher temperatures (>290°C) than propylitic assemblages.
Potassic: Major secondary minerals are biotite, orthoclase, quartz, and magnetite. Anhydrite is a
common accessory, and minor albite and titanite or rutile can also develop. Potassic
alteration is caused by near-intrusive, hot fluids (>300°C) with a strong magmatic
character and high salinity.
Advanced Argillic: Contains alunite, diaspore, and/or pyrophyllite, together with one or more of quartz,
chalcedony, kaolinite, and dickite. These assemblages occur as tabular near-vertical zones
formed from condensed acid magmatic vapours in the porphyry environment, and as near-
horizontal blankets at shallow epithermal levels, where acid-sulphate fluids form from
oxidised steam condensates.
Skarn: May contain garnet, clinopyroxene, vesuvianite, scapolite, wollastonite, epidote,

amphibole, magnetite and calcite as major components. Minor amounts of biotite, K-
feldspar, quartz and chlorite may also be present. Minerals present are similar to those
found in potassic, high temperature propylitic and propylitic assemblages of porphyry
systems. Developed in the presence of calcium-rich, high salinity fluids over a wide
temperature range with early anhydrous minerals forming in the range 300 - 700°C.
Occurs near the contact between calcareous lithologies and intrusives.
MINERALISATION:
Carlin-type: Precious metal mineralisation, usually with the gold occurring submicroscopically,
associated with the silicification of calcareous rocks in continental settings. Also broadly
applied to any carbonate replacement deposit; evidence is mounting that this may be
erroneous.
Epithermal: Mineralisation produced by near-surface hydrothermal fluids related to igneous activity;
originally defined as having formed in the range 50-200°C, though 150-300°C is perhaps
more commonly accepted now.
Epigenetic: Mineralisation which was later introduced into older rocks
Gold fineness: A measure of the gold content of native gold or silver grains, determined by the equation
1000 x Au/(Au + Ag), where Au and Ag are determined by weight.
High-sulphidation: Originally referred to opaque minerals which contain sulphur in a high oxidation state, but
now used in a broader sense for deposits which contain them; for example “enargite-gold”
(or quartz-alunite, or acid-sulphate) systems, in which the mineralising hydrothermal
fluids have a major magmatic component, and produce acid alteration, with base metal
mineralisation at shallow levels.
Hypogene: Formed by processes occurring within the earth, especially mineralisation associated with
ascending hot fluids.
Hypothermal: Mineralisation associated with high temperature hydrothermal fluids; originally defined as
forming at 300-500°C, today it commonly applies to temperatures over about 500°C.
Low-sulphidation: Originally referred to opaque minerals containing sulphur in a low oxidation state, but
now used in a broader sense for the deposits which contain them; for example “adularia-
sericite” type systems in which meteoric-dominated fluids produce phyllic, propylitic, and
argillic alteration zones.
Mesothermal: Mineralisation produced at deep levels in the crust, from high temperature hydrothermal
fluids (250-400°+), at near lithostatic pressures. The fluids can be meteoric and/or
magmatic and/or metamorphic in origin; where the latter is significant, this mineralisation
is normally termed metamorphogenic.
Porphyry: Hypothermal deposits occurring as stockworks or disseminations intimately associated

with porphyritic intrusives, with mineralisation associated with potassic alteration,
although this is frequently overprinted.
Skarn: Mineralisation associated with moderate to high temperature, hydrothermally

altered/metasomatised rocks near the contact between intrusive bodies and carbonate
rocks.
Supergene: Formed by surficial processes, particularly oxidation, hydration, solution, and deposition.
Syngenetic: Mineralisation which formed at the same time as the enclosing rocks.
Volcanic-Hosted
Massive Sulphide
(VHMS) Mineralisation associated with hydrothermal systems developed in volcanic and volcano-
sedimentary rocks in a submarine setting.
MINERALS TERMS
Mineral nomenclature is that of the IMA.
Some terms that have been found to be used elsewhere in different senses are defined below:
Illite: Colourless, birefringent clay which is characterised by having the largest XRD peak at
about 10.0A (8.8°). This peak should not shift on glycolation, but is not sufficiently sharp
to be termed sericite.
Illite-Smectite: Pale green or brownish fine-grained clay, which has a major XRD peak between 15.4 and
10.0A (5.7 - 8.8°) that shifts on glycolation.
Sericite: Colourless birefringent clay which commonly forms coarse flakes. It is characterised by
very sharp XRD peaks at 10.0A (8.8°), 4.98 (17.8) and 3.33A (26.6°).
GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE TERMS
Sinter: Surficial, chemically deposited precipitate, that is in the strictest sense of the term,
siliceous. May be diagnosed on the basis of recognisable plant fragments (leaves, stems),
near-horizontal planar lamination, and/or low-temperature mineralogy (e.g. opal and
chalcedony).
Travertine: Calcareous (usually CaCO3) sinter deposit.
Vein: Material which was chemically deposited by fluids within a rock fracture. Veins exhibit a
range of textures and minerals, depending primarily on the temperature, depth, and
composition of both the fluid and the host rock. Veins may contain a small amount
(<10%) of entrained host rock and/or vein clasts.
Breccia: Coarse (usually >2 mm) fragmental rock, consisting of generally angular clasts of one or
more lithologies. A complexly veined rock can have a brecciated appearance (if veins are
multi-generational and/or branching), but it is important to differentiate between the two.
Veins are generally linear or sinuous, whereas a breccia matrix is highly irregular.
TEXTURAL TERMS FOR VEINS AND BRECCIAS
Matrix: The interstitial material between clasts in a breccia, of which there are two main types.
Some breccias may contain a proportion of both types:
Clastic Matrix: composed of finely ground clast material; and
Chemically Deposited Matrix (Cement): composed of chemically
deposited material (usually similar to veins).
If the matrix encloses and separates clasts, the breccia is matrix-supported; if clasts are in
contact and support each other, it is described as clast-supported.
Vug (druse): Open cavity within a rock, usually in a vein or breccia cement, which is lined by euhedral
prismatic crystals that project into the cavity.
Pseudomorph: A mineral or minerals occurring in the crystal form of another, usually due to alteration or
replacement of the original mineral (e.g. limonite after pyrite, alunite + pyrophyllite after
feldspar, quartz after calcite).
Prismatic: Crystals which exhibit elongate euhedral shapes and have prismatic terminations are
common in veins and cements, where they are considered to form by slow crystallisation.
Prismatic crystals may be zoned by bands of different composition (e.g. amethyst bands in
quartz) or with abundant fluid inclusions.
Colloform: A botryoidal type of texture commonly observed in vein chalcedony, where radiating
aggregates of chalcedony have a grape-like outer surface. Banding within this material
produces agate.
Comb: Masses of parallel long, thin crystals growing inwards from the vein margins produce a
texture like that of a comb.
Saccharoidal: Granular aggregates of equant crystals having the appearance of sugar in hand specimen.
Crustiform: Banding texture produced by differences of mineralogy, texture, and/or colour away from
the vein margins. Crustiform banding is commonly produced by alternating chalcedony
and saccharoidal quartz layers.
Cockade: Concentric crustiform banding in the cement surrounding matrix-supported breccia clasts.
Imbrication: A fabric found within some breccias where there is a subparallel alignment of clasts,
similar to that observed within some fluvial gravels.
Vein Breccia: Rock consisting predominantly of vein fragments (<10% host rock clasts) in a chemically-
deposited matrix. Clasts are generally subangular, and matrix-supported in a matrix of
generally similar vein minerals (e.g. quartz, chalcedony), which may be banded and
enclose open cavities.
Polymict Vein Breccia: Rock consisting of altered host rock ± vein clasts in a chemically deposited matrix, where
the matrix, rock, and vein clasts each comprise at least 10% of the rock volume. Clasts
are generally subangular, and enclosed by a matrix of vein minerals (e.g. quartz,
chalcedony).
Polymict Breccia: Rock consisting of various altered host rock ± lesser (<10%) vein clasts. These may occur
in a chemically-deposited matrix, or in a clastic matrix. Clasts range from subangular to
subrounded, and may be either clast or matrix-supported.
Monomict Breccia: Similar to a polymict breccia, but containing only a single clast type. Jigsaw breccias and
crackle breccias are special types of monomict breccia.
Brecciated Rock: A rock which consists largely (>90%) of fragments of a single lithology. Clasts are
commonly angular, and are usually surrounded by matrix material.
Brecciated Vein: Similar to a brecciated rock, but consisting largely (>90%) of vein clasts.
Matrix Breccia: A breccia which consists largely (>80%) of clastic matrix material.
Crackle Breccia: A type of brecciated rock which has been fractured, but with little or no matrix material.
Clasts are still essentially in place. These have been called hydrofractured breccias, but
“crackle breccia” is preferred.
Jigsaw Breccia: A type of brecciated rock which has been fractured, and has minor matrix material
separating clasts. There has been minimal transport and rotation of the clasts, which can
be visually fitted together by removal of the matrix.
GENETIC TERMS FOR BRECCIAS (not to be used unless textures are described first !)
Hydrothermal Breccia: A general term for breccias which form primarily as a result of hydrothermal activity,
including phreatic and magmatic-phreatic breccias. These range from brecciated rocks to
vein breccias and polymict breccias, and include both erupted (Hydrothermal Eruption
Breccias) and subsurface rocks. Diagnostic features include the presence of altered host
rock clasts, hydrothermal vein clasts, and hydrothermal minerals within the matrix
cement, though not all will exhibit all of these features. Plant fragments may occur in
hydrothermal eruption breccias.
Phreatic Breccia: A more specific term for breccias which form due to the expansion of steam and gas in a
water-dominated hydrothermal fluid where there is no direct association of brecciation
with magmatic activity.
Magmatic-Phreatic
Breccia: A specific term for breccias formed due to flashing of hydrothermal fluids following
intrusion of magma, but which do not contain juvenile magmatic material.
Phreatomagmatic
(Diatreme) Breccia: A breccia formed by the explosive interaction of magma and groundwater. Diatremes are
near-vertical pipe-like bodies up to 1 km across. The breccias are generally polymict, with
rounded, matrix-supported clasts. The matrix contains finely ground wallrock clasts and
juvenile magmatic material, but lacks chemically deposited minerals (unless deposited
later).
Tectonic Breccia: Breccia formed by the mechanical disruption of rocks in response to tectonic stress. These
generally occur in identifiable fault planes, which are commonly steeply dipping. They
typically exhibit a planar fabric, imbrication, slickensides, and strain textures such as
undulose extinction in quartz crystals.
Sedimentary Breccia: Breccia emplaced at the Earth’s surface by predominantly sedimentary processes. These
breccias are generally polymict and exhibit sedimentary textures (e.g. planar fabric, graded
bedding). They include talus breccias, debris flows, turbidites, landslide deposits, solution
breccias, reef breccias, and glacial deposits (tillites).
Intrusive Breccia: A breccia which forms at the margins of an intrusive body during emplacement. Clasts
include early-crystallised intrusive material and wallrock fragments.
Volcaniclastic Breccia: Breccia formed at or near the surface due to fragmentation on release of magmatic
volatiles to produce deposits which include vent breccias, crumble breccias, flow breccias,
tuffs, lapilli tuffs, ignimbrites, and lahar deposits. Clasts are mostly unaltered volcanic
material in a matrix of fine volcanic detritus.
HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS:
Boiling zone: Zone of two-phase (i.e. boiling) fluid, generally within a hydrothermal upflow.
Conductive: Transmitted through a rock or liquid.
Convective: Transmitted by movement of a fluid.
Hydrofracturing: Fracturing of rocks when fluid pressure exceeds the minimum compressive stress plus the
effective tensile strength of the rock.
Hydrostatic: Where pressures are determined by the amount of overlying liquid.
Hydrothermal breccia: A general term for a rock which was brecciated by fluid processes within a hydrothermal
system, without being specific as to whether energy transfer was convective or conductive,
or directly magmatic.
Hydrothermal eruption: An eruption which reaches the surface and is caused by hydrothermal processes.
Lithostatic: Where fluid pressures are determined by the confining rock pressure
Magmatic: Water of magmatic origin, that is derived from the loss of volatiles from magma.
Meteoric: Water of surficial origin, including near-surface groundwaters.
Outflow: Area where water is flowing laterally away from an upflow zone.
Paleowatertable: The level within the rock mass below which groundwaters were formerly present.
Permeability: The ability of fluid to flow through the rock, which depends on the porosity and the degree
of interconnection of pores.
Piezometric surface: A surface of equal fluid pressure within the rock mass.
Porosity: Degree of pore space within a rock.
Single-phase zone: A zone in which the pressure gradient corresponds to a single-phase liquid.
Two-phase fluid: Fluid consisting of two separate phases (i.e. liquid (water) and gas (steam)).
Upflow: Area where hot water is flowing more or less vertically upwards within a geothermal
system.
FLUID INCLUSIONS:
Daughter crystal: Solid crystal which has been precipitated within a fluid inclusion after trapping.
Equivalent salinity: An estimate of salinity, expressed as wt% NaCl, calculated from melting temperature
determinations.
Necking: Post-entrapment reshaping of an inclusion to a more equant shape, during which an

inclusion may be divided into two or more separate inclusions, which can have different
vapour/liquid ratios.
Primary: Trapped during primary crystal growth from a fluid.
Pseudosecondary: Trapped on a microfracture during growth of the crystal.
Secondary: Trapped after growth of the crystal, generally on a healed microfracture.
PETROGRAPHIC TEXTURAL TERMS:
Aphanitic: Fine-grained igneous rocks in which individual crystals are not visible to the naked eye.
Amygdaloidal: Containing vesicles which have been infilled by a secondary mineral.
Equigranular: Composed of crystals of approximately equal grain size.
Holocrystalline: Composed entirely of crystals (i.e., no glass).
Hyaline: Containing volcanic glass.
Ophitic: Coarse pyroxene crystals partly or wholly enclosing plagioclase laths.
Pilotaxitic: Felted mass of acicular or lath-like crystals.
Porphyritic: Igneous rock containing coarse crystals (phenocrysts) in a fine groundmass.
Porphyry: Medium-grained subvolcanic rock containing phenocrysts.
Trachytic: Parallel, flow-aligned feldspars, with sparse phenocrysts.
Vesicular: Containing spherical/ellipsoidal cavities of gas bubbles trapped in a cooling lava.
Vitric: Glassy; dominated by volcanic glass.

ALTERATION INTENSITY:
Unaltered: No secondary minerals.
Weak: Minor (<25 vol.%) secondary minerals.
Moderate: 25-75 vol.% secondary minerals.
Strong: >75 vol.% secondary minerals.
Intense: Completely altered (except for primary quartz, zircon, and apatite), but primary textures
remain visible.
Total: Completely altered (except for primary quartz, zircon, and apatite), and primary textures
lost.
GRAIN SIZE (AS USED IN IGNEOUS/HYDROTHERMAL PETROLOGY):
Very Fine <0.05 mm
Fine 0.05-1 mm
Medium 1-5 mm
Coarse 5-30 mm
Very Coarse >30 mm
MINERAL PROPORTIONS:
Rare <1%
Minor 1-5%
Moderate 5-10%
Major 10-50%
Predominant >50%

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The Kingston Morrison Book

Mineral Services Division

New Zealand offices:

2.0 Compilation of Data 4

6.0 Index of Minerals 96

Appendix 1: Glossary and Definitions 99

Hydrothermal Minerals and their Significance: P134205\Feb 99

The main objective of this compilation of hydrothermal mineralogy is to provide workers in

 Theoretical thermodynamic studies are limited by the accuracy of the

Hydrothermal Minerals and their Significance: P134205\Feb 99

 To obtain entrapment temperatures from fluid inclusion homogenisation

Hydrothermal Minerals and their Significance: P134205\Feb 99

Endellite (End) (Hydrohalloysite)

Halloysite (Hal) (Metahalloysite)

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Illite - Smectite (I-Sm)

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Fuchsite (Fu) also known as Mariposite

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Mordenite (Mord) also known as Ptilolite

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Xonotlite (Xon) also known as Jurupaite

Analcite (Anl) also known as Analcime

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Titanite (Tt) also known as Sphene

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