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HISTORY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT

A HUMAN SETTLEMENT is defined as a place inhabited more or less permanently. It
includes buildings in which they live or use and the paths and streets over which they
travel. It also includes the temporary camps of the hunters and herders. It may consists of
only a few dwelling units called hamlets or big cluster of buildings called urban cities.

HUMAN SETTLEMENTS define people’s existence. They are places – large and small,
urban and rural, formal and informal – where people live, learn, work and create. They
also comprise an important component of the entire environment, namely the built
environment. The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services
to which these elements provide the material support. The physical components comprise
shelter, i.e, the superstructures of different shape, size, type and materials erected by
mankind for security, privacy and protection from the elements and for his singularity
within a community; infrastructure, i.e, the complex networks designed to deliver or
remove from the shelter people, goods, energy of information. Services cover those
required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions as a social body, such as
education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition.

A. Origin and Evolution of Human Settlement

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1. Primitive non-organised human settlements (started with the evolution of man.)

There are no physical lines connecting this primitive settlement with others; there are no
networks between settlements.
 Man began to modify the nature
 Man settled temporarily or permanently
in different location
 Began with fire and went on to animal
husbandry and domestication of grazing
animals
 Deforestation and agriculture
complemented with permanent human
settlements
 Settlements: Natural shelters – hollows
in the ground, hollow trees or shallow
caves
 Settlements have no link, communication
lines and transportation

2. Primitive organised settlements (the period of villages – eopolis which lasted

about 10,000 years.) Due to the loss of space between them, they developed more
regular shapes with no space lost between them. The evolution reached the stage at
which a rectilinear pattern develops into a regular grid-iron one.
 Entry to the era of organized agriculture coupled with organized settlements
 Human settlements with one-room dwelling in circular form then expansion of dwelling
by placing many round forms side by side, then elongated to eliptical ones and
rectilinear forms
 Due to loss of space between them, more regular shapes of settlements were formed to
a regular gridiron pattern
 Micro-scale – Man must divide the land, construct one or more shells (rooms and
houses), and circulate within a built-up area (neighborhood)
 Macro-scale – Man must own and use space but not build it, and circulate within it,
although to a much lesser degree than before (usually not more than one movement to
and from every day), man continues to follow the course of nature towards hexagonal
pattern
 Population is still small
 Villages are found in plains, near the rivers and near the sea
 When population density increased, new patterns were developed with the villages
covering the entire plain based on small hexagonal pattern and the hills and mountains
on a larger hexagonal pattern.

3. Static urban settlements or Cities (polis which lasted about 5000-6000 years.)
As settlements grew in size, man came to realise that the principle of the single-nucleus
was not always valid in the internal organisation of the total shells of the community, at
this single nodal point, which was adequate for the village and for small cities, no longer
sufficed.

First urban settlement appeared as small cities in a plain or as fortresses on hills and
mountains (5,000 – 6,000 years ago)
Expansion of nucleus in one or more directions (single nucleus principle / nodal point not
valid anymore)

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4. Dynamic urban settlements (Dynapolis which lasted 200-400 years.) In the

dynamic urban phase, settlements in space are characterised by continuous growth.
Dynamic settlements, created as a result of an industrial technological revolution,
multiplying in number and form, and now being created at an even higher rate.
Started in the 17th century
Characterized by continuous growth
Emerged due to industrial technological revolution
All part of the land it covers is not sterilized
Microorganisms in the soil no longer exist
Original animal inhabitants have largely been banished

5. The Universal city (ecumenopolis – which is now beginning.) Regardless of

whether dynamic settlements are simple
(Dynapolis) or composite (Metropolises
and megalopolises), they have been
growing continuously during the last
centuries and this is apparent
everywhere at present that is the whole
earth will be covered by one human
settlement.
 Possible occurrence of population
explosion
 Earth will be covered by one settlement
 Cities will be interconnected, in one
continuous network, into one universal
city called Ecumenic City
 Ecumenopolis on the earth in the year
2120 by which time it is expected that
the population of the earth will have
leveled off at a minimum of
20,000,000,000 people and the
population of the definitely urban areas
at a minimum of 18,000,000,000
people (Doxiadis)

Kinds of settlement

 RURAL SETTLEMENT
 URBAN SETTLEMENT

Types of human
settelement

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Isolated Dwelling
• An isolated dwelling would only have 1 or 2 buildings
or families in it. It would have negligible services, if any.

Hamlet
• A hamlet is a settlement with a tiny population (<100)
and very few (if any) services, and few buildings.

Batad Rice Terraces, Ifugao Provice, Philippines

VILLAGE
• A village generally does not have many services,
possibly only a small corner shop or post office. A
village has a population of 100 to 1,000.

-Gawad Kalinga Village, Talisay, Negros Occidental

SMALL TOWN
• A town has a population of 1,000 to 20,000. • A town is
a type of settlement ranging from a few to several
thousand (occasionally hundreds of thousands)
inhabitants. Usually, a "town" is thought of as larger than
a village but smaller than a "city",
- Small Town Coron, Palawan

Large Town
• A large town has a population of 20,000 to 100,000.

Historic Town of Vigan

City
• A city would have abundant services, but not as many
as a large city. The population of a city is over 100,000
people.
• A city is an urban area with a large population and a
particular administrative, legal, or historical status.
-City Pagadian City, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines

CONURBATION
• A conurbation is an urban area or agglomeration
comprising a number of cities, large towns and larger
urban areas that, through population growth and physical
expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban
and industrially developed area.

SITE
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• Site refers to the actual piece of ground on which the settlement is built.
• The site of a settlement is its exact location.

Site Factors:
• Water supply: a clean supply of water was needed for drinking, cooking and cleaning.
Water could be taken from a river or a well.
• Relief- the area needed to be high enough to be safe from flooding, but low enough to
be sheltered from strong winds.
• Defense - a hilltop, or the inside of a river meander, would provide protection from
attackers.
• Transport - a site at a crossroads, on a river or at the coast gave easier access to other
settlements.
• Soil - deep fertile soil made it easier to farm crops and rear animals.
• Resources - a source of timber or rock was needed for building. Wood was needed as a
fuel for heat and cooking

SITUATION
• Situation or Position refers to the location of the village or town in relation to surrounding
areas. If a settlement had good access to natural resources, and to other settlements, it
would grow in size. Many settlements with a good site and situation have grown into large
cities.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
• When early settlements began to grow
there were no planning regulations.
• People built houses where they wanted
to. Some houses were built far apart
from each other (dispersed). Other
houses were built close together,
making villages.
• Some settlements became long and
narrow (linear), others stayed clustered
together (nucleated).
• Today, people must have permission
from the local authority to build houses.
Settlements now grow in a planned way.

Dispersed Settlement
• Dispersed settlements are usually farms.
They are spread out because of the space
taken up by fields. Other dispersed
settlements are found in mountainous areas
where it is difficult to live.

-Dispersed Settlement Austria Salzburg

State, Salzkammergut

Linear Settlement

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• Linear settlements sometimes follow the shape of the land. It is easier to build on the
floor of a valley than on the steep sides. Linear settlements also follow features such as
roads, railway lines or rivers.

Linear Settlement Batheaston, Bath and North East Somerset, England

Nucleated Settlements • Nucleated

settlements are where buildings are
clustered round a central point. The
centre of the settlement may be a
crossroads, a church, a water supply, or
a market place. Nucleated settlements
also occur on hill tops.

Nucleated Settlements Alston, Paris

Planned Settlements • Planned

settlements often have a regular pattern.
They may have a square shape, or a
crescent shape for example. Brasilia, the
capital of Brazil, is a planned settlement
in the shape of an aeroplane

Planned Settlements Aerial View of

Brasilia, Brazil

SETTLEMENT FUNCTIONS
• The functions of a settlement are the things that happen there.
• The function of most early settlements was farming. As settlements grew, the functions
increased to include things such as markets and inns. Today settlements have many
functions, which continue to change over time.

Residential Function
• the main function of many settlements today
is to give people places to live. People may
live in one settlement and work in another.
Ferndale Villas, Metro Manila

Administrative Function • local authority

offices run the local services, such as road
maintenance and waste disposal. Senate of
the Philippines

Industrial Function • Goods are manufactured in

factories. Today many factories are located in
business parks on the outskirts of settlements. They
are near to the places where products are to be
transported i.e markets.

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Commercial Function • shopping centres and recreation facilities,

such as sports centres and cinemas, provide services for people.
Malls and parks nowadays have all these recreational facilities.

Services Function
• settlements contain public services, such as schools, hospitals,
old homes, orphan ages and libraries.

Tourism Function
• Some settlements are attractive to tourists.

HISTORY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Date Settlement form/Function Details

Planning
PRE- Barangay – basic socio- Subsistence
COLONIAL political unit of 30-100 families agriculture,:
ERA composing a tribe ruled by agricultural and
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kinship; arable land was held in fishing village

common; decentralized; with string trade
located along coastlines and functions: trade
riverbanks, stratified class with other
system Ex., Manila, Cebu villages and
Muslim coastal settlement in externally with
Jolo – seat of Sultan of Sulu China, Brunei &
remained as large villages but Japan.
untouched by colonialists,
strong political and cultural
structures.
SPANISH COLONIAL ERA - MERCANTILISM
1564 Expedition from Nueva Espana
or Mexico
1565 Legaspi selected village of To exploit
Cebu, a minor port-of call; wealth to send
moved to Panay because of back to Mexico
Portuguese blockade and Spain
through galleon
trade
1571 Manila became capital and Point of
designated as ciudad with a importation for
population of 2000 and the Tagalogs
became dominant due to the living inland
galleon trade around Laguna
A few years later became the de Bay
“Walled Cuty of Manila or Encomienda
Intramuros” due to system (right to
insurrections and Chinese collect annual
attacks tribute in
Cebu, Naga Lallo, Panay and specific areas
Vigan were designated as called provinces
ciudades (cities) and villas supervised by
(towns) which acted as urban the Alcalde
control points for the colonial Mayor) enforced
gov’t; priests founded their to provide an
missions here to provide income base for
support and protection to the Spanish settlers
encomiendas; so they had and to control
ecclesiastical, military and the natives
political function;
Introduces concept of “Private
Property Ownership” and the
Regalian Doctrine (all
uncultivated lands reverted to
the Crown)
July 3, Laws of the Indies pronounced
1573 by King Philip II – Spanish
town planning influenced by
the Romans and the piazza
planning of Italian Renaissance
1595 Manila raised to the rank of
Archdiocese with bishoprics in
Cebu, Lallo & Naga
1596 Social Stratification – Spanish Parian or Market
friars became biggest – spatial
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landholders), native principalia concentration of

who were coopted by merchants and
colonialists into civil artisans to
administration due to shortage regularize the
of Spaniards, Chinese, exchange of
landless masses and other goods.
foreigners
Spatial segregation along racial
and social lines – separate
districts outside the ciudad for
Indios and Chinese developed
in the environs of Manila and
other cities Ex. Binondo – last
Parian site for Urban Chinese
1600s to These regional centers Reduccion –
1700s (ciudades and villas) remained process of
in control throughout the period forming
with the natives living on the agglomerated
unplanned outer fringes of the settlements from
city scattered
Process of Hispanization villages as
(control, conversion and labor applied in
pool) through the founding of Mexico; debajo
cabeceras (poblaciones) and de las
visitas (barrios) – hundreds of campanas
concentrated mission church as
settlements organized by the military camp
religious in the lowlands; also

PRE- COLONIAL
The Philippine archipelago was settled at least
30,000 years ago, when migrations from the
Indonesian archipelago and elsewhere are believed
to have occurred.

The history of the Philippines is believed to have

begun with the arrival of the first humans via land
bridges at least 30,000 years ago. The earliest
archeological evidence of man in the archipelago is
the 40,000-year-old Tabon Man of Palawan and the
Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal.

 “Migration through land bridges” Theory (H. O. Beyer)

 Tabon Cave
 22,000-20,000BC : Tabon Man
 50,000-10,000BC : Cutting Tools and burial jars
 3000BC: The Austronesian migrations began from the Chinese mainland, reaching Taiwan first in
3500 BC then the Philippines by 3000 BC. They reached Sumatra and Java by 2000
BC, Northern New Guinea by 1600 BC, Samoa by 1200 BC, Hawaii, Easter Island,
and Madagascar by 500 AD, etc.
 Austronesian Migration Theory

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Expansion of a group of people called the Austronesians from Asia into the Pacific by
means of Taiwan 6,000 years ago. The theory largely explains the similarities in culture,
language and physical attributes in different countries in the most Asian countries.

EARLY SHELTERS

200-500 AD: Ethnic groups established numerous city-

states formed by the assimilation of several small political
units known as barangay each headed by a Datu which
was answerable to a Rajah.

Before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers in

the Philippines in the 16th century, the Barangays were
well-organized independent villages - and in some cases,
cosmopolitan sovereign principalities, which functioned
much like a city-state. The Barangay was the dominant
organizational pattern among indigenous communities in
the Philippine archipelago. The name barangay originated
from balangay, a Malay word meaning "sailboat".

 Kinship groups were led by a datu (chief), and within the

barangay there were broad social divisions consisting of
nobles, freemen, and dependent and landless agricultural
workers and slaves. Over the centuries, Indo-Malay migrants
were joined by Chinese traders. A major development in the
early period was the introduction of Islam to the Philippines
by traders and proselytizers from the Indonesian islands. By
A.D. 1500, Islam had been established in the Sulu
Archipelago and spread from there to Mindanao; it reached
the Manila area by 1565. In the midst of the introduction of
Islam came the introduction of Christianity, with the arrival of
the Spanish

 Each barangay consisted of about 100 families. Some barangays were big, such as Zubu (Cebu),
Butuan, Maktan (Mactan), Mandani (Mandaue), Lalan (Liloan), Irong-Irong(Iloilo), Bigan (Vigan),
and Selurong (Manila). Each of these big barangays had a population of more than 2,000.

 Trading links with Sumatra, Borneo, Thailand, Java, China, India, Arabia, Japan flourished during
this era

Theories, as well as local oral traditions, say that the original "barangays" were coastal
settlements formed as a result of the migration of these Malayo-Polynesian people (who came to
the archipelago) by boat from other places in Southeast Asia (see chiefdom). Most of the ancient
barangays were coastal or riverine in nature. This is because most of the people were relying on
fishing for supply of protein and for their livelihood. They also travelled mostly by water up and
down rivers, and along the coasts. Trails always followed river systems, which were also a major
source of water for bathing, washing, and drinking.

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The coastal villages were more

accessible to trade with foreigners.
These were ideal places for economic
activity to develop. Business with traders
from other Countries also meant contact
with other cultures and civilizations, such
as those of Japan, Han Chinese,Indian
people, and Arab people.
In time, these coastal communities
acquired more advanced cultures, with
developed social structures (sovereign
principalities), ruled by established
royalties and nobilities.

VERNACULAR – CLASSICAL PERIOD

Later on the invention of various tools allowed for the

fabrication of tent-like shelters and tree houses. Early
Classical houses were characterized by rectangular
structures elevated on stilt foundations and covered
by voluminous thatched roofs ornamented with gable-
finials and its structure could be lifted as a whole and
carried to a new site.

Ivatan House, Batanes

TOROGAN, Maranao House

This Classical Filipino House have three types of house: is lawig the small houses, The mala-a-
walai the large houses and the torogan. The
existing torogans were built by the community
and the slaves for the King in 1800s. This house
of the King has no partitions and it is a
multifamily dwelling where all the wives and the
children of the Hari (king) lived. The windows of
torogan are slits and richly framed
in wood panels with okir designs located in front
of the house. The communal kitchen is half a
meter lower than the main house is both used
for cooking and eating. The distinct high gable roof of the torogan, thin at the apex and gracefully
flaring out to the eaves, sits on a huge structures enclosed by slabs of timber and lifted more than
two meters above the ground by a huge trunk of a tree that was set on a rock. The end
floor beams lengthen as panolongs the seemed to lift up the whole house. The torogan is
suffused with decorations. There were diongal at the apex of the roof, also an intricately
carved tinai a walai, okir designs in the floor, on windows and on panolongs. There were also
brightly colored weaves or malongs hanging from the rafters, it was hung up using ropes around a
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particular territory for privacy. The house was built to sway during earthquakes. Twenty-five post
of huge tree trunks were not buried but are freestanding. Sometimes, if needed, wooden pegs
were used to secure the wood members. These were all used to prevent the house from
collapsing.

The Bahay Kubo (literally "cube house") is the Filipino word for Nipa huts, they were the native
houses of the indigenous people of the Philippines before the Spaniards arrived. They are still
used today, especially in rural areas. Different architectural designs are present among the
different ethnolinguistic groups in the country, although all of them conform to being stilt houses,
similar to those found in neighboring countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and other countries
of Southeast Asia.

Community members practicing "bayanihan", working together to move a house to new location.
Note that the nipa hut in this case has a thatch roof, but also has an underlying layer
of galvanized ironroofing material, making the roof more waterproof than a simple thatch roof.

SPANISH COLONIAL ERA

Spanish colonization introduced European architecture into the country.. The most lasting legacy
of Spain in terms of architecture was its colonial parish churches designed by innumerable
Spanish friars. Many structures were made from local materials such as coral and volcanic rock.

BAHAY NA BATO
In this era, the nipa hut or bahay kubo gave way to
the Bahay na bato (stone house) and became the
typical house of noble Filipinos. The Bahay na bato,
the colonial Filipino house, followed the nipa hut's
arrangements such as open ventilation and elevated
apartments. The most obvious difference between the
two houses would be the materials that was used to
build them. The bahay na bato was constructed out of
brick and stone rather than the traditional bamboo
materials. It is a mixture of native Filipino, Spanish
and Chinese influences. During the 19th century, wealthy Filipinos built some fine houses,
usually with solid stone foundations or brick lower walls, and overhanging, wooden upper
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story with balustrades and kapis shell sliding windows, and a tiled roof. Excellent
preserved examples of these houses of the illustrious Filipinos can be admired
in Vigan, Ilocos Sur. In Taal, Batangas, the main street is also lined with examples of the
traditional Filipino homes.

ENCOMIENDA
During the Spanish colonial period, the economy was based on exploitation, both of land
and of Indian labor. The first Spanish settlers organized the encomienda system by which
Spaniards were given title to American land and ownership of the villages on that land. In
return for promises to convert the Indians to Christianity, the Spanish were allowed to use
the land and labor any way they saw fit. This system quickly turned into something very
close to outright slavery: Indians were paid exceedingly low wages—if anything at all—to
perform backbreaking labor on plantations and in mines. The Spanish believed that their
God-given duty was to convert the Indians, and that the European notion of eternal
salvation was a reward great enough to justify any possible mistreatment in this life. The
result was a race for control of people more than of land, and not too surprisingly, abuses
were so widespread as to become the norm.

AMERICAN COLONIAL PERIOD

American settlement in the
Philippines (or American Filipino) began
during the Spanish period, when Americans
came to the islands primarily to conduct
business. They owned many businesses
in trade and in the sugar industry. Although
not harassed by Spanish laws, the American
inflow to the Philippines was minimal until
the Philippine-American War. Following the
colonization of the islands by the United
States of America, thousands of Americans
have settled, either temporarily or
permanently. Most were either members of the U.S. military, or missionaries sent by
North American mission groups. After independence in 1946, many Americans chose to
remain in the Philippines while maintaining relations with relatives in the United States.
During the post-independence period, most Americans who settled in the Philippines
were largely professionals, although missionaries still continue to settle in the country. In
2012, the U.S. State Department estimated that there were over 300,000 U.S.
citizens living in the Philippines.

WORLD WAR II & JAPANESE

OCCUPATION
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As many as 10,000 people died in the Bataan Death March.

War came unexpectedly to the Philippines. Japan openned a surprise attack on the
Philippines on December 8, 1941, when Japan attacked without warning, just ten hours
after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japanese troops attacked the islands in many places
and launched a pincer drive on Manila. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of
ground troops in Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under
the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior numbers,
the defending forces (about 80,000 troops, four fifths of them Filipinos) withdrew to the
Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay where
they entrenched and tried to hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding
the entrance to Manila Bay and denying that important harbor to the Japanese. But no
reinforcements were forthcoming. Manila, declared an open city to stop its destruction,
was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. The Philippine defense continued
until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April
1942 and on Corregidor in May. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the
Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the notorious Bataan Death March to a
prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. It is estimated that as many as 10,000 men died
before reaching their destination.
Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the
United States, where they set up a government in exile. MacArthur was ordered out
by President Roosevelt and left for Australia on Mar. 11, where he started to plan for
a return to the Philippines; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.

The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally fell down on Apr. 9, 1942. Wainwright
fought on from Corregidor with a barracks of about 11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on
May 6, 1942. After his surrender, the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining
defending units in the islands by threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor
troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers refused to surrender, however, and guerrilla
resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine army officers, continued
throughout the Japanese occupation.

The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government

structure in the Philippines. They initially organized a Council of State through which they
directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an
independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President José P.
Laurel proved to be unpopular.

Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground and

guerrilla activity. The Philippine Army continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war
and was considered a back up unit of the United States Army. Their effectiveness was
such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces.
The major element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the
Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon - "People's Army Against the
Japanese"), which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of
Luzon.
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Japan’s efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment (Oct. 14,
1943) of a “Philippine Republic,” with José P. Laurel, former Supreme Court justice,
as president. But the people suffered greatly from Japanese brutality, and the puppet
government added little support. Meanwhile, President Quezon, who had escaped with
other high officials before the country fell, set up a government-in-exile in Washington.
When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president. Osmeña
returned to the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the Japanese by
landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands, after months of U.S. air strikes
against Mindanao. The Philippine government was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on
Oct. 23.

MacArthur's Allied forces landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944. Landings in other parts of
the country followed, and the Associates pushed toward Manila. The landing was followed
(Oct. 23–26) by the greatest naval engagement in history, called variously the battle of
Leyte Gulf and the second battle of the PhilippineSea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively
destroyed the Japanese navy and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands.
Luzon was invaded (Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On July 5, 1945,
MacArthur announced “All the Philippines are now liberated.” The Japanese had suffered
over 425,000 dead inthe Philippines. Fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on
September 2, 1945. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and monstrous physical
destruction by the time the war was over. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed,
and Manila was extensively damaged.

The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since its election in 1941.
It faced huge problems. The land was destroyed by war, the economy destroyed, the
country torn by political warfare and guerrilla violence. Osmeña’s leadership was
challenged (Jan., 1946) when one wing (now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party
nominated for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated Osmeña in April.

POST WAR/ CONTEMPORARY

During Post war, Philippine Architecture was dominated by the American style. In
this period the plan for the modern city of Manila was designed with a large number of art
deco buildings, by famous American and Filipino architects. During the liberation of
Manila by the Americans in 1945 large portions of Intramuros and Manila were destroyed.
In the period after the Second World War many of the destroyed buildings were rebuilt.
At the end of the 20th century modern architecture with straight lines and functional
aspects was introduced. During this period many of the older structures fell into decay.
Early in the 21st Century a revival of the respect for the traditional Filipino elements in the
architecture returned.

When it comes to architects, there are lists of emerging architects during the Post war
period. Names like Manosa, Mendoza, Gabriel, Espina and Locsin. But Manosa and
Locsin were the most popular of all the emerging architects before and until now.

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Fransico Manosa also known as “Bobby” is a national architect noted for its Filipino
inspired architectural designs and materials like bamboo and nipa. He was
conferred National Artist award by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo in 2009. One of his
famous designs is the Coconut Palace.

The Coconut Palace also known as “Tahanang Pilipino” is the official workplace of the
Vice president of the Philippines. It is located at CCP Complex, Pasay. The palace is
made from hardwood, coconut shells and a specially engineered coconut lumber also
known as Imelda Madera. Based from Wikipedia, it was commissioned by former First
Lady Imelda Marcos for Pope John Paul II’s visit in 1981. However, the pope declined the
offer, saying that it was too ostentatious a place to stay while in the poverty-stricken
Philippines.

Leandro Locsin is not just an architect but he is also an artist and an interior designer. He
is know for his use of concrete, floating volumes and being simplistic in his design. He
was proclaimed a National Artist of the Philippines for Architecture in 1990
by President Corazon C. Aquino.

He has many famous works. Two of these are the Cultural Center of the Philippines and
the Church of the Holy Sacrifice.

The Cultural Center of the Philippines is located at Pasay City. It was opened on 1969 to
promote and preserve Filipino arts and culutre. It was created by President Ferdinand
Marcos with the purpose of promoting and preserving Filipino arts and culture.

The Church of the Holy Sacrifice is located at University of the Philippines Diliman in
Quezon City. It serves as a landmark chapel in UP Diliman. The church is known for its
architectural design and it is recognized as a National Historical Landmark, a Cultural
Treasure by the National Historical Institute and the National Museum respectively. Based
from Wikipedia, the dome of the church is supported by pillars located at the sides of the
church, so that there are no supports to block the space inside. The unique design of the
dome allows natural lighting and ventilation. At the middle of the dome is a circular
skylight, which supports the triangular bell tower. The bell tower, then extends to the
interior, supporting the crucifix. The arrangement of the interior of the church is
concentric, with the altar in the middle.

HISTORY OF PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES

Pre-colonial Age
Some scholars believe that the pre-colonial inhabitants of the Philippines exhibited some
degree of settlement planning [Reed and Arguilla in Ocampo, 1992]. Old world explorers
from the West noted the uniformity of the pre-Spanish Filipinos' dwellings. They have
further observed that the natives' communities were either near the bodies of water or
dispersed around the land they cultivated for farming.
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According to history there existed a kingdom of Moros located along the banks of the
Pasig 200 years prior to the coming of the Spaniards. This group of people which was
later headed by Sulayman established the city of Manila and protected it with fortifications
against the foreign invaders. When the Spanish armada came, the Moros resisted but
were overwhelmed by the power of the former's forces.

When rebuilding the city after the ravages of war, the Spanish colonists employed local
materials, technology, and craftsmen. Some of the known geniuses in their craft were
Panday-Pira and "El Admirante." The former was a cannon-maker while the latter [a
relative of Sulayman] was a master builder. El Admirante was commissioned to undertake
the construction of the walled city of Intramuros [Shepherd in Ocampo, 1992].

Other groups of people around the archipelago displayed their own distinctive patterns of
planning their settlements. Mountain dwellers in Cordillera believe that territory should be
institutionalized by the atu or ward. There were also native folks who resided along bodies
of water. The Tagalogs were taga-ilog [river dwellers] while the Maranaws were lake
dwellers. These groups were perhaps the descendants of the earliest sea coast
communities known as the barangay [also balanghay].

Spanish Regime
King Philip II promulgated a code that served as guide to all colonized territories of Spain.
This code, which was applied successfully to the Spanish colonies in the Americas, was
known as the Laws of the Indies. The law provided guidelines for site selection; layout
and dimension of squares, streets and other land uses; and the main phases of planning
and construction. Details were also written pertaining to the location of the principal
buildings, recreation spaces, cultivation and pasture lands, and sites for garbage-
producing uses. Also prescribed within the code is the relationship protocol between the
Spanish and the natives [Ocampo, 1992].

The royal ordinances dictated that each town should be located on vacant and high
ground, properly oriented to sun, wind, and water areas. The site should also be on or
near fertile land and accessible to sources of fuel, timber, and water. Because the law is
based on the Greco-Roman Renaissance design principles, it favored the use of the
gridiron pattern in the establishment of roads and blocks. The plaza was the starting point
of the construction, around which were the
important buildings like the church, casa real, town
hall, bandstand for zarzuelas and other edifices for
health and defense. Other lots surrounding the
area were reserved for merchant shops and
prominent family [or principalia] dwellings. The
code also specified that there were to be as many
farm lots as town lots. The law likewise states that
each house should have stockyards and
courtyards. This could have been the Philippines'
earliest land use and zoning law and building
code.

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The instruction of the Laws of the Indies further aims at providing health, safety, order,
and beauty. The design and execution of the plans should be implemented by architects
or other "executors" so ordered by the colonial governor. The final product—i.e. the
town—served as the instrument of colonization and the staging ground for exploiting
mineral and land resources [Ocampo, 1992].

In the late 16th century the Jesuits established the reducciones policy, which was aimed
to gather dispersed communities "under the bells." The policy created the "plaza
complex" with its town residents [taga-bayan]. Within the town [or pueblo], people lived
around the plaza with the ilustrados located closest to the center and the lower classes
living at the periphery but still "within the sound of the bells." The taga-bukid constituted a
small minority who had to be in the fields or rural areas attending the agricultural
activities.

This Philippian principle of

planning is perhaps best
exemplified by the city of Manila.
After all, "all roads lead to Manila
and Madrid." The city of Manila
became the colonial Capital
during the time of Legaspi.
Although Spanish architects and
engineers envisioned Manila as
a city of stone, she rather was
developed into a city of
fortification. The Manila Bay was
palisaded to protect the city from
Chinese pirates [led by
Limahong] and other foreign
invaders as well as the Muslim
and Japanese inhabitants. This
was the precedent of the
construction of Intramuros, which
was a self-contained city "within
walls."

Despite the shortcomings of this primate city, Manila expanded partly due to the success
of the galleon trade. The city’s population was racially and culturally diverse. The
Tagalogs were the majority. A small [more than 800] but powerful group was the Spanish.
The Spanish friars who were considered the "masters of the city" owned all but five or six
of the city dwellings [Gentil in Ocampo 1992]. Indian and Chinese residents who are
merchants and traders lived in the areas of Binondo and Sta. Cruz [Ocampo, 1992].

Thriving industries during the mid-19th century were in the production of cotton, silk, dairy
and cigar. This was the same time that the Philippines became a player in the world
trade. Some industries like the cigar-manufacturing in Binondo were so huge that it
employed 9000 workers [Ocampo, 1992].

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The population of Manila hit the 300,000 mark at the turn of the 20th century. Almost five
percent of the population were living in Intramuros while others were living in the suburbs.
Technological advancements in utilities were introduced at the time which include
waterworks and telephone systems. Transportation systems like railroads and streetcar
railways were likewise introduced.

Urban design by the Spaniards left a lasting physical mark in the landscape of Philippine
cities [as there was an emphasis on the use of stones for building]. However, efforts to
address the economic and social issues for the natives was lacking. This was further
aggravated by the encomienda [300 in all] system imposed in the time of Legazpi, which
was nothing more than a revival of the medieval serfdom. Although King Philip II had
better intentions in his edict, Spanish town planning was principally done "first for the
purpose of defense and second for grandeur…. Housing was not considered at all, as a
public responsibility… The badly-housed were not the concern of the municipality"
[Arguilla in Ocampo, 1992]. Regional planning was nonexistent. What only has been done
was the establishment of hierarchy of the political territories: the country is divided into
provinces [or alcaldias]; the province is divided into pueblos; and the pueblo is further
divided into barangays. The Maura Law of 1893 extended autonomy to the provinces. It
established a municipal tribunal or council for each town with at least a thousand
taxpayers.

American Era
Unlike the Spaniards, the Americans gave greater emphasis on other social values like
sanitation, housing, and other aesthetic improvements. Some of these values, however,
were not American in origin. The ideas of urban development through sanitation practices
and mass housing were born as a reaction to the ills of industrialization in Europe
[Benevolo in Ocampo, 1992].

Planning under the influence of the Americans is typified by the Daniel H. Burnham's plan
of Manila. In December 1904, Burnham was commissioned to prepare the physical
development plan for the cities of Manila and Baguio. Trained as an architect and guided
by the principles of the City Beautiful Movement, he envisioned the city manifesting
aesthetic elements such as wide boulevards, public edifices and landscaped parks. In the
United States, Burnham draw plans for cities like Chicago, Washington, Cleveland, and
San Francisco.

Burnham was not only a man of artistic talents. His successor in the Philippines named
William E. Parsons described him as a man of "sound business judgment and
experience," a man who can convince practical of business to "make no little plans."
Burnham’s objective was to make cities "convenient for commerce and attractive and
healthful as a place of residence [Parsons, 1915]." His plan for Manila provided for the
rapid increase of the population and the explosion of the city’s industries.

Burnham prescribed the grid pattern for the city of Manila. However, the gridiron was
interspersed with the circumferential and diagonal arteries, which was reminiscent of his
designs for San Francisco, Chicago, and Washington. He proposed that the Bay areas
would be extended through reclamation and a new port would be constructed. True to his

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City Beautiful principles, he further proposed the development of nine parks, two new
playfields, and fountains throughout the city for public leisure.

In Burnham's plan, there were sites allotted for national and municipal buildings near
Intramuros, hospitals, and colleges. Spaces were also set for a world-class hotel, city and
country clubs, a casino, boat clubs, public baths, and the new residence for the Governor
General. Resorts were also to be developed near Manila but the ultimate escape during
the summer season would be the city of Baguio.

Burnham's plan also called for the development of Binondo as the center of business and
merchandising. Improvements were to be made in the area’s wharf, warehouse, and
other port facilities. In addition to extension of the port along the Pasig, it would also be
linked to railroads extending to north and south provinces. The plan served as a proposal
to the private sector. Burnham hoped that through private action the expansion and
developments in ports and roads would be expedited.

In 1905, six months after he visited the Philippines, Burnham sent back the preliminary
plans back for Manila. However, another architect was to implement Burnham’s plan.
William E. Parsons was appointed Consulting Architect to the Insular Government.

City planning was beginning to get institutionalized during Parson's time. The Consulting
Architect post occupied by Parsons was considered the nucleus of the Division of
Architecture in the Insular Bureau of Public Works. However, the position of City Architect
was created not until 1920, long after Parsons left the post in 1914.

Why Parsons left the post was not clear. Some observers said that it apparently was due
to political reasons. But before Parsons left, the Governor General made sure that
general plans for the cities of Cebu and Zamboanga and master plans for cities like Iloilo
were prepared. Among the successors of Parsons were Doane and Arellano [the latter
was a contemporary of Tomas Mapua].
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Other city planning issues were tackled later. Different interest groups attended to matters
like sanitation and mass housing. These concerns were neglected by the architects and
engineers. In 1908, Insular Health workers introduced the concept of "sanitary barrios,"
which were exemplary in the sense that they reflected the new sanitation and building
standards. Other sectors like the labor group established their own barrio obrero even
without the benefit of the aid of the city government.

Post-War Period
In 1936, the Interior Department created local and planning commissions composed of
the Provincial Governor, district engineer, and other local officials. The work of the new
body included the survey of local conditions and the preparation of plans to be proposed
to the Director of Public Works. Although town planning was given a boost during this
period, the practice was yet to be established as a discipline. The problem during this pre-
war period was that there was a limited pool of trained city planners both in the local
planning commissions and the Bureau of Public Works.

The Office of the President created in 1950 the National Planning Commission [NPC].
The NPC prepared and helped administer plans and regulations for the local government.
After 1959, however, some powers of the NPC like zoning, subdivision, and building
regulation were devolved to the city and municipal governments.

Philippine Planning Environment

Global Context
The Philippines is emerging as a "resident" of the "Global Village." The country, as all
other developing nations, is affected by technological advancements in communications
and transportation. The state is also affected by social phenomena such as world trade,
capitalism, and international laws. The Philippines, as an arm of this "supraterritory," has
been an extension of the American Hollywood and a patron of the World Bank. Filipinos
eat in McDonald's and pay with their hard-earned Dollar or Euro. Needless to say, the
implications of globalization to the country are virtually infinite.

The Filipinos use the modern "Shared Technology." The fact is that these technologies
are not shared but bought. Advancements in telecommunications and information like the
Internet are in fact very useful, but they come with a price tag. One could predict that the
country would be crippled without such technologies. Ten years ago, the use of
computers and cellular phones were reserved to corporations. Now, almost every Filipino
urbanite uses these electronic devices. In addition, developments in aerial transportation
have made the countries virtually borderless [Scholte, 2005].

The Philippine economics is also affected by international covenants. International trade

influences the political machinations of the country. Take for example the trading of oil in
the world market. Every time the price of oil increases, the Philippines experiences
turmoil: the private transportation sector reacts and the whole country gets disturbed.

The observations stated above affect planning in general and the people’s perception and
use of space in particular. Globalization does not only affect a developing country
economically but spatially as well. National and local planners and leaders must
appreciate this fact.

National and Local Framework

Because planning is considered a regular government function, its existence is asserted
in both the national and local bureaucracies. In the years immediately after the war, the
government formed the National Urban Planning Commission [NUPC]. Thereafter,
another body was created: National Planning Commission. This new organization
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combined the functions of the NUPC and the Capital City Planning Commission. Within
ten years, some powers of NPC were devolved to the local government. Successive
reorganization led to the formation of the following planning bodies: Ministry of
Settlements, Task Force on Human Settlements, Housing and Urban Development
Coordinating Council, and Department of Housing and Urban Development.

Even before the provisions of the Local Autonomy Law were passed, the local
government enjoyed planning autonomy as early as 1959. Powers like zoning,
subdivision, and building regulation were devolved to the cities and municipalities from
the NPC. Later, legislations like the Local Government Code [RA 7160] and the Housing
and Urban Development Act [RA 7279] further developed the capabilities of the local
government units [LGUs]. Although the transition was not smooth, the LGUs exercised
their powers as exemplified by the cases of University of the East versus the City of
Manila and of Far East Bank versus Ortigas Land and Laws

There are other covenants affecting the planning process in the Philippines in general.
The Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board has a manual that complements the Local
Government Code [LGC] of 1991. Others like Executive Order 71 [1993] seeks to ensure
the efficient devolution of powers to the local government units and provide for an orderly
and smooth transition as well as definition of future relationships between the national
and local governments. Passed almost simultaneously with EO 71, Executive Order 72
provides for the preparation and implementation of the Comprehensive Land Use Plans
[CLUP] for the Local Government Units. These two executive orders aim at
complementing the Local Government Code of 1991 and other pertinent laws. In addition,
the local government can also reclassify agricultural lands to other uses by virtue of
Memorandum Circular 54 of 1993.

The Philippine Constitution of 1987 is also a source of planning ideals regarding urban
land reform and housing. In Section 9, it declares that "the State shall, by law, and for the
common good, undertake, in cooperation with the private sector, a continuing program of
urban land reform and housing which will make available at affordable cost, decent
housing and basic services to under-privileged and homeless citizens in urban centers
and resettlement areas. It shall also promote adequate employment opportunities to such
citizens. In the implementation of such program the State shall respect the rights of small
property owners." In Section 10 it continues that "urban or rural poor dwellers shall not be
evicted nor their dwelling demolished, except in accordance with law and in a just and
humane manner. No resettlement of urban or rural dwellers shall be undertaken without
adequate consultation with them and the communities where they are to be relocated."

The Urban Land Reform Law [PD 1517] was passed during the administration of Marcos.
With its impressive rhetoric, it states that "it is the policy of the State to liberate human
communities from blight, promote their development and modernization, and bring about
the optimum use of the land as a national resource for public welfare." Although not clear
if it repeals PD 1517, the Urban Development and Housing Act, otherwise known as
Republic Act 7279, was passed in 1992 before the term of President Corazon Aquino
ended. However, the spirit of this law is too philanthropic as it basically promises
provision of housing for the homeless citizens.

One of the basic urban planning problems is housing. For the past decades, legislators
formulated and accumulated laws regarding the provision of one of the basic human
needs that is housing. For one, there is the Presidential Decree 957 of 1976, which
mandates the protection of subdivision and condominium buyers. Two years later,
another law [PD 1344] was enacted empowering the National Housing Authority[NHA] to
regulated and police the real estate trade and business. In 1982, Batas Pambansa 220
authorized the Ministry of Settlements to urge the private sector to provide "economic and
socialized housing" for the middle and lower income earners.
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Land use is one of the concerns of urban and regional planners. Issues pertaining to land
use include the land reclassification and conversion to other use. Executive Order 124 of
1993 serves as a guide to the procedure of land evaluation for conversion. Aside from
reacting to the issues of land of land use, the Congress was also quick to answer the
problems posed by the real estate developers. The response was the Executive Order
184, which is a directive to create socialized housing center one-stop processing centers
to facilitate the processing and issuance of permits, clearances, certifications, and
licenses appropriate and necessary for the implementation of socialized housing projects.
The same law also orders all government agencies concerned to support the operations
of the said centers.

The problem of squatting or the unlawful occupation of land duly owned by another
person or organization is another problem faced by city planners. This problem has been
in existence in the cities of the country since after the War [Tiglao, 2002]. In 1997,
Republic Act 8368 repealed Republic Act 772, which is entitled "Penalizing Squatting and
Other Similar Acts." The new law, which was passed during the Ramos administration,
decriminalizes squatting in all its forms.

A strategy for building up capability for regional planning and development is the
establishment of an authority that will administer the development of a special region [e.g.
a component city]. This idea is exemplified by Republic Act 7924, which is "an act
creating the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority [MMDA], defining its powers and
functions, providing funds therefore and for other purposes." The powers of the MMDA
include development [physical] planning, transport and traffic management, solid waste
disposal and management, flood control and sewage management, urban renewal and
zoning, health and sanitation, and upholding of public safety. The territory of the Authority
is comprised of the cities of Caloocan, Manila, Mandaluyong, Makati, Pasay, Pasig,
Quezon, and Muntilupa as well as the municipalities of Las Piñas, Malabon, Marikina,
Navotas, Parañaque, Pateros, San Juan, Taguig, and Valenzuela.

Conclusion
Social Planning

Pre-colonial communities in the Philippines were dispersed, and as such, there was no
real planning that is comparable in scale to Ancient Greece or Rome. Their small
settlements were only knitted by kinship rather than explicit codes. Issues like health and
sanitation were probably never thought of in relation to their use of space.

During the Spanish regime, some principles of Renaissance Europe were applied in
laying out the Philippine cities. The reducciones policy gathered the dispersed
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communities "under the bells." But in principle, the policy only aimed at putting the natives
under the control of the Church. In this respect, the Spaniards were successful as the
same policy was employed to the American colonies.

The Americans were the ones to import the concepts of sanitary living at the turn of the
20th Century. Mass housing ideas were manifested in Burnham's plan for the city of
Manila. It was also during this time that local labor groups established their own barrio
obrero after their request for worker's housing was ignored by the city government.

After the Second World War, there was a population explosion in the urban areas. As a
result, demand for housing rose. The city government, however, failed to provide decent
and affordable housing for the workers. There were laws that addressed the issues of
housing and urban planning, but they all fell short of providing real reforms in the physical
as well as social structures of the city.

With the continuous growth of the cities in the Philippines, other problems like
environmental pollution, congestion, and garbage are faced by the planners in the
national as well as the local level. Laws like the Clean Air Act and others were passed to
answer these problems, but there has been a lag in their implementation. It is a common
observation that Filipinos are only good at presenting solutions on paper.

Physical Planning
It is indeed a tragedy that the cities across the Philippine archipelago developed in a
random and haphazard fashion. Typical planning displayed by the government is not
predictive but rather remedial in approach. If the opposite is true, problems like housing,
traffic congestion, water supply, electrification, sanitation, sewerage, flooding, and urban
dilapidation among others would have been addressed to punctually.

In the cities of other countries, rivers and other bodies of water were an important element
of the city. What is common with New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Sydney, Hong
Kong, Singapore, and other cities in the Scandinavia and Southwestern Europe is their
brilliant exploitation of the bodies of water in planning of their cities. Had the Filipino
planners and leaders possessed and understood the same vision, the cities across the
archipelago would have been developed into urban satellites enjoying commercially
viable ports. What happened to a city like Iloilo is worth the historical review. It the first
half of the 20th Century her port was second to Manila's in terms of earnings [Madrid,
2002]. Like Manila, the city was inhabited by a diverse population of businessmen and
merchants who are Spanish, American, British, Australians, Swiss, German, Indian,
Chinese, and Japanese. The title of "Queen City of the South" was rather short-lived. The
city experienced an economic decline after the industries of textile and muscovado died
down.

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