IEEE

Power & Energy Society

Special Publication
Transient Analysis of Power Systems.
Solution Techniques, Tools and
Applications

Copyright IEEE 2011

ISBN: 978-1-4577-1501-3
11TP255E
 Tutorial Course
Transient Analysis of Power Systems.
Solution Techniques, Tools, and Applications
IEEE Power and Energy General Meeting
July 2010, Minneapolis

Special Publication prepared by the

Analysis of System Transients Using Digital Programs Working Group

Course Coordinator:
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco
(Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain)

Sponsored by
The IEEE Power and Energy Society
The Transmission and Distribution Committee
The General Systems Subcommittee
 Table of Contents
1. Introduction
by Juan A. Martinez-Velasco 1
2. Off-line Simulation Methods and Tools for Electromagnetic Transients in Power
Systems: Overview and Challenges
by Jean Mahseredjian, José L. Naredo, Ulaas Karaagac, and Juan A. Martinez 3
3. Frequency Domain Aspects of Electromagnetic Transient Analysis of Power
Systems
by José L. Naredo, Jean Mahseredjian, Ilhan Kocar, José A. Gutiérrez-Robles,
and Juan A. Martinez-Velasco 20
4. The What, Where and Why of Real-Time Simulation
by Jean Bélanger, Philippe Venne, and Jean-Nicolas Paquin 37
5. Parameter Determination for Power Systems Transients
by Juan A. Martinez-Velasco 50
6. Techniques and Computer Codes for Rational Modeling of Frequency-Dependent
Components and Sub-Networks
by Bjørn Gustavsen 112
7. Dynamic System Equivalents: A Survey of Available Techniques
by Udaya D. Annakkage, Nirmal-Kumar C. Nair, Yufeng Liang, Ani M. Gole,
Venkata Dinavahi, Bjørn Gustavsen, Taku Noda, Hassan Ghasemi, A. Monti,
M. Matar, Reza Iravani, and Juan A. Martinez 119
8. Calculation of Power System Overvoltages
by Juan A. Martinez-Velasco 131
9. Analysis of FACTS Controllers and Their Transient Modeling Techniques
by Kalyan K. Sen 175
10. Protection Systems
by Ljubomir Kojovic 205
11. Dynamic Average Modeling of AC-DC Converters for Power Systems Applications
by Sina Chiniforoosh, Juri Jatskevich, Venkata Dinavahi, Reza Iravani,
Juan A. Martinez, Abner Ramirez, and Amir Yazdani 227
12. Interfacing Techniques for Simulation Tools
by Venkata Dinavahi, J. Chavez, Abner Ramirez, Juri Jatskevich, Michael Steurer,
Kai Strunz, and Juan A. Martinez 237
13. Interfacing Methods for Electromagnetic Transient Simulation: New Possibilities
for Analysis and Design
by Shaahin Filizadeh 245
 1

Introduction
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco

developments (e.g., dynamic average models, interfacing

Abstract—This chapter provides a overview of the goals and techniques) mostly aimed at overcoming some of the present
contents of the present tutorial. The analysis and simulation of limitations.
electromagnetic transients have evolved during the years to
become a mature filed that is of paramount importance for the
II. SCOPE OF THE TUTORIAL
analysis and design of modern power systems. This chapter
highlights the main goals of the tutorial, details its different parts The main topics to be covered by this tutorial are
and summarizes the topics covered in each presentation. summarized in the following paragraphs.
Solution Methods and Simulation Tools: The analysis of
Index Terms—Electromagnetic Transients, Modeling, electromagnetic transients in power systems can be performed
Simulation, Real-Time Simulation, Parameter Determination,
Fitting Techniques, Dynamic System Equivalents, Overvoltages,
either in the time or in the frequency domain. Although time-
Power Electronics, Protection Systems, Dynamic Average domain solution methods are the most common option
Models, Interface Techniques. nowadays, frequency-domain analysis offers certain features
that complement the advantages of time-domain analysis. In
I. OVERVIEW addition, the calculation of the steady-state of a power system,
prior to the calculation of a transient process, is usually
T HE analysis and simulation of electromagnetic transients
has become a fundamental methodology for understanding
the performance of power systems, determining power
performed in the frequency-domain.
Tools for electromagnetic transients simulation are
component ratings, explaining equipment failures or testing classified into two main categories: off-line and real-time. The
protection devices. The study of transients in general is a purpose of an off-line simulation tool is to conduct simulations
mature field that plays an important role in the design of on a generic computer. Off-line tools are designed to use
modern power systems. Since the first steps in this field to numerical methods and programming techniques without any
date, a significant effort has been dedicated to the time constraint and can be made as precise as possible within
development of new techniques and more powerful software the available data, models and related mathematics. Real-time
tools. Sophisticated models, complex solution techniques and simulation tools are capable of generating results in
powerful simulation tools have been developed to perform synchronism with a real-time clock, and have the advantage of
studies that are of paramount importance in the design of being capable of interfacing with physical devices and
modern power systems. The first developments of transients maintaining data exchanges within the real-time clock.
tools were mostly aimed at calculating overvoltages. Presently, The sessions dedicated to these topics detail currently
these tools are applied into a myriad of studies (e.g. FACTS applied methods for steady-state and transient solution of
and Custom Power applications, protective relay performance, power systems and control systems, provide an overview of
power quality studies) for which detailed models and fast simulation tools and methods for the computation and analysis
solution methods can be of paramount importance. of electromagnetic transients, including practical examples to
Despite the powerful numerical techniques, simulation demonstrate what is feasible, present current achievements,
tools, and graphical user interfaces currently available, those and discuss limitations.
involved in electromagnetic transients studies face, sooner or Parameter Determination: Despite the powerful
later, limitations of models available in transients packages, numerical techniques, simulation tools, and graphical user
the lack of reliable data and conversion procedures for interfaces currently available, a lack of reliable data, standard
parameter estimation or insufficient studies for validating tests and conversion procedures generally makes the
models. determination of parameters the most challenging parts of
This tutorial provides a basic background on the main creating a model. This session discusses how to collect the
aspects to be considered when performing electromagnetic information needed to obtain model parameters and
transients studies (solution techniques, parameter estimation, summarize current procedures and techniques for the
modeling guidelines), details some of the main applications of determination of parameters for the main power components.
present EMTP-like tools (insulation coordination, power Fitting Techniques: When parameter determination is
electronics applications, protection) and discusses new based on a frequency response test, a data conversion
procedure is usually required, in which a fitting procedure is
always needed. Although similar fitting techniques can be
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco is with the Departament d’Enginyeria
Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. used for all power components whose behavior can be derived
 2

from a frequency response test, the optimal procedure to be protection system consists of three major parts: instrument
applied in each case is different. This session presents the transformers (current, wound electromagnetic voltage, and
application of fitting techniques for extracting rational models capacitor voltage transformers), protective relays, and circuit
of lines, cables and transformers from frequency response breakers. This session summarizes models for instrument
tests. transformers and different types of relays (electromechanical,
Dynamic System Equivalents: A common practice when static/electronic, microprocessor- based), and presents some
dealing with large power systems in transients studies is to illustrative cases of protection systems.
divide the system into a study zone, where transient Dynamic Average Modeling: Detailed switching models
phenomena occur and an external system encompassing the of power electronics converters are computationally intensive
rest of the system. The study zone is represented in detail, and can be the bottleneck for system-level studies with a large
while the rest of the system is modeled by an equivalent. number of components and controllers. These drawbacks have
Given the frequency range with which transients are lead to the development of the so-called dynamic average-
generated, there is a need for suitable techniques that could value models (AVM) in which the effect of fast switching is
accurately determine the parameters of the external equivalent neglected or averaged within a prototypical switching interval.
system from low- to high-frequency behaviors. This session The resulting models are computationally efficient and can run
reviews current techniques for obtaining dynamic system orders of magnitudes faster than the original detailed models.
equivalents. This session describes methods of constructing AVMs and
Overvoltage Calculations: An overvoltage is a voltage demonstrate their advantages with some practical examples.
having a crest value exceeding the corresponding crest of the Interfacing Techniques: Interfacing an electromagnetic
maximum system voltage. Types and shapes of overvoltages, transients tool with external programs or algorithms expand
as well as their causes, are well known; they are classified in their applicability to areas where techniques are available
standards (IEC, IEEE). The estimation of overvoltages is through the external agent (program or algorithm). This part of
fundamental for the insulation design of power components, the tutorial addresses the available experience on interfacing
and for the selection of protection devices. Although for some an EMTP-like tool with other mathematical tools (e.g.,
components only one of these stresses is of importance for transient stability programs, electromagnetic field simulation
design (e.g., lightning overvoltages dictate the location and programs or real-time digital simulators), and describes
number of shield wires and the need for and specification of methods for interfacing with other mathematical algorithms to
supplemental tower grounding in transmission lines), in many extend their application both for the analysis and design of
cases specifications, two or more of the overvoltages must be complex power systems.
considered (e.g., switching overvoltages, lightning, or
contamination may dictate the strike distances and insulator III. BACKGROUND
string length of transmission lines). This session summarizes This tutorial can be seen as a continuation of previous
the different types of overvoltages and their causes, provides publications related to power system transient phenomena.
modeling guidelines for digital simulation using a time-domain Pioneering work in this field was presented in references [1] -
tool (e.g., an EMTP-like tool) and presents some illustrative [3]. In fact, reference [2] was prepared by the same Working
cases of any type of voltage stress in power systems. Group involved in this tutorial, and a significant percentage of
Power Electronics Applications: Power electronics that publication has been used for the present one. Modeling
applications have quickly spread to all voltage levels, from guidelines is a very important aspect when simulating
EHV transmission to low voltage circuits in end user facilities. transients. Although no specific lecture on modeling
They include HVDC terminals, SVC systems, high power AC guidelines has been included in this course, this topic is
to DC converters, load transfer switch, converter/inverter covered in some chapters. Those interested in the models to be
based drive technologies, active line conditioning, energy used for a specific simulation will find useful guidelines in
storage and instantaneous backup power systems, renewable references [2], [4] and [5].
energy integration, Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS) and Custom Power Systems. Power electronics REFERENCES
modeling and simulation is especially important for a concept [1] A.G. Phadke, (Course Coord.), “Digital Simulation of Electrical
validation and design iteration during a new product Transient Phenomena,” IEEE Special Publication TP-133-0, IEEE
development. This session provides general modeling Catalog No. 99TP133-0, 1980.
[2] A. Gole, J.A. Martinez-Velasco and A. Keri (eds.), “Modeling and
guidelines and procedures for simulation of the main power Analysis of Power System Transients Using Digital Programs,” IEEE
electronics applications using a time-domain tool (e.g., an Special Publication TP-133-0, IEEE Catalog No. 99TP133-0, 1998.
EMTP-like tool). The presentation is focused on the [3] D.A. Tziouvaras, (Course Coord.), “Electromagnetic Transient
simulation of the interaction between FACTS controllers and Program Applications to Power System Protection,” IEEE Special
Publication, 1999.
the connected power system. [4] CIGRE WG 33.02, “Guidelines for Representation of Network
Protection Systems: Protection systems are critical power Elements when Calculating Transients,” CIGRE Brochure 39, 1990.
system components and their behavior is an important part of [5] IEC TR 60071-4, “Insulation Co-ordination - Part 4: Computational
Guide to Insulation Co-ordination and Modeling of Electrical
power system response to a transient event. An electric power Networks,” 2004.
 3

Off-line Simulation Methods and Tools for

Electromagnetic Transients in Power Systems:
Overview and Challenges
J. Mahseredjian, Senior Member, J. L. Naredo, Senior Member, U. Karaagac, Student Member,
J. A. Martinez, Member

traditionally performed using approximations and the positive

Abstract— This paper presents an overview on available tools sequence representation of the network.
and methods for the simulation of electromagnetic transients in The ultimate objectives in EMT-type methods are: increase
power systems. This paper targets off-line time-domain methods of computational speed and modeling precision. An additional
and tools. The first objective is to give the reader an overview on
objective is the development of unique environments that can
the currently available modeling and simulation capabilities for
studying electromagnetic transients in power systems. The second handle a variety of studies from load-flow to time-domain
objective is to provide perspectives on research topics and needed without discrimination. This implies wideband models and
enhancements. methods.
Index Terms— electromagnetic transients, EMTP, digital EMT-type simulation tools are classified into two main
simulation, power system models categories: off-line and real-time. The purpose of an off-line
simulation tool is to conduct simulations on a generic
I. INTRODUCTION computer. Off-line tools must be designed to be highly

S imulation of electromagnetic transients in modern power

systems is widely used for the determination of component
ratings such as insulation levels and energy absorption
efficient using powerful numerical methods and programming
techniques, but they do not have any computing time
constraints and can be made as precise as possible within the
capabilities, in the design and optimization process, for testing available data, models and related mathematics.
control and protection systems and for analyzing power system Real-time simulation tools are capable of generating results
performance in general. The simulation of electromagnetic in synchronism with a real-time clock. Such tools have the
transients also provides a powerful methodology for studying advantage of being capable of interfacing with physical
post-mortem conditions and explaining equipment failures. devices and maintaining data exchanges within the real-time
This paper targets time-domain methods for the computation clock. The capability to compute and interface within real-
of electromagnetic transients. The simulation tools or methods time, imposes important restrictions on the design of such
for electromagnetic transients fall into the category of EMT- tools.
type (or EMTP-type) tools. Such tools are designed to study This paper discusses only off-line methods and tools. The
the power system at a high precision level by trying to objective is to provide an overview on off-line simulation tools
reproduce the actual time-domain waveforms of all state and methods for the computation and analysis of
variables. In EMT-type methods the power system is modeled electromagnetic transients. The number of variants in available
at the circuit level and with the representation of all wires and methods and programs can become very high. This paper
and components. The power components, apparatus or devices focuses only on the most widely recognized and available
are represented through lumped models. The control systems groups.
are usually represented using block-diagrams. In the time- In addition to presenting current achievements, this paper
domain approach there are no theoretical limitations in also discusses limitations and research topics for practical
studying harmonics, nonlinear effects and balanced or simulation needs. This paper follows the initial work presented
unbalanced networks. in [1], [2] and [3].
With the increasing speed of computers and improvements The last section of this paper presents demonstration
in numerical methods, the computation of electromagnetic examples.
transients is now overlapping with the computation of
electromechanical transients. Such computations are II. COMPUTATION METHODS
The scope of this section is to provide a high level view on
J. Mahseredjian and U. Karaagac are with École Polytechnique de the most important EMT-type computational methods. The
Montréal, Campus Université de Montréal, 2900, Édouard-Montpetit, presentation is based on the modular mapping shown Fig. 1.
Montréal (Québec), Canada, H3T 1J4 (e-mail: [email protected]).
J. L. Naredo is with Cinvestav, Guadalajara, Mexico. (e-mail: These are the building blocks for EMT-type programs. Some
[email protected]) of these modules and related techniques require further
J. A. Martinez is with the Departament d'Enginyeria Elèctrica of the research for generalization and implementation in industrial
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain. (e-mail: [email protected])
 4

grade applications. That is why this figure is labeled as to inherent lack of simultaneous solution capability.
“ultimate”. A possible solution to data portability between applications
Graphical User Interface is the utilization of the CIM (Common Information Model [4])
format in the simulation of electromagnetic transients. The
Parametric CIM format is an open standard for representing power system
(Harmonic) Load-flow
methods components. It could be used for electromagnetic transients if
augmented with needed data fields related to such models. An
(Harmonic) Steady-state
External experiment with CIM/XML data translation into a proprietary
Statistical interface format and GUI drawing is presented in [5].
methods Manual initial
Automatic initialization Standardization of data is also an important part of the
conditions
of state-variables
solution for creating portability with other conventional power
Time-domain: controls and power network system applications.
Standardization should result into significant benefits to the
power industry.
Waveforms Outputs
Fig. 1 Ultimate building blocks of an EMT-type simulation tool B. Network equations
A. Graphical user interface (GUI) EMT-type programs are based on the representation of the
The graphical user interface (GUI) is the first entry level to actual electrical circuit equivalent of the studied power system.
the simulation process. It is the data input method. Modern Most programs are based on either nodal analysis equations or
applications rely on GUIs for preparing data and controlling state-space equations.
the simulation process. Graphical user interfaces with various 1) Nodal analysis
levels of flexibility and visualization capabilities allow The nodal analysis approach has wider usage and
basically drawing the circuit diagram of the simulated system acceptance. Most programs use the network admittance matrix
and entering all the appropriate data for selected models. Yn for computing the sum of currents entering each electrical
An example of GUI based design is shown in Fig. 2. node
Modern GUIs are based on the hierarchical design approach
Yn v n = i n (1)
with subnetworks and masking. Subnetworks allow simplifying
the drawing and hiding details while masking provides data where v n is the vector of node voltages and the members of
encapsulation. The design of Fig. 2 is using several i n hold the sum of currents entering each node. Since there
subnetworks. The 230 kV network is interconnected with a are usually voltage sources (known node voltages), equation
500 kV network evacuated with all its details into the (1) must be partitioned to keep only the unknown voltages on
subnetwork shown in Fig. 2. In a hierarchical design the left hand side
subnetworks can also contain other subnetworks. Subnetworks Yn′ v′n = i ′n − Ys vs (2)
can be also used to develop models. The 3-phase transformers
where Yn′ is related only to unknown node voltages v′n ,
shown in Fig. 2 are based on the interconnection of single-
phase units. The synchronous machine symbols are also i ′n holds the sum of currents entering nodes with unknown
subnetworks containing the load-flow constraints, machine voltage, Ys ∈ Yn and relates to known voltages v s . It is
data and also voltage regulator and governor controls
noticed that v n = [ v ′n vs ] .
T
subnetwork, as shown in Fig. 2.
Although several advanced GUIs are currently available, the Despite its formulation efficiency, equation (2) has several
industry lacks interoperability standards between various important limitations. It is not possible, for example, to
software applications. Currently there are no applicable directly model branch relations such as ideal transformer units.
standards for transient (EMT-type) data fields which Such units are used as primitive devices for building
complicates even manual copying of models between GUIs. In transformer models. It is not possible to model ideal switches
some cases the standardization problem is directly linked to using a fixed rank matrix. Devices with voltage and current
the complexity of models and solution methods for relations cannot be represented directly.
electromagnetic transients. The above limitations can be eliminated using modified-
The lack of standardization is also an important issue when augmented-nodal analysis (MANA) introduced in [6] and
different applications are used in one or more collaborating improved in [7] and [8]. Equation (1) is augmented to include
organizations. Some applications provide external access extra generic equations and the complete system of network
functions and might be called directly from other applications equations can be written as
for performing simulations on assembled networks. The A N xN = b N (3)
programming aspects of such applications are not complex, but now Yn ∈ A N , x N contains both unknown voltage and current
interfacing networks solved in different computational engines quantities and b N contains known current and voltage
may become error prone or create numerical instabilities due
quantities. The matrix A N is not necessarily symmetric.
 5

BUS5
BUS4

Load5
SM4 LF 45MW
DYg_BUS4 21MVAR
1 2
SM BUS1
0.99/_56.5

0.0024S
CBUS1
13.8/230

+
SubofBUS1

TLM_10mi
+

CP
SUB_BUS1 0.99/_20.7
untransposed 120k TLM_120mi 120m BUS2
BUS7
BUS6 + CP
SM6
DYg_BUS6
1 2 500 kV
SM BUS12 BUS13
TLM_90mi untransposed YgD_BUS13
13.8/230
+ CP TLM_15mi 2 1 N
+ CP
S
69/230
BUS1
0.99/_56.0 13.8/230 BUS11
0.99/_40.3
+

a
c

12MVAR

16MVAR

16MVAR
2 1 SM11

56MW

57MW

60MW
13.8kV SM
AVR_Gov 550MVA

LF

LF

LF
TLM_60mi
PVbus:SM_BUS6 BUS6
Out Load13c Load13b Load13a BUS2
CP

SM
IN
AVR&Gov

CP2
(pu) P=520MW LF
V=13.8kVRMSLL
SM:SM6 BUS9 TLM_180mi
+

SM8 BUS8
DYg_BUS8
1 2
SM
Load9

LF 240MW
13.8/230 60MVAR

0.96/_43.7

Fig. 2 A sample 230 kV network study case

The matrix A N can be written symbolically with the can be written as

explicit representation of Yn v k − v m − R i km = 0 (8)
Both the voltages of the resistance and its current become
 Y Ac 
AN =  n  (4) unknown variables. Such a formulation simplifies the updating
 Ar Ad  procedures of the matrix A N . The coefficients of vk and vm
In reality the network component equations can be entered in
are entered into a row of the submatrix Ar and into the
any order in equation (3), but the partitioning presented in
equation (4) allows to simplify explanations. All network corresponding column of Ac . The coefficient of i km is
component model equations must be included in equation (3). entered into Ad .
This formulation allows using generic model equations such as
k1 v k + k 2 v m + k 3 i x + k 4 i y = b z (5)
k1 k2
The unknown node voltages and branch currents are members i k2m2
of x N while b z is entered into b N . A voltage source, for
example, connected between two arbitrary nodes k and m is
expressed as:
−g ⋅ i k2m2 +
(
g v k1 − v m1 )
v k − v m = vs (6)
m1 m2
where vs is the known voltage source voltage. This equation
Fig. 3 Ideal transformer circuit
adds a row (into Ar ) and a column (into Ac ) equation (3).
The row is equation (6) and the column accounts for the Equation (8) can be also used with R = 0 for modeling an
current equilibriums at the nodes k and m. The known voltage ideal closed switch. When the switch is open R = ∞ and the
vs is entered into the vector b N . current i km becomes zero. This means that the switch now
In the same way an ideal transformer unit (see Fig. 3) can be contributes only a diagonal value of one to the submatrix Ad
expressed by the following equation in equation (4).
vk 2 − vm 2 − g vk1 + g vm1 = 0 (7) Equation (3) can be written for both steady-state and time-
In addition to allowing relations that cannot be otherwise domain solutions. In the steady-state case it becomes a
included directly in (1), this method allows extracting complex equation. The computerized formulation of this
components from the Yn matrix and including them separately equation is very efficient. It is simply needed to add model
for conveniently accessing variable values. A variable linear admittances at each node and between nodes. The off diagonal
resistance connected between the nodes k and m, for example, admittance terms are normally negative. Extra model equations
can be added directly in equation (3), as explained above.
 6

Each component (device) interconnected in the simulated the simulation of transients, the best approach is the
network has a lumped electrical circuit. implementation of a load-flow method directly before the
The solution of (3) is based on sparse matrix methods and steady-state solution and within the same simulation tool [7].
LU decomposition. For generic power systems the matrix A N 400

is sparse. 300

200
2) State-space analysis
100
State-space equations are given by

(kV)
x& = A x + B u
0
(9)
-100
y =Cx+Du (10)
-200
where x is the vector of state variables, u is the vector of -300
inputs and y is the vector of outputs. The matrices A , B , C -400
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150
and D are called the state matrices. These matrices can be t (ms)

calculated for given ideal switch positions and piecewise linear Fig. 4 Transmission line voltage at the receiving end: with (dashed line)
device segments. Each topological change requires updating and without (solid line) initialization
the state matrices. It is also possible to use the more generic 1000

version 800

y = C x + D u + D1 u& (11) 600

400
for output equations.
200
As for the case of nodal analysis, the state-space equations
0
(9) and (10) can be solved in both steady-state and time-
-200
domain. In steady-state conditions the differential of x is
-400
transformed into s ⋅ X% with the Laplace operator s = jω and
-600
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
ω being the steady-state frequency in rad/s time (s)

X (
% = ( s I − A )−1 B U
%) (12)
Fig. 5 Two synchronous machine powers in MW, with (straight lines)
and without initialization (oscillations)
where tilde-upper-case vectors are used to denote phasors and As demonstrated in Fig. 5 (test case of Fig. 2, machines
I is the identity matrix. Equation (11) can be written in SM6 and SM3 in SubofBUS1), without automatic initialization
steady-state as and even after 5 s of simulation the shown machines do not
% = C ( s I − A )−1 B + D + s D  U
Y % (13) reach steady-state, whereas the automatic initialization starts
 1
from the load-flow solution where the machines are given PV
Contrary to nodal analysis, the automatic formulation of constraints. In some cases, if no proper initialization is
state-space equations is significantly more time consuming and applied, the simulation may reach abnormal operating modes
requires the computation of the network topological proper- for an otherwise obtainable load-flow solution.
tree. The Load-flow module shown in Fig. 1 is used to compute
C. Initialization the operating conditions of the power system. It must employ a
multiphase solution since the objective is to use the same
The importance of initialization can be illustrated through
network topology and data and initialize the time-domain
the simple example of Fig. 4. The presented waveforms are the
network. There are several multiphase load-flow methods in
voltages at the receiving end of an arrester protected
the literature, but most of them are not suitable for EMT-type
transmission line. The solid line shows the waveform solution
solvers. In EMT-type solvers the network is not necessarily
without any initial conditions and the second dashed line is
balanced, the applied models are usually more complex and
with automatic initialization from steady-state solution. Even if
there could be a variation of models that must be correctly
frequency dependent line models (increased damping over
initialized for smooth transition into time-domain. The
constant parameter models) are used, the transients without
methodology presented below is the one used in [7] and [8]
initialization require more than 150 ms for attaining the actual
(see also comparisons in [9]).
steady-state response. This will have dramatic computing time The load-flow solution is based on constraints. The sources
consequences on large systems. In most cases the study of (synchronous machines or other types of generation) are
transients is conducted from a given steady-state condition in replaced by PQ, PV or slack bus constraints. The loads are
the network. replaced by PQ constraints. These are the load-flow devices.
The intialization problem becomes more complex in the All other network components must provide a load-flow
presence of synchronous or asynchronous machines within solution model which is usually the same as the one used in
multiple generator networks. Machine phasors can be made steady-state.
available from an external load-flow program, but since the The system of equations (3) is used for representing the
actual network may be unbalanced or use models specific to passive network equations, but it must be augmented with
 7

load-flow constraint equations. This is another major devices (see also [12]). It is not obvious to automatically
advantage of the augmented formulation approach. The predict commutation patterns in a given operating mode and
modified-augmented load-flow equations are given by initialize state-variables for harmonic waveforms. A
 A LF AI   ? x  programmed initialization method should find steady-state
 = −F
N
  (14) conditions in significantly less computing time that the brute
LLA Ld   ? xLF  force approach. In some cases, such as wind generation
This is a real equation since real and imaginary parts must be installations with power electronics devices connected on the
represented separately for load-flow constraints. A LF
N is rotor side, the best approach is to start with mean-value models
constructed from the original complex version of A N by or tricked equivalents and to switch onto actual commutating
functions after establishing steady-state operation.
separating real and imaginary parts of each element, A I is a
To complete the picture it is important to mention that
connectivity matrix for accounting for load-flow devices, L LA initialization concerns also the control system diagrams. It is
and Ld provide load-flow device constraint equations. The usually a more complex, but essential feature, since, for
unknowns are the standard network variables ? x and the load- example, initialization of synchronous machine variables
flow device currents I x and internal (generators) voltages E x without initialization of its controls can become worthless.
T
Fully automatic methods do not yet exist, but backward
? xLF = ? I L ? I PQ ? I PV ? I SL ? EPQ ? EPV ? ESL  propagation of variables in control blocks from specified
The above subscripts are: L for loads, PQ for PQ control initial condition variables is a practical option. This problem
sources, PV for PV control and SL for slack bus. remains complex.
Equation (14) is solved using an iterative Newton method In the lack of an automatic initialization, some programs are
until F becomes minimized (close to zero) within tolerance. based on blocking the machine speed for forcing the steady-
Upon convergence of the load-flow solution, all steady-state state, but such methods require additional knowledge on
phasors become available. The synchronous machine phasors operating conditions and extra user intervention. Some
are used to calculate internal state variables. The asynchronous programs also offer a snap-shot feature which allows
machine requires the calculation of slip for a given mechanical preserving the steady-state solution conditions (after all time-
power or torque. domain transients have decayed) for successive studies. This
The steady-state module follows the load-flow solution and option assumes that there are no changes in the saved case.
replaces all devices by lumped equivalents to proceed with a D. Time-domain module
phasor solution. This is achieved with the complex version of
The time-domain module is the heart of an EMT-type
equation (3).
program. It starts from 0-state (all devices are initially
Phasors are used for initializing all state-variables at the
deenergized) or from given automatic or manual initial
time-point t = 0 . The solution at t = 0 is only from the
conditions and computes all variables as a function of time
steady-state and all history terms for all devices are initialized
using a time-step ∆t .
for the first solution time-point.
Since component models may have differential equations, it
In some cases the network may contain harmonic sources or
is needed to select and apply a numerical integration technique
nonlinearities in which cases it is necessary to perform a
for their solution. Since many electrical circuits result in a stiff
harmonic load-flow. It is feasible to program such a method
system of equations, the chosen numerical integration method
[10], but it has a narrower application field.
must be stiffly-stable. Such a need excludes explicit methods.
When the solved network is linear or in linear operating
In the list of implicit numerical integration methods, the most
conditions, then the initialization with harmonics method in the
popular method in industrial applications remains the
Steady-state module constitutes a simple superposition of all
trapezoidal integration method. It is a polynomial method that
harmonic solutions. In some special conditions such as
can be programmed very efficiently. If an ordinary differential
different rotor frequencies, initialization is still possible by
equation is written as
solving the rotor networks independently. A more significant
dx
programming effort is needed to account for nonlinearities = f (x, t)
using an iterative Newton method. It can have a significant dt (15)
impact on computing time under some particular conditions x(0) = x 0
[11] or when analyzing multiple harmonic sources. then the trapezoidal integration solution is given by
If there is no calculated steady-state solution there could be ∆t ∆t
manual initial conditions, such as trapped charge or all x t = f t + f t −∆t + x t −∆t (16)
2 2
variables can be at 0-state. Manual initial conditions are also The terms found at t − ∆t constitute history terms and all
useful for reproducing complex conditions such as quantities at time-point t are also related through network
ferroresonance. equations.
A complex subject in automatic initialization is the
initialization of systems with power electronics switching
 8

1) Nodal analysis The automatic computation of time-steps can be based on

In the case of nodal analysis, the objective is to use the real the local truncation error [3]. If it is assumed that x̂ ( t ) is the
version of equation (3) for solving the algebraic-differential
exact solution to equation (15), then Taylor series expansion at
equations of the network. This is achieved simply by
t = t k gives:
converting or discretizing the device equations using a
numerical integration technique such as equation (16). For an x̂ (1) ( t k )
xˆ ( t k +1 ) = xˆ ( t k ) + ( t k +1 − t k ) +
inductor branch, for example, connected between two nodes k 1!
(22)
and m xˆ (2) ( t k ) xˆ (p) ( t k )
di ( t k +1 − t k ) 2
+ ... + ( t k +1 − t k ) p
+θ
v km = L km (17) 2! p!
dt
and the discretized version (equivalent circuit) is given by where x̂ ( j) ( t k ) is the j th time derivative of x̂ ( t ) at t = t k ,
∆t ∆t ∆t k = t k +1 − t k and θ is the truncated term. Trapezoidal
it = vt + v t −∆t + i t −∆t (18)
2L 2L integration can be derived from the above equation using
Since the last two terms of this equation represent p = 2:
computations available from a previous time-point, it can be ∆t k ∆t 3 d x ( ξ )
3
written as x k +1 = x k + [ x& k +1 + x& k ] − k (23)
2 12 dt 3
∆t
it = v t + ih t (19) where the third derivative term is the local truncation error of
2L
the trapezoidal method, with t k ≤ ξ ≤ t k +1 . One approach for
where i h t is a history term for the solution at the time-point t.
estimating the third order derivative is to fit a third order
This term contributes to the right hand side of equation (3). polynomial of the form
The coefficient of voltage v t is the branch admittance that x(t) = a 0 + a1 (t k +1 − t) + a 2 (t k +1 − t) 2 + a 3 (t k +1 − t)3 (24)
contributes four elements in the matrix A N of equation (3). for t k − 2 ≤ t ≤ t k +1 to the found solutions x k +1 , x k , x k −1 and
The integration time-step becomes embedded in A N . If it is x k − 2 . In a large system the number of state variables can
changed, it is needed to reformulate A N . become very high. A possible approach is to use equation (24)
A similar equation can be written for capacitor branches. for the entire set of unknowns in a nodal analysis type method.
The inductor, capacitor and resistor are primitive elements for Once the third order derivative is approximated and the local
building other models. truncation error is found, it can be checked against preset
2) State-space analysis bounds for selecting the time-step ∆t k +1 .
As for the nodal analysis approach the state-space equations The variable time-step approach provides an important
can be also discretized with a numerical integration technique. advantage for riding through various system time-constants
It can be shown that equation (9) results into with the required precision. Another advantage is for the
−1 solution of nonlinear functions. Reducing the time-step may
 ∆t   ∆t 
x t =  I − A   I + A  x t −∆t + help convergence. It also provides more precise function
 2   2 
(20) fitting in time-domain. Changing the time-step can however
−1
 ∆t  ∆t
B ( u t + u t −∆t )
become significantly time-consuming as explained above. An
I − A
 2  2 alternative applicable specifically to the stiffest problems is to
when discretized through the trapezoidal integration method of use a set of predefined time-steps. The breaker arc model is an
equation (16). The above equation can be written in its extremely nonlinear function that requires using time-steps in
discretized version the range of nanoseconds. Since the breaker arc acts only for a
x =Aˆx + Bˆ u + Bˆ u (21) short duration of the entire simulation period, the simulation
t t −∆t t −∆t t
method could revert only temporarily to a reduced time-step.
where hatted matrices result from the discretization process. This will not affect overall efficiency since the time-steps will
3) Integration time-step be user-defined and two or three system matrices can be
The integration time-step ∆t can be fixed or variable. The precalculated.
fixed (set by the user) approach has several advantages in Using a variable time-step does not fix the numerical
power systems. It avoids the time consuming reformulation of oscillation problems (see references in [13]), but it can
system equations and programming issues related to the minimize them. It will also minimize errors related to
models. In the case of transmission line models, for example, it interpolation issues (see [13] and its references), but may
is necessary to maintain history buffers for interpolating for become extremely time-consuming for such problems. A
propagation delays. The time-step variability will affect the complete solution for numerical oscillations due to
buffer sizes continuously thus slowing down the computations. discontinuities and interpolation for events occurring within
Fixing the size for the smallest time-step will create memory the fixed time-step, must be able to correctly account for
problems for large cases. nonlinear functions and distributed parameter models. The
 9

efficient and precise treatment of discontinuities remains an nonlinear functions: with solution delays and without solution
ongoing research topic. delays. The delay is a numerical integration time-step delay. In
There are other numerical integration methods, such as some methods the nonlinear model is represented through a
multistep methods and the backward-differentiation formula voltage-dependent current source. Such methods may
[14]. Some of these methods can be more precise or provide encounter numerical instabilities. More robust methods rely on
other advantages over the trapezoidal method for a given linearization at the operating point. As explained below, the
integration time-step. The backward-differentiation formula, linearization results into a Norton circuit equivalent.
for example, has the advantage of providing an extremely
simple equation for evaluating the local truncation error. The
polynomial Gear methods can be used in a variable order setup
to increase the integration time-step. They must be however,

vx (V)
restarted at each breakpoint and require the maintenance of
more history terms. The difficulty is with the added
computational burden due to added number of coefficients,
history terms and restarting procedures. The theoretical
advantages become overshadowed by the computational
ix (A)
overhead specially since lowering the integration time-step in
Fig. 6 Sample nonlinear symmetric function
the trapezoidal method allows attaining similar precision while
In delay based methods the Norton equivalent is updated
still remaining more efficient in most cases.
with a time-step delay. The delay based methods are also
A promising approach is the usage of multiple time-steps in
called pseudo-nonlinear methods [17], whereas methods
the same simulation [15][16]. Using different time-steps in
without delays are called true-nonlinear methods.
different regions of the same network and according to the
If there is no delay, then in a coupled subnetwork all
frequency of transients can be used to accelerate computations.
nonlinear devices are solved simultaneously. A coupled
The automatic scheduling of time-steps and decoupling
subnetwork is defined here as a physical subnetwork in which
methods in the absence of distributed parameter transmission
all devices are related to each other at a given solution time-
line models, are ongoing research activities. Decoupling is also
point and there are no delay elements, such as distributed
used for accelerating computations through multi-processor or
parameter transmission lines or cables. Such a subnetwork
multi-core implementation.
actually creates an independent set of equations or matrix
E. Nonlinear devices block in equation (1) or (3). The simultaneous solution means
An important problem in the time-domain solution of power that if at a given solution time-point the node voltage of a
systems is the solution of nonlinearities. Such nonlinearities device modifies its current (or equivalent model) then it is
occur due to nonlinear functions used in some network necessary to update and resolve the subnetwork nodal
devices. In most cases a nonlinear function can be modeled equations until all voltages stop changing within a tolerance.
using piecewise linear segments. The positive part of a sample The convergence of voltages must occur before moving to the
nonlinear function with 3 segments is shown in Fig. 6 for a next solution time-point.
voltage v x ( t ) and a current i x ( t ) . In EMT-type applications In delay based methods the device equations (or currents)
are updated without recalculating their voltages at the same
such functions are monotonically increasing since it is assumed
time-point and through the coupled subnetwork. The solution
that there is a unique solution for a given voltage. Each
is advanced to the next time-point without recalculating the
segment j can be represented by a liner equation
voltages in the subnetwork. If the time-step is sufficiently
ix j = k j vx j + iq j (25) small such a method can become sufficiently precise, but in
which is in fact a Norton equivalent with admittance k j and some cases it may still create numerical problems or force
abnormally small time-steps.
Norton current source iq j . This relation can be directly
Simultaneous solution methods are more precise and almost
included into equation (1) or (3). It constitutes a linearization unavoidable in many cases. A powerful and efficient method
of the nonlinear function at the operation point for the voltage applied in some programs is the compensation method. For
solution at the time-point t. some historical reasons this method is poorly understood in the
Equation (25) can be also written in its vector-matrix form literature and its limitations are not well known. It is also often
for coupled nonlinearities. reused or reinvented without recognizing or referring to the
In some cases, the piecewise linear representation is not original idea.
realizable beforehand. In such cases the linearization of
1) Compensation method
equation (25) must be recalculated at each voltage solution. A
The compensation method was originally introduced in
typical example is the breaker arc model or a generic black-
[18][19] and applied for EMT-type simulations in [20]. The
box device.
basic idea is the separation of a network into two parts as
There are two main categories of methods for solving
shown in Fig. 7, network N1 and N2. Such a separation can be
 10

also used in independent subnetworks. As explained above, currents i φ entering the network N2
such subnetworks are created due to propagation delay v nφ = Z φ i φ (28)
decoupling of transmission line or cable models.
If the network N1 is a linear network, then N2 can be the Since the nonlinear branch voltages are found from
compensation based network. The network N2 can have the v φ = A Tnφ v final
n (29)
following properties: its combination with equations (26) and (28) results into
§ N2 can contain one or more devices or a complete v φ = vth + A Tnφ Z φ i φ = v th + Z th i φ (30)
network.
§ N2 can be linear or nonlinear. where
§ N2 can contain any number of devices and its Z th = A Tnφ Z φ (31)
nonlinear functions can be of any type.
It is not needed to recalculate Z th at each time-point if the
network N1 topology does not change.
Generally speaking the voltages and currents in N2 can be
related to each other through a function Φ
Φ ( vφ , iφ ) = 0
N1 N2 (32)
This function can be linear or nonlinear. If it is nonlinear then
the combination of equations (30) and (32) is solved iteratively
Fig. 7 Two networks separated using the compensation method
using the Newton method. Once i φ is found, equation (28) is
The basic principle is the computation of a Thevenin used to calculate v nφ and to update equation (26).
equivalent for the network N1. The following steps are applied
in the compensation process at a given solution time-point t: In practical implementations the matrix A nφ is not used
1. The network N1 is solved first without N2 (N2 is explicitly and the computation of Z φ requires as many
disconnected). This results into the computation of all node forward-backward substitutions as the number of independent
voltages in N1. currents interfacing N1 with N2.
2. The Thevenin equivalent of N1 is established from the If N2 does not contain nonlinearities, then the compensation
voltage computations in the previous step and the
method is a non-iterative method.
computation of the Thevenin impedance matrix Z th .
The compensation method can be readily used for
3. The network N2 is solved with the Thevenin equivalent of decoupling networks for parallel solutions. One approach is to
N1. use several linear networks represented through Thévenin
4. All active sources in N1 are killed and the currents entering equivalents (as in equation (30)) and connected to a main
N2 are used to find all network voltages in N1.
network. The Thévenin equivalents can be converted to
5. The network voltages found at step 1 are added to the
Norton equivalents and included in the nodal system of
network voltages found in the previous step. This is the
equations of the main network. All such networks can be
compensation step. It is based on the superposition
theorem. solved in parallel and compensated also in parallel at the
The above steps can be expressed symbolically through the completion of the solution of the main network.
following equations. Either the main system of equations (1) The compensation method can be also used for interfacing
or (3) can be used with similar results. If v n is the vector of different types of network equations. If, for example, a given
subnetwork is formulated through state-space equations, then
voltages found from the solution of equation (1) for the the equivalent of equation (11) in time-domain becomes
network N1 due to its internal sources only (N2 is
disconnected), then the compensated solution becomes i t = C xt + D v t + i ct (33)
v final = v n + v nφ (26) where trapezoidal integration gives for the capacitive current
n
2 2
where v final is the final solution at time-point t and v nφ is the i ct = D1 v t − D1 v t −∆t − i ct −∆t (34)
n ∆t ∆t
contribution from the currents entering the network N2. The The state equations are written with input voltage
Thevenin voltages are found from xt = A t −∆t + B v t −∆t + B v t
ˆx ˆ ˆ (35)
v th = A Tnφ v n (27) The replacement of equations (34) and (35) into equation (33)
where A nφ is the node incidence matrix ( a ij ∈ A nφ , a ij = 1 if results into a relation between i t and v t similar to equation
current of branch j is leaving node i, a ij = −1 if current of (32) and can be used directly in equation (30). This is a linear
system without iterations if the state matrices are fixed.
branch j is entering node i, a ij = 0 if branch j is not connected It is actually noticed that the state-space representation
to node i) for the connection points with N2. above can be also directly included into equation (3).
The Thevenin impedance matrix is found from the solution Although the compensation method is an efficient method
of equation (1) by first replacing the right hand side with the since it iterates with a reduced network N1, it has some
 11

important limitations, mainly because of the Thevenin equations and weakens convergence.
impedance matrix Z th . This matrix can have dependent rows
F. Control systems
(rank deficiency) when the devices located in N2 form a
The simulation of control system dynamics is fundamental
voltage loop. Since the Z th calculation is based on current for studying power system transients. The development of
injections, if nonlinear devices are connected in series, the control system solution algorithms based on the block-diagram
columns of Z th may result in infinite numbers. The approach has been initially triggered by the modeling of
computation of Z th can become time consuming if the synchronous machine exciter systems. It was then extensively
network N1 has repetitive topological changes due to used in HVDC applications. Control elements can be transfer
switching devices. functions, limiters, gains, summers, integrators and many other
As explained in [21] and [22], it is possible to correct the mathematical functions. In many applications the block-
limitations of the compensation method by using hybrid diagram approach is also used to build and interface user-
analysis. Hybrid analysis is based on the notion of port defined models with the built-in power system components.
extraction. It can handle both voltage and current ports, while A typical control diagram taken from the AVR_Gov block
the compensation method is limited to current ports. Hybrid shown in Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 8. Such diagrams are drawn in
analysis [23] is a more general formulation method and can be the GUI and solved directly. The GUI must allow drawing
used to develop other formulations, including state-space arbitrary control systems. Several commonly required
equation (9). Hybrid analysis can be also linked to MANA by functions may be available through GUI libraries.
augmenting the system of equations (3) A complicated problem in oriented-graph systems is the
capability to solve the complete system simultaneously without
 Yn A c A nφ 
   x N  b N  inserting artificial (one time-step) delays in feedback loops. A
 Ar Ad 0   =   (36) solution to this problem is available in some applications
 T   iφ   vφ  [24][25]. In some cases there could be convergence problems
 A nφ 0 0 
or multiple solutions.
where i φ and v φ are now used to represent port currents and As discussed in a previous section, automatic initialization
port voltages respectively. Such ports can have linear or of control system equations is another important research
nonlinear relations. Gaussian elimination is applied at this topic.
stage to extract the network relations between i φ , v φ and In most applications the control system diagram equations
independent variables. The extracted equations are written are solved separately from network equations. The control
symbolically as system uses its own set of equations similar to (3). Although
this is not a significant source of errors in most cases, it can
P iφ = M vφ + S bN (37)
become an important drawback for user-defined network
It can be shown that if all ports are current ports then this models and in the simulation of power electronic systems. The
equation can be modified to become similar to the combination of both systems into a unique system of
compensation method. Equation (36) is general and offers the iteratively solved equations is complex. A fixed-point
flexibility of port identification with conformability to the approach where both systems are solved sequentially is more
topological proper-tree. Equation (37) can be also used to efficient and acceptable in many cases [24].
automatically generate state-equations after port identification,
Pref
which is similar to the identification of state-variables.
a13 a21
+ 1 Tg rc rv a23 (1 + (a11 − )sTw )
Dw - a23 Pm
2) Linearization with full matrix updating method - 1 + sTp
1 + a11sTw
This linearization with full matrix updating (LFMA) method
is more generic and does not have any of the limitations of the ξ
+

compensation method. It also results into better convergence

+

properties. At each time-point the linearization equation (25) is

δ sTr
updated through an iterative process until convergence. The 1 + sTr
updating of each device equation requires updating and
refactoring the main system of equations. In this approach the Fig. 8 Typical control system diagram
matrix A N becomes the Jacobian matrix. Despite the fact that G. Statistical and parametric methods
the iterations are performed with the full system matrix, this The Statistical methods are for simulating with random data
approach can be programmed more efficiently than the and evaluating worst case overvoltages or other probabilities
compensation method. for network variables. A new trend in power system
In the compensation method presented in the previous applications is to provide Parametric study options. These
section, the network N1 is solved separately from network N2 options can incorporate arbitrary solution search rules through
before compensation. Contrary to the LFMA, method this statistical and/or systematic data laws. Such methods are
condition disables voltage solution movement on the linearized capable to modify and manipulate data using data scripting
 12

languages with full access to visualization and analysis § precise determination of short-circuit currents
functions. Parametric and statistical studies are particularly § detailed behavior of synchronous machines and
useful for estimating failure risks due to lightning and related controls, auto-excitation, subsynchronous
switching events or for evaluating performance limits for resonance, power oscillations
controllers. § protection systems
§ HVDC systems, power electronics, FACTS and
H. External interface Custom Power controllers
Modern applications have some means of interfacing with These applications are in a wideband range of frequencies,
external packages or code. The interfacing methods are either from dc to 50 MHz. This range is different from the classical
object oriented or capable of calling DLLs (Dynamic Link studies of electromechanical transients performed using
Library) or both. Such interfaces are important since they transient stability (stability-type) programs. Although separate
provide a simple interoperability and expandability path. An and more widely used packages are available for studying
important user-defined type modeling application is the electromechanical transients (from 0 to 10 Hz), it is feasible to
connection of advanced controllers or relay models available apply EMT-type programs to study transient stability or even
in actual programming language codes. small signal stability problems. EMT-type programs can
Currently there are no application programming standards produce more precise simulation results for such studies due to
for EMT-type programs which creates portability problems in inherent modeling capabilities to account for network
the industry. nonlinearities and unbalanced conditions. Frequency
dependent and voltage dependent load models can be also
III. APPLICATIONS incorporated. The main disadvantages, especially in off-line
tools, remain the computational speed and requirements for
A. Range of applications data. In EMT-type programs the network equations are solved
The main and initial application of EMT-type tools is the in time-domain and not with phasors as in transient stability
computation of overvoltages in power systems. There are four solution methods, which is the main explanation for reduced
main categories of overvoltages: very fast front, fast front, computational speed.
slow front and temporary. The very fast front category is Since EMT-type programs are able to represent the actual
related mainly to restrikes in gas insulated substations. The phase-domain circuits of a network, they are much more
frequencies range from 100 kHz to 50 MHz . The lightning general than traditional power system analysis tools. It is
overvoltages fall into the fast front category, their typical important to emphasize that some traditional power system
frequency content is from 10 kHz to 3 MHz . The switching analysis tools may encounter important limitations for studying
overvoltages fall into the slow front category with the practical network problems through sequence networks. In the
frequencies ranging from fundamental frequency to 20 kHz . case of short-circuit programs, the presence of an arrester in
parallel with a series compensation capacitor may cause
Switching events are internal controlled or uncontrolled
coupling between sequence networks for a fault near the
events. For example, controlled events are line switching
capacitor bank. Such a condition is not acceptable for a
actions. Faults on buses or in transmission lines fall into the
traditional short-circuit package. This is not a problem when
list of uncontrolled events. As for the temporary overvoltages,
studied with an EMT-type application.
the typical causes for such overvoltages are: single-line-to-
ground faults causing overvoltages on live phases, open line B. Modeling guidelines
energization and load-shedding. In some cases temporary As it became apparent in the previous section, in EMT-type
overvoltages are combined with ferroresonance. The frequency programs it is necessary to model network components for the
content for temporary overvoltages is typically from 0.1 to entire range of frequencies. In many cases it is neither simple
1 kHz . nor practical to develop and maintain unique models for the
Frequencies above the fundamental frequency usually entire range of frequencies. The main reason is available data
involve electromagnetic phenomena. Frequencies below the and computer timings. It is thus necessary to select models
fundamental frequency may also include electromechanical adapted to the simulation type and frequency content of the
modes (synchronous or asynchronous machines). studied phenomenon. Studies are performed in a layered
The above categories can be expanded to list specific approach. It is emphasized however that the greater
important study topics in power systems: availability of wideband models and data has contributed to
§ switchgear, TRV, shunt compensation, current the reduction in the number of layers. But even if all data
chopping, delayed-current zero conditions layers are conveniently available in a graphical user interface,
§ insulation coordination the engineering approach may still be to use the required layer
§ saturation and surge arrester influences for the given study.
§ harmonic propagation, power quality Several publications ([26]-[29], for example) are available
§ interaction between compensation and control to help users of EMT-type programs on the correct
§ wind generation, distributed generation representation of power system components according to the
 13

studied phenomenon. Other publications, such as [30] (see also method remains the most popular choice.
its references) are available for providing guidelines on needed SPICE-type (used hereinafter to regroup such tools)
and typical data. packages are not designed for power system applications but
for elaborate electronic switching device models and
IV. OFF-LINE SIMULATION TOOLS electronic circuits. Such models must account much more
Off-line simulation tools are available on generic computer precisely for the stresses and losses in semiconductor devices.
systems on which they can be easily installed and integrated In EMTP-type solution methods devices such as thyristors or
within the working environment and operating system of the transistors can be modeled as ideal switches with extra
user computer. components included externally for adding losses. Although it
is also possible to include nonlinear behavior, the level of
A. Nodal analysis type tools: power systems model sophistication is limited since the target is the study of
The first nodal analysis tool used for power systems was surrounding circuit system behavior. SPICE-type applications
named EMTP (Electromagnetic Transients Program) [31]. are targeting the detailed analysis of the semiconductor device
The most widely used and available packages in power behavior in the simulated circuits. In some versions of SPICE-
system applications are: ATP [17], EMTDC [32] and EMTP- type programs it is possible to access directly semiconductor
RV [7]. These tools are all based on the fixed time-step device libraries from various manufacturers providing data for
trapezoidal integration method. EMTP-RV has introduced the all model parameters including even temperature effects.
non-symmetric and modified-augmented-nodal analysis system In SPICE-type programs it is usually possible to use a
of equation (3). The standard nodal analysis approach is used variable integration time-step which can have important
in the other applications. advantages for solving nonlinearities. The inconvenience
In addition to the power network the above applications however is that changing the time-step requires reformulation
provide a block-diagram approach for the simulation of control and may become extremely demanding in computer time. It is
systems. This feature and the usage of black-box type devices possible to fix the time-step by fixing its limits, but this may
is also part of the user-defined modeling approach. In most affect the behavior of the nonlinear solver.
software packages it is also possible to link with external In EMTP-type applications, the built-in nonlinearities are
codes using various complexity levels and accessibility to monotonically increasing and crossing zero. In SPICE-type
program features. The external code can be a DLL or a generic applications it is possible to use non-monotonically increasing
object. Its creation requires a compiler. It can be also used for characteristics and search for multiple solutions.
interfacing with other applications. It is the most efficient and Most SPICE-type programs allow finding the dc
the most powerful approach for user-defined modeling. polarization conditions. AC initialization remains limited.
The electromechanical modeling aspect is covered in most Although it is feasible to use SPICE (or SPICE-type) for the
EMTP-type packages through multimass machine models. computation of power system transients, it is not designed for
More complexity might be added by interfacing with external this field of applications. The readily available models for
packages specific to the simulation of mechanical motion or transmission lines and rotating machines are usually much less
torque computation problems, such as in wind generator sophisticated. Many specialized fields, such as lightning
modeling [33]. transients and switching transients benefit from advanced
The main advantage in EMTP-type tools is the availability modeling capabilities available only in EMTP-type
of a large number of validated models specific to power applications.
system studies. The most complex models are machine Contrary to power systems in the case of electronic circuits
models, frequency dependent transmission line models and and microchips it is easier to obtain data and maintain
transformer models. The models are designed for a wide range advanced databases of models from various manufacturers.
of frequencies. Built-in models can be used as building blocks Advanced packages such as SABER [35] are used for analog,
for elaborate modeling of complex installations. EMTP-type digital, mixed-signal and mixed-technology simulations. A
tools are also given a distinctive advantage for high voltage specialized language named MAST is used to model complex
modeling capabilities. electrical circuits. It is capable of interfacing with Fortran and
C++ code and reuse existing models. MAST is a hierarchical
B. Nodal analysis: electronic circuits
language.
There are many simulation tools used for simulating The industry uses VHDL (Very High Speed Integrated
electronic or power electronic circuits. It will be difficult to Circuit Hardware Description Language) [36] for the purpose
enumerate all such tools in this paper, but the most powerful of synthesizing and simulating digital circuit designs. VHDL
and popular tools are based on the original algorithms of designs can be simulated and translated into a form suitable for
SPICE [34]. SPICE is using the modified version of equation hardware implementation. There are several IEEE standard
(1), which is called modified-nodal analysis. It is also using the extensions to VHDL for analog, mixed signals and
trapezoidal integration method, but with a variable time-step mathematics. VHDL borrows heavily from the Ada
algorithm for controlling truncation error [3]. Some versions (programming language) in both concepts and syntax. VHDL
may provide extra integration techniques, but the trapezoidal
 14

has constructs to handle the parallelism inherent in hardware steady-state module is set to call the time-domain solution of a
designs. nonlinear component. The time-domain solution generates
It is urgent and important to develop a similar standard for harmonics which are sent back to the network solution in the
the power system industry for EMTP-type applications. form of a Fourier series [11].
For “different simulation environments” the meaning is the
C. General purpose modeling environments
simulation of physical problems in different engineering
The most popular general purpose modeling environment is domains. Packages such as [25] and [35] fall into this
MATLAB/Simulink. There are no built-in stand-alone category. In [35], for example, it is possible to simulate
programs in MATLAB for simulating transients, but its hydraulic, electronic and thermal effects. The ultimate
programming language has advanced functions for solving objective is to reduce the need for physical prototypes.
large scale linear systems, which allows programming As explained before, hybrid methods can be also established
complete solvers [6]. There are many advantages in such codes by connecting and interfacing specialized applications from
since they provide a completely open and high-level different domains. In [40] an EMTP-type program is linked
architecture which can be used for rapid testing of new with an external package based on the finite element method
solution methods and prototyping of new models. The (FEM) for detailed transformer energization studies. In the
programming environment of MATLAB can be used as a FEM based software it is possible to use a highly precise
laboratory for programming compiled code applications using model to account for the material nonlinearity, winding
standard computer languages. It also offers many advantages connections and anisotropy. Such software, however, does not
for programming and compiling visualization and analysis offer advanced power system models which become available
tools [37]. on the EMTP-type application side.
Simulink [25] is a block-diagram based package available in Another application example is shown in [41], where the
MATLAB. It is a general purpose application, widely used for CIGRE HVDC benchmark is modeled using an interface
simulating control systems in time-domain. Simulink offers between EMTDC and MATLAB/Simulink. Such an approach
many advantages with a large library of control blocks and also allows creating model portability between applications
various design functions. Both fixed time-step and variable [42].
time-step integration methods are available. The state-space Interfacing has also been used to incorporate optimization
block is used for entering electrical network equations in state- when multiple simulations are involved in design applications
space format. This is the main concept behind the development in power electronics or simulation of transients. References
of a specialized tool named SimPowerSystems [38] for the [43][44] provide examples of interfacing the SABER and the
simulation of power systems transients. This tool offers PSCAD/EMTDC respectively, with optimization routines.
advanced flexibility for customization and definition of user- As explained in a previous section, the time-domain
defined models. approach for solving network equations is more precise, but
Such tools are adequate for designing and testing control offers a significantly reduced performance. To provide
systems. The drawbacks are in the usage of the state-space significant acceleration in the solution of large networks or to
formulation for network equations. The computer time combine with solvers for electromechanical transients (lower
required for the formulation of equations (9) and (10) can frequency oscillations), a given network can be separated into
become unaffordable for larger systems. This is not the case fast (precise) and slow areas. Relaxation methods or stability
with nodal analysis where the automatic formulation of time-frame methods can be applied in the slower regions
equations is a straightforward process and requires minimum [45][46]. The main difficulty is related to the interfacing of
computer time. Another drawback is in the representation of methods between regions. Other methods are based on
nonlinearities. It is not efficient to include them directly and combined simulation methods allowing to use larger time-steps
simultaneously in equation (9) and that is why most simulators when capturing electromechanical transients. Such methods
model nonlinear functions externally through feedback loops are presented in [47] and [48] (see also [49]).
which can in some cases create numerical problems. In some applications [50] it is possible to solve the same
Other implementation methods are also available [39]. system separately in both frequency and time-domain. A
D. Hybrid methods phasor domain solution exists also in [38].
The term hybrid is used for designating simulation tools or
methods based on the following combinations: different types V. CASE STUDY: SIMULATION EXAMPLE FROM A 230 KV
NETWORK
of solution methods and different simulation environments.
A typical example for different types of solution methods is The simulations presented in this section are based on the
when a frequency domain solution for the network equations is 230 kV network shown in Fig. 2 and performed using [7].
combined with a time-domain solution. Such an approach Various types of studies can be conducted for this network
offers many advantages in modeling and computational speed. from design and operational points of view. It is demonstrated
In some cases hybrid methods are used for initialization here that it is now feasible to perform such studies from the
purposes. A frequency-domain solution of the network in the same data set and environment.
 15

A typical study type is the computation of overvoltages on simulation time is approximately 18 s on a 2 GHz processor.
transmission lines for switching transients. Such studies can This is a low number considering the detailed models of
result into the selection of line arresters or usage of pre- machines and transmission lines and that the transformers are
insertion resistors during the line energization. Such studies modeled including a nonlinear inductance branch which
require statistical analysis for the determination of worst requires iterations. The single-mass synchronous machine
overvorltage conditions. models are also solved simultaneously with network equations.
The network of Fig. 2 contains complete data with If saturation is excluded, which is less precise, but acceptable
synchronous machines and related controls. In the case of line in this type of stability study, then the CPU time reduces to
energization it is sufficient to model the network with simple 12 s.
equivalents: ideal sources with Thevenin impedances followed 400

by transmission lines up to the substation where energization is 300

performed. The amount of details will improve the precision in 200

the computation of overvoltage waveforms. Inclusion of load 100

(kV)
and transformer models will improve the precision on 0

damping. It is also more precise to select frequency dependent -100

models for transmission lines. The waveforms shown in Fig. 9 -200
are from the energization study of the transmission line -300
TLM_120mi shown in Fig. 2. The line is protected with surge -400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
arresters at both ends. Trapped charge conditions capable of t (ms)
causing worst overvoltages are imitated by opening the line Fig. 9 Transmission line overvoltages at receiving end phases
from steady-state conditions at 2 ms and reclosing at 13 ms. 300
Since there is coupling in the line, its phase voltages continue
200
changing until all phases are isolated. The overvoltages are
effectively limited using arresters. 100
The voltage waveforms in Fig. 10 result from the tripping
(kV)

0
of the transmission line TLM_180mi. The BUS9 side breaker is
opened first followed by the opening of the breaker near -100
BUS2. The line has shunt reactors modeled with their
-200
nonlinear characteristics. It appears to enter a ferroresonant
state and discharges after being completely isolated. -300
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
In the following study the objective is to evaluate the t (ms)
stability of the network and it is mandatory to use the actual Fig. 10 Overvoltages on shunt reactor of tripped line
machine models with field voltage and mechanical power
800
controls. In this case the controls included also a stabilizer.
700
The event is a single-phase-to-ground fault occurring on the
600
transmission line TLM_120mi at 100 ms. The fault is cleared at
500
0.2 s and the line is reclosed at about 0.5 s. It appears that the
400
system is able to regain stability (see 3-phase powers in Fig. SM6
(MW)

300 SM3
11) after reclosing into the line. The first step in this study is a
200
load-flow solution that establishes the machine phasors and
100
thus all power transfers. The second step is the steady-state
0 SM8
solution where loads and load-flow constraints are replaced by SM4
-100 SM11
actual equivalents. This step is used to initialize all network
-200
variables including internal machine variables and related 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
time (s)
controls. Controls are initialized by propagating variables
backward from the machine field voltage and mechanical Fig. 11 Synchronous machines, 3-phase powers
power computations in steady-state. Since the time-domain
waveforms start in steady-state it is feasible to simulate the VI. CASE STUDY: ISLANDED SYSTEM
fault condition without excessive delays. This test case demonstrates the capability of an EMTP-type
The integration time-step for the case of Fig. 11 was chosen method to simulate the startup and synchronization of a
as 50 µs . Although it was possible to select larger time-steps synchronous machine following an islanding condition.
for the machine models, the limiting factor was the Details on the simulated network can be found in [51]. All
propagation delay on the short transmission line TLM_10mi. In generating units are in service except one 65 MVA hydraulic
classical stability studies, propagation delays are not modeled unit (second of two units) located at the MURATLI hydraulic
since the line is a simple pi section. The CPU time for 5 s of power plant (HPP).
 16

The simulated disturbance is a three-phase fault at the main 1

BORCKA HPP
grid 400 kV bus. The busbar protection operates within 80 ms
in order to clear the fault thus causing separation of the system 0.8 MURATLI HPP
Unit-1
from the main grid. Since there is an 82.8 MW power injection

Active Power (pu)

loss due to system separation, the decelerations of machine 0.6
rotors continue until the under-frequency relay operation for
re-energization of
shedding one 20 MW and one 30 MW load. As shown in Fig. 30 MW load
0.4 synchronization
12, the decrease in turbine speed is limited to 0.963 pu and the instant
MURATLI
generation-load balance is maintained when the turbine speed HPP
0.2
is about 0.995 pu. Unit-2
The second unit at MURATLI is started at 60 s of
simulation time with speed set value corresponding to 50 MW 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
generation at 1 pu speed, and its synchronization occurs near time (s)
145 s. The slow acceleration of the turbine is due to the Fig. 13 Active power generated by BORCKA and MURATLI HPP
modeling of the existing mechanical gate limiter which is
active before synchronization. As the loading of the unit VII. CASE STUDY: WIND GENERATION
increases, the speed of the turbine increases up to 1 pu and the EMTP-type tools are used for conducting wind generation
operating conditions of the other units come closer to their studies related to the analysis of overvoltages, protection
operating points before islanding. However, the scheduled systems, islanding conditions and detailed analysis of wind
power of the second unit at MURATLI is higher than the generator controls. Due to the sophistication of controls and
primary reserve on the other units. Therefore, the turbine protection systems in wind turbine generator (WTG) devices,
speed at the new equilibrium point is slightly higher than 1 pu. it is often necessary to conduct studies with detailed generator
As the system has reached the new equilibrium point, the and converter models. Such models can be used in EMTP-type
tripped load of 30 MW is re-energized at 300 s. At the new applications. In the case of Fig. 14, the wind turbine generators
equilibrium point, the generation of each unit is very close to are of DFIG type and modeled with details including power
the scheduled generation and hence, the turbine speeds are electronics converters with the representation of IGBTs. All
very close to 1 pu. switching controls and protection mechanisms (such as
The power generation of the two units at MURATLI and the crowbar and voltage protection) are represented in details.
unit at the nearby BORCKA station is illustrated in Fig. 13. It Wind speed variation conditions, pitch control and generator
can be seen from this figure that following the re-energizing of aerodynamics (torque computation) are also modeled. The
the 30 MW load, the generations at these units return to setup allows studying surge arrester energy absorption.
scheduled values. Due to the size and complexity of the problem, it is
currently impossible to simulate individual WTGs separately.
1.02
re-energizing In Fig. 14 aggregation is used to model 10 generators of
1.01 30 MW load 1.5 MW. The simulated event is a single-phase-to-ground fault
1
on BUS12 occurring at 1 s of simulation time. The
Turbine Speed (pu)

MAIN_SW switch receives a tripping signal at 1.15 s. The

0.99 voltage waveform shown in Fig. 15 is captured for the wind
MURATLI turbine WTG1. The overvoltage protection trips the generator
0.98 HPP synchronisation
Unit-1 instant and the crowbar protection signal opens the rotor side inverter
0.97 MURATLI and connects short-circuit resistances on the rotor.
HPP
0.96 Unit-2 The presence of power electronics converters modeled with
IGBTs forces the usage of small integration time-steps. In this
0.95
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 case the selected time-step was 10 µs . The IGBT firing and
time (s)
extinction precision is a complicated problem when using a
Fig. 12 Turbine speeds of units 1 and 2 at MURATLI substation
fixed time-step. The IGBTs used in Fig. 14 are modeled using
It is important to emphasize that the computer time for 400 s nonlinear functions.
of simulation is close to 380 s with a time-step of 250µs . The Large wind park integration analysis [52] in power systems
encounters several complications in the study of both
computer is a 2 GHz dual core with 4 GB of RAM memory. It
electromagnetic and electromechanical transients. There are
is a demonstration that such studies can have acceptable
challenging research topics in computing time reduction,
performance in an EMTP-type software and for reasonable
modeling and validation.
size networks.
 17

contents from the steady-state solution. As shown in Fig. 15

the WTG reaches steady-state very quickly.

SW1
+

WINDLV1 WTG1
10 generators
Network

230 kV
+

34.5/0.69

+30
2
1

230/34.5
1
YD_1

+ ZnO
-30

.25
ZnO1

5Ohm

ZZ
+

MAIN_SW TLM12
+
TLM_M

WINDLV2
+

BUS12
TLM32 1 2
ZnO3

+
+30
SW2
+
34.5/0.69
ZnO +
WTG2
ZnO +

ZnO2
10 generators
34.5/0.69
1
+30

WINDLV3

SW3
+

WTG3 10 generators

Fig. 14 Wind park study case

2.5

1.5
Voltage
(pu)

0.5 Overvoltage trip signal Crowbar Fig. 16 Lightning study

0
0 1.50.5 2 2.51 VIII. CASE STUDY: LIGHTNING
time (s)
Fig. 15 Wind generator WTG1 positive sequence voltage, Overvoltage
This case [53] demonstrates the simulation of direct
trip signal and Crowbar protection signal lightning strokes on transmission lines. The studied line is
Another complicated and important matter is the shown in Fig. 16. It is a double-circuit line with phase 1
initialization of systems with WTGs. Significant and subjected to a direct lightning stroke. The line model is
sometimes unaffordable computer time can be wasted if the frequency dependent. The lightning current is the CIGRE
simulation starts without proper initialization. As explained concave lightning current source [54]. The tower at each span
earlier, the automatic initialization of power electronics based is modeled using 6 insulator chains connected from phase
systems with related control functions is very complex. In the wires to the constant-parameter (CP) transmission line model
example of Fig. 14 the simulation starts with a load-flow of the tower, which has a characteristic impedance of 90 ?
solution by first replacing the WTGs with equivalent ideal with a length of 15.5 m. The insulator chains are represented
sources providing PQ constraints. It is followed by the steady- with the leader propagation model [54]. The resulting
state solution for initializing the system with equivalent overvoltage at the location Vm is shown in Fig. 17. Insulator
lumped models. When the simulation starts, the ideal sources flashovers are observed. In this case the integration time-step
are disconnected and the detailed WTG circuits are connected. is 0.02 µs, which is required to account for the short line
Specific initialization scripts are used to initialize WTG lengths and waveform steepness.
 18

6
x 10 [3] J. Mahseredjian: “Computation of power system transients: overview
4 and challenges”, Proc. of IEEE Power Engineering Society General
2 Meeting, 24-28 June 2007, pages 1-7, Tampa.
[4] “Common Information Model (CIM): CIM 10 version”, EPRI, Palo
0 Alto, CA, 2001.
Voltage

[5] J. Mahseredjian, O. Saad, S. Dennetière: “Computation of power system

-2
transients: modeling portability”, Proc. of IEEE Power Engineering
-4 Society General Meeting, 26-30 July 2009, Calgary.
[6] J. Mahseredjian and F. Alvarado: “Creating an Electromagnetic
-6 Transients Program in MATLAB: MatEMTP”. IEEE Transactions on
-8 Power Delivery, January 1997, Vol. 12, Issue 1, pages 380-388.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 [7] J. Mahseredjian, S. Dennetière, L. Dubé, B. Khodabakhchian and L.
t (ms)
Gérin-Lajoie: “On a new approach for the simulation of transients in
Fig. 17 Overvoltage on a transmission line submitted to a lightning stroke power systems”. Electric Power Systems Research, Volume 77, Issue
11, September 2007, pp. 1514-1520.
IX. CONCLUSIONS [8] J. Mahseredjian: “Simulation des transitoires électromagnétiques dans
les réseaux électriques”, Édition ‘Les Techniques de l'Ingénieur’,
Computer programs using the off-line approach and February 10, 2008, Dossier D4130. 2008, 12 pages.
specifically the EMTP-type algorithms are today the most [9] J. A. Peralta, F. de León and J. Mahseredjian: “Unbalanced Multi-Phase
widely used simulation tools for power system transients. They Load-Flow Using a Positive-Sequence Load-Flow Program”, IEEE
Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 23, Issue 2, May 2008, pp. 469-476.
are also the most precise and provide the largest library of [10] W. Xu, J. Marti and H. W. Dommel: “A multiphase harmonic load flow
models specific to power system transients. solution technique”. IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 6, No. 1, Feb.
The advantage of general purpose modeling tools such as 1991, pp. 174-182
[11] X. Lombard, J. Mahseredjian, S. Lefebvre and C. Kieny:
MATLAB/Simulink lies in a fairly wide user base and a set of “Implementation of a new Harmonic Initialization method in the
comprehensive toolboxes for modeling general purpose EMTP”. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. July 1995, Vol. 10,
control and mathematical functions. The speed of execution Issue 3, pages 1343-1352.
[12] J.A. Martinez-Velasco: “Computational Methods for EMTP Steady-
remains an important drawback for studying larger or more State Initialization”, Proc. of International Conference on Power
complex systems. However, these tools offer a great advantage Systems Transients, IPST 99, June 1999, Budapest
in prototyping new component models or control strategies. [13] M. Zou, J. Mahseredjian, et al: “Interpolation and reinitialization in
They also include multi-domain (engineering domains) time-domain simulation of power electronic circuits”. Electric Power
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modeling and simulation capability. [14] R. K. Brayton, et al: “A new efficient algorithm for solving differential-
Tools originating from the simulation of electronic circuits algebraic systems using implicit backward-differentiation formulas”.
provide advanced models for semiconductor devices and are Proc. IEEE, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 98-108, Jan. 1972.
[15] A. Semlyen and F. de León, “Computation of electromagnetic transients
useful for designing electronic equipment with increased using dual or multiple time steps,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 8, no.
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are capable of bridging simulations in various engineering [16] F. A. Moreira, J. R. Marti, L. C. Zaneta, L. Linares: “Multirate
Simulations With Simultaneous-Solution Using Direct Integration
fields. Other advantages are in the establishment of common Methods in a Partitioned Network Environment”, IEEE Trans. on
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[18] W.F. Tinney: "Compensation methods for network solutions by
specialized models for high voltage power apparatus such as
triangular factorization," Proc. Power Industry Computer Applications
machines and transmission lines and thus do not currently offer Conference, Boston, Mass. May 24-26, 1971.
the capabilities of EMTP-type programs. [19] W. F. Tinney: "Compensation Methods for Network Solutions by
This paper also identified several trends and research fields Optimally Ordered Triangular Factorization", IEEE Trans. on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-91, no. 1, Jan. 1972, pp. 123-127
in the computation of power system transients. [20] H. W. Dommel: "Nonlinear and Time-Varying Elements in Digital
The EMTP-type tools are now offering many new Simulation of Electromagnetic Transients", IEEE Trans. on Power
advantages including convergence of environments from load- Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-90, no. 6, Nov. 1971, pp. 2561-2567.
[21] J. Mahseredjian, S. Lefebvre, and D. Mukhedkar, “Power converter
flow to time-domain and increased speed for simulating over simulation module connected to the EMTP,” IEEE Trans. Power
an even wider range of frequencies. The speed of computers Systems, Vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 501–510, May 1991.
will contribute to further convergence of methods in power [22] J. Mahseredjian, S. Lefebvre and X.-D. Do: “A new method for time-
domain modeling of nonlinear circuits in large linear networks”. 11th
system simulation environments. Power Systems Computation conference (PSCC), Proceedings Vol. 2,
August 1993, pp. 915-922
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extraction of arbitrarily specified elements". IEEE Trans. on Circuit
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[25] Simulink, 1994-2007 The MathWorks, Inc
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 19

[28] IEC 60071-4 : “Insulation co-ordination - Part 4: Computational guide system simulation studies," 8th International Workshop on Large-Scale
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[29] “Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Using Digital Programs,” [53] I. Kocar, J. Mahseredjian and G. Olivier: “Improvement of numerically
A.M. Gole, J.A. Martinez-Velasco and A.J.F. Keri (Eds.), IEEE PES stability for transient analysis of underground cables”, accepted for
Special Publication, TP-133-0, 1999. IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, 2010.
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Apparatus and Systems, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 734-741, April 1969.
[32] D. A. Woodford, A. M. Gole and R. Z. Menzies: “Digital simulation of Jean Mahseredjian (SM) graduated from École Polytechnique de Montréal
dc links and ac machines”, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and with M.A.Sc. (1985) and Ph.D. (1991). From 1987 to 2004 he worked at
Systems, vol. 102, no. 6, June 1983, pp. 1616-1623. IREQ (Hydro-Québec) on research and development activities related to the
[33] www.garradhassan.com simulation and analysis of electromagnetic transients. In December 2004 he
[34] L. W. Nagel: SPICE2 A computer program to simulate semiconductor joined the faculty of electrical engineering at École Polytechnique de
circuits. Memorandum No. UCB/ERL M520, 9 May 1975 Montréal.
[35] www.synopsys.com José Luis Naredo (SM) graduated from the University of British Columbia
[36] www.vhdl.org as M. A. Sc. (1987) and as PhD (1992). He conducted R&D work at the
[37] J. Mahseredjian, F. Alvarado, G. Rogers and B. Long: “MATLAB’s Electrical Research Institute of Mexico (IIE) in the areas of power system
Power for Power Systems”. Invited paper, IEEE Journal on Computer communications, power system transients and power system protections,
Applications in Power, January 2001, Vol. 14, Number 1, pages 13-19.
(1978-1985, 1992-1994). Since May 1997 to present, he is full professor of
[38] SimPowerSystems User’s guide, Version 4, The MathWorks, Inc., 2006
Cinvestav–Guadalajara, Mexico. Dr. Naredo currently is spending a
[39] PLECS, Electrical systems and power electronics in Simulink, ETH
sabbatical year at Ecole Polytechnique of Montreal.
Zurich, 2006
[40] S. Dennetière, Y. Guillot, J. Mahseredjian, M. Rioual: “A Link Between Ulas Karaagac received the M.S. and B.S. degrees from Middle East
EMTP-RV and FLUX3D for Transformer Energization Studies”, Proc. Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey, in 1999 and 2002,
of International Conference on Power Systems Transients, IPST 2007 in respectively, both in electrical and electronic engineering. Since 2007 he has
Lyon, June 4th-7rd, 2007 been pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from École
[41] M. O. Faruque, Y. Zhang, and V. Dinavahi, “Detailed Modeling of Polytechnique de Montréal. He worked as an R&D power engineer at
CIGRE HVDC Benchmark System Using PSCAD/EMTDC and Information Technology and Electronics Research Institute (BILTEN) of the
PSB/SIMULINK,” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 21, no. 1, Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), from 1999
January 2006, pp. 378-387. to 2007. His research areas include modeling and simulation of large scale
[42] S. Casoria, J. Mahseredjian, R. Roussel, J. Beaudry and G. Sybille: “A power systems.
portable and unified approach to control system simulation”. Proc. of Juan A. Martinez (M) was born in Barcelona (Spain). He is Profesor Titular
International Conference on Power Systems Transients, IPST 2001, at the Departament d'Enginyeria Elèctrica of the Universitat Politècnica de
June, Brazil, pages 710-715. Catalunya. His teaching and research interests include Transmission and
[43] H. Kragh, F. Blaabjerg, and J. K. Pedersen, “An advanced tool for Distribution, Power System Analysis and EMTP applications.
optimized design of power electronic circuits,” in Proc. IEEE Industry
Applications Conf., pp. 991–998, 1998.
[44] A. M. Gole, S. Filizadeh, R. W. Menzies, and P. L. Wilson,
“Optimization-Enabled Electromagnetic Transient Simulation,” IEEE
Trans. Power Del., Vol. 20, pp. 512–518, Jan. 2005.
[45] H. T. Su, L. A. Snider et al: "A new approach for integration of two
distinct types of numerical sumulators", Proceedings of International
Conference on Power Systems Transients, IPST 2003 in New Orleans,
September 28th-October 2, 2003
[46] V.-Q. Do, G. Sybille, F. Guay, A.-O. Barry: "A Mixed EMT-Phasor
Method Applied to Parallel Simulation of Large Power Systems", Proc.
of 9th International Conference on Modeling and Simulation,
ELECTRIMACS 2008, Québec City, Canada, June 8-11, 2008.
[47] S. Henschel: "Analysis of electromagnetic and electromechanical power
system transients with dynamic phasors", Ph.D. dissertarion, The
University of British Columbia (Canada), 1999, 161 pages.
[48] J. R. Marti: "Shifted Frequency Analysis (SFA) for EMTP Simulation of
Fundamental Frequency Power System Dynamics", Internal Report,
Power System Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
April 2005.
[49] R. Shintaku and K. Strunz: “Branch companion modeling for diverse
simulation of electromagnetic and electromechanical transients”,
Proceedings of International Conference on Power Systems Transients,
IPST 2005 in Montréal, June 19th-23rd, 2005
[50] B. Kulicke, E. Lerch, O. Ruhle and W. Winter, “NETOMAC –
Calculating, analyzing and optimizing the dynamic of electrical systems
in time and frequency domain,” IPST 1999, International Conference on
Power Systems Transients, Budapest, June 20-24, 1999.
[51] U. Karaagac, J. Mahseredjian, S. Dennetière: “EMTP simulation of
synchronous machine from standstill to synchronization”, Proc. of IEEE
Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 26-30 July 2009, Calgary.
[52] C. Larose, R. Gagnon, G. Turmel, P. Giroux, J. Brochu, D. McNabb and
D. Lefebvre, "Large wind power plant modeling techniques for power
 20

Frequency Domain Aspects of Electromagnetic

Transient Analysis of Power Systems.
J. L. Naredo, Senior Member, IEEE, J. Mahseredjian, Senior Member, IEEE, Ilhan Kocar, Member,
IEEE, J. A. Gutiérrez–Robles, Member, IEEE, J. A. Martinez–Velasco, Member, IEEE.

Abstract-- Frequency domain (FD) methods have become a xp(t) – Periodic signal.
valuable complement to the time domain (TD) ones for the X– Vector representation of a periodic signal spectrum.
analysis of electromagnetic transients in power systems. Several X(Ω) – Input signal, continuous frequency spectrum.
aspects of both Frequency Domain Analysis and Digital Signal H(Ω) – Frequency response of LTI system.
Processing disciplines, in addition, have become essential for the
analysis of modern power systems. In this chapter, a brief review Y(Ω) – Output signal, continuous frequency spectrum.
of basic concepts of FD methods is first presented. Then the basic δ(t–t0) – Impulse function acting at t=t0.
differences between continuous–time and discrete–time FD δ∆t(t) – Train of pulses at intervals ∆t.
Analysis are examined. Next, an overview of transient analysis u(t) – Unit step function.
methods based on both, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and N– Number of samples.
Numerical Laplace Transform (NLT), are provided along with ∆t – Discretization time step.
application examples. Finally, new FD issues related to multi–rate
∆Ω – Discretization frequency step.
transient analysis are reviewed.
c– Damping coefficient.
Index Terms-- Aliasing, Discrete Fourier Transform, XL+(s), X(s) – One–sided Laplace Transform of x(t).
Electromagnetic Transients, Fourier Series, Frequency Domain ΩM – Cut–off frequency.
analysis, Gibbs Phenomena, Multi rate analysis, Numerical g(t) – Ideal interpolator.
Laplace Transform, Phasor Analysis. hR(t) – Impulse response of rectangular window.
σL(Ω) – Lanczos window frequency response.
I. NOMENCLATURE
σVH(Ω) – Von Hann window frequency response.
EMT – Electromagnetic Transient. εrel – Relative aliasing error.
LTI – Linear Time–Invariant. WN – exp(–2π/N).
TD – Time Domain.
FD – Frequency Domain. II. INTRODUCTION
DTFT –
DFT –
FFT –
Discrete–Time Fourier Transform.
Discrete Fourier Transform.
Fast Fourier Transform.
T HE electromagnetic transient (EMT) response of a power
system can be determined either by time domain (TD) or
by frequency domain (FD) methods. Common belief, in the
NLT – Numerical Laplace Transform. 1980s, was that these two approaches were competing and
LPF – Low Pass Filter. that, in the end, only one of these would prevail. Instead,
r.h.s – Right–hand side of equation. nowadays, TD and FD methods complement each other.
l.h.s. – Left–hand side of equation. Devices whose parameters depend on frequency are treated
Ω – Angular frequency variable. more conveniently in the frequency domain, whereas those
Ω0 – Angular frequency value. elements exhibiting strong non–linear behavior are better to
x0(t) – Pure sinusoidal signal. analyze by time domain techniques.
X0 – Phasor representation of sinusoidal signal. In practice TD–based methods, like the EMTP, are the
x(t) – Time domain signal. most used. These methods are much more intuitive than the
ones based on FD analysis; they also usually require much less
computer resources than the latter ones. On the other hand,
J. L Naredo gratefully acknowledges support from The Mexican Science
and Technology Council (CONACYT) for sabbatical leave, and through however, deep knowledge of FD techniques has become
project 25966. essential for modern power system analysis. Often the
J. L Naredo holds a permanent position at Cinvestav Guadalajara, synthesis of models and of network equivalents is conducted in
Mexico; he currently is a visiting researcher at The Ecole Polytechnique de the frequency domain. In addition, time domain analysis by
Montreal, QC, Canada. (e-mail: [email protected]).
Jean Mahseredjian is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, digital computer requires the sampling of all the time–
Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, QC, Canada. (e-mail: [email protected]) dependent variables. When this sampling is not done properly,
Ilhan Kocar is CYME International, St-Bruno, QC, Canada. (e-mail: it may produce erroneous results. At this respect, FD analysis
[email protected]). provides valuable references to check TD results. Side–effects
J. A. Gutiérrez–Robles is with The Department of Mathematics, CUCEI,
Univ. de Guadalajara, Mexico. (e-mail: [email protected]) of sampling processes also are better understood and handled
J. A. Martinez-Velasco is with. Departament d'Enginyeria Elèctrica of the in the frequency domain.
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain (e-mail: [email protected])
 21

This chapter deals with those aspects of Frequency Domain

Analysis and of Digital Signal Processing that have become Linear
essential for the analysis of transients in modern power x(t) Time-Invariant y(t)
systems. The first section of the chapter provides a brief System
review of basic concepts of FD methods. Continuous–time
Fourier Analysis is introduced as an extension of Phasor Fig. 1. Linear time–invariant (LTI) system
Analysis which is more familiar to power engineers. The
x0 (t ) = A e j (Ω 0 t +φ ) + A2 e − j (Ω 0t +φ ) (4)
second section of the chapter presents the basic differences 2
between continuous–time and discrete–time Fourier Analysis. Figures 2a and 2b provide illustrations for expressions (3) and
Of special interest here are: 1) The effect of aliasing, 2) The (4), respectively. Whereas (3) leads to phasor representations
Sampling Theorem and 3) The principle of Conservation of of sinusoidal waves, (4) conducts to Fourier–type
Information. The third section provides a brief overview of representations for signals that not necessarily are sinusoidal.
transient analysis methods based on the Discrete Fourier Recall that the phasor representation of x0(t) in (1) is by the
(DFT) and the Numerical Laplace (NLT) transforms. The complex exponential function at the r.h.s. of (3) with its factor
fourth section of the chapter deals with issues related to multi–
rate transient analysis. “ e jΩ 0t ” being removed (see Fig. 2a):
Power systems are increasing substantially in both, size and x0 (t ) → X 0 = Ae jφ (5)
complexity. Even though transient events usually occur
locally, one often needs to analyze their effects on a large The underlaying assumption in Phasor Analysis is that systems
network. Under these circumstances some parts of the network operate in steady state. That is, signal x0(t) has always been an
will be subjected to fast dynamics, while others will continue input to Fig. 1 system. Since frequency Ω0 remains constant,
operating at a slow dynamics, and even close to steady state. It there is no need to refer explicitly the factor “ e jΩ 0t ”in phasor
is, therefore, highly attractive to simulate the various parts of a representation (5).
system with different sampling rates [28], each one chosen in Input/output relation (2) can be stated in phasor form as
accordance to its local dynamics. An important issue in multi– follows:
rate transient analysis is the interfacing of various simulation Y0 = αAe j (φ +θ ) = αe jθ × Ae jφ , (6a)
processes running at different sampling rates. Interface
where
variables from slower to faster processes should be
interpolated, whereas those from faster to slower processes {
y 0 (t ) = ℜe Y0 × e jΩ 0t } (6b)
must be decimated [30-33]. These two processes, interpolation Two advantages of phasor representation become apparent
and decimation, introduce aliasing errors which can be treated from the comparison of (6a) and (2). The first is that the
by Frequency–Domain and Signal–Processing techniques [34]. input/output relations are given by the multiplication of two
This is the main topic in the fourth part of this chapter. complex numbers (i.e., phasors). The second is that, at the
particular frequency Ω0, the LTI system of Fig. 1 is fully
III. FREQUENCY DOMAIN BASICS characterized by complex number “αejθ ” and this number can
also be regarded as a phasor.
A. Phasors and FD Representation of Signals
Now consider the representation of x0(t) by (4). The first
Figure 1 represents a linear time–invariant system (LTI). term on the r.h.s. is associated to a phasor “A–1” of negative
Consider first that its input is a pure sinusoid with constant frequency “–Ω0”, while the second term is to a phasor “A+1” of
amplitude A, frequency Ω0 and phase φ: positive frequency “+Ω0”; see Fig. 2b:
x0 (t ) = A cos(Ω 0 t + φ ) (1) Im Im
The input/output relationship for the system is expressed
Ω0 t Ω0 t
symbolically as follows:
jφ
x0 (t ) → = y 0 (t )
LTI
Ae Ae jφ
φ φ
A well established fact for LTI systems is that the output y(t) is
always a pure sinusoid with the same frequency Ω0 [3]: Re -φ Re
Ae– jφ
y 0 (t ) = αA cos(Ω 0 t + φ + θ ) . (2)
– Ω0 t
Only amplitude and phase–angle of an input sinusoid are
changed by the system. Sinusoids are therefore said to be Amplitude Amplitude
Ω0 t Ω0 t
characteristic functions (or eigenfunctions) of LTI systems.
Complex exponentials offer a convenient alternative to
sinusoids in the analysis of LTI systems. Consider the time time
following equivalences for x0(t) in (1): (a) (b)
{
x0 (t ) = ℜe Ae j (Ω 0t +φ ) } (3) Fig. 2. Sinusoidal signal representation. a) Real–axis projection of complex
exponential signal. b) Sum of two complex conjugate exponential signals.
and
 22

A e − j (Ω 0 t +φ ) → A−1 = A e − jφ and the symbol ⊗ represents the element–by–element product

2 2
of two vectors. The time–domain output waveform “yK(t)” is
and
obtained from (13b) as follows:
A e j (Ω 0 t +φ ) → A+1 = A e jφ . K
y K (t ) = ∑Y e
2 2
jkΩ0t
k . (14)
Sinusoid x0(t) is further represented by the following vector k =− K
whose elements are phasors: The equivalence between expressions (14) and (11) can be
x0 (t ) = A cos(Ω 0 t + φ ) → X = {A−1 ,0, A+1} (7) verified easily. Expressions (12a,b) and (13a–c) extend Phasor
Analysis to signals composed by harmonically related
Note here that the frequency associated to each element is sinusoids. Note that for the signal y(t) in (14) to be real–
determined by its vector position–index; that is, (–1)Ω0 for the valued, the following conditions must hold:
first, (0)Ω0 for the second and (+1) Ω0 for the third. Note also
α k = α − k and θ k = −θ − k . (15)
the introduction of a zero element as place–holder for a zero–
frequency component which, for x0(t) in (3), certainly is null. B. Fourier Series
Vector representation (7) is readily extended to signals
A signal xp(t) is said to be periodic when it repeats itself at
composed by a number of harmonically related sinusoids.
constant time intervals T:
Recall that two sinusoids are said to be harmonically related
when their frequencies are multiples of a third one Ω0 called xp(t) = xp(t+T). (16)
fundamental. Consider the following signal: Figure 3 depicts a periodic signal. The minimum value of
K T > 0 for which property (16) holds is called fundamental
x K (t ) = A0 + ∑A
k =1
k cos(kΩ 0 t + φ k ) . (8) period.
A periodic waveform xp(t) is further said to be a power
By extension of (7), a phasor–vector representation for xK(t) is: signal when its mean power is finite; that is:
x K (t ) → X K = {X − K ,L , X −1 , X 0 , X 1 , L, X K } , (t )
∫x
1 2
(9a) Pxp = p dt < ∞ .
where T
T
X0=A0 (9b) It is straightforward to show that signal xK(t) in (8), and in
and (10), is periodic and has fundamental period T = 2π/Ω0. The
 1 A e jφk , k = +1,+2,K ,+ K Fourier Theorem establishes that a periodic signal of power
X k =  1 2 k − jφ . (9c) xp(t) can always be approximated by a series xK(t), as in (8) or
 2 A− k e −k
, k = −1,−2, K,− K
in (10), in such way that the power of the difference between
xp(t) and xK(t) tends to zero as the number of series–terms “K”
The original signal xK(t) (8) is readily recovered from vector
increases towards infinity [2]; i.e.,
representation (9a) as follows:
+K 1
∫x (t ) − xK (t )
2
x K (t ) = ∑
k =−K
X k e jkΩ 0t (10) lim
K →∞ T
T
p dt = 0 . (17)

A large class of signals in engineering can be represented, On the grounds of the Fourier Theorem, the following
or at least approximated, by expressions (8), (9a) or (10). If equivalence is stated for a periodic signal of power:
+∞
x p (t ) = ∑X e
xK(t) of (8) is an input to LTI system of Fig.1, the output can be jkΩ0 t
expressed as follows: k (18)
k =−∞
K
y K (t ) = α 0 A0 + ∑α
k =1
k Ak cos(kΩ 0 t + φk + θ k ) . (11) This expression corresponds to the Fourier Series in its
complex exponential form. Since xp(t) is assumed real–valued,
For excitations of the form in (8), the LTI system is the coefficients “Xk” of (18) with negative index should be
characterized by the following vector: complex–conjugates of their positive–index counterparts [2]:

H K = {H − K , L, H −1 , H 0 , H1 , L , H K } , (12a) X −k = X k*
where:
xp(t)
H k = α k e jθ k , k=0,±1, ±2, … , ±K. (12b)

Input/output relation can thus be expressed in phasor–vector

form as follows:
YK = H K ⊗ X K , (13a)
where
YK = {Y− K ,L , Y−1 , Y0 , Y1 , L , YK } , (13b)
... –T 0 T 2T ... t
Yk = X k × H k , k=0,±1, ±2, … , ±K, (13c) Fig. 3. Example of a periodic signal.
 23

Fourier coefficients are obtained through the following jΩµ 0  2h 

expression [1,2,3]: ZG = log e   ,
2π  r 
x p (t )e − jkΩ0t dt
∫
1 ZE is the earth impedance in p.u.l.
Xk = (19)
T jΩµ 0  1 
T ZE = log e 1 + 
2π  h jΩ µσ 
In the same form as signal xK(t) in (10), xp(t) in (18) can be  E 
represented in vector form, only that now the dimensions are and ZC is the conductor impedance in p.u.l.
infinite:
x p (t ) → X = {K, X − 2 , X −1 , X 0 , X 1 , X 2 , K}
2
 ρ  jΩµ 0 ρ c
Z C =  c2  + .
A plot of the magnitudes of elements in X against their πr  (2π r )2
corresponding frequencies is illustrated in Fig. 4a. A similar The transfer function for the line set–up is:
plot for the angles of elements in X is shown in Fig. 4b. Vector Vout / Vin = e − ZY ×length
.
X, as well as its associated graphs in Figs. 4a and 4b, are
referred to as the spectrum of xp(t). Since the components of X Figure 6a shows a plot of the input voltage vin(t) being
are complex, full graphical representation of its spectrum approximated by partial series with K=17. Figure 6b shows a
requires two plots, one for phasor magnitudes and the other for plot of the output voltage vout(t) obtained form the above
phasor angles. An alternate spectrum specification consists in transfer function along with expressions (13), (14) and (19).
providing one plot for the real parts of the phasor–elements Note that the use of partial Fourier Series produces oscillation
and a second plot for the corresponding imaginary parts. errors in both figures, 6a and 6b. If better precision is
|Xk | required, the window techniques described in subsection
V.A.1 can be employed here as well.
Xk
+π r=0.01 m
10 km
vin vout
µ0=4π x10–7
... –Ω0 h=10 m ε0=8.84x10–12
Conduct. Resistiv.:
Zchar
... –Ω 0 0 Ω 0 2Ω 0 3Ω 0 ...
Ω 0 Ω0 2Ω0 3Ω0 ...
Ω ρC=2.826x10 Ωm –8

–π
(a) (b) σE=0.01 S/m
Fig. 4. Periodic signal spectrum. a) Magnitude spectrum. b) Phase angle (a) (b)
spectrum.
vin(t)
In sum, the Fourier (Series) Theorem permits the extension +0.5
of Phasor Analysis to the treatment of linear systems being
excited by periodic signals of power. This is illustrated next by t
means of an application example. –0.5 T=2 ms
1) Example 1; (c)
Fig. 5. Single–phase transmission line excited by periodic signal. a)
A single–phase aerial line is 10 km long and it is excited by Transversal geometry. b) Line layout. c) Input waveform.
a voltage source that produces a square wave with a period of
T=2 ms. The line is terminated in its characteristic impedance. C. Fourier Transform
The voltage waveform is to be determined at the line Fourier Series decomposition of a signal into harmonic
termination assuming that the source has been connected long sinusoids, or into complex exponentials, is extended next to
time enough to consider steady state operation; so, the Fourier non periodic waveforms.
Series method can be used. Figure 5a provides the transversal A signal x(t) is said to be of energy if its total energy is
geometry of the line along with the electrical data required to finite; that is, if
determine the line parameters, Fig. 5b shows a longitudinal ∞

∫ x(t )
2
diagram of the line and its connections and Fig. 5c depicts the Ex = dt < ∞ .
input waveform. −∞
Line admittance in per unit length (p.u.l.) is calculated Consider a signal x(t) of finite duration, starting at t = 0 and
through the following expression [21]: ending at t = t0, as the input to the LTI system of Fig. 1. A
jΩ2πε 0 periodic extension for this signal is given by the following
Y= .
log e (2h / r ) expression:
+∞

∑ x(t − nT )
The line impedance parameter in p.u.l. is calculated as follows:
x p (t ) =
Z = ZG + Z E + ZC ,
n = −∞
where ZG is the geometric impedance in p.u.l.
 24

1 Then, consideration of (1/T) = (Ω0/2π) is introduced:

Ω0  
+∞ T /2

0.5
x p (t ) = ∑ 2π 
 x p (t )e − jkΩ0 t dt  e jkΩ0 t
∫ 
Input (p.u.) k =−∞ −T / 2 
0
Next, as the limit of T approaching infinity is taken Ω0
becomes an infinitesimal and is denoted by dΩ, kΩ0 becomes a
continuous variable and is denoted by Ω, xp(t) becomes x(t)
-0.5
and the summation becomes an integral [1]:
∞ ∞ 
x(t ) =  x(t )e − jkΩ t dt  e jkΩ t dΩ
∫ ∫
-1 1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 (20)
2π  
Time (ms) −∞  −∞ 
(a) Note that (20) is an identity and that the integral inside braces
1 corresponds to a function of Ω that hereafter is denoted by
X(Ω). Hence:
∞
0.5
X (Ω ) = ∫ x(t )e
− jΩ t
Output (p.u.)

dt (21a)
−∞
0
and
∞
x(t ) = ∫ X (Ω)e
-0.5 1 jΩt
dΩ (21b)
2π
−∞
-1 Expression (21a) corresponds to the Fourier Transform (FT)
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Time (ms) and (21b) corresponds to the Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT)
(b) [1,2,3]. The Fourier Transform decomposes non periodic
Fig. 6. a) Fourier Series approximation of square wave input signal. b) signal x(t) into a continuous frequency spectrum X(Ω). Figures
Output signal as obtained by the Fourier Series method.
8a and 8b present typical plots of X(Ω). Since it has been
assumed that x(t) is an energy signal, the existence of its
Figures 7a and 7b provide the respective representations for
Fourier Transform is ensured [1,2]. The relationship between
finite duration signal x(t) and for its periodic extension xp(t).
x(t) and its spectrum X(Ω) is stated symbolically as follows:
Note in these figures that, as T > t0, xp(t) reproduces x(t) inside
the interval [0,T]. It is clear also that xp(t) becomes equal to x(t ) FT
→ X (Ω )
x(t) when T approaches infinity. X(Ω)
|X(Ω)|
x(t) +π

0 Ω
0 t0 t –π
0 Ω
(a) (a) (b)
xp(t) Fig. 8. Spectrum of non periodic signal. a) Magnitude spectrum. b) Phase–
angle spectrum.

The output of LTI system in Fig. 1, when it is excited by

non periodic input x(t), is expressed in the frequency domain
–T 0 t0 T t as follows by the product of two complex functions:
(b) Y(Ω) = H(Ω)×X(Ω), (22)
Fig. 7. a) Signal of finite duration x(t). b) Periodic extension of x(t).
As before, X(Ω) is the spectrum (or Fourier Transform) of x(t).
Back to finite values of T, when x(t) is an energy signal, H(Ω) is a function characterizing the LTI system and is
xp(t) is a signal of power with Fourier Series representation as referred to as its frequency response. The time domain output
in (18) and coefficients given by (19). To extend Fourier (or system response) is obtained by applying the inverse
Analysis to non periodic x(t), first (18) and (19) are applied to Fourier Transform (21b) to Y(Ω) in (22):
∞
xp(t) and combined as follows:
y (t ) = ∫ X (Ω)H (Ω)e
1 jkΩ t
dΩ . (23)
1  2π
+∞ T /2
x p (t ) =
T ∑
 x p (t )e − jkΩ0 t dt  e jkΩ0 t .
∫ 
−∞
It can be shown that (23) is equivalent to [1]:
k =−∞ −T / 2 
 25

∞
r(t–t0)
y (t ) = ∫ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ , (24a)
δ(t –t0) ε
−∞
where h(t) is the inverse Fourier Transform of H(Ω).
Expression (24a) defines the convolution operation between 1/ε
two functions, x(t) and h(t). This operation also is represented
symbolically as follows: 0 t0 t 0 t0 t
y(t) = x(t)∗ h(t) (24b) (a) (b)
Fig. 9. a) Impulse function. b) Rectangular pulse.
The Convolution Theorem states that the convolution of
two time domain functions is equivalent to the product of their A. Aliasing Effect
Fourier transforms, or spectra [1,2]. It can be shown as well
The sampling of x(t) at a regular intervals ∆t can be
that the product of two TD signals is equivalent to the
convolution of their Fourier transforms. represented mathematically by its product with δ∆t(t):
The Convolution Theorem is a convenient property of the xS(t) = x(t)× δ∆t(t) (25a)
Fourier Transform. Nevertheless, there are two major or
difficulties for its direct application to practical transient +∞
problems. The first one comes from the fact that Fourier
Transforms are guaranteed only for signals of energy and this
xS (t ) = ∑ x(k∆t )δ (t − k∆t ) ;
k =−∞
(25b)

excludes several cases of practical interest, such as periodic

waves. The second difficulty is due to the Fourier Transform this is illustrated by Fig. 10c.
being an analytical method, and analytical functions that x(t)
represent practical signals usually are very difficult to obtain x(t0)
and handle. Nevertheless, the Fourier Transform provides the
basis to other more practical FD methodologies; among these δ(t –t0)
are the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), the Numerical
Laplace Transform (NLT) and the Z–Transform. 0 t0 t
(a)
IV. DISCRETE–TIME FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
δ∆t (t –t0 )
In the analysis of systems by digital computer continuous–
time signals must be sampled –usually at regular intervals– and 1
must be represented by ordered sequences of their samples. A
convenient way to analyze the sampling process is by through … ...
impulse functions. Recall that an impulse δ(t–t0) is a
0 ∆t 2∆t 3∆t k∆t t
generalized function which is zero all over t, except at t = t0,
where it takes a very large and undetermined value (see Fig. (b)
9a). Figure 9b provides the plot of a rectangular function x S (t)
r(t–t0) of width ε, height 1/ε and centered at time t = t0:

1 / ε , t − t0 ≤ ε / 2
r (t − t 0 ) = 
 0, t − t0 > ε / 2
0 ∆t 2∆t 3∆t ...
The impulse function δ(t–t0) in Fig. 9a is seen as the limit of
(c)
r(t–t0) when ε approaches zero. Fig. 10. Sampling a signal by a train of pulses. a) Continuous–time signal. b)
Consider now a continuous–time function x(t) as the one Train of pulses. c) Sampled signal.
shown in Fig. 10a. The sifting (or sampling) property of the
impulse function states the following result [1,2]: Figure 11a shows the spectrum of x(t) being denoted by
∞ X(Ω). Figure 11b depicts the spectrum of δ∆t(t) that also is a
∫ x(t )δ (t − t )dt = x(t ) .
0 0 train of pulses along the Ω axis [3]:
δ ∆t (t ) FT
→ OS δ Os (O ) ,
−∞
(26a)
Another important (generalized) function is the train of
pulses denoted by “δ∆t(t)” and consisting in an infinite where
sequence of pulses occurring at time intervals of size ∆t. ∞
+∞ δ Os (O ) = ∑δ (O − kO S ) (26b)
δ ∆t (t ) = ∑δ (t − k∆t )
k = −∞ and
k =−∞

Figure 10b provides a plot for δ∆t(t). ΩS = 2π/∆t. (26c)

 26

Note that ΩS is the frequency interval between pulses. In ∆t ≤ π/ΩM (28a)

agreement with the Convolution Theorem, the spectrum of
The inverse of ∆t is the sampling frequency or rate. Its units
sampled signal xS(t) is obtained by the convolution of X(Ω)
are “samples per second”:
with ΩSδΩ s(Ω) whose result is:
+∞ FS = 1/∆t (28b)
X S (O ) = OS ∑
k = −∞
X (O − kOS ) (27) The equality option in (28a) (i.e., ∆t = π/ΩM) corresponds to
the Nyquist sampling interval ∆tNyq, and its inverse FNyq =
Figure 11c illustrates the plot of XS(Ω) according to (27). 1/∆tNyq is known as the Nyquist frequency [1,2,3].
Note from this figure that time domain sampling causes the
repetition of shifted (or frequency modulated) replicas of the |X(Ω)|
original spectrum X(Ω). This is the effect of aliasing in
frequency domain. The overlapping of frequency components
from replicas provokes the sampling or aliasing errors. In
extreme cases, poor choice of a sampling rate results in the
original signal not being recoverable from its samples. –Ω M 0 ΩM Ω
|X(Ω) (a)
XS (Ω)

0 Ω
(a)
ΩSδΩ s(Ω ) –Ω S 0 ΩS 2Ω S Ω
–Ω M ΩM
ΩS (b)
... ... Fig. 12. a) Spectrum of band–limited signal. b) Spectrum of sampled band–
limited signal.
−ΩS 0 ΩS 2ΩS
Ω
Consider now that a signal with band–limited spectrum
(b) XS(Ω) has been sampled with an interval complying with (28a).
XS (Ω ) The original signal is readily recovered by passing its samples
through a low pass filter with the following frequency
response:
1 / Ω S Ω ≤ Ω S / 2
... G (Ω ) =  (29)
 0 Ω > ΩS / 2
–Ω S 0 ΩS 2Ω S ... Ω
(c) This filter response is plotted in Fig.13a. From (27) and (29):
X (Ω ) = X S (Ω ) × G (Ω )
Fig. 11. Effect of sampling on the spectrum of a signal. a) Spectrum of a
continuous–time signal. b) Spectrum of a train of pulses. c) Spectrum of (30)
sampled signal.
The inverse Fourier Transform of G(Ω) is obtained as follows
and its plot is shown in Fig. 13b:
In Signal Analysis, time–to–frequency relations usually are
sin (pt/?t )
g (t ) =
symmetric. This has been already observed with the
(31)
Convolution Theorem and it also is the case with the aliasing (pt/?t )
effect; that is, the sampling of a signal spectrum creates
superposition of time–shifted replicas of the signal, or TD On applying the Convolution Theorem to (30):
aliasing. ∞
x(t ) = ∫x S (τ )g (t − τ )dτ ,
B. Sampling Theorem
−∞
A signal x(t) is said to be band–limited if there is a replacing xS(t) from (25b) and performing the integration:
maximum frequency ΩM above of which its spectrum X(Ω) is +∞
zero (see Fig. 12a): x(t ) = ∑ x(k∆t )g (t − k∆t ) (32)
X (O ) = 0, O > OM . k =−∞
Figure 14 provides a plot of x(t) in accordance with (32).
For this type of signals one can select a sampling interval that This figure shows that the reconstruction of x(t) is by
avoids the overlapping of frequency replicas. This is illustrated superposing replicas of g(t), each one scaled by a sample value
in Fig. 12b and it follows from (26b) that the required and shifted by an amount of time that is multiple of the
sampling interval is:
 27

|X(Ω)| C. Conservation of Information and the DFT

In addition to (27), the spectrum of sampled signal xS(t) can
be obtained as follows:
+∞

∑ x(k∆t )e
1/Ω S
X S (Ω ) = − jkΩ∆t
(33)
k =−∞
–ΩS /2 0 ΩS/2 Ω This expression is obtained applying the Fourier Transform to
(a) (25a). It can be shown, either through (27) or (33), that XS(Ω)
g(t) is periodic with a repetition interval ΩS = 2π/∆t. The discrete
representation of XS(Ω) can be accomplished by sampling only
1 one period. First suppose that this is done with N samples:
∆Ω = Ω S / N = 2π / ( N∆t )
and continuous variable Ω in (33) is replaced by “m∆Ω ”:
+∞

t
X S (m∆Ω ) = ∑ x(k∆t )e
k = −∞
− j 2πkm / N
.
−4∆t −2∆t 0 ∆t 2∆t 3∆t 4∆t 5∆t
−5∆t −3∆t −∆t Then, the sum at the r.h.s. is carried out in groups of N terms.
(b) This is done by expressing summation variable k as k=n+lN:
Fig. 13. a) Frequency response G(Ω) of low pass ideal filter. b) Time domain +∞ N −1
image of G(Ω). X S (m∆Ω ) = ∑∑ x((n + lN )∆t )e123 e
l = −∞ n =0
− j 2πml − j 2πmn / N

1
.

sampling interval ∆t. Note that, for instance, g(t–k∆t) is zero at Next, the order of summations is interchanged:
all sampling instants, except at the k–th one. The implication N −1  +∞ 
of this is that the value of x(t) at t = k∆t is determined only by X S (m∆Ω ) = 
n =0 
∑∑ x((n + lN )∆t ) e − j 2πnm / N .

the corresponding sample x(k∆t), whereas a value of x(t) l =−∞
between sampling points is given by a combination of all the Afterwards, a new discrete–time signal “x’(n∆t)” is defined:
samples, each one weighted by its corresponding shifted +∞
function g(t). x' (n∆t ) = ∑ x((n + lN )∆t ) ;
l = −∞
x(t)
xk–1 xk xk+1
hence:
N −1
X S (m∆Ω ) = ∑ x'(n∆t )e
n=0
− j 2πnm / N

Note that x’(n∆t) is a periodized version of x(n∆t) with

aliasing. Finally, by assuming that x(n∆t) is a finite sequence
of N or less terms, x’(n∆t) equals x(n∆t) for samples between
t n=0 to n=N–1:
Fig. 14. Reconstruction of a signal from its samples. N −1

It follows from (32) and from Fig. 14 that the role of g(t) is
X S (m∆Ω ) = ∑ x(n∆t )e
n=0
− j 2πnm / N
(34)

the one of an interpolating function. This is in fact known as Recall that derivation of (34) started with the assumption of
the Ideal Interpolator [1,2]. Function g(t) is essentially a a discrete spectrum consisting of N samples and it ended up
theoretical tool. Its practical realization as a filter is impossible establishing the correspondence with N TD samples at the
since, as it can be observed from Fig. 13, it would have to start most. This is in agreement with the principle of Information
acting at time t=–∞. Nevertheless, practical signal Conservation.
recuperation usually is achieved satisfactorily with a well Expression (34) also is readily identified as the Discrete
designed non–ideal low–pass filter. Fourier Transform (DFT). Its inverse, the IDFT, is as follows
The results expressed by (28a) and (32) conform the [1,2]:
Sampling Theorem that can be worded as follows: N −1
x(n∆t ) = ∑X (m∆Ω)e j 2πnm / N
1
S (35)
A band–limited signal x(t) with maximum frequency FM = N m =0
ΩM /(2π) can be fully recovered from its samples, provided it
Expressions (34) and (35) establish a unique relation
has been sampled at a frequency FS that is equal at least to the
between one finite sequence of N samples, say in time domain,
double of maximum frequency FM; i.e., sampling frequency FS
and another one length–N sequence of “spectral” samples.
must be at least equal to Nyquist frequency FNyq. The original
Note that sequences XS(m∆Ω) and x(n∆t) can be extended
signal can be fully reconstructed from its samples through the
beyond their original lengths N through (34) and (35);
ideal interpolator function g(t) defined by (31).
nevertheless, these extensions are mere periodic repetitions.
 28

D. Fast Fourier Transform of multiplications for this is (N2/4) + N/2. Since N is a power
Numerical approaches to spectral or frequency domain of 2, the subdivisions can continue until one ends up with N/2
analysis usually end up with DFT (34) and IDFT (35) DFTs, each one with 2 samples and this requires N/2
evaluations. It is customary for (34) and (35) to omit the term multiplications. The FFT algorithm evaluates DFTs and IDFTs
∆t in the argument of x(n∆t) and to denote this variable simply by continued subdivisions until ending up with N/2 two–
as x(n), or as xn. Similarly for XS(m∆Ω), ∆Ω and sub–index “s” sample transforms. The number of multiplications is thus:
N
are omitted and this variable is written as X(m), or as Xm. It is   log 2 ( N )
also customary to denote the complex exponentials as follows: 2
e −2πjmn / N = WNmn From this expression, it can be observed that the number of
operations required by the FFT algorithm increases almost in
Expressions (34) for the DFT and (35) for the IDFT take the linear proportion to the number of samples N, whereas in the
following respective forms: direct evaluation of the DFT by (36), or of the IDFT by (37),
N −1 the number of multiplications increase in quadratic proportion
X (m ) = ∑ x(n)W
n =0
mn
N , m = 0, 1, 2, … , N–1 (36) to N. Table I provides a comparison between the number of
multiplications required by the FFT and the one by direct
and evaluation [23].
N −1
x(n ) = ∑ X (m)W
1 −mn
N , n = 0, 1, 2, … , N–1 (37) TABLE I
N m=0 COMPARING NUMBER OF MULTIPLICATIONS REQUIRED BY THE
Clearly form (36) and (37), the evaluation of the DFT and of DIRECT DFT AND THE FFT ALGORITHMS
the IDFT is essentially through the same procedure. It is clear
also that direct evaluation of (36) or (37) takes N2 complex Number of DFT FFT Ratio,
multiplications and N(N–1) complex sums. The Fast Fourier Samples (N/2)× DFT
Transform (FFT) is an algorithm for evaluating the DFT and N N2 log2(N) FFT
the IDFT with very high computational efficiency. Its working 4 16 4 4
principle is outlined as follows. 8 64 12 5.33
As “N”, the number of samples, is decomposed in its prime 16 256 32 8
factors, the DFT or the IDFT can be evaluated in partial
32 1024 80 12.8
groups of sizes determined by these factors. The evaluation by
64 4096 192 21.3
partial groups requires less operations than direct calculations
128 16384 448 36.57
by (36) or (37). The highest numerical efficiency is obtained
256 65536 1024 64
when N is a power of 2; i.e.:
N = 2i. 512 262144 2304 113.77
1024 1048576 5120 204.8
Assuming that this is the case, (36) is organized in two groups
of sums. One is for even–indexed samples and the other is for V. FREQUENCY DOMAIN TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
the odd–indexed ones. An auxiliary integer variable “k”
The time domain description of power systems for the
running from 0 to (N/2)–1 is introduced; so, n = 2k is for
analysis of transients is through relations involving integrals,
even–indexed samples and n = 2k+1 is for the odd–indexed
differentials and convolutions. In the frequency domain these
ones. With these changes (36) yields:
( N / 2 )−1 ( N / 2 )−1 relations take an algebraic form. FD transient analysis is
X (m ) = ∑ x(2k )W
k =0
mk
N /2 + WNm ∑ x(2k + 1)W
k =0
mk
N /2 , performed first by building a system model in the Fourier [15],
Laplace [27] or Z domain [16,18,24]; then, FD transient
responses are obtained solving the corresponding algebraic
m=0, 1, 2, … , (N/2)–1 (38a)
relations; finally, the TD–response waveforms are derived
( N / 2 )−1 ( N / 2 )−1 from their FD counterparts by applying the corresponding
N 
X  + m =
2 
∑
k =0
x(2k )W Nmk/ 2 − WNm ∑ x(2k + 1)W
k =0
mk
N /2 , inverse transform. An additional advantage of FD methods is
that often system elements are synthesized in the frequency
m=0, 1, 2, … , (N/2)–1 (38b) domain; their incorporation into FD system models is thus
direct.
The original DFT with N samples can thus be evaluated by two
The FD technique described next is referred to as the
DFTs with (N/2) samples. The number of multiplications
Numerical Laplace Transform (NLT) [11, 14]. It is very robust
involved in (38a) and (38b) is
and offers unprecedented numerical accuracy. First, the
(
2 × (N / 2)2 + N / 2 = N 2 / 2 + N / 2 ) problems associated with the numerical inversion of the
Fourier Transform are addressed. Then, the processes
This number is approximately one half of the multiplications developed in the solution of these problems lead in a natural
required by the direct evaluation of the N–sample DFT. Each way to the NLT technique. Finally, the usefulness of the NLT
(N/2)–samples DFT in (38a) and (38b) can be further is demonstrated with two application examples.
evaluated by two (N/4)–sample DFTs and the required number
 29

A. Fourier Transforms and Transients HR(Ω) hR(t)

Consider that the spectrum of a transient signal is available
as N samples of the form Y(m∆Ω), with m= –N/2, …, –1, 0, 1,
∆t=π/Ω M
N/2–1. To obtain the corresponding TD waveform y(t), the 1.0 1/∆t
inverse Fourier integral (21b) is approximated numerically as
follows: – ΩM 0 ΩM Ω t
( N / 2 )−1
∆Ω
y (t ) ≅ y1 (t ) =
2π m=− N / 2∑
Y (m∆Ω )e j (m∆Ω ) t . (39)
(a)
2∆t
(b)
This approximation involves two steps. The first one is the Fig. 15. Rectangular (truncating) window a) Frequency response HR(Ω). b)
Time domain image hR(t).
truncation of the integration–range of Ω in (21b), from the
infinite range [–∞,∞] to the finite one [–Ω M ,Ω M]:
ΩM
0, t < 0
y (t ) ≅ y 2 (t ) = ∫ Y (Ω)e
1
u (t ) = 
jΩ t
dΩ , (40a) . (45)
2π 1, t ≥ 0
−Ω M
with Figure 16a provides a plot of u(t), while Figs. 16b and 16c
Ω M = ∆Ω×(N/2). (40b) illustrate its convolution with hR(t) in (43). The latter figure
depicts the approximation to u(t) obtained by truncating its
The second step is the discretization of the integrand, both in spectrum. Four important features of this approximation
(21b) and in (40a). Continuous variable “Ω” is replaced by the should be pointed out. The first one is that, as a filter, the
discrete one “m∆Ω”. In addition, “Y(Ω)” and “ejΩt” are rectangular window is non causal. It is clear from the
represented by their samples at these discrete values. Then, the comparison of Figs. 16a and 16c that the window output y2(t)
application of rectangular integration to (40a) yields (39). starts responding before t = 0; that is, before the input y(t) =
The two steps of truncation and discretization are analyzed u(t) starts acting. The second feature is that the discontinuity at
as follows with more detail. t = 0 is approximated by a continuous segment with a non zero
1) Frequency range truncation; rise–time amounting to 0.42∆t. The third one is the presence of
oscillations that are most pronounced near the instant of the
Expression (40a) is equivalent to [4] discontinuity. These oscillations are referred to as Gibbs
∞
phenomena. The fourth feature is the overshoot after the
y 2 (t ) = ∫ Y (Ω)H (O )e jΩ t dO
1
(41) discontinuity which reaches a peak value in the order of 9.0 %.
2π
R
−∞ The step function approximation of Fig. 16c is of special
with interest for transient analysis. Every signal with an isolated
1, O ≤ OM discontinuity is equivalent to a continuous one with a
H R (O ) =  . (42) superimposed step function. A major concern in FD transient
0, O > OM
analysis is the 9.0 % level of overshoot that cannot be
HR(Ω) is a rectangular (truncation) window and is plotted in decreased by making the truncation frequency ΩM larger [3].
Fig. 15a. Its time domain image is given by the following In practice, this is decreased and a better approximation to y(t)
expression and is plotted in Fig. 15b: is obtained by applying a smoothing filter. By observing that
the Gibbs’ errors have an oscillation interval tGibbs = π/ΩM, one
 O  sin (OM t )
hR (t ) =  M  . (43) can realize that an effective smoother is a sliding window of
 2π  (OM t ) duration π/ΩM (see Fig. 16c). For an improved estimate of y(t),
first the sliding window is centered at each point tx of the time
Figures 15a and 15b should be compared with Figs. 13a and range, then a weighted average is performed with all the values
13b. Note from Fig. 15b that the zeros of hR(t) occur at regular of y2(t) inside the window, next the result of this average is
intervals of size t0 = π/(2ΩM). If the truncation frequency ΩM is assigned to the new estimate of y(t) at tx, finally, the process is
made larger (i.e., wider bandwidth), the main lobe of hR(t) applied to all values of t in range.
becomes taller and, at the same time, narrower. In the limit, as The Lanczos window is a smoothing–filter that applies pure
ΩM →∞, hR(t) approaches the impulse function δ(t) in much averaging (or, constant weight) along its apperture. Its
the same manner as with R(t) in Fig. 9b. frequency response is [4]:
The time–domain relation between y(t) and its
approximation y2(t) is obtained by applying the Convolution  sin (pO/OM )
Theorem to (41):  (pO/O ) , O ≤ OM
 M
σ L (O ) = 
y 2 (t ) = y (t ) ∗ hR (t )
(46)
(44)  0, O > OM

The effect of truncating the frequency range observed at its 
best on signals with discontinuities. Suppose that the original Figure 17a shows a plot of σL(Ω) that should be compared
signal y(t) is the unit step function u(t) defined as: with the rectangular window in Fig. 15a. This comparison
 30

shows the time–domain averaging is equivalent to a σ L(Ω)

continuous and gradual truncation of the signal spectrum. The
truncation of the spectrum of unit step (43) by the Lanczos
window results in the waveform plotted in Fig. 17b. It can be 1.0
seen that Lanczos window reduces the overshoot to 1.2 %.
This reduction comes at the expense of introducing a slightly ΩM
larger delay in the estimated signal; that is, rise–time amounts
–Ω M 0
Ω
now to 0.73∆t. (a)
u(t) u(t)∗σL(t)
1.2 %

t=0 t t=0 t
(a) (b)
u(t)∗hR(t) σVH (Ω)

1.0

t=0 t
–Ω M 0 ΩM Ω
(b) (c)
Tw Sliding Window Fig. 17. Lanczos Window. a) Frequency response. b) Time response when
u(t)∗hR(t)
Width: applied to a step function. c) Von Hann or Hanning window.
9.5 % Tw=π/ΩM

vin(t) through partial series (10) with its coefficients further

t0
modified by the Hanning window. Compare this plot with the
one in Fig. 6a. Figure 18b shows a plot of the new system
t=0 t output. Note the practical absence of Gibb’s errors and
(c) compare this last plot with the one in Fig. 6b.
Fig. 16. Effects of frequency truncation. a) Unit step function u(t). b) Finite Fourier series approximate periodic waveforms by
Convolving signals u(t) and hR(t). c) Convolution result and sliding window. minimizing the power of the error signal (i.e., least mean
square error of the difference). On the other hand, however, a
A highly recommended window for transient analysis is the series approximation with minimum overshoot error is
one by Von Hann (or Hanning). Apparently, its use for this preferable in power transient analysis. The reason is that the
purpose was first proposed in [17]. The frequency response of main objective here usually is to determine over–voltage and
the Hanning window is: over–current levels.
 1 cos(pO/OM ) 2) Discrete frequency range;
2 + 2
, O ≤ OM
 Consider now that a transient signal y(t) is to be synthesized
σ VH (O ) =  , (47)
from samples of its spectrum Y(Ω), and that the frequency
 0, O > OM
 range is not truncated. By applying rectangular integration in
 (21b), the following approximation is obtained:
∞
∆Ω
∑ Y (m∆Ω )e j (m∆Ω ) t .
and the corresponding plot is shown in Fig. 17c. In addition to
y (t ) ≅ y3 (t ) =
applying a continuous and gradual truncation, σVH(Ω) presents 2π m=−∞
a continuous first derivative at the cut–off frequencies ±ΩM.
Hanning window reduces further the overshoot to 0.63 %; the This expression is also obtained multiplying Y(Ω) by
rise–time, however, is increased to 0.87∆t. ∆Ωδ∆Ω (Ω) and applying the Inverse Fourier transform to the
product. Recall from (26b) that δ∆Ω (Ω) is a train of unit pulses
a) Example 2. placed at regular intervals of length ∆Ω along the frequency
Consider again the transmission system described in Figs. 5a axis:
∞
 ∞ 
∑
and 5b, as well as the input signal in Fig.5c. Again vin(t) is
y3 (t ) = Y (Ω )∆Ω
∫ δ (Ω − k∆Ω ) e jΩt dΩ
1
approximated by the finite Fourier series (10) with K=17. This 2π
time, however, the series coefficients are multiplied by σVH(Ω) −∞  k = −∞ 
given by (47). Figure 18a shows a plot of the reconstruction of
 31

1
Figure 19 depicts y3(t) as in (49). Notice that if attention is
restricted to interval [0,T], y3(t) is composed only of y(t) and
all its past replicas:
0.5 0
Input (p.u.)
0
y3 (t ) = ∑ u(t )e
k = −∞
−c (t −kT )
;

after reordering and factoring terms:

∞

∑ (e )
-0.5
y3 (t ) = u (t )e −c t −cT k
.
k =0
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 This expression is a geometric series and 0<e–cT<1; hence:
Time (ms)
y3 (t ) = u (t )e −c t
1
(a) . (50)
1 − e − cT
1

0.5 y3(t)
Output (p.u.)

y(t)
y(t+3T) y(t+2T) y(t+T)
0

-0.5 t=0 t
Fig. 19. Aliasing effect on an exponentially decaying step function.
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Time (ms) It follows from (50) that the aliasing error is given by the
(b) factor “1/(1–e–cT)”. In addition, if e–cT<<1, then:
Fig. 18. a) Approximating square wave signal of Fig. 5c by a partial Fourier (
y3 (t ) ≅ u (t )e −c t 1 + e −cT , )
Series with coefficients weighted by the Hanning window. b) Response of
system in Fig. 5b obtained by the modified Fourier Series. and the relative aliasing error is:
y3 (t ) − y (t )
ε rel = ≅ e −cT (51)
From (26a) and from the Convolution Theorem: y (t )
∞
 ∞ 
y3 (t ) = 
−∞   k =−∞
∫ ∑
δ (τ − kT ) y (t − τ )dτ ,

Finally, the original signal “u(t)” is recuperated with some
aliasing error after multiplying y3(t) by un–damping
exponential “e+ct”:
where T = 2π/∆Ω. By exchanging the order between the
integral and the summation and by further performing the u (t ) ≅ y3 (t )e ct = u (t ) + u (t )e − cT
integral the following relation between y3(t) and y(t) is
obtained: This example with the unit step illustrates the technique for
 ∞  controlling aliasing errors by introducing exponential
y3 (t ) = 
 k =−∞
∑
y (t − kT )

(48) damping. Despite its simplicity, the case of a step function is
highly relevant for transient analysis. Power systems are
Expression (48) shows that the discretization of Y(Ω) composed by passive elements; consequently, their natural
produces time domain aliasing. As transient signals generally responses are bounded, and mostly decaying; one can
are not time–limited, the question here is as to what are the therefore assume that the step function is good representative
conditions to obtain good approximations to y(t) by y3(t) given of the worst case of natural responses and of excitation signals.
in (48). Clearly, since y3(t) is periodic the useful range of the A highly convenient form to introduce the damping coefficient
approximation has to be confined to the interval [0,T]. “c” in FD transient studies is by working directly in the
To address the previous question consider first the case of Laplace domain. The result in (51) is useful to fix this
y(t) being a unit step u(t). According to (48), direct sampling coefficient that is incorporated in the Laplace variable as
of its spectrum of u(t) results in an aliasing error in excess; that s = c +jΩ.
is, the value for approximation y3(t) turns out to be infinite. Let B. Fourier and Laplace Transform
now the unit step be multiplied by a damping exponential [5]:
While the Fourier Transform is appropriate for steady state
y(t) = u(t)×e–ct, analysis, the Laplace Transform is far better suited for
transient studies. It is thus convenient to establish the
and the spectrum of the resulting function y(t) be sampled.
relationship between these two transforms. A large class of
From (48):
∞
signals of practical interest are not of energy and their Fourier
y3 (t ) = ∑ u(t − kT )e
k = −∞
−c (t −kT )
(49) Transforms cannot be assured. Often, however, when these
signals are damped by a decaying exponential factor as it has
been shown above, the Fourier Transform becomes applicable.
 32

Consider a signal x(t), along with the following modification: In agreement with the principle of Conservation of
–ct Information, the number of TD samples in (57) has been made
xMOD(t) =x(t)×u(t)×e (52)
equal to N; that is, the number of samples in FD. In addition, N
Assume that xMOD(t) is an energy signal and obtain its Fourier determines the following observation time for x(t):
Transform as follows:
T = N∆t. (58)
∞ ∞
X MOD (O ) = ∫ x(t )u(t )e dt = x(t )e − (c + jΩ )t dt
∫
− ct − jΩt Recall that a maximum value for the observation time has been
e (53)
already established as follows by virtue of T being the
−∞ 0
repetition (or aliasing) period in (48):
By introducing the Laplace variable s=c+jΩ: T = 2π/∆Ω, (59)
∞
The combination of (58) and (59) yields the following relation:
X MOD ( j (c − s )) = x(t )e − st dt
∫
0 ∆t∆Ω = 2π/N (60)
On the grounds of this last result, the one-sided Laplace The introduction of (60) in (57) yields:
Transform is introduced as follows [2]:
( N / 2 )−1
e cn∆t  1 
∞
∆ ∆
X L+ (s )= x(t )e − st dt = X MOD (Ω )
∫ (54) x(n∆t ) =  ∑ X (c + jm∆Ω )e 2πjmn / N  ,
∆t  N m = − ( N / 2 ) 
0− 
Note that the lower bound of the integral is taken as “0–”. This n = 0, 1, 2, … , N –1. (61)
choice is convenient for resolving ambiguities that can arise
Note in (61) that the term inside the braces is an IDFT. It is
from signals with a discontinuity at t=0 [2]. Such
thus convenient to modify the summation index as follows:
discontinuities occur commonly in transient analysis.
The corresponding Laplace inversion integral is obtained
e cn∆t 1 N −1 
now. First, the inverse Fourier Transform is applied to (53): x(n∆t ) =
∆t
 ∑ X (c + jm∆Ω)e 2πjmn / N
,
1 ∞  N m =0 
x(t )u (t )e −ct = X MOD (O )e jΩt dΩ .
∫ (55)
2π −∞ n = 0, 1, 2, … , N –1, (62)
where, for m>N/2:
Then, both sides of (55) are multiplied by ect. Next, the
Laplace variable s=c+jΩ is introduced and the assumption is X(c+jm∆Ω) = X*(c+j(N–m)∆Ω)
made for x(t) being zero as t<0. Finally, all these changes lead and X*( ) is denoting the complex conjugate of X( ).
to the Inverse (one sided) Laplace Transform: To minimize Gibbs (frequency truncation) errors in (62),
c + j∞
the discrete FD samples X(c+jm∆Ω) are multiplied by a data
x(t ) = ∫X
1 + st
L ( s )e ds (56)
2πj window. The Von Hann window is recommended here [17],
c − j∞ and:
e cn∆t
{ }
For ease of notation reasons, here as in most texts on the
subject the symbol X( ) is hereafter used indistinctly to denote x(n∆t ) = ifft [X (c + jm∆Ω ) × σ VH (m∆Ω ) ]mN=−10 (63)
∆t
the Laplace or the Fourier transform of x(t). To avoid the
This expression is the Inverse Numerical Laplace Transform.
confusion that this may bring, strong recommendation is made
Note that the summation of (62) is performed in (63) through
here as to always keep in mind that X(s) is a shorthand notation
the FFT algorithm. Aliasing error minimization is attained
for X L+ ( ) in (54) and in (56). there by a proper choice of damping coefficient “c”.
C. The Numerical Laplace Transform It follows from (51) that the relation between the overall
relative aliasing error and the damping coefficient is:
One of the major advantages of analyzing transients in
frequency domain is that signal relations involving integrals, c = − [log e (ε rel )] T (64)
derivatives and convolutions become algebraic expressions. Ideally, one would like to specify an arbitrary small value for
For practical analysis, Fourier and Laplace transforms must be εrel; however, there are practical limits for this. For the
applied in discrete form and it has been shown already that FD frequency sampling used in (57), Wedepohl reports in [14] the
discretization produces TD aliasing errors. These errors can be following rule that has been found by experience:
controlled by introducing a damping coefficient and this is
most conveniently done with the Laplace transform. εrel= 1/N (65)
Let now X(s) denote the (one sided) Laplace transform of In sum, Numerical Laplace Transform inversion is attained
transient signal x(t). A first approximation to the numerical through (63). In practice one must choose two or at most three
solution of the inverse Laplace transform (56) is: parameters to apply this expression. By setting the maximum
( N / 2 )−1 observation time T, frequency resolution ∆Ω is fixed
∆Ω
x(n∆t ) = ∑ X (c + jm∆Ω )e cn∆t e jmn∆Ω∆t ,
2π m = − ( N / 2 )
automatically by (59). Choice of maximum or cutoff frequency
ΩM automatically determines ∆t as the Nyquist sampling
n = 0, 1, 2, …, N–1. (57) interval in (28a). In power system analysis the bandwidth for
 33

the different types of transient events is generally well result differ substantially. As the resolution is increased ten
established. As T and ∆t, or as ΩM and ∆Ω, are given, the times in EMTP (∆t = 2 µs), its result becomes closer to the
number of samples N becomes determined. When N is not of one with the NLT. Stress is made here that essentially the same
the form 2i, it is recommended here to choose the next larger results are obtained by using the Universal Line Model (ULM)
value that is an integer power of 2. To select a suitable value [35]with the EMTP.
for damping coefficient c, recommendation is made here for For the time being, the NLT cannot produce sequential real–
the use of Wedepohl’s relation (65). As an observation time T time and off–line simulations. In these cases one must rely on
is being set for a specific analysis, one has to take in advanced TD–EMTP models. Nevertheless, this last example
consideration that between 3 % and 5 % of the last samples illustrates the form in which Frequency Domain methods assist
obtained by (58) are useless due to amplification of runaway in the development and fine–tuning of EMTP study cases.
aliasing and Gibbs errors.
D. Application Examples with the NLT
1) Example 3.
Consider again the transmission line example 1 in
subsection III.B. The line data are given in Fig. 5a, and the
longitudinal layout is provided by Fig. 5b. This time, however,
the line is terminated in a three–phase open circuit and the
input signal is a step function starting at t=0. As opposed to (a)
example 1, the system response includes now a transient
component. Figure 20a depicts the input step function, while
Fig. 20b shows the far–end response obtained with the NLT
using N = 2048 samples. Observe in Fig. 20b the response
delay due to the travel time of the line. Observe also the
transient oscillations caused by the reflection at the line open
end. Note that the oscillation period is four times the line
travel time.
2
Input (p.u.)

1
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (ms) (b)
(a) 2 NLT
Recovery Voltage (p.u.)

EMTP 1
EMTP 2
2
Output (p.u.)

1
1
0
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 -1
Time (ms)
(b) -2
Fig. 20. a). Excitation signal. b) Response.
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
2) Example 4. Time (s)
Figure 21a shows the connection diagram for the line in Fig. (c)
Fig 21. a) System Layout. b) Line data. c) Comparing NLT and EMTP
21b [20,22]. The transient recovery voltage of switch “t2” is to results: NLT (∆t = 20 µs), EMTP1 (∆t = 2 µs), EMTP2 (∆t = 20 µs).
be obtained. The simulation starts at t=0 with the simultaneous
phase energizing and with a permanent fault at the line end. E. Brief History of NLT Development
The fault condition is represented by the three 0.1 Ω shunt
In addition to the NLT technique that is described here,
resistances. After 2 ms of energizing, the switches open
various other methods have been developed for applying
simultaneously.
Laplace Transforms to transient system analysis. The one
The transient recovery voltage at switch “t2” is shown in
presented in [27] deserves special attention; although, it still is
Fig. 21c as calculated with the NLT using a resolution of ∆t =
at a very early stage of development. The technique described
20 µs. Figure 21c shows also the results obtained with the here originated in the early 1960s by the works of N.
EMTP using the FDLine model with two integration steps: Mullineux, et al, [5–7]. It then evolved in the late 1960s
∆t = 20 µs and ∆t = 2 µs. It can be observed in this figure that through the works of L. M. Wedepohl, et al, [8,9,12,13]. At
when the resolution of ∆t = 20 µs is used, the NLT and EMTP
 34

that time the technique was referred to as The Modified Signal xd(n) must thus be decimated by an L–factor; that is, for
Fourier Transform. In the early 1970s A. Ametani introduced every L samples of xd(n) one is kept and the other L–1 are
the use of the FFT algorithm [10]. In the late 1970s D. J. discarded. A new signal x’d(n) = xd(nL) is produced by this
Wilcox produced a systematic view of the methodology decimation process that is represented as follows:
relating it to the Laplace Transform theory and provided
(↓ L) xd(n) = x’d(n) = xd(nL)
important criteria for its practical application [11]. In the early
1980s Wedepohl introduced in the technique further The spectrum of x’d(n) is a further periodization of Xd (Ω),
refinements that have permitted to attain very high accuracy now with a repetition interval 2ΩYM = 2ΩXM /L. Figure 23b
[14]. More recent work on the NLT can be found in [17] to illustrates this and it can be observed that aliasing errors could
[23], and in [25] and [26]. be severe. To avoid these errors, signal xd(n) should be filtered
VI. MULTI–RATE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS before the decimation. Figure 23c illustrates the filtering of
xd(n) by an ideal low–pass filter (LPF). Now the maximum
Consider a large network in which two regions can be frequency of the filtered signal is ΩYM. Figure 23d shows the
distinguished: region 1 with an ongoing fast disturbance and spectrum of the new signal after being decimated by an L–
region 2 with operation close to steady state. The network may factor. Note the absence of aliasing. Although ideal filters are
be conveniently subdivided for its analysis in these two regions non realizable, good results can be obtained in practice from a
as illustrated in Fig. 22. The interface between the regions is
real filter with cut–off frequency ΩYM and with sufficient
through the exchange variables x(t) and y(t). The first one
attenuation in its transition band.
conveys the necessary information from the fast to the slow
dynamics region. The second one carries this information from Xd(Ω)
the slow to the fast region. The network can be simulated
digitally with two different sampling rates. A high rate
“FXS = 1/∆tx” is assigned to simulation of region 1 and it is to
be in agreement with its fast dynamics. The other is a slower −ΩXM ΩXM
rate FYS = 1/∆ty used for region 2. In practical situations these (a) Ω
two rates can be up to three orders of magnitude apart and the
Xd(Ω)
savings in computational time make highly attractive the
pursuit of two-rate and even multi-rate simulation techniques.

REGION 1
FAST −ΩYM ΩYM Ω
DYNAMICS (b)
∆tx
Xd(Ω)
x(t) y(t)

REGION 2
SLOW −ΩYM ΩYM Ω
DYNAMICS (c)
∆ty
Xd(Ω)
Fig 22. Subdivision of a large network into two regions operating with
different dynamics..

Signal x(t) is produced by the ongoing processes in region

1. Digital simulation of this region delivers a discrete version −ΩYM ΩYM Ω
of x(t) as follows: (d)
Fig 23. a) Spectrum of signal xd(n). b) Spectrum of xd(n) after decimation by
xd(n) = x(n∆tx), n=0, 1, 2, … an L–factor. c) Filtering of by an ideal filter. d) Spectrum of xd(n) after being
filtered and before decimated.
The spectrum of xd(n), denoted here as Xd(Ω), has to be
periodic with repetition interval 2ΩXM = 2πFXS. This is Concerning signal y(t), being produced by the ongoing
illustrated by Fig. 23a. The maximum frequency ΩXM must be processes in region–2, suppose that it is reproduced in discrete
chosen sufficiently high so xd(n) provides an accurate form as yd(n) by digital simulation. The following time step is
representation of x(t) . used:
Consider now that the samples of xd(n) are produced at the ∆ty = π /ΩYM.
rate FXS. Region–2 simulation cannot accept all these samples, with ΩYM = ΩXM./L. Hence:
as it runs at the lower rate FYS. Suppose that FXS is L times
faster than FYS, or that time–step ∆ty is L times larger than ∆tx. yd(n) = y(n∆ty), n=0, 1, 2, …
 35

In the same form as with signal xd(n), the spectrum of yd(n) ones. Most times, power system element models and power
is periodic with repetition interval 2ΩYM. This is depicted system equivalents are synthesized in the frequency domain,
graphically in Fig. 24a. The samples of signal yd(n) are and their frequency domain analysis can attain unmatched
produced at a much lower rate than the one required by numerical accuracies. Frequency domain methods can thus be
region–1 simulation. The rate of yd(n) has to be increased L used to verify and fine–tune time domain models and
times by interpolating L–1 samples in–between every two procedures.
consecutive values. The interpolation is performed
REGION 1
conveniently first by inserting L–1 zeros between the FastDynamics
consecutive samples, and then by low–pass filtering the new
signal with cut–off frequency ΩYM. The process of
∆tx
interpolation is represented as follows:
x(t)
 y (n / L ) n = 0, ± L, ± 2 L,K
(↑ L)yd(n) = y’d(n) =  d Low Pass Filter Low Pass Filter
Cut–Off: ΩYM Cut–Off: Ω YM
 0 otherwise

The insertion of zeros in yd(n) increases the signal sampling

rate in L times without modifying the information contents of Decimator Interpolator
the signal. This means that now the repetition interval is 2ΩXM (↓ L) (↑ L)
and the effective bandwidth has been increased to ±ΩXM. This
new bandwidth is also marked in Fig. 24a. Note that the
y(t)
spectral components outside the range ±ΩYM are unwanted REGION 2
aliasing replicas. Their removal by an ideal LPF with ΩYM cut– SlowDynamics
off frequency is illustrated in Fig. 24b. ∆ty
Yd(Ω)
Fig 25. Interconnection of a two–rate process with an interface to avoid
aliasing errors.

−ΩYM ΩYM Ω The increasing size and complexity of modern power

2ΩXM systems requires every time more powerful tools for analysis,
(a) and power system engineers must be well acquainted now with
the Frequency Domain Analysis (FDA) and the Digital Signal
Yd(Ω) Processing (DSP) disciplines. In this chapter, first FDA has
been introduced as an extension of Phasor Analysis, as the
latter is more familiar to power engineers. Then, the
differences between continuous time and discrete time FDA
−ΩYM ΩYM Ω have been examined. A central topic here is the Sampling
ΩXM Theorem and its implications in the simulation and analysis of
(b) power system transients. Next, the Numerical Laplace
Fig 24. a) Spectrum of signal yd(n). b) Spectrum of signal yd(n) after the Transform method to analyze power transients has been
interpolation and filtering processes. explained and its application has been illustrated by two
examples. Finally, the possibility of conducting multi–rate
Finally, Fig. 25 provides a modification to the diagram in transient analysis in time domain has been examined through
Fig. 22, where the required interfaces have been included to frequency domain analysis.
avoid the aliasing errors that otherwise would be caused by
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
interconnecting two simulation processes running at different
rates. This interfacing is based on the assumption that the The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of
faster rate is an integer multiple of the slower one. Octavio Ramos Leaños and Efraín Cruz Chan at preparing the
examples.
VII. CONCLUSIONS IX. REFERENCES
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Numerical Inversion of the Laplace Transform”, Proc. of the Twenty- X. BIOGRAPHIES
Sixth Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, pp. 174-178, José Luis Naredo (SM) graduated from The University of British Columbia
August 1983. as M. A. Sc. (1987) and as PhD (1992). He conducted R&D work at The
[15] B. Gustavsen, “Validation of Frequency-Dependent Line Models”, Electrical Research Institute of Mexico (IIE) in the areas of power system
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 20, No. 2. April 2005. communications, power system transients and power system protections,
[16] W. D. Humpage, K. P. Wong, “Electromagnetic transient analysis in (1978-1985, 1992-1994). Since May 1997 to present, he is full professor of
ehv power networks”, Proc. IEEE, Vol 70, Nr. 4, pp. 379-402, 1982.
Cinvestav–Guadalajara, Mexico. Dr. Naredo currently is spending a
[17] J. L. Naredo V., P. Moreno V., J. L. Guardado Z., and J. Alberto
Gutiérrez R., "The Numerical Laplace Transform as a Tool for sabbatical year at The Ecole Polytechnique of Montreal.
Research and Development in Electrical Engineering", (in Spanish), Jean Mahseredjian (SM) graduated from École Polytechnique de Montréal
Proceedings of the II International Conference on Electrical and with M.A.Sc. (1985) and Ph.D. (1991). From 1987 to 2004 he worked at
Electronics Conference, CIIIEE'98, Aguascalientes, Mexico, Sept 14-
18, 1998. IREQ (Hydro-Québec) on research and development activities related to the
[18] N.R. Watson and G. D. Irwin, “Comparison of root-matching simulation and analysis of electromagnetic transients. In December 2004 he
techniques for electromagnetic transient simulation”, IEEE Trans. on joined the faculty of electrical engineering at École Polytechnique de
Power Delivery, Volume: 15 , Issue: 2, Pages: 629 – 634, April 2000. Montréal.
[19] F. A. Uribe, J. L. Naredo, P. Moreno, and J. L. Guardado,
“Electromagnetic Transients in Underground Transmission Systems Ilhan Kocar (M) received the B.S. and M. Sc. degrees from METU, Ankara,
Through the Numerical Laplace Transform”, International Journal of Turkey, in 1998 and 2003, respectively, both in Electrical and Electronic
Electrical Power and Energy Systems, Elsevier Science LTD, Vol. Engineering. He provided custom designed power conversion system
24/3, pp 215-221, March 2002. solutions to railway industry as a Project Engineer at Aselsan Electronics Inc.
[20] P. Gómez, P. Moreno, J. L. Naredo, and J. L. Guardado, “Frequency between 1998 and 2004. In 2009 he received Ph.D. degree from the
Domain Transient Analysis of Transmission Networks Including Non- department of Electrical Engineering at École Polytechnique de Montréal. Dr.
linear Conditions”, 2003 IEEE Bologna PowerTech Proceedings, paper
Kocar is with CYME International, St-Bruno, QC, Canada.
BPT03-115, Bologna, Italy, 23-26 de junio de 2003.
[21] A. Ramirez, P. Gomez, P. Moreno, and A. Gutierrez, “Frequency José A. Gutiérrez Robles (M) received his BSEE and M. Sc. degrees from
domain analysis of electromagnetic transients through the numerical Universidad de Guadalajara (UdeG), Mexico, in 1993 and 1998, and his PhD
Laplace transforms”, IEEE Power Engineering Society General
from Cinvestav–Guadalajara in 2002. He currently is Professor with the
Meeting, 2004, vol., no., pp.1136-1139 Vol.1, 10-10 June 2004
[22] P. Moreno, P. Gómez, J. L. Naredo, and J. L. Guardado, “Frequency Department of Mathematics of CUCEI–UdeG. His research interests are in
Domain Transient Analysis of Transmission Networks Including Non- the field of Transient Phenomena in Power Systems.
linear Conditions”, International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy
Systems, Volume 27, issue 2, pp. 139-146, February 2005. Juan A. Martinez (M) was born in Barcelona (Spain). He is Profesor Titular
[23] J. L. Naredo, J. A. Gutierrez, F. A. Uribe, J. L. Guardado, and V. H. at the Departament d'Enginyeria Elèctrica of the Universitat Politècnica de
Ortiz, “Frequency Domain Methods for Electromagnetic Transient Catalunya. His teaching and research interests include Transmission and
Analysis”, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2007, Distribution, Power System Analysis and EMTP applications.
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Systems, Volume 31, pp. 116-123, 2009.
 37

The What, Where and Why

of Real-Time Simulation
J. Bélanger, Member, IEEE, P. Venne, Student Member, IEEE,
and J.-N. Paquin, Member, IEEE

the optimization of motor drives in transportation, simulation

Abstract-- Simulation tools have been widely used for the has played a critical role in the successful development of a
design and improvement of electrical systems since the mid- large number of applications.
twentieth century. The evolution of simulation tools has For the last three decades, the evolution of simulation tools
progressed in step with the evolution of computing technologies.
has been driven by the rapid evolution of computing
In recent years, computing technologies have improved
dramatically in performance and become widely available at a technologies. As computer technologies have decreased in
steadily decreasing cost. Consequently, simulation tools have also cost and increased in performance, the capability of simulation
seen dramatic performance gains and steady cost decreases. tools to solve increasingly complex problems in less time has
Researchers and engineers now have access to affordable, high improved. In addition, the cost of digital simulators has also
performance simulation tools that were previously too cost- steadily decreased, making them available to a larger number
prohibitive, except for the largest manufacturers and utilities.
of users for a wider variety of applications.
This paper introduces the role and advantages of using real-time
simulation by answering three fundamental questions: what is The objective of this paper is to provide an introduction to
real-time simulation; why is it needed and where does it best fit. real-time digital simulators, with a focus on Electromagnetic
The recent evolution of real-time simulators is summarized. The Transients (EMT), power systems modeling & simulation, and
importance of model validation, mixed use of real-time and control prototyping techniques. First, real-time simulation is
offline modes of simulation and test coverage in complex systems defined. An overview of the evolution of real-time simulators
is discussed.
is then presented. Two other essential questions are then
answered. Why is real-time simulation needed? Where does
Index Terms—accelerated simulation, hardware-in-the-loop
(HIL), model-based design (MBD), power system simulation, real-time simulation fit best? Finally, this paper concludes
rapid control prototyping (RCP), real-time simulation, software- with discussion of the importance of model validation, the
in-the-loop (SIL). mixed use of real-time & offline simulation and test coverage
in complex systems.
I. NOMENCLATURE
COTS Commercial off-the-shelf III. WHAT IS REAL-TIME SIMULATION?
DG Distributed Generation A. Time Runs Out and Real-Time Prevails
DSP Digital Signal Processor
EMT Electromagnetic Transients A simulation is a representation of the operation or features
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System of a system through the use or operation of another [1]. For the
FPGA Field-programmable Gate Array types of digital simulation discussed in this paper, it is
HIL Hardware-in-the-Loop assumed a simulation with discrete-time and constant step
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current duration is performed. During discrete-time simulation, time
IGBT Insulated-gate Bipolar Transistor moves forward in steps of equal duration. This is commonly
I/O Inputs and Outputs known as fixed time-step simulation [2]. It is important to note
MBD Model-based Design that other solving techniques exist that use variable time-steps.
PWM Pulse Width Modulation Such techniques are used for solving high frequency dynamics
RES Renewable Energy Sources and non-linear systems, but are unsuitable for real-time
RCP Rapid Control Prototyping simulation [3]. Accordingly, they are not covered in this
SIL Software-in-the-Loop paper.
TNA Transient Network Analyzer To solve mathematical functions and equations at a given
time-step, each variable or system state is solved successively
II. INTRODUCTION as a function of variables and states at the end of the
preceeding time-step. During a discrete-time simulation, the
S IMULATORS have been used extensively in the planning
and design of electrical systems for decades. From the
layout of transmission lines in large scale power systems to
amount of real time required to compute all equations and
functions representing a system during a given time-step may
be shorter or longer than the duration of the simulation time-
J. Bélanger, P. Venne and J.-N. Paquin are with Opal-RT Technologies, step. Figure 1 a) and Figure 1 b) represent these two
1751 Richardson, suite 2525, Montréal, QC H3K 1G6 CANADA (e-mail: possibilities. In a), the computing time is shorter than a fixed
{jean.belanger, philippe.venne, jean-nicolas.paquin}@opal-rt.com)
 38

Figure 1: Real-Time Simulation Requisites and Other

Simulation Techniques

time-step (also referred to as accelerated simulation) while in

b), the computing time is longer. These two situations are
referred to as offline simulation. In both cases, the moment at
which a result becomes available is irrelevent. Typically,
when performing offline simulation, the objective is to obtain
results as fast as possible. The system solving speed depends
on available computation power and the system’s Figure 2: Timing Problem in a Thyristor Converter
mathematical model complexity.
Conversely, during real-time simulation, the accuracy of and states of the simulated system are solved accurately, with
computations not only depends upon precise dynamic an acceptable resemblance to its physical counterpart, without
representation of the system, but also on the length of time the occurence of overruns.
used to produce results [4]. Figure 1 c) illustrates the B. Timing and Constraints
chronological principle of real-time simulation. For a real-time
As previously discussed, real-time digital simulation is
simulation to be valid, the real-time simulator used must
based on discrete time-steps where the simulator solves model
accurately produce the internal variables and outputs of the
equations successively. Proper time-step duration must be
simulation within the same length of time that its physical
determined to accurately represent system frequency response
counterpart would. In fact, the time required to compute the
up to the fastest transient of interest. Simulation results can be
solution at a given time-step must be shorter than the wall-
validated when the simulator achieves real-time without
clock duration of the time-step. This permits the real-time
overruns.
simulator to perform all operations necessary to make a real-
For each time-step, the simulator executes the same series
time simulation relevant, including driving inputs and outputs
of tasks: 1) read inputs and generate outputs 2) solve model
(I/O) to and from externally connected devices (further
equations 3) exchange results with other simulation nodes 4)
discussed in section III. D. and E. ). For a given time-step,
wait for the start of the next step. A simplified explanation of
any idle-time preceding or following simulator operations is
this routine suggests that the state(s) of any externally
lost; as opposed to accelerated simulation, where idle time is
connected device is/are sampled once at the beginning of each
used to compute the equations at the next time-step. In such a
simulation time-step. Consequently, the state(s) of the
case, the simulator waits until the clock ticks to the next time-
simulated system is/are communicated to external devices
step. However, if simulator operations are not all achieved
only once per time-step. As introduced in section III. A. , if
within the required fixed time-step, the real-time simulation is
not all real-time simulation timing conditions are met,
considered erroneous. This is commonly known as an
overruns occur and discrepancies between the simulator
“overrun”.
results and its physical counterpart’s responses are observed.
Based on these basic definitions, it can be concluded that a
The required use of a discrete-time-step solver is an
real-time simulator is performing as expected if the equations
 39

inherent constraint of today’s real-time simulators, and can be

a major limitation when simulating non-linear systems, such
as HVDC, FACTS, active filters or drives. Because of the
nature of discrete-time-step solvers, the occurence of non-
linear events in a real-time simulation, such as transistor
switching, can cause numerical instability. Solving methods to
prevent this problem have been proposed in [5] and [6], but
they cannot be used during real-time simulation. Achieving
real-time is one thing, but achieving it synchronously is
another. With non-linear systems, such as the simple rectifier
circuit illustrated in Figure 2, there is no guarantee that
switching events will occur (or should be simulated) at a
discrete time instance. Furthermore, multiple events can occur
during a single time-step, and without proper handling the
simulator may only be aware of the last one. Recently, real-
time simulator manufacturers have proposed solutions to
timing and stability problems. Proposed solutions generally Figure 3: Simulation Time-step by Application
known as discrete-time compensation techniques usually
simulation and co-simulation environments, where multiple
involve time-stamping and interpolation algorithms. State-of-
tolls are used side by side, is an active research topic.
the-art real-time simulators take advantage of advanced I/O
cards running at sampling rates considerably faster than fixed- C. Choosing the Right Simulator for the Right Time-step
step simulation [7], [8]. The I/O card acquires data faster than The first challenge faced by simulation specialists is to
the simulation, and can read state changes in between select a real-time simulator that will meet their needs.
simulation steps. Then, at the beginning of the next time-step, Simulator capabilities, size and cost are determined by a
the I/O card not only passes state information on to the number of criteria, including 1) the frequency of the highest
simulator, but also timing information as to when the state transients to be simulated, which in turn dictates minimum
change occurred. The simulator can then compensate for the time-step, and 2) the complexity or the size of the system to
timing error. simulate, which along with the time-step duration, dictates the
Figure 2 illustrates a classical case of simulation error computing power required. The number of I/O channels
caused by the late firing of a thyristor in a converter circuit. In required to interface the simulator with physical controllers or
this example, a thyristor is triggered at a 90-degree angle with other hardware is also critically important, affecting the total
respect to the AC voltage source positive zero-crossing. As performance and cost of the simulator.
soon as the thyristor is triggered, current begins to flow Figure 3 outlines typical time-step and computing power
through it. The resulting load current obtained through requirements for a variety of applications. The left side of the
uncompensated real-time simulation (dotted line) is chart illustrates mechanical systems with slow dynamics that
represented with a degree of error in comparison to the current generally require a simulation time-step between 1 and 10
flowing through the real circuit (plain black line). This is milliseconds, according to the rule of thumb that the
because the event at 90 electrical degrees does not occur simulation step should be smaller than 5% to 10 % of the
synchronously to the simulator fixed-time-step. Thus, the smallest time constant of the system. A smaller time-step may
thyristor gate signal is only taken into account at the beginning be required to maintain numerical stability in stiff systems.
of the next time-step. This phenomenon is commonly known When friction phenomena are present, simulation time-steps
as “jitter”. When jitter occurs in a discrete-time simulation, as low as 100 microseconds to 500 microseconds may be
sub-synchronous or uncharacteristic harmonics (amplitude required.
variations) may be visible in resulting waveforms. In this case, It is a common practice with EMT simulators to use a
variations are evident in the thyristor current. simulation time-step of 30 to 50 microseconds to provide
Finally, the use of multiple simulation tools and different acceptable results for transients up to 2 kHz. Because greater
time-step durations during real-time simulation can cause precision can be achieved with smaller time-steps, simulation
problems. When multiple tools are integrated in the same of EMT phenomena with frequency content up to 10 kHz
simulation environment, a method known as co-simulation, typically require a simulation time-step of approximately 10
data transfer between tools can present challenges since microseconds.
synchronization and data validity must be maintained [9]. Accurately simulating fast-switching power electronic
Furthermore, in multi-rate simulations, where parts of a model devices requires the use of very small time-steps to solve
are simulated at different rates (with different time-step system equations [12]. Offline simulation is widely used, but
durations), result accuracy and simulation stability are also is time consuming if no precision compromise is made on
issues [10]. For example, multi-rate simulation may be used to models (i.e. the use of average models). Power
simulate a thermal system with slow dynamics alongside an
electrical system with fast dynamics [11]. Multi-rate
 40

Controller Real Plant selecting a suitable fixed step-size for models with increasing
complexity is a time-domain comparison of waveforms for
+-
repeated runs with different step-sizes.
D. Rapid Control Prototyping
Real-time simulators are typically used in three different
application categories, as illustrated in Figure 4. In RCP
applications (Figure 4 (a)), a plant controller is implemented
using a real-time simulator and is connected to a physical
Real-Time Simulator
plant. RCP offers many advantages over implementing an
(a) RCP with Physical Plant actual controller prototype. A controller prototype developed
using a real-time simulator is more flexible, faster to
Controller Plant implement and easier to debug. The controller prototype can
+-
be tuned on the fly or completely modified with just a few
+
- Motor
mouse clicks. In addition, since every internal controller state
is available, an RCP can be debugged faster without having to
take its cover off.
E. Hardware-in-the-Loop
For HIL applications, a physical controller is connected to a
virtual plant executed on a real-time simulator, instead of to a
Real-Time Simulator Real-Time Simulator
physical plant. Figure 4 (b) illustrates a small variation to HIL;
(b) HIL and SIL an implementation of a controller using RCP is connected to a
virtual plant via HIL. In addition to the advantages of RCP,
Controller Plant HIL allows for early testing of controllers when physical test
+-
benches are not available. Virtual plants also usually cost less
+
-
Motor
and are more constant. This allows for more repeatable results
and provides for testing conditions that are unavailable on real
hardware, such as extreme events testing.
F. Software in the loop
SIL represents the third logical step beyond the
Real-Time Simulator combination of RCP and HIL. With a powerful enough
simulator, both controller and plant can be simulated in real-
(c) Fully Digital Simulation (SIL) time in the same simulator. SIL has the advantage over RCP
Figure 4: Applications Categories and HIL that no inputs and outputs are used, thereby
preserving signal integrity. In addition, since both the
electronic converters with a higher PWM carrier frequency in controller and plant models run on the same simulator, timing
the range of 10 kHz, such as those used in low-power with the outside world is no longer critical; it can be slower or
converters, require time-steps of less than 250 nanoseconds faster than real-time with no impact on the validity of results,
without interpolation, or 10 microseconds with an making SIL ideal for a class of simulation called accelerated
interpolation technique. AC circuits with higher resonance simulation. In accelerated mode, a simulation runs faster than
frequency and very short lines, as expected in low-voltage real-time, allowing for a large number of tests to be performed
distribution circuits and electric rail power feeding systems, in a short period. For this reason, SIL is well suited for
may require time-steps below 20 microseconds. Tests that use statistical testing such as Monte-Carlo simulations. SIL can
practical system configurations and parameters are necessary also run slower than real-time. In this case, if the real-time
to determine minimum time-step size and computing power simulator lacks computing power to reach real-time, a
required to achieve the desired time-step. simulation can still be run at a fraction of real-time, usually
State-of-the-art digital real-time simulators can exhibit jitter faster than on a desktop computer.
and overhead of less than 1microsecond, thereby enabling
time-step values as low as 10 microseconds, leaving plenty of IV. EVOLUTION OF REAL-TIME SIMULATORS
processing resources available for computation of the model. Simulator technology has evolved from physical/analogue
This means that simulation time-steps can be reduced to a simulators (HVDC simulators &TNAs) for EMT and
considerably low value, as necessary, to increase precision or protection & control studies, to hybrid TNA/Analogue/Digital
to prevent numerical instability. simulators capable of studying EMT behavior [13], to fully
Regardless of the simulator used, both numerical solver digital real-time simulators, as illustrated in Figure 5.
performance and the bandwidth of interest are considerations Physical simulators served their purpose well. However,
when selecting the right time-step. The standard approach for they were very large, expensive and required highly skilled
 41

Cost Real-Time Simulation

Analog Similators
Requirements Test
Hybrid (Analog/Digital) Simulators
Offline Simulation

Custom Digital Simulators Architecture Verification

Digital Supercomputer
Simulators
Design Integration
Digital COTS
Simulators
Prototype
FPGA
Simulation
On Chip
Concept Assessment Demonstration Manufacture In-service
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Time

Figure 5: Evolution of Real-Time Simulation Technologies Figure 6: Model-based Design Workflow

technical teams to handle the tedious jobs of setting up large number of commercially available power system
networks and maintaining extensive inventories of complex analysis software tools, such as PSS/E, EMTP-RV and
equipment. With the development of microprocessor and PSCAD, as well as multi-domain software tools such as
floating-point DSP technologies, physical simulators have SIMULINK and DYMOLA. The integration of multi-domain
been gradually replaced with fully digital real-time simulators. simulation tools with electrical simulators enables the analysis
DSP-based real-time simulators developed using of interactions between electrical, power electronic,
proprietary technology, and used primarily for HIL studies, mechanical and fluid dynamic systems.
were the first of the new breed of digital simulator to become The latest trend in real-time simulation consists of
commercially available [14]. However, the limitations of using exporting simulation models to FPGA [19]. This approach has
proprietary hardware were recognized quickly, leading to the many advantages. First, computation time within each time-
development of commercial supercomputer-based simulators, step is almost independent of system size because of the
such as HYPERSIM from Hydro-Quebec [15], which is no parallel nature of FPGAs. Second, overruns cannot occur once
longer commercially available. Attempts have been made by the model is running and timing constrains are met. Last but
universities and research organizations to develop fully digital most importantly, the simulation time-step can be very small,
real-time simulators using low-cost standard PC technology, in the order of 250 nanoseconds. There are still limitations on
in an effort to eliminate the high costs associated with the use model size since the number of gates is limited in FPGAs.
of high-end supercomputers [16]. Such development was very However, this technique holds promise.
difficult due to the lack of fast, low-cost inter-computer
communication links. However, the advent of low-cost, V. WHY IS REAL-TIME SIMULATION NEEDED?
readily available multi-core processors [17] (from INTEL and
A. Model-based Design
AMD) and related COTS computer components has directly
addressed this issue, clearing the way for the development of MBD is a mathematical and graphical method of
much lower cost and easily scalable real-time simulators. In addressing problems associated with the design of complex
fact, today’s low-cost computer boards equipped with eight systems [20]. MBD is a methodology based on a workflow
processor cores provide greater performance than 24-CPU known as the “V” diagram, as illustrated in Figure 6. It allows
supercomputers that were available only 10 years ago. The multiple engineers involved in a design and modelling project
availability of this low-cost, high performance processor to use models to communicate knowledge of the system under
technology has also reduced the need to cluster multiple PCs development, in an efficient and organized manner [21]. Four
to conduct complex parallel simulation, thereby reducing basic steps are necessary in the process: 1) build the plant
dependence on sometimes-costly inter-computer model; 2) analyze the plant model and synthetize a controller
communication technology. for it; 3) simulate the plant and controller together and 4)
COTS-based high-end real-time simulators equipped with deploy the controller.
multi-core processors have been used in aerospace, robotics, MBD offers many advantages. By using models, a common
automotive and power electronic system design and testing for design environment is available to every engineer involved in
a number of years [18]. Recent advancements in multi-core creating a system from beginning to end. Indeed, the use of a
processor technology means that such simulators are now common set of tools facilitates communication and data
available for the simulation of EMT expected in large-scale exchange. Reusing older designs is also easier since the design
power grids, microgrids, wind farms and power systems environment can remain homogeneous through different
installed in all-electric ships and aircraft. These simulators, projects. In addition to MBD, graphical modeling tools, such
operating under Windows, LINUX and standard real-time as the SimPowerSystem toolbox for Simulink from The
operating systems, have the potential to be compatible with a MathWorks [22], simplify the design task by reducing the
 42

complexity of models through the use of a hierarchical

approach. Modeling techniques have also been employed in
order to embed independent coded models inside the power
systems simulation tool PSCAD/EMTDC [23].
Most commercial simulation tools provide an Automatic
Code Generator that facilitates the transition from controller
model to controller implementation. The added value of real- (a) Interaction with a User
time simulation in MBD emerges from the use of an
Automatic Code Generator [24], [25]. By using an Automatic
Code Generator with a real-time simulator, an RCP can be
implemented from a model with minimal effort. The prototype
can then be used to accelerate integration and verification
testing, something that cannot be done using offline
simulation. The same holds true for HIL testing. By using an (b) Interaction with Equipment
HIL test bench, test engineers become part of the design
workflow earlier in the process, sometimes before an actual
plant becomes available. For example, by using the HIL
methodology, automotive test engineers can start early testing
of a car controller before a physical test bench is available.
Combining RCP and HIL, while using the MBD approach, has
many advantages: (b) Interaction with a User and Equipment
• Design issues can be discovered earlier in the
process, enabling required tradeoffs to be Figure 7: Types of Simulator Interaction
determined and applied, thereby reducing
development costs;
• Development cycle duration is reduced due to
parallelization in the workflow; meter.
• Testing costs can be reduced in the medium- to Online model configuration and full data availability make
long-term since HIL test setups often cost less previously unthinkable applications possible. For example,
then physical setups and the real-time simulator verifying if a controller can compensate for changes in plant
employed can be typically used for multiple dynamics caused by component aging.
applications and projects ;
• Testing results are more repeatable since real-time VI. WHERE DOES IT FIT BEST?
simulator dynamics do not change through time
A. Power Generation Applications
the way physical systems do;
• Can replace risky or expensive tests using Testing of complex HVDC networks, SVCs, STATCOMs
physical test benches; and FACTS device control systems, under steady state and
transient operating conditions, is a mandatory practice during
B. Interaction with the Model both the controller development phase and before final system
Figure 7 illustrates the advantages of model interaction. commissioning [26], [27], [28]. Testing is performed in order
These interactions can be (a) with a system user, (b) with to reduce risks associated with conducting tests on physical
physical equipment or (c) with both at the same time. networks. HIL testing must be performed successfully with a
When a user or physical equipment interacts with a real- prototype controller before a real controller is installed in the
time model, they can provide model inputs and get model field. Thousands of systematic and random tests are typically
outputs, as it would with a real plant. A model executed on a required to test performance under normal and abnormal
real-time simulator can also be modified online, which is not operating conditions. This testing can also detect instabilities
possible with a real plant. In addition, any model parameter caused by unwanted interactions between control functions
can be read and updated continuously. For example, in a and the power system, such as other FACTS devices that may
power plant simulation, the shaft inertia of a turbine can be interact with the system under test.
modified during simulation to determine its effect on stability, Protection & insulation coordination techniques for large
something impossible on a real power plant. power systems use statistical studies to deal with inherent
Furthermore, with a real-time simulator, any model random events, such as the electrical angle at which a breaker
quantity is accessible during execution. For example, in a closes, or the point-on-wave at which a fault appears [29]. By
wind turbine application, the torque imposed on the generator testing multiple fault occurrences, measured quantities can be
from the gearbox is available, since it is a modeled quantity. In identified, recorded and stored in databases for later retrieval,
a real wind turbine, getting a precise torque value in real-time analysis and study. While traditional off-line simulation
is near impossible due to the prohibitive cost of a torque software (e.g. ATP, EMTP) can be used to conduct statistical
 43

X)
X)
(a) Multilevel VSC-Based
STATCOM
Figure 9: Automotive Applications
electronic devices requires the use of very small time-steps to
solve system equations. Moreover, synchronous generators,
which are typically the main generation sources on grids, have
a slow response to EMT. The simulation of fast-switching
power electronic devices in combination with slow
electromechanical components in an electrical network is
challenging for large grid benchmark studies; even more so if
proper computation resources are not available. Off-line
simulation is widely used in the field but is time consuming,
(b) Large Power Systems particularly if no precision compromise is made on models
(i.e. the use of average models). By using real-time simulation,
the overall stability and transient responses of the power
system can be investigated in a timely matter, both before and
after the integration of RES and DG,. Statistical studies can be
performed to determine worst-case scenarios, optimize power
system planning and mitigate the effect of the integration of
these new energy sources.
B. Automotive Applications
Hybrid electric vehicles built by companies like Toyota and
Honda have become economically viable and widely available
(c) Renewables Integration in recent years. Considerable research is also underway in the
development of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles, where the
Figure 8: Power Generation Applications main energy source is hydrogen-based. Successful research &
development of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles requires
studies during the development of protection algorithms, once state-of-the-art technology for design and testing. Lack of
a hardware relay is built, further evaluation and development prior experience, expensive equipment and shorter
may require using a real time simulator. Typical studies developmental cycles are forcing researchers to use MBD
include digital relay behavior evaluation in different power techniques for development of control systems [32]. For this
system operating conditions. Furthermore, relay action may reason, thorough testing of traction subsystems is performed
influence the power system, increase distortions, and thus using HIL simulation [33], as illustrated by Figure 9. For
affect other relays. Because it is a two-way street, closed loop example, a real-time simulation of a realistic fuel cell hybrid
testing in real time is necessary for many system studies and electric vehicle circuit, consisting of a fuel-cell, battery, DC-
for protection system development. DC converter and permanent magnet motor drives, with a
The integration of DG devices, including some microgrid sufficient number of I/O for real controllers in HIL mode, can
applications, and renewable energy sources (RES), such as now be done with a time-step duration below 25 microseconds
wind farms, is one of the primary challenges facing electrical [34].
engineers today [30], [31], as illustrated in Figure 8 (c). It
requires in-depth analysis and the contributions of many C. All-Electric Ships & Electric Train Networks
engineers from different specialized fields. With the growing Today, the development and integration of controllers for
demand in the area, there is a need for engineering studies of electric train and All-Electric Ship applications is a more
the impact that the interconnection of DG and RES will have difficult task than ever before. Emergence of high-power
on specific grids. The fact that RES and DG are usually switching devices has enabled the development of new
connected to the grid using power electronic converters is a solutions with improved controllability and efficiency. It has
challenge in itself. Accurately simulating fast-switching power also increased the necessity for more stringent test and
 44

9 -level GTO
Phase A transformer bridge inverter
(6 windings) Diode rectifiers

920 V Phase A of Load

54 mF
+30 degree

920 V R-L load

Network 54 mF
3000 V
+15 degree
SM
3000 V L-
L 920 V
54 mF
0 degree

920 V
54 mF

-15 degree

internal
neutral point
9 -level
Phase B transformers bridg
-rectifier GTO
phase B inverte
e
r
9 -level
Phase C transformers- bridg
GTO
rectifiers phase C inverte
e
r

(a) Electric Train

Figure 11: Aerospace Applications

-
Motor

(c) Defence

(b) All-electric Ship

Figure 10: Train and Ship Applications

Figure 12: Smaller Scale Applications
integration capabilities since these new topologies come with
less design experience on the part of system designers. To to conduct integration tests [36].
address this issue, real-time simulation can be a very useful
tool to test, validate and integrate various subsystems of D. Aerospace
modern rail and marine vehicle devices [35], as illustrated by While most aerospace applications do not need the
Figure 10. The requirements for rail/marine vehicle test and extremely low time-steps required in power generation or
integration reaches several levels on the control hierarchy, automotive applications, repeatability and accuracy of
from low-level power electronic converters used for simulation results is extremely critical for safety reasons.
propulsion and auxiliary systems to high-level supervisory Accordingly, aircraft manufacturers must conform to stringent
controls. industry standards. Developed by the US-based Radio
The modular design and redundancies built into the power Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA), the DO-
system of an All-Electric warship are critical in ensuring the 178B standard establishes guidelines for avionics software
ship’s reliability and survivability during battle. For instance, quality and testing in real-world conditions [37]. DO-254 is a
auxiliary propulsion systems will dynamically replace the formal standard governing design of airborne electronic
primary system in case of failure. This implies that the power hardware [38].
system can be dynamically reconfigured, such as in zonal The complex control systems found onboard today’s
electric distribution systems (ZEDS) designed by the US aircraft are also developed and tested according to these
Navy. Therefore, power management operations need to be standards. As a result, aerospace engineers need higher
highly efficient. Power quality issues must be kept to a precision testing and simulation technologies that will ensure
minimum, and operational integrity must be as high as compliance. They must also meet the market’s demands for
possible during transients caused by system reconfigurations innovative new products, built on time, to spec and within
or loss of modules. The design and integration of an All- budget.
Electric Ship’s ZEDS is a challenge. It requires testing of the E. Electric Drive & Motor Development and Testing
interactions between hundreds of interconnected power
A critical aspect in the deployment of motor drives is the
electronic subsystems, built by different manufacturers. Large
early detection of defects in the design process. The later in
analog test benches or the use of actual equipment during
the process that a problem is discovered, the greater the cost to
system commissioning is therefore required at different stages
fix it. Rapid prototyping of motor controllers is a methodology
of the project. A real-time simulator can be used to perform
that enables the control engineer to quickly deploy control
HIL integration tests to evaluate the performance of some
algorithms and find eventual problems. This is performed
parts of these very complex systems, thereby reducing the
using an RCP connected in closed-loop with a physical
cost, duration and risks related to the use of actual equipment
prototype of the drive to be controlled, as illustrated in Figure
 45

12. This methodology implies that the real motor drive is G. Education: University Research into Development
available at the RCP. Furthermore, this set-up requires a To keep pace with the current technological revolution,
second drive (such as a DC motor drive) to be connected to universities must change. New ways must be found to teach
the motor drive under test to emulate the mechanical load. future engineers using a transdisciplinary approach; leveraging
While this is a complex setup, it has proven very effective in the possibilities offered by new tools that talented engineers
detecting problems earlier in the design process. In cases are seeking, while providing them with practical experience
where a physical drive is not available, or where only costly that cultivate their creativity [40]. In this context, electronic
prototypes are available, an HIL-simulated motor drive can be circuit simulators such as CircuitLogix, based on PSpice, have
used during the RCP development stage. In such cases, the been used as teaching aids for many years in electronics and
dynamometer, real IGBT converter and motor are replaced by control system classes. Their workflow is quite
a real-time virtual motor drive model. This approach has a straightforward; build the circuit with the circuit editor tool,
number of advantages. For example, the simulated motor drive run the simulation and analyze the results. However, when it is
can be tested with borderline conditions that would otherwise necessary to study the effect of the variation of many
damage a real motor. In addition, setup of the controlled-speed parameters (oscillator frequency, duty cycle, discrete
test bench is simplified since the virtual shaft speed is set by a component values) this process can take a great deal of time
single model signal, as opposed to using a real bench, where a [41]. In such situations, interactive simulation, based on a real-
second drive would need to be used to control the shaft speed time simulator that enables model parameter changes on the
[39]. fly, becomes a valuable teaching tool. With such a tool,
1
NO
changes to the model are instantly visible, providing students
Brake T
signal

2
NO AN
with the live feedback required for them to get a feel for how a
Accelerator Pedal T D
value

5
NO
system reacts to the applied changes, as illustrated in Figure
Switch T
Regulator
Enabl
e

Speed Fuel
14.
3 1
Speed Target Quantity Fuel
Target Quantity
Actual Vehicle
4
Actual Vehicle
Speed
Speed
Speed
Regulator
H. Emerging Applications
Real-time simulation is in use in two additional emerging
applications. Since a real-time simulator can provide outputs
and read inputs, it is an ideal tool for equipment
commissioning and testing, as depicted in Figure 15 (a). Not
only can it mimic a real plant, it can emulate other devices,
play a recorded sequence of events and record a device under
test response. Modern simulators can also provide simulated
Figure 13: Mechatronic Applications network connections such as CAN, GPIB and Ethernet. The
application of real-time simulators to equipment
F. Mechatronics: Robotics & Industrial Automation commissioning and tests is common in the manufacturing of
electronic control modules (ECMs). For this application, the
Mechatronic systems that integrate mechanical and
use of real-time simulators saves test bench costs and reduces
electronic capabilities are at the heart of robotic and Industrial
testing time.
Automation applications. Such systems often integrate high-
frequency drive technology and complex electrical and power
Real-time simulation can also be used for operator and
electronic systems. Using real-time simulation for design &
technician training, as illustrated in Figure 15 (b). While this
test helps ensure greater efficiency of systems deployed in
application category is in an early growth stage, it offers great
large-scale manufacturing and for unique, but growing
potential. For this category of application, both controller and
applications of robotics.
plant are modeled in the same simulator using an SIL-like
approach. The difference is that user interfaces are added in
order to allow the operator to interact with the simulation in a
user-friendly way. Interfaces such as control panels and
joysticks manage user inputs, but also provide feedback to the
user about the simulation state. The advantage of using a real-
time simulator for training is that the user can get a feeling for
the controller and plant that correctly represents the real
system, without the delays and limitations commonly found in
training environments based on pre-recorded scenarios.

Figure 14: Education Applications

 46

20 20

Plant

Motor Current [A]

10 10

NETWORK
0 0
+
Motor
-

-10 -10

Automated Test
Sequencer -20
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012
-20
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012
Time [sec] Time [sec]

SERIAL
GPIB
CAN

SERIAL
20 20

GPIB
CAN

Motor Current [A]

10 10

Device under test Real-Time Simulator

0 0

(a) Equipment Commissioning and Tests -10 -10

Plant and Controller -20

0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012
-20
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012
Time [sec] Time [sec]
+-

20 20

+
Motor
-
10 10
User Interfaces

Motor Current [A]

NETWORK

0 0

-10 -10
NETWORK

-20 -20
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012
Time [sec] Time [sec]

Operator Real-Time Simulator

(b) Operator & Technician Training

Figure 15: Emerging Applications

VII. FOOD FOR THOUGHT

A. A Word on Validation
While the complexity of design projects has steadily Figure 16: Real-Time Simulation Validation
increased, engineers face growing pressure to reduce transitions are recorded and then forwarded to the IGBT
development costs and time-to-market of new products. As a model. To make use of transition times, it is necessary to use a
result, testing and validation of complex systems has become special IGBT inverter model; in this case an RT-EVENTS
an important part of the design process. In the case of AC time-stamped inverter model [8] that implements interpolation
motor drives, engineers use the HIL methodology to connect a for fixed-step simulation of voltage source inverters and PWM
part of the system or its prototype to a real-time digital model generation units.
of the remaining part of the system. By using an FPGA-based I/O board to capture PWM gate
The most critical criterion in conducting a real-time digital signals, and a time-stamped, interpolated inverter model, it is
simulation is how to obtain acceptable model accuracy with an possible to circumvent the jitter problem encountered when
achievable simulation time-step. This is an especially simulating switching converters at a large fixed time-step, and
challenging task for simulation of fast-switching power associated non-characteristic harmonics and anomalies. In
electronics and motor drives. These non-linear systems need addition, it is possible to take into account the effect of dead
very small time-steps to achieve an acceptable degree of time, even if it is much smaller than the real-time simulation
accuracy. step.
A basic question then emerges: How can one trust the For this experiment, the carrier frequency is set
validity of simulator results? To build trust in a simulation respectively to 2.25, 4.5, and 9.0 kHz; the effect of these
tool, a large number of validation tests must be performed frequencies on the oscillation of current waveforms is verified,
using many different applications, configurations, time-steps as shown in Figure 16 (a), (b) and (c). The experiment
and I/O cards. In the example of the AC motor drive, a parameters are: Motor speed = 1,800 r/min, Motor torque =
validation test is performed against a physical test setup, as 16.0 Nm, Dead Time = 4.2 µs. A comparison of the current of
illustrated by Figure 16 (d) and (e). the HIL simulator and actual physical system shows they are
In this setup, PWM signals from the controller are captured very similar for all carrier frequencies [42].
using an FPGA-based I/O card. By capturing PWM signals
with an FPGA-based card, the times of rising and falling
 47

B. Added Value of Mixing Offline and Real-Time 50

Number of samples
Simulation 40
Simultaneous simulation of fast and long phenomena 30
pushes the simulation tools used in the planning and operation
20
of power systems to their limits. Indeed, such challenges are
multi-disciplinary. Each specialized field may require the use 10
of multiple design, prototyping and simulation tools. When 0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
considering power systems only, different tools may be used Maximum Wind Farm Collector Voltage (p.u.)
for load flow studies, stability analysis and EMT simulations.

Cumulative probability
The transient response of an interconnected power system 1

ranges from fast (microseconds) EMT, through electro- 0.9

mechanical power swings (milliseconds), to slower modes 0.8

influenced by the prime mover boiler and fuel feed systems 0.7

(seconds to minutes). For the modeling of EMT caused by 0.6

large disturbances, such as network faults and/or plant 0.5

outages, system states must be evaluated at intervals in the 0.4

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
order of milliseconds over time scales of seconds. For small- Maximum Wind Farm Collector Voltage (p.u.)
signal and voltage stability assessment, the time scale needs to
be extended to minutes, and for voltage security tens of Figure 17: Example of Monte Carlo Statistical test:
minutes to hours. During this period, accurate representation Windfarm Collector Over Voltage Characterization
of power electronic devices requires relatively small time- During a Fault
steps, typical of EMT simulators, but impractical for phasor-
increasingly dependent on complex control systems and power
type electromechanical dynamic simulation tools.
electronic devices. Furthermore, the proliferation of DG
While EMT simulation software, such as EMTP-RV and
plants, often based on the use of RES, presents significant
PSCAD, represent the most accurate simulation tools available
challenges to the design and stable operation of today’s power
for detailed representation of power electronic devices, such
systems. Examples include the integration with the existing
tools are not practical for simulation of the dynamics of very
power grid of wind farms, photovoltaic cells, other power-
large systems. The EMT simulation of a system with
electronic-based DG systems, domestic loads and future plug-
thousands of busses and many power electronic devices
in electric vehicles.
requires an excessive amount of time to simulate long
These applications take full advantage of multiple, very
transients at a very small time-step. Conversely, fundamental-
fast, and distributed power electronic systems that, in many
frequency transient stability simulation software such as
cases, are of innovative design and may have never been
Eurostag, DigSilent and PSS/E enables very fast simulation,
integrated together, or with a power grid. In most cases, these
but such tools use relatively long integration steps in the order
distributed systems have been designed, manufactured and
of 1 to 20 milliseconds. Consequently, highly non-linear
commercialized as individual off-the-shelf products, with no
elements, common in HVDC and FACTS devices, can only be
consideration given to total system performance. Validated
represented as modified steady-state models. Since switching
models suitable for EMT, as well as dynamic stability analysis
devices and control systems are not represented in detail, the
under normal and abnormal conditions, are usually not
overall accuracy of conventional transient stability programs
available. This poses a new and significant challenge to utility
suffers, and contingencies involving mal-operation of FACTS
and system engineers who must guarantee total system
and AC-DC converter devices cannot be adequately
performance and security.
represented.
With the help of real-time simulation, interactions with
As a result, these simulation tasks are currently performed
other control and protection systems, whether they are
using separate simulation tools, and significant compromises
simulated or implemented in final hardware connected via
are required to deal with the respective shortcomings of the
HIL, can be easily analyzed and tested for a variety of normal
different simulations. The requirement to simultaneously
and fault conditions. Therefore, when analytical methods fail
simulate all mechanical, electrical and power electronic
to provide rigorous data on power system stability margins,
subsystems using heterogeneous tools provided by several
currents and voltage intensity limits, statistical methods such
software houses is becoming essential for many applications.
as Monte Carlo studies, combined with real-time simulation,
Consequently, real-time digital simulators with the capability
helps supply the missing data needed for the appropriate
to integrate all necessary simulation tools in off-line or real-
dimensioning of power system components [29]. Real-time
time co-simulation mode [43] have an advantage over real-
simulation, in SIL or HIL configurations, can then
time digital simulators based on closed computer systems that
significantly reduce the time required to complete the analysis.
cannot execute third-party software.
Since testing time is reduced, more tests can be performed,
C. Better Test Coverage in Complex Systems increasing coverage and statistical confidence in the results.
The secure operation of power systems has become Figure 17, for example, illustrates a statistical analysis of the
overvoltage intensity at the collector of a wind farm for
 48

different fault durations and point-on-wave position of a Electronics, 2008. ISIE 2008., 2008, pp. 2231-2235.
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simulator capable of interfacing with fast-switching power 232-238.
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statistical distributions, such as in a Monte-Carlo study. This
Symposium (ESTS 2009), 2009, pp. 36-43.
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[10] R. Bednar and R. E. Crosbie, "Stability of Multi-Rate
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IX. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Cloutier, S. Poulin, “Hypersim, an Integrated Real-Time
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Opal-RT Technologies customers and distributors who agreed Vasteras, Sweden, may 1999, pp 1-6.
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[24] H. Hanselmann, U. Kiffmeier, L. Koster, M. Meyer, and A. Certification," Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics
Rukgauer, "Production quality code generation from Simulink Standard DO-178B, 1992.
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1997, vol. 3, pp. 942-947. 34th Annual Conference of Industrial Electronics (IECON
[26] C. Dufour, S. Abourida, J. Bélanger, "InfiniBand-Based Real- 2008), Orlando, FL, 10-13 nov. 2008, pp. 2411-2416.
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[27] Y. Liu, et al., "Controller hardware-in-the-loop validation for a [41] J.-J. Huselstein, P. Enrici, and T. Martire, "Interactive
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"Generalized average modelling of FACTS for real time Dufour, J. Belanger, “Real-Time Simulation of a Complete
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"Monte-Carlo Study on a Large-Scale Power System Model in (2006) www.opal-rt.com. [Online]. http://www.opal-
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Off-Line Simulation of a Detailed Wind Farm Model Electric and Electronic Systems," IEEE Transactions on Power
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XI. BIOGRAPHIES
Loop Simulation Platform for Prototyping and Testing of Wind
Generator Controllers" in 2008 CIGRE Conference on Power
Jean Bélanger (M’88) is the President, CEO and founder of Opal-RT
Systems, Winnipeg, Canada. October 19-21, 2008.
Technologies, Inc. He is an expert in Real-Time Simulation of power systems,
[32] C. Dufour, T. K. Das, S. Akella,”Real Time Simulation of with more than 25 years of experience in the field, including many years as
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle”, part of the Simulation division of Hydro-Quebec where he helped developed
Proceedings of the 2005 Global Powertrain Congress (GPC- the world’s first 735 kV power transmission systems. He received his M.Sc.
05), Sept. 27-29, 2005, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. from Laval University, Quebec. Since 2001, Mr. Bélanger is a fellow of the
Canadian Academy of Engineering.
[33] C. Dufour, T. Ishikawa, S. Abourida, and J. Belanger, "Modern
Hardware-In-the-Loop Simulation Technology for Fuel Cell Philippe Venne (S'99) received the B.Eng. in computer engineering from
Hybrid Electric Vehicles", in IEEE Vehicle Power and Université du Québec à Hull, Canada in 2002 and the M.Sc. degree from
Propulsion Conference (VPPC 2007), Arlington, TX, USA, 9- Université du Québec à Rimouski, Canada in 2006. While enrolled as a Ph.D.
12 Sept. 2007, pp. 432-439. student with the Aalborg University in Denmark, he joined Opal-RT
C. Dufour, J. Bélanger, T. Ishikawa, K. Uemura, “Advances in Technologies in 2009 as a Power Systems Simulation Specialist with the EMS
[34] team. His professional interests include wind turbine simulation and control,
Real-Time Simulation of Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles”, ”, as well as smart grids.
Proceedings of the 21st Electric Vehicle Symposium (EVS-21),
April 2-6 2005, Monte Carlo, Monaco
Jean-Nicolas Paquin (M’08) is a Power Systems Simulation Specialist at
[35] C. Dufour, G. Dumur, J. .-N. Paquin, and J. Belanger, "A multi- Opal-RT Technologies since 2007, and leader of the Modeling and Simulation
core pc-based simulator for the hardware-in-the-loop testing of R&D team (EMS). He received his M.Eng. degree in 2006 from École de
modern train and ship traction systems," in the 13th Power Technologie Supérieure (ÉTS) in Montreal, Canada. His professional interests
Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC include the simulation and study of HVDC control and protection systems as
well as inverter-based DG. He is involved in real-time simulation expertise
2008), Poznan, Poland, 1-3 Sept. 2008, pp. 1475–1480.
and consulting services.
[36] J.N. Paquin, W. Li, J. Belanger, L. Schoen, I. Peres, C. Olariu,
H. Kohmann, “A Modern and Open Real-Time Digital
Simulator of All-Electric Ships with a Multi-Platform Co-
Simulation Approach”, Proceedings of the 2009 Electric Ship
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April 20-22, pp. 28-35
[37] Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics, "Software
Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment
 50

Parameter Determination for Power Systems

Transients
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco (*)

Choose the mathematical

Abstract—An accurate representation of power components is representation of the
essential for reliable transients studies. In many applications, the power component
most critical step in the construction of a transient model is the
determination of the parameters that have to be specified in that
model. This chapter reviews the modeling guidelines proposed
Collect the information
for representation of power components in electromagnetic neded to derive the
transients studies and the various approaches that can be used mathematical model
for parameter determination of the most important power
components.

Index Terms—Electromagnetic Transients, Modeling,

Yes Is this No
Simulation, Parameter Determination, Overhead Line, Insulated information
Cable, Transformer, Synchronous Machine, Surge Arrester, enough?
Circuit Breaker.
Perform the conversion Estimate the value of
I. INTRODUCTION procedure some parameters

U SERS of electromagnetic transients tools (e.g., EMTP-

type programs) spend only a small amount of their total
project time running simulations. Most of their time is
Fig. 1. Procedure to obtain a complete representation of a power
component [1].

generally spent obtaining parameters for component models, This chapter deals with parameter determination and is
benchmarking the components models to confirm proper aimed at reviewing the procedures to be performed for
behaviors, constructing models, and testing the overall system deriving the mathematical representation data of the most
model to verify an adequate performance. Only when important power components in electromagnetic transient
component models and the overall system representation have simulations.
been verified, one can confidently proceed to run simulations. The document presents a summary of modeling guidelines
This is an iterative process. If simulation results can be and an introduction to parameter determination for transients
compared against actual event records, more model testing studies. The core of this chapter is dedicated to detail the
and adjustment may be required. representation and the parameter determination of some
Fig. 1 shows a flow chart of the procedure suggested to important power components. Due to room limitations no
obtain the complete representation of a power component [1]: practical examples have been included. For more details
1) first, choose the mathematical model; readers are referred to the specialized literature, see [2] - [13]
2) second, collect the information that could be useful to
determine the values of parameters to be specified; II. MODELING GUIDELINES
3) third, decide whether the available data are enough or not The simulation of transient phenomena may require a
to derive all parameters. representation of network components valid for a frequency
Note that the procedure depicted in Fig. 1 assumes that the range that varies from dc to several MHz. An acceptable
values of the parameters to be specified in some mathematical representation of each component throughout this frequency
descriptions are not necessarily readily available and they range is very difficult, and for most components is not
must be deduced from other information using a data practically possible. In some cases, even when a wideband
conversion procedure. version is available, it may have some computational
limitations or require more complex data.
Modeling of power components taking into account the
frequency-dependence of parameters can be currently
achieved through mathematical models which are accurate
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco is with the Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica,
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.
enough for a specific range of frequencies. Each range of
(*) The material used for the preparation of this chapter comes from frequencies usually corresponds to some particular transient
references [1] – [13]. Credit should be also given to all contributors of those phenomena. One of the most accepted classifications is that
references. proposed by the IEC and CIGRE, in which frequency ranges
 51

are classified into four groups: low-frequency oscillations, 5) Perform a sensitivity study if one or several parameters
from 0.1 Hz to 3 kHz, slow-front surges, from 50/60 Hz to 20 cannot be accurately determined. Results derived from
kHz, fast-front surges, from 10 kHz to 3 MHz, very-fast-front such study will show what parameters are of concern.
surges, from 100 kHz to 50 MHz.
If a representation is already available for each frequency III. PARAMETER DETERMINATION
range, the selection of the model may suppose an iterative The mathematical model of a power component must
procedure: the model must be selected based on the frequency represent the effects of electromagnetic fields and losses. The
range of the transients to be simulated; however, the following paragraphs discuss the effects that have to be
frequency ranges of the test case are not usually known before represented and what are the approaches that can be used to
performing the simulation. This task can be alleviated by determine electrical parameters.
looking into widely accepted classification tables. Table I 1) Electromagnetic field effects are in general represented
shows a list of common transient phenomena. using a circuit approach: magnetic field effects are
Table I Origin and frequency ranges of transients in power systems represented by means of inductors and coupling between
them, while electric fields effects are replaced by
Origin Frequency Range capacitors. In increased precision models, such as
distributed-parameter transmission lines, parameters
Ferroresonance 0.1 Hz - 1 kHz cannot be lumped, and mathematical models are based on
Load rejection 0.1 Hz - 3 kHz solving differential equations with matrix coupling.
Fault clearing 50 Hz - 3 kHz 2) Losses can be caused in windings, cores or insulations.
They are also represented using a circuit approach.
Line switching 50 Hz - 20 kHz However, in many situations losses cannot be separated
Transient recovery voltages 50 Hz - 100 kHz from electromagnetic fields: skin effect is caused by the
Lightning overvoltages 10 kHz - 3 MHz magnetic field constrained in windings, and produce
frequency-dependent winding losses; core losses depend
Disconnector switching in GIS 100 kHz - 50 MHz
on the peak magnetic flux and the frequency of this field;
An important effort has been dedicated to clarify the main corona losses are caused when the electric field exceeds
aspects to be considered when representing power the inception corona voltage; insulation losses are caused
components in transient simulations. Users of electromagnetic by the electric field and show an almost linear behavior.
transients tools can nowadays obtain information on this field Approaches that can be used to represent losses would
from several sources; see [14]-[16]. include: a resistor (with either linear or nonlinear
The simulation of a transient phenomenon implies not only behavior), a hysteresis cycle, or a combination of various
the selection of models but the selection of the system area types of circuit elements. More sophisticated loss models
that must be represented. Rules to be considered in the must include frequency-dependence.
simulation of electromagnetic transients when selecting Parameters used to represent electromagnetic field effects
models and the system area can be summarized as follows: and losses can be deduced as follows:
1) Select the system zone taking into account the frequency • Techniques based on geometry; for instance a numerical
range of the transients; the higher the frequencies, the solution aimed at solving the partial-differential equations
smaller the zone modeled. of the electromagnetic fields developed within the
2) Minimize the part of the system to be represented. An component and based on the Finite Element Method
increased number of components does not necessarily (FEM), a numerical technique that can be used with most
mean increased accuracy, since there could be a higher components. However, more simple techniques have been
probability of insufficient or wrong modeling. In addition, also developed; for instance, an analytical solution based
a very detailed representation of a system will usually on a simplified geometry and the separation of the electric
require longer simulation time. and magnetic field is used with lines and cables. Factory
3) Implement an adequate representation of losses. Since measurements can be needed to obtain material properties
their effect on maximum voltages and oscillation (i.e., resistivity, permeability and permittivity); although
frequencies is limited, they do not play a critical role in very often these values can be also obtained from
many cases. There are, however, some cases (e.g., standards or manufacturer catalogues. If the behavior of
ferroresonance or capacitor bank switching) for which the component is assumed linear, permeabilities are
losses are critical to defining the magnitude of approximated by that of the vacuum. If the behavior of the
overvoltages. component is nonlinear (i.e., ferromagnetic materials do
4) Consider an idealized representation of some components saturate), factory tests can be used to obtain saturation
if the system to be simulated is too complex. Such curves/hysteresis cycles. However, factories rarely provide
representation will facilitate the edition of the data file and complete saturation data. Saturation curves are generally
simplify the analysis of simulation results. made by calculation of the air-core impedance (saturated
slope) and flux-axis intercept level. In some cases tests are
 52

used to generate the early part of the curve before hard Lumped-parameter line models represent transmission
saturation. systems by lumped R, L, G and C elements whose values are
• Factory tests are mainly used with transformers and calculated at a single frequency. These models, known as pi-
rotating machines. Tests developed with this purpose can models, are adequate for steady-state calculations, although
be grouped into steady-state and transient tests. The first they can also be used for transient simulations in the
group can be classified into fixed frequency tests (no load neighborhood of the frequency at which parameters were
and short-circuit tests are frequently used) and variable evaluated. The most accurate models for transient calculations
frequency tests (frequency response tests). are those that take into account the distributed nature of the
When parameter determination is based on factory tests line parameters [14]-[16].
(e.g., a frequency response test), a data conversion The selection of an adequate line model is required in many
procedure can be required; that is, in many cases, transient studies (e.g., power quality, protection or secondary
parameters to be specified in a given model are not directly arc studies), but it is probably in overvoltage calculations
provided by factory measurements. where adequate and accurate line models are crucial. The
Factory tests are usually performed according to standards. number of spans and the models required to represent each
However, the factory tests defined by standards often do not part (conductors and shield wires, towers, grounding,
provide all of the data needed for transient modeling and there insulation) depend on the voltage stress cause. The following
are some cases for which no standard has been proposed to rules summarize the modeling guidelines to be followed in
date. This is applicable to both transformers and rotating each case.
machines, although the most significant case is related to the 1. In power-frequency and temporary overvoltage calculati-
representation of three-phase core transformers in low- and ons, the whole transmission line length must be included
mid-frequency transients [4], [10]. The simulation of the in the model, but only the representation of phase
asymmetrical behavior that can be caused by some transients conductors is needed. A multi-phase model with lumped
must be based on models for which no standard has been yet and constant parameters, including conductor asymmetry,
developed, although several tests have been proposed in the will generally suffice. For transients with a frequency
specialized literature. range above 1 kHz, a frequency-dependent model could be
Fig. 2 shows a flowchart on the approaches for parameter needed to account for the ground propagation mode.
determination discussed above. 2. In switching (slow-front) overvoltage calculations, a multi-
Parameter Determination phase distributed-parameter model of the whole
transmission line length is in general required. As for
temporary overvoltages, frequency-dependence of
Factory parameters is important for the ground propagation mode,
Geometry
Tests and only phase conductors need to be represented.
3. The calculation of lightning-caused overvoltages requires
a more detailed model, in which towers, footing
Numerical Solution of a Analytical Solution of
Steady Transient impedances, insulators and tower clearances, in addition to
Continuum Problem Electromagnetic Fields
(Electromagnetic Field
PDEs)
(Simplified Geometry,
Field Separation)
State Tests Tests phase conductors and shield wires, are represented.
However, only a few spans at both sides of the point of
impact must be considered in the line model. Since
Fixed Variable lightning is a fast-front transient phenomenon, a multi-
Frequency Frequency phase model with distributed parameters, including
Tests Tests
conductor asymmetry and corona effect, is required for the
representation of each span.
These guidelines are illustrated in Fig. 3 and summarized in
Data Conversion
Procedure Table III, which provides modeling guidelines for overhead
lines proposed by CIGRE [14], IEEE [15], and IEC [16].
Fig. 2. Classification of methods for parameter determination [1].
Phase Conductors and Shield Wires
Table II lists some international standards (IEEE and IEC)
that can be useful to understand factory tests or guidelines for The parameters to be calculated depend on the line and
electromagnetic transients models, although some of them do ground model to be applied, but they invariably involve the
not deal with any of these aspects. series impedance (longitudinal field effects) and the shunt
capacitance (transversal field effects) of the line. This section
IV. OVERHEAD LINES presents a description of line equations and the calculation of
the line parameters.
Introduction Line Equations: Fig. 4 shows the frame and the equivalent
Two types of time-domain models have been developed for circuit of a differential section of a single-phase overhead line.
overhead lines: lumped- and distributed-parameter models.
 53

Table II Some international standards

Component IEEE Standards IEC Standards

Line IEEE Std 738-1993, “IEEE Standard for Calculating the IEC 61089, “Round wire concentric lay
Current-Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead overhead electrical stranded conductors,” 1991.
Conductors”. IEC 61597, “Overhead electrical conductors –
IEEE Std 1243-1997, “IEEE Guide for Improving the Calculation methods for stranded bare
Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines”. conductors,” 1997.
IEEE Std 1410-1997, “IEEE Guide for Improving the
Lightning Performance of Electric Power Overhead
Distribution Lines”.
Cable IEEE Std 575-1988, “IEEE Guide for the Application of IEC 60141-X, “Tests on oil-filled and gas-
Sheath-Bonding Methods for Single-Conductor Cables and pressure cables and their accessories”, 1980.
the Calculation of Induced Voltages and Currents in Cable IEC 60228, “Conductors of insulated cables,”
Sheaths”. 2004.
IEEE Std 635-1989, “IEEE Guide for Selection and Design IEC 60287-X, “Electric cables. Calculation of
of Aluminum Sheaths for Power Cables”. the current rating,” 2001.
IEEE Std 848-1996, “IEEE Standard Procedure for the IEC 60840, “Power cables with extruded
Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected insulation and their accessories for rated
Cables”. voltages above 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150
IEEE Std 844-2000, “IEEE Recommended Practice for kV (Um = 170 kV) – Test methods and
Electrical Impedance, Induction, and Skin Effect Heating requirements,” 2004.
of Pipelines and Vessels”.
Transformer IEEE Std C57.12.00-2000, “IEEE Standard General IEC 60076-X, “Power Transformers,” 2004.
Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, IEC 60905, “Loading guide for dry-type power
and Regulating Transformers”. transformers,” 1987.
IEEE Std C57.12.01-1998, “IEEE Standard General IEC 60354, “Loading guide for oil-immersed
Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power power transformers,” 1991.
Transformers Including Those with Solid-Cast and/or
Resin-Encapsulated Windings”.
IEEE Std C57.12.90-1999, “IEEE Standard Test Code for
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers and IEEE Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of
Distribution and Power Transformers”.
IEEE Std C57.12.91-2001, “IEEE Standard Test Code for
Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers”.
IEEE Std C57.123-2002, “IEEE Guide for Transformer
Loss Measurement”.
Synchronous IEEE Std. 1110-1991, “IEEE Guide for Synchronous IEC 60034-4, “Rotating electrical machines –
Machine Generator Modeling Practices in Stability Studies”. Part 4: Methods for determining synchronous
IEEE Std. 115-1995, “IEEE Guide: Test Procedures for machine quantities from tests,” 1985.
Synchronous Machines”.
Metal Oxide IEEE Std C62.11-1999, “IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide IEC 60099-4, “Surge arresters – Part 4: Metal-
Surge Arrester Surge Arresters for Alternating Current Power Circuits (> 1 oxide surge arresters without gaps for a.c.
kV)”. systems,” 2004.
IEEE Std. C62.22-1997, “IEEE Guide for the Application
of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for Alternating-Current
Systems”.
Circuit Breaker IEEE Std C37.04-1999, “IEEE Standard Rating Structure IEC 60427, “Synthetic testing of high-voltage
for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers”. alternating current circuit-breakers,” 2000.
IEEE Std C37.09-1999, “IEEE Standard Test Procedure for IEC 60694, “Common specifications for high-
AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical voltage switchgear and controlgear standards,”
Current Basis”. 2002.
ANSI/IEEE C37.081-1981, “IEEE Guide for Synthetic IEC 61233, “High-voltage alternating current
Fault Testing of AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated circuit-breakers – Inductive load switching,”
on a Symmetrical Current Basis”. 1994.
IEEE Std C37.083-1999, “IEEE Guide for Synthetic IEC 61633, “High-voltage alternating current
Capacitive Current Switching Tests of AC High-Voltage circuit-breakers – Guide for short circuit and
Circuit Breakers”. switching test procedures for metal-enclosed
and dead tank circuit-breakers,” 1995.
 54

where v(x,t) and i(x,t) are respectively the voltage and the
1 1
current vectors, while R, L, G and C are the line parameter
matrices expressed in per unit length. For a more accurate
2 2 modeling of the line, these parameters are considered
frequency-dependent, although C can be assumed constant,
and G can usually be neglected.
3 3 Advanced models can consider an additional distance-
Coupled dependence of the line parameters (nonuniform line) [17], the
phases effect of induced voltages due to distributed sources caused by
nearby lightning (illuminated line) [18], and the dependence
a) Steady-state and low-frequency transients of the line capacitance with respect to the voltage (nonlinear
line due to corona effect) [19], [20].
Multi-phase line with coupled phases and
frequency-dependent distributed parameters
Given the frequency dependence of the series parameters,
the approach to the solution of the line equations, even in
1 1
transient calculations, is performed in the frequency domain.
2 2 The behavior of a multiconductor overhead line is described
in the frequency domain by the following equations:
3 3
dV (ω)
− x = Z(ω) I x (ω) (2a)
dx
dI (ω)
b) Switching (slow-front) transients − x = Y(ω) Vx (ω) (2b)
dx
Stroke Vs Shield where Z(ω) and Y(ω) are respectively the series impedance
I wire and the shunt admittance matrices per unit length.
Vs
The series impedance matrix of an overhead line can be
Vt decomposed as follows:
Vc Phase
conductor Z(ω) = R (ω) + jωL(ω) (3)
Vc where Z is a complex and symmetric matrix, whose elements
are frequency-dependent.
Tower Most transients programs (e.g., EMTP-type programs) are
capable of calculating R and L taking into account the skin
effect in conductors and ground. This is achieved by using
either Carson’s ground impedance [21] or Schelkunoff’s
surface impedance formulae for cylindrical conductors [22].
Other approaches base the calculations on closed form
Grounding
impedance approximations [23], [24]. References [25] and [26] provide a
description of the procedures.
The shunt admittance matrix can be expressed as follows:
c) Lightning (fast-front) transients
Y(ω) = G + jωC (4)
Fig. 3. Line models for different ranges of frequency.
where the elements of G may be associated with currents
leaking to ground through insulator strings, which can mainly
ix ix
k m Rdx Ldx occur with polluted insulators. Their values can usually be
neglected for most studies; however, under corona effect
vk vx vm vx Gdx Cdx
conductance values can be significant. As for C elements, they
are not frequency-dependent within the frequency range that is
of concern for overhead line design.
x
Calculation of Parameters: The calculation of the elements
dx
of both the shunt capacitance matrix and the series impedance
Fig. 4. Single-conductor overhead line. matrix is presented below.
The time-domain equations of a multiconductor line can be Shunt Capacitance Matrix: The capacitance matrix is only a
expressed as follows: function of the physical geometry of the conductors. Consider
∂v ( x, t ) ∂i ( x, t ) a configuration of n arbitrary wires in the air over a perfectly
− = Ri ( x, t ) + L (1a) conducting ground. Assuming the ground as a perfect
∂x ∂t
conductor allows the application of the image method, as
∂i ( x , t ) ∂v ( x , t )
− = Gv ( x, t ) + C (1b) shown in Fig. 5. The potential vector of the conductors with
∂x ∂t
respect to ground due to the charges on all of them is:
 55

Table III Modeling guidelines for overhead lines [14]-[16]

Low-Frequency Slow-Front Fast-Front Very Fast-Front

Topic
Transients Transients Transients Transients
Representation of Lumped parameters multi- Distributed parameter Distributed parameter Distributed parameter
transposed lines phase PI circuit multi-phase model multi-phase model single-phase model
Line asymmetry Important Capacitive and inductive Negligible for single-phase Negligible
asymmetries are important, simulations, other-wise
except for statistical important
studies, for which they are
negligible
Frequency-dependent Important Important Important Important
parameters
Corona effect Important if phase Negligible Very important Negligible
conductor voltages can
exceed the corona
inception voltage
Supports Not important Not important Very important Depends on the cause of
transient
Grounding Not important Not important Very important Depends on the cause of
transient
Insulators Not included, unless flashovers are to be simulated

v=Pq (5) req ,i = n n ri (rb )

n −1
(8)
where v is the vector of voltages applied to the conductors, q
being n the number of conductors and rb the radius of the
is the vector of electrical charges needed to produce these
bundle.
voltages, and P is the matrix of potential coefficients whose
The capacitance matrix is calculated by inverting the matrix
elements are given by:
of potential coefficients
⎡ D11 D ⎤
⎢ ln r K ln 1n ⎥ C = P −1 (9)
d1n
1 ⎢ 1
⎥ Series Impedance Matrix: It is computed from the geometric
P= ⎢ M O M ⎥ (6)
2πε 0 ⎢ Dn1 Dnn ⎥ and electric characteristics of the transmission line. In general,
ln K ln it can be decomposed into two terms:
⎢ d n1 rn ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Z = Z ext + Z int (10)
i where Zext and Zint are respectively the external and the
dij j
internal series impedance matrix.
a) External series impedance matrix: It accounts for the
yi Dij magnetic field exterior to the conductor. The contribution of
yj
the earth return path is a very important component of the
Earth series impedance matrix. Carson reported the earliest solution
yj of the problem of a thin wire above earth [21]. Presently, the
yi calculation of the electrical parameters of multiconductor lines
j' is performed by using the Complex Image method [27], which
xi i' consists in replacing the lossy ground by a perfect conductive
xj line at a complex depth. Deri et al. extended this idea to the
case of multi-layer ground return [24], showing that the results
Fig. 5. Application of the method of images. from this method are valid from very low frequencies up to
several MHz. All the solutions provided in those works are
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space, ri is the radius of the valid when the conductors can be considered as thin wires.
i-th conductor and (see Fig. 5) For practical purposes it can be said that the so-called thin
Dij = (x − x ) + (y + y )
i j
2
i j
2
(7a) wire approximation is valid when (r/2h)ln(2h/r) << 1, being r
the conductor radius and h the conductor height [28].
d ij = (x − x ) + (y − y )
i j
2
i j
2
(7b) Consider again a configuration of n arbitrary wires in the
For transmission lines with bundled conductors ri may be air over a lossy ground. Using the complex image method, see
substituted by the geometric mean radius of the bundle: Fig. 6, the external impedance matrix can be obtained as
 56

follows: conductor. This phenomenon is taken into account by adding

⎡ D '11 D' ⎤ the internal impedance. The internal impedance of a round
⎢ ln r K ln 1n ⎥ wire is found from the total current in the wire and the electric
d1n
jωμ 0 ⎢ 1
⎥ field intensity at the surface (surface impedance) [30]:
Z ext = M O M ⎥ (11)
2π ⎢⎢ D' n1 D' E surface Z I (γ r )
ln K ln nn ⎥ Z int = = − cw 0 c c (17)
⎢ d n1 rn ⎥ I total 2π rc I1 ( γ c rc )
⎣ ⎦
where where I0(.) and I1(.) are modified Bessel functions, Zcw is the
D'ij = (x i − xj ) + (y
2
i + yj + 2p )
2
(12)
wave impedance in the conductor given by
jωμ c
and the complex depth p is given by Z cw = (18)
σ c + jωε c
1
p= (13) and γc is the propagation constant in the conducting material
jωμ e (σ e + jωε e )
γ c = jωμ c (σ c + jωε c ) (19)
where σe, μe and εe are the ground conductivity (S/m),
permeability (H/m) and permittivity (F/m), respectively. The conductivity, permittivity, permeability and the radius
of the conductor are respectively denoted as σc, εc, μc, rc.
i For the case of bundled conductors Zint must be divided by
dij j the number of conductors in the bundle. Finally, the internal
impedance matrix for a multiconductor line with n phases is
yi+p D’ij defined as follows:
yj+p
Z int = diag(Z int ,1 , Z int , 2 , K, Z int , n ) (20)
Earth
Galloway et al [31] and Gary [27] provided formulas for
yj+p the internal impedance, which take into account the stranding
yi+p
of real power conductors.
j' Line Constants Routine: When only phase conductors and
xi i'
shield wires are to be included in the line model, the line
xj parameters can be calculated from the line geometry, as well
as from physical properties of phase conductors, shield wires
Fig. 6. Geometry of the complex images. and ground. A great accuracy is not usually required when
Note that the traditional definition of the complex depth is specifying input values if the goal is to duplicate low
frequency and slow-front transients, but more care is needed,
1
p= (14) mainly with the ground resistivity value, if the goal is to
jωμ e σ e simulate fast transients [2], [8], [32]. Users of EMTP-type
Defining p as in (13) makes the earth impedance of a single programs obtain overhead line parameters by means of a
conductor calculated with the complex image method equal to dedicated supporting routine which is usually denoted “Line
that calculated by Sunde [29]. Constants” (LC) [25]. In addition, several routines are
Multiplying each element of (11) by Dij/Dij, the external presently implemented in transients programs to create line
impedance can be cast in terms of the geometrical impedance, models considering different approaches [33]-[36].
Zg, and the earth return impedance, Ze: LC routine users enter the physical parameters of the line
Z ext = Z g + Z e (15) and select the desired type of line model. This routine allows
users to request the following models:
where
• lumped-parameter equivalent or nominal pi-circuits, at
⎡ D11 D1n ⎤
⎢ ln r K ln the specified frequency;
d1n ⎥
jωμ 0 ⎢ 1 ⎥ • constant distributed-parameter model, at the specified
Zg = ⎢ M O M ⎥ (16a)
2π ⎢ Dn1 Dnn ⎥ frequency;
ln K ln • frequency-dependent distributed-parameter model, fitted
⎢ d n1 rn ⎥
⎣ ⎦ for a given frequency range.
⎡ D'11 D' ⎤ In order to develop line models for transient simulations,
⎢ ln D K ln 1n ⎥
D1n the following input data must be available:
jωμ 0 ⎢ 11 ⎥
Ze = M O M ⎥ (16b) • (x, y) coordinates of each conductor and shield wire;
2π ⎢⎢ D' n1 D' nn ⎥ • bundle spacing, orientations;
ln K ln
⎢ Dn1 Dnn ⎥ • sag of phase conductors and shield wires;
⎣ ⎦
b) Internal series impedance: When the wires are not perfect • phase and circuit designation of each conductor;
conductors the total tangential electric field in the wires is not • phase rotation at transposition structures;
zero; that is, there is a penetration of the electric field into the • physical dimensions of each conductor;
 57

• DC resistance of each conductor and shield wire (or conductor, commonly set to 0.75, δ is the relative air density,
resistivity); p is the voltage polarity factor, equal to 1.0 for negative
• ground resistivity of the ground return path. polarity and 0.5 for positive, and r is the conductor radius.
Other information, such as segmented grounds, can be
Transmission Line Towers
important.
Note that all the above information, except conductor The representation of a tower is usually made in circuit
resistances and ground resistivity, comes from geometric line terms; that is, the tower is represented by means of several line
dimensions. sections and circuit elements that are assembled taking into
The following information can be usually provided by the account the tower structure [39]-[47]. Due to the fast-front
routine: times associated to lightning stroke currents, most tower
• the capacitance or the susceptance matrix; models assume that the tower response is dominated by the
• the series impedance matrix; transverse electromagnetic mode (TEM) wave and neglect
• resistance, inductance and capacitance per unit length for other types of radiation. In fact, the response of a tower to
zero and positive sequences, at a given frequency or for a horizontal stroke currents (i.e., the return stroke hits midway
specified frequency range; between towers) is different from the response to vertical
• surge impedance, attenuation, propagation velocity and stroke currents (i.e., the return stroke hits at the tower top). In
wavelength for zero and positive sequences, at a given addition, the surge impedance of the tower varies as the wave
frequency or for a specified frequency range. travels from top to ground. To cope with this behavior, some
Line matrices can be provided for the system of physical corrections were introduced into the first models and more
conductors, the system of equivalent phase conductors, or complicated models have been developed: they are based on
symmetrical components of the equivalent phase conductors. non-uniform transmission lines, or on a combination of
lumped- and distributed-parameter circuit elements [43]-[46].
Corona Effect The latter approach is also motivated by the fact that in many
When the voltage of a conductor reaches a critical value cases it is important to obtain the lightning overvoltages
(vc) and the electrical field in its neighborhood is higher than across insulators located at different heights above ground;
the dielectric strength of the air, ionization is produced around this is particularly important when two or more transmission
the conductor. As a consequence, there will be storage and lines with different voltage levels are sharing the same tower.
movement of charges in the ionized region, which can be The models based on a constant-parameter circuit
viewed as an increase of the conductor radius and representation can be classified into three groups [48].
consequently of the capacitance to ground [37]. This a) Single vertical lossless line models: The first models were
phenomenon is known as corona effect. The increase in developed by using electromagnetic field theory, represen-
capacitance results in both a decrease in the velocity of ting the tower by means of simple geometric forms, and
propagation and a decrease in the surge impedance. The assuming a vertical stroke to the tower top [39]-[41]. The
decrease in velocity causes distortion of the surge voltage surge propagation velocity along tower elements can be
during propagation; that is, the wave front is pushed back and assumed that of the light; however, the multiple paths of
the steepness of the surge is decreased. Depending on the tail the lattice structure and the crossarms introduce some time
of the initial surge, the crest voltage is also decreased. delays; consequently the time for a complete reflection
A corona model based on microscopic processes of the from ground is longer than that obtained from a travel time
phenomenon is very complicated and impractical for transient whose value is the tower height divided by the speed of
analysis in transmission lines. In propagation analysis, it is light. Therefore, the propagation velocity in some of the
common to use models based on a macroscopic description, above models was reduced to include this effect in the
specifically models based on charge-voltage curves (q-v tower response.
curves). The models proposed in the literature can be Crossarms behave as short stub lines with open-circuit
classified into two groups. Static models are those in which ends [42]. Experimental results showed that travel times in
the corona capacitance is only a function of the voltage, Cc = crossarms are longer than those derived by assuming a
f(v). When the capacitance is a function of the voltage and its propagation velocity equal to that of light. On the other
derivatives, Cc = f(v, ∂v/∂t, …), the models are dynamic. hand, the incorporation of line sections representing
In general, all methods need to calculate beforehand the crossarms reduces slightly the tower impedance. In
corona inception voltage. The empirical formula proposed by general, the net effect is not significant.
Peek is widely used to calculate the critical electrical field (in Table IV presents a summary of tower models presently
kV/cm) around a conductor [38]: implemented in the FLASH program [49]-[51].
b) Multiconductor vertical line models: Each segment of the
⎛ 0.308 ⎞
Ec = gmδ p⎜1 + ⎟ (21) tower between crossarms is represented as a multi-
⎜ δr ⎟⎠ conductor vertical line, which can be reduced to a single
⎝
where g (= 30 kV/cm) is the critical strength of air in an conductor. The tower model is then a single-phase line
uniform electric field, m is the surface irregularity factor of the whose section increases from top to ground, as shown in
 58

Fig. 7 This representation has been analyzed in several 2r1

references [44]-[46], using each one a different approach
to obtain the parameters of each section. The modified ZT1, h1, c
model presented in [45] included the effect of bracings h1
R1 L1
(represented by lossless lines in parallel to the main legs)
and crossarms (represented as lossless line branched at ZT1, h2, c
junction points). h2
R2 L2
DT1 rT1
ZT1, h3, c
rT2 r1 ZT1 h3
R3 L3
DT2

rT3 r2 ZT2 ZT2, h4, c

DT3 2r2 R4 L4
rT4 r3 ZT3
DT4
h4
h1 h2 h3 h4
r4 ZT4

D’B 2r3
rB
DB
Fig. 8. Multistory model of a transmission tower [43], [52].
Fig. 7. Multiconductor tower model.
where h is the tower height and re is the equivalent radius
c) Multistory model: It is composed of four sections that obtained from the geometry shown in Fig. 9 and given by
represent the tower sections between crossarms [43], [52]. (see [52]):
Each section consists of a lossless line in series with a r h + r h + r3 h1
re = 1 2 2 (h = h1 + h2 ) (24)
parallel RL circuit, included for attenuation of the traveling 2h
waves, see Fig. 8. The approach was originally developed The propagation velocity is that of the light.
for representing towers of UHV transmission lines. The A study presented in [53] concluded that the multistory
surge impedance of each line section is obtained as in the model with surge impedance values originally proposed in
previous model, while the propagation velocity is that of [43] was not adequate for representing towers of lower
light. Without including the representation of the voltage transmission lines. According to this study, the
crossarms, the multistory model is as shown in the figure. tower model for shorter towers can be simpler than that
The damping resistances and inductances are deduced assumed by the multistory model; that is, a single lossless
according to the following equations [43], [52]: line for each tower section, whose surge impedance was
− 2 ⋅ Z T 1 ⋅ ln γ calculated from (23) and (24) would suffice.
Ri = hi (i = 1, 2, 3) (22a)
h1 + h2 + h3 r1

R4 = −2 ⋅ Z T 2 ⋅ ln γ (22b)
h2
2h
Li = α ⋅ Ri ⋅ (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) (22c) r2
c h
where ZT1 is the surge impedance of the three upper tower
sections, ZT2 is the surge impedance of the lower tower r3
h1
section, hi is the height of each tower section, γ is the req
attenuation coefficient, and α is the damping coefficient.
The attenuation coefficient is between 0.7 and 0.8, while Fig. 9. Geometry for equivalent radius calculation.
unity has been the value usually chosen for the damping
Antenna theory approach might be used for an accurate
coefficient [43], [52].
computation of lightning voltages, and for validation and
A further experimental investigation found that an
improvement of simple circuit and transmission-line models,
adequate calculation for both ZT1 and ZT2 could be based
as discussed in [54]. This reference also discussed possible
on the Jordan’s formula:
improvements, as well as the use of nonuniform lines for
⎛ ⎛h⎞ ⎞ transmission tower modeling.
Z = 60⎜ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎟ (23)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ re ⎠ ⎠
 59

Table IV Lossless tower models

Tower Waveshape Diagram Surge Impedance - Travel Time

⎛ ⎛ h⎞ ⎞
Z = 60 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ln⎜ 2 2 ⎟ − 1⎟⎟
h ⎝ ⎝ r⎠ ⎠
Cylindrical
h
t=
0.85 ⋅ c

2r

⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎛h⎞ ⎟
Z = 60 ⋅ ln⎜ 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 1 ⎟
h ⎜ ⎝r⎠ ⎟
Conical ⎝ ⎠

h
t=
c

2r

2r1

π ⎛ ⎛ tan −1 (r / h) ⎞⎟ ⎞
Z= 60 ⋅ ⎜ ln⎜⎜ cot ⎟
⎟ − ln 2 ⎟
4 ⎜ 2
h2 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

Waist 2r2 h
r1h2 + r2 h + r3h1
r= (h = h1 + h2 )
h

h
t=
0.85 ⋅ c
2r3

⎛ h⎞
Z1 = 60 ⋅ ln⎜ 2 2 ⎟ − 60
⎝ r⎠

⎛ h⎞
2r h d ⋅ 60 ⋅ ln⎜ 2 ⎟ + h ⋅ Z1
H-frame ⎝ r⎠
Z2 =
h+d
Z1 ⋅ Z 2 1 h ⋅ Z1 ⋅ ( d + h) ⋅ Z 2
Z= t=
Z1 + Z 2 c ⋅ Z h ⋅ Z1 + (d + h) ⋅ Z 2
d

When current is discharged into the soil through a ground

Transmission Line Grounding
electrode, potential gradients are set up as a result of the
Introduction: High voltages can be generated on grounded conduction of current through the soil. The grounding
parts of a power line support when either a ground wire or a impedance of a power line is given by the relationship
phase conductor is struck by lightning. If lightning strikes a between the potential rise of the electrode and the current
tower or a ground wire, the discharge should be then safely discharged into the ground.
led to the earth and dissipated there. The purpose of grounding The tower grounding impedance depends on the area of the
for protection against lightning is to bypass the energy of the tower steel (or grounding conductor) in contact with the earth,
lightning discharge safely to the ground; i.e., most of the and on the resistivity of the earth. The latter is not constant,
energy of the lightning discharge should be dissipated into the fluctuates over time and is a function of soil type, moisture
ground without raising the voltage of the protected system. content, temperature, current magnitude, and waveshape.
 60
Another factor is soil ionization which leads to an additional radius, the low-current, low-frequency impedance of a single
decay in the electrode resistance when high currents are ground rod is approximated by a resistance whose value may
discharged into the soil. Under lightning surge conditions and be obtained from the following expression:
some power-frequency fault conditions, the high current ρ ⎛ 4l ⎞
density in the soil increases the electric field strength up to R0 = ⎜ ln − 1⎟ (27)
2πl ⎝ a ⎠
values that cause electrical discharges in the soil that where ℓ is the length of the buried rod, a is the radius of the
surrounds the electrode. Electrical breakdown occurs in the
rod, and ρ is the soil resistivity.
soil at an average surface ionization gradient of approximately
Some discrepancies can be found in the literature related to
300 - 400 kV/m. In some soil types, the ionization gradient
the expression given by some authors for the resistance of a
can be as high as 1000 kV/m [55]. The threshold level and
driven ground rod; they are mainly due to the different
intensity of the ionization are especially high when the soil is
approaches used to derive the above expression [29], [58]-
dry or when it has a high resistivity. Depending on the
[62].
electrode configuration, ionization can take place under
R0 decreases as either the buried length or the radius of the
impulse currents as low as 1 kA.
rod increase, but it does not decrease directly with length, so
The representation of the grounding impedance depends on
an increase in length above certain limit will not significantly
the frequency range of the discharged current. Grounding
reduce the resistance.
models can be classified into two groups: low- and high-
Ground resistance can be reduced by connecting several
frequency models. In practice, they correspond respectively to
rods in parallel. The resistance is inversely proportional to the
power-frequency and to lightning stroke discharged currents.
number of parallel rods, provided the spacing between rods is
In addition, the grounding system of a power line support can
large compared to their length. If the spacing is short and the n
be broadly classified as compact (concentrated) and extended
ground rods are arranged on a circle of diameter D, then (27)
(distributed) [56], [57]. A compact grounding can be
is still valid if the radius a is replaced by an equivalent radius
represented by lumped-circuit elements. In an extended
req [29]:
grounding system the travel time of the electromagnetic fields 1/ n
along the electrodes is comparable with that along the support ⎛ ⎛ D ⎞ n −1 ⎞
req = ⎜ na ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ (28)
itself; this generally applies to grounding systems with ⎜ ⎝2⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
physical dimensions exceeding 20 meters.
That is, when the rods are closely spaced compared with
Low-Frequency Models: The power-frequency impedance of
their length, the whole ground arrangement behaves as one
a grounding system can be expressed as follows [58]:
rod with a larger apparent diameter and a small reduction in
Z = ( R L + R E + RC ) + j ( X E + X L ) (25)
resistance. As the rod spacing increases, the combined
where RL and XL are respectively the resistance and the resistance decreases. When the spacing between adjacent rods,
reactance of the ground electrode leads, RC is the contact arranged on a circle of diameter D, is equal to or longer than
resistance between the surface of the electrode and the the length of rods, the combined resistance of n ground rods
surrounding soil, due to the imperfect contact between the soil can be approximated as follows [29]:
and the surface of the electrode, RE is the dissipation resistan-
⎛ ⎞
ce of the soil surrounding the electrode (i.e., the resistance of 1 ρ ⎜⎜ 4l l n −1 1 ⎟⎟
the earth between the electrode surface and a remote earth), XE R0 = ln −1+ ∑ (29)
n 2πl ⎜ a D m =1sin mπ ⎟
is the reactance of the current paths in the soil. ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
The series resistance of the metallic conductors that make
The proximity effect between the ground rods tends to
up the ground electrodes and leads is typically much lower
increase the combined resistance, thus diminishing the
than the contact resistance and the resistance of the
advantage of multiple rods.
surrounding soil; the reactance of the metallic conductors and
For other electrode geometries, see [8], [58].
the leads is much higher than the reactance of the current
Extended Grounding Systems: The contact area of a grounding
dissipated in the soil; the contact resistance can typically be
system with the earth can be increased by installing a
neglected when the soil has settled around the electrode
counterpoise, which is a conductor buried in the ground at a
conductors; finally, at power frequencies, the reactance of the
depth of about 1 meter. Common arrangements include one or
grounding conductors and leads becomes negligible compared
more radial wires extending out from each tower base, single
to the dissipation resistance. Therefore, at low frequencies, the
or multiple continuous wires from tower to tower, or
grounding impedance can be represented by the dissipation
combinations of radial and continuous wires.
resistance:
When the length of the conductor is much greater than its
Z ≈ RE (26)
burial depth, the low-current low-frequency resistance of a
Compact Grounding Systems: The rod is the most common horizontal conductor buried in the soil can be given by [29]:
type of ground electrode. Ground rods are generally made of
ρ ⎛ 2l ⎞
galvanized steel, 2.5 to 3 m in length, less than 2.5 cm in R0 = ⎜ ln − 1⎟⎟ (30)
diameter, and driven vertically down from the earth’s surface. πl ⎜⎝ 2ad ⎠
When the length of the ground rod is much greater than its
 61
where ℓ is the length of the buried conductor, a is the resistivity ρ1, while R2 is the additional resistance due to the
conductor radius, d is the burial depth of the conductor, and ρ second layer.
is the soil resistivity. The resistance is not greatly influenced A simpler two-layer soil treatment is appropriate when ρ2
by either a or d. >> ρ1; that is, when the reflection coefficient approaches
Several short wires, arranged radially, may be more unity. Some approximations to obtain the ground resistance
effective than a single long wire even if the total length and have been proposed, see [64], [65].
contact resistance of both arrangements are the same. The High-Frequency Models: For high-frequency phenomena,
low-current low-frequency resistance of n radial conductors is such as lightning, the effective impedance of a buried
[29]: horizontal wire is not constant. Such behavior can be
⎛ mπ ⎞ explained by considering surge propagation along the buried
1 + sin
ρ ⎜⎜ 2l n −1
n ⎟
⎟
conductor, and can be summarized as follows [66]:
R0 = ln − 1 + ∑ ln (31)
nπl ⎜ 2ad m =1 mπ ⎟ • The effective impedance is initially equal to the surge
⎜ sin ⎟
⎝ n ⎠ impedance of the buried wire and it reduces in a few µs
As n becomes very large, the last term between brackets to a level that corresponds to the leakage resistance.
approaches 1.22n [56], and in the limit • The transition from the initial surge impedance to the
ρ final leakage resistance is accomplished in a few round-
R0 → (32) trip travel times along the wire. Although multivelocity
2.57l
Grounding Resistance in Non-Homogeneous Soils: The waves will exist, the only one of importance is slow and
expressions presented for calculating the grounding resistance travels at approximately 30% of the velocity of light.
use only one resistivity value, since a homogeneous soil is • The surge impedance rises abruptly in less than 1 μs, and
considered. Several methods have been developed to deal with increases at a slow rate thereafter; the leakage resistance
non-homogeneous soils. One of the methods consists in is initially a very high value, but it decreases as the
stratifying the soil in two layers, which could represent the reflection of the traveling waves builds up the voltage
effect of multiple layers. The first layer reaches a depth d and along the conductor, being its final value equal to the
is characterized by a resistivity ρ1, while the second layer has low-frequency resistance. Resistance quickly dominates
an infinite depth and a resistivity ρ2. For a great majority of as a current wave propagates along the conductor.
lines, it is possible to determine a two-layer soil structure that Several approaches have been proposed to represent line
can represent typical soils for grounding purposes. In some grounding when a lightning discharge impinges the electrode
cases it might not be possible to define a two-layer soil system. Although all of them account for a frequency-
structure, then a three-layer soil model must be considered. dependent behavior, different equivalent circuits have been
The computation of the grounding resistance depends on proposed. A didactic description of the behavior of grounding
the type of ground electrode and the depth of the first layer systems when subjected to lightning currents has been
with respect to the length of the grounding electrode. For a rod presented in reference [67].
driven into the upper layer only, the ground resistance is Distributed-Parameter Models: The electrode is represented
deduced as follows [62], [63]: as the series - parallel equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 10,
where R is the parallel resistance, L is the series inductance
ρ ⎛ ⎛ 4l ⎞ ∞ Γ n nd / l + 1 ⎞
R = 1 ⎜⎜ ln⎜ − 1⎟ + ∑ ln ⎟ (33) and C the parallel capacitance to ground per unit length.
2πl ⎝ ⎝ a ⎠ n =1 2 nd / l − 1 ⎟⎠ L
where
ρ 2 − ρ1
Γ= (34) R C
ρ 2 + ρ1
is the reflection coefficient.
The first term is the resistance of a rod having length ℓ Fig. 10. Equivalent circuit of a ground electrode at high frequencies.
driven into soil of resistivity ρ1, and the second term
The equations of this circuit are similar to the equations of a
represents the additional resistance due to the second layer.
line with distributed parameters and can be expressed as
If the rod penetrates both layers, then the ground resistance
follows:
is deduced as follows [63]:
∂V ( x, s )
R = F ⋅ (R1 + R2 ) = = − sLI ( x, s ) (37a)
∂x
ρ1 1+ Γ ⎛ 2l ∞ n nd / l + 1 ⎞ (35) ∂I ( x, s )
⎜⎜ ln + ∑ Γ ln ⎟ = −(G + sC )V ( x, s ) (G = 1 / R ) (37b)
2πl 1 − Γ + 2Γd / l ⎝ a n =1 ( 2n − 2) d / l − 1 ⎟⎠ ∂x
where F is the penetration factor given by To take into account soil ionization a nonlinear resistance
1+ Γ might be included in the model instead of a constant one.
F= (36) However, soil ionization is not instantaneous and soil
1 − Γ + 2Γ d / l
R1 is the resistance of the rod driven in uniform soil of resistivity decreases with a time constant of about 2 µs. This
value is rather large compared with the front times associated
 62
with fast-front lightning strokes; e.g., most negative
ρ ⎛ 4l ⎞
subsequent strokes. Moreover if soil ionization occurs, it will Rc = ⎜ ln − 1⎟
2 πl ⎝ a ⎠
always cause a reduction of the ground potential rise. Rc
Therefore, ignoring this phenomenon always gives Rs = Z c − Rc
conservative results. The following analysis considers only an
Lc = 2l(Z c − Rc )
equivalent circuit with constant and linear parameters.
The expressions for calculation of R, L, C in per unit length Rs Lc L 1 ⎛ 4l ⎞ μ o
Zc = = ⎜ ln − 1⎟
are [29]: C 2π ⎝ a ⎠ ε
• For vertical conductors:
ρ μ 2πε Fig. 11. Equivalent circuit of a counterpoise [66].
R= A1 ; L = o A1 ; C =
2π 2π A1
(38) Experimental studies of reflections from tower bases
4l showed that the initial reflection differed from that predicted
A1 = ln − 1 (l >> a )
a by assuming a lumped-circuit representation of the grounding
• For horizontal conductors: impedance. This could be justified by including transient
ρ μ πε ground-plane impedance, and may be incorporated as an
R = A2 ; L = o A2 ; C = additional inductance in the grounding impedance. whose
π 2π A2
(39) value can be approximated by means of the following
2l expression [68]:
A2 = ln − 1 (l >> a, l >> d )
2ad ⎛tf ⎞
where ℓ is the conductor length, a is the radius of the L ≈ 60t t ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (43)
⎝ tt ⎠
conductor, d is the burial depth, ρ is the soil resistivity
(supposed to be homogeneous), µo is the vacuum permittivity where tf is the front time.
This equivalent inductance is valid for the normal case, in
(= 4 π 10-7 H/m), ε is the soil permittivity (typical value: ε =
which the front time tf is much greater than the tower travel
10 εo, with εo = 8.85x10-12 F/m).
time tt. Consequently, the modified equivalent circuit of the
If the circuit in Fig. 10 is energized at one end and the other
counterpoise is that shown in Fig. 12. Longer front times give
end is open, the input impedance Z(jω) can be computed as
higher values of average inductance, but the voltage rise from
follows [29]:
the inductance at the crest current is actually lower.
Z (ω) = Z c coth γl (40)
where Zc is the surge impedance and γ is the propagation Lav
constant.
From expressions (38) and (39), the following results are
derived:
• For vertical conductors:
Rc
A1 jωμ o ρ
Zc =
2π (1 + jωερ)
(41) Rs Lc
jωμ o
γ= (1 + jωερ )
ρ
• For horizontal conductors:
Fig. 12. Modified equivalent circuit of a counterpoise [68].
A jωμ o ρ
Zc = 2 Discussion: A comparison between the performance of three
π 2(1 + jωερ)
(42) frequency-dependent models for a vertically driven ground
jωμ o rod was presented in [69]: a lumped-parameter circuit (see
γ= (1 + jωερ ) Fig. 13), a distributed-parameter circuit (see Fig. 10), and a
2ρ
more rigorous approach based on antenna theory. The main
Lumped-Parameter Models: Based on experimental results,
conclusions of the study can be summarized as follows:
Bewley suggested that the lightning behavior of counterpoise
• The application of the lumped-parameter circuit model
electrodes could be represented by the simple equivalent
should be limited to cases where the length of the rod is
circuit presented in Fig. 11 [66], where Rc represents the
less than one-tenth the wavelength in earth, which limits
counterpoise leakage resistance, Rs is a resistor selected so that
the frequency range of the validity of this model to low
the high-frequency impedance of the circuit corresponds to the
frequencies. This approach can be used for a preliminary
surge impedance of the counterpoise (Zc), and Lc is the
analysis, but keeping in mind that it greatly
inductor responsible for the transition from the surge
overestimates the ground rod impedance at high
impedance to the low-frequency impedance; its value is
frequencies.
dependent on the length of the counterpoise.
 63
• The approximate distributed-parameter circuit reduces ρE 0
the overestimation of the ground rod impedance at high Ri = (44)
2πI
frequencies in comparison with the RLC circuit.
which can be also expressed as
• The best fit to ground rod impedance is achieved by
1 ⎛ ρE ⎞
means of a model based on antenna theory, with a non- ln Ri = ⎜ ln 0 − ln I ⎟ (45)
uniform distributed-parameter model, whose parameters 2 ⎝ 2π ⎠
can be deduced by curve matching. This relationship does not exist until there is sufficient
current to produce the critical gradient E0 at the surface of the
ρ ⎛ 4l ⎞ sphere. This current Ig is estimated as follows:
R= ⎜ ln − 1⎟
2 πl ⎝ a ⎠
L 2πa 2 E 0 1 ρE 0
Ig = = (46)
ρ 2π R02
μ o l ⎛ 4l ⎞
L= ⎜ ln − 1⎟ Upon substitution of (46) into (44), the following
2π ⎝ a ⎠
expression results:
R C
⎛ 4l ⎞
Ig
C = 2 πε l ⎜ ln − 1⎟ Ri = R0 (47)
⎝ a ⎠ I
The impulse resistance is inversely proportional to the
Fig. 13. High-frequency lumped equivalent circuit of a ground reciprocal of the square root of the current, but on log-to-log
electrode.
plot, the impulse resistance as a function of the current is a
Treatment of Soil Ionization: The resistance of a ground straight line, as shown in Fig. 15. The low-current resistance
electrode may decrease due to ionization of the soil. When a value R0 is maintained until the current exceeds Ig, after which
current is injected to the electrode, an ionization process will the resistance is given by (47).
occur in regions around the electrode if a critical field gradient
is exceeded. In those regions, low ohmic discharge channels
ln R0
are formed, being the resistance of the ionized zone reduced to
a negligible value. The ground resistance of an electrode ln Ri
remains at the value determined by the electrode geometry and
the soil resistivity until ionization breakdown is reached; after
breakdown, the resistance varies. This soil breakdown can be
viewed as an increase of the geometry of the electrode. The ln I
ln Ig
transient electric fields needed to ionize small volumes of soil,
or to flashover across the soil surface are typically between Fig. 15. Impulse resistance of a hemisphere electrode including soil
100 and 1000 kV/m [56], [70]. ionization.
For a vertically driven rod, this process may be represented A simplification for rod electrodes should account for some
with the simplified model of Fig. 14, which also shows the aspects (i.e., they have the low-current resistance for currents
final area. As the ionization progresses, the shape of the zone close to zero, they approach the square root dependence for
becomes more spherical; that is, when the gradient exceeds a very high current values and they approximate the log
critical value E0, breakdown of soil occurs and the ground rod dependence between these two extremes). A possible
can be modeled as a hemisphere electrode. The ionization expression is [47], [71].
zone is described by the critical field strength E0 at which the R0
radius is equal to r. Ri = (48)
1+ I / I g
I
Rod As the current increases, a point is reached where the
Earth surface
ionized zone is approximately spherical and Ri decreases as
illustrated in Fig. 16. The limit current Ig is given by (46).
ρ=0 r

ln R0
Critical
gradient
E0
ln Ri

Fig. 14. After soil ionization a rod becomes a hemisphere.

Assuming the soil resistivity is zero within the ionization ln I

zone means that the perfectly conducting hemisphere radius ln Ig
has expanded to a radius r as defined by setting E = E0. The Fig. 16. Impulse resistance of a rod electrode including soil
impulse resistance results in the following equation: ionization.
 64
This simplification is valid for ground electrodes with small ⎛ V −α0 ⎞
− ⎜⎜
β
⎟⎟
extension. In unfavorable soil conditions in which ⎝ α ⎠
F (V ) = 1 − e ∞ > V > α0 (52)
counterpoises with large extensions are required, the In IEC 60071, the value of β is rounded to 5, and the
simplification is not accurate enough. In addition, the critical distribution is approximated by the following expression [73]:
breakdown voltage gradient of soil needs to be known ⎛Z ⎞
5
⎛Z ⎞
5
− (ln 2 ) ⎜ +1 ⎟ ⎜ +1 ⎟
accurately; E0 is difficult to define, and can be quite different F (V ) = 1 − e ⎝4 ⎠
= 1 - 0.5 ⎝4 ⎠
(53)
in the field from that measured in the laboratory. E0 in the
where Z is defined as in (51), with μ = CFO .
laboratory is calculated when the soil between the electrodes
breaks down completely. In the field, the soil breakdown is Power Line Insulation Models: They do not describe
incomplete. Even in the laboratory, E0 would be a function of physical phenomena, instead they are based on the characteris-
the soil resistivity and the electrode configuration. tics of the various phases of the discharge mechanism.
Several models aimed at calculating the switching impulse
Transmission Line Insulation strength of simple configurations have been proposed. A
Introduction: Power line insulation is of external type (i.e., thorough review of these models was presented in [74].
exposed to atmospheric conditions) and self-restoring (i.e., it Unlike lightning impulse strength models, they are not usually
recovers its insulating properties after a disruptive discharge). part of calculations performed in transmission line design.
Insulation strength is expressed in terms of withstand The wide variety of lightning stroke characteristics,
voltage, a quantity determined by tests conducted under together with the modification effects that the line components
specified conditions with specified waveshapes. The same introduce, stresses line insulation with a diversity of impulse
insulation may have different withstand voltages for different voltage waveshapes, so it is important to be able to evaluate
voltage waveshapes; that is, insulation withstand strength insulation performance when stressed by nonstandard
depends greatly on the waveshape of the applied voltage. lightning impulses. The following paragraphs summarize the
In general, the strength characteristic of self-restoring main characteristics of the models proposed for analyzing the
insulation may be represented by a cumulative normal o dielectric strength of air gaps under lightning overvoltages.
Gaussian distribution [37], [72], [73]. Under this assumption, The proposed approaches usually allow the calculation of both
the probability of flashover for a specified voltage V is given the minimum breakdown voltage and the time-to-breakdown.
by the following expression: Voltage-time curves: They give the dependence of the peak
1 ⎛⎜ V − μ ⎞⎟
2 voltage of the specific impulse shape on the time-to-
−
1 V 2 ⎜⎝ σ f ⎟⎠ breakdown, see Fig. 17. Volt-time (or time-lag) curves are
F (V ) = ∫− ∞ e dV (49)
2π σ f determined experimentally for a specific gap or for an
insulator string and may be represented with empirical
where μ is the mean value and σf the standard deviation. In a
equations, applicable only within the range of parameters
normalized form, this expression can be written as follows:
covered experimentally [75]. In practice, measurements can be
Z2
1 Z −2 affected by several factors: impulse front shape, front times of
F (V ) = ∫− ∞ e dV (50)
2π the applied standard lightning impulse, gap distance and gap
where geometry, polarity, internal impedance of the impulse
V −μ generator (due to the predischarge currents in the gap). There
Z= (51) are special cases when the use of these curves can be
σf
advantageous [50]. Volt-time curves do not apply to multiple
The mean of this distribution is known as the critical flashover studies and their accuracy might be poor for long
flashover voltage or CFO (in IEC is known as the U50 or 50% times-to-breakdown or low probability flashovers.
flashover voltage). The insulation exhibits a 50% probability
of flashover when the CFO is applied; i.e., half the impulses Flashover during
Volt-time
flashover. the wave front
characteristic
Assuming a normal distribution, insulation strength is fully Flashover at the
peak voltage
specified by providing the values of CFO and σf (or σf/CFO).
Flashover during
The Gaussian distribution is unbounded to right and left; the tail
Voltage

i.e., it is defined between plus and minus infinity. A limit of

minus infinity indicates that there exists a probability of
flashover for a voltage equal to zero, which is physically
impossible. Since the Gaussian distribution is valid to at least No flashover

four standard deviations below the CFO, it is reasonable to

believe that there exists a nonzero voltage for which the
probability of flashover is zero. A distribution with this
Time
property is the Weibull whose cumulative distribution
function is: Fig. 17. Volt-time characteristic.
 65
Integration methods: Their aim is to predict insulation voltage is raised and is almost independent of voltage polarity,
performance as a function of one or more significant electrode configuration and gap clearance, but it is strongly
parameters of the nonstandard voltage waveshape [76]-[79]. dependent on the ratio E/E50, where E is the average field in
Their common basic assumptions are that: the gap at the applied voltage V and E50 is the average field at
• There is a minimum voltage V0 that must be exceeded CFO. These models assume that the streamer phase is
before any breakdown can start or continue. completed when the applied voltage has reached a value
• The time-to-breakdown is a function of both the which gives an average field in the gap equal to E50. The
magnitude and the time duration of the applied voltage duration of the streamer phase, ts, can be estimated as follows
above the minimum voltage V0. [47]:
• There exists a unique set of constants associated with 1 E
= 1.25 − 0.95 (56)
breakdown for each insulator configuration. ts E50
The dielectric breakdown of the insulation is obtained then The leader propagation time is generally calculated from its
from the following equation: velocity, which depends on the applied voltage and the leader
tc
D = ∫ (v(t ) − V0 ) dt
n
(54) length. Various expressions have been proposed for the leader
t0 velocity. The experimental evidence shows that the leader
where t0 is the time after which the voltage v(t) is higher than velocity increases proportionally to the length of the gap
the required minimum voltage V0 (also known as reference which is not yet covered by the leader, and can be described
voltage) and tc is the time-to-breakdown. The constant D is by the following equation:
⎛ v (t ) ⎞
known as disruptive effect constant.
Different values for V0, n and D have been proposed, but
dl l
[ ]
= g v (t ), d g ⎜
⎜
− V0 ⎟
⎟
(57)
dt ⎝ dg − ll ⎠
each proposal refers to a particular set of results. If n = 1, the
method is know as the equal-area law, see Fig. 18. Although where g and V0 are some functions, dg is the gap length and ℓℓ
easy to use, these methods can be applied to specific is the leader length. v(t) is the actual (absolute value) voltage
geometries and voltage shapes only. in the gap, which does not generally correspond to the
theoretical value, due to the current flowing into the circuit.
V
For all configurations, the following equation has been
D
proposed for calculation of the leader velocity [81]:
0.0015 v ( t )
dl l ⎡ v (t ) ⎤ dg
V0 = 170 d g ⎢ − E0 ⎥ e (58)
dt ⎣⎢ d g − l l ⎦⎥
A simpler approach had been proposed in [82]
dl l ⎡ v (t ) ⎤
t = kv(t ) ⎢ − E0 ⎥ (59)
dt ⎣⎢ d g − l l ⎦⎥
t0 tc

Fig. 18. Integration method. The constants k and E0 have been found to be dependent of
Physical models: They consider the different phases of the the gap configuration and insulator type, see Table V.
discharge mechanism and their dependence on the applied Table V Values for factors k and E0 [47]
voltage, and compute the time necessary for completion of all
the phases of the discharge process [47], [80]-[82]. Configuration Polarity k (m2v-2s-1) E0 (kVm-1)
When the applied voltage exceeds the corona inception Air gaps, post and + 0.8 ⋅10-6 600
voltage, streamers propagate and cross the gap after a certain long-rod insulators - 1.0 ⋅10-6 670
time if the voltage remains high enough. The streamer Cap and pin + 1.2 ⋅10-6 520
propagation is accompanied by current impulses of significant insulators - 1.3 ⋅10-6 600
magnitude. Only when the streamers have crossed the gap, the The model is valid for a large variety of impulse shapes and
leaders can start their development. Usually the leader for evaluation of dielectric strength of a variety of geometries.
velocity increases exponentially. Both the streamer and the The leader progression model (LPM) shown in equation (59)
leader phase can develop from only one or from both has proved to have adequate accuracy for most calculations.
electrodes. When the leader has crossed the gap, or when the The integration methods have comparable accuracies but more
two leaders meet, the breakdown occurs. The time-to- restricted application in relation to waveshapes. The empirical
breakdown can be expressed as the sum of three components: methods can give a good accuracy when they are used within
t = ti + t s + t l (55) their validity limits (i.e., when specific data are used for a
where ti is the time to the corona inception voltage (usually specific insulator or gap, together with a careful application of
neglected), ts is the time the streamers need to cross the gap or the model). The use of volt-time curves works well in the
to meet the streamers from the opposite electrode, and tℓ is the short time-to-breakdown domain (2-6 μs). No single approach
leader propagation time. alone can be recommended for all applications.
The time the streamers need to cross the gap decreases as
 66
V. INSULATED CABLES hollow in the case of fluid-filled cables.

Introduction core conductor armor

inner semiconductor
The behavior of a cable can be described by equations main insulation
similar to those of an overhead line [25], [83]-[86]: outer semiconductor
Z(ω) = R (ω) + jωL(ω) (60a) sheath conductor
Y(ω) = G (ω) + jωC(ω) (60b) outer insulation
where R, L, G, C are the cable parameter matrices expressed Fig. 19. SC XLPE cable, with and without armor.
in per unit length. These quantities are (n x n) matrices, being
n the number of (parallel) conductors of the cable system. The SC cables for high-voltage applications are always
variable ω reflects that these quantities are calculated as designed with a metallic sheath conductor, which can be made
function of frequency. of lead, corrugated aluminum, or copper wires. Such cables
Most EMTP-type programs have dedicated support routines are also designed with an inner and an outer semiconducting
for calculating cable parameters. These routines have very screen, which are in contact with the core conductor and the
similar features, and hereinafter they will be given the generic sheath conductor, respectively.
name “Cable Constants” (CC). Z and Y are calculated by Three-Phase Self-Contained Cables: They consist of three
means of CC routines, using cable geometry and material SC cables which are contained in a common shell. The
properties as input parameters. In general, users must specify: insulation system of each SC cable can be based on extruded
1. Geometry: location of each conductor (x-y coordinates); insulation or on paper-oil. Most designs can be differentiated
inner and outer radii of each conductor; burial depth of the into the two designs shown in Fig. 20:
cable system. Design #1 Design #2
2. Material properties: resistivity, ρ, and relative permea-
bility, μr, of all conductors (μr is unity for all non-magnetic
materials); resistivity and relative permeability of the
surrounding medium, ρ, μr; relative permittivity of each
insulating material, εr.
Accurate input parameters are in general more difficult to
obtain for cable systems than for overhead lines as the small
geometrical distances make the cable parameters highly
sensitive to errors in the specified geometry. In addition, it is
not straightforward to represent certain features such as wire
screens, semiconducting screens, armors, and lossy insulation Fig. 20. Three-phase cable designs.
materials. The main challenge is the impedance calculation,
which is based on computing surface impedances and transfer Design #1: One metallic sheath for each SC cable, with
impedances of cylindrical metallic shields, as well as self and cables enclosed within metallic pipe (sheath/armor). This
mutual ground-return impedances. CC routines differ in the design can be directly modeled using the “pipe-type”
actual expressions that are used in the calculation of these representation available in some CC routines.
quantities. It is worth noting that these routines take the skin Design #2: One metallic sheath for each SC cable, with
effect into account but neglect proximity effects. A procedure cables enclosed within insulating pipe. None of the present
for including proximity effects is given in [87]. Besides CC CC routines can directly deal with this type of design due
routines have some shortcomings in representing certain cable to the common insulating enclosure. This limitation can be
features. overcome in one of the following ways:
A previous conversion procedure can be required in order a) Place a very thin conductive conductor on the inside of
to bring the available cable data into a form which can be used the insulating pipe. The cable can then be represented
as input by a CC routine. This conversion is frequently needed as a pipe-type cable in a CC routine.
because input cable data can have alternative representations, b) Place the three SC cables directly in earth (and ignore
while CC routines only support one representation and CC the insulating pipe).
routines do not consider certain cable features, such as semi- Both options should give reasonably accurate results when
conducting screens and wire screens. the sheath conductors are grounded at both ends. However,
these approaches are not valid when calculating induced
Cable Designs sheath overvoltages.
Single Core (SC) Self-Contained Cables: They are coaxial The space between the SC cables and the enclosing pipe is
in nature, see Fig. 19. The insulation system can be based on for both designs filled by a composition of insulating
extruded insulation (e.g., XLPE) or oil-impregnated paper materials; however, CC routines only permit to specify a
(fluid-filled or mass-impregnated). The core conductor can be homogenous material between sheaths and the metallic pipe.
 67
Pipe Type Cables: They consist of three SC paper cables that ρm I 0 (mb) K1 (ma) + I1 (ma) K 0 (mb)
are laid asymmetrically within a steel pipe, which is filled with Z bb = (61b)
2πb I1 (mb) K1 (ma) − I1 (ma) K1 (mb)
pressurized low viscosity oil or gas, see Fig. 21. Each SC
where
cable is fitted with a metallic sheath. The sheaths may be
touching each other. Most CC routines have available an input m= jωμ / ρ (62)
template specifically dedicated to this cable design. being ρ and μ the resistivity and the permeability of the
conductor, respectively. In(·) and Kn(·) are the n-th order
Modified Bessel Functions of the first and the second kind,
respectively.
Zaa can be seen as the p.u.l. impedance of the hollow
conductor for the current returning inside the conductor, while
Zbb is the p.u.l. impedance for the current returning outside the
conductor.

b
a
Fig. 21. Pipe type cable.
hollow conductor
Calculation of Cable Parameters [25], [9] (resistivity = ρ, permeability = μ)
This section focuses mostly on coaxial configurations. Fig. 23. Cross section of a hollow conductor.
Other transversal geometries should be approximated to this
or dealt with through auxiliary methods such as those based The p.u.l. transfer impedance Zab from one surface to the
on Finite Element Analysis [87] or on subdivision of other is calculated as follows [22]:
conductors [88]-[93]. ρ 1
Z ab = (63)
Coaxial Cables: The calculation of the elements of both the 2πab I1 (mb) K1 (ma) − I1 (ma) K1 (mb)
series impedance matrix and the shunt capacitance matrix is The impedance of an insulation layer between two hollow
presented below. conductors, whose inner and outer radii are respectively c and
Series Impedance Matrix: The series impedance matrix of a d, see Fig. 24, is given by the following expression:
coaxial cable can be obtained by means of a two-step jωμ d
procedure. First, surface and transfer impedances of a hollow Zi = ln (64)
2π c
conductor are derived; then they are rearranged into the form
where μ is the permeability of the insulation.
of the series impedance matrix that can be used for describing
traveling-wave propagation [22], [83]. Fig. 22 shows the cross
section of a coaxial cable with the three conductors: core,
c d
metallic sheath, and armor. Some coaxial cables do not have
armor. The materials of the insulation layers differ with cable
types. The main insulation can be XLPE or oil-impregnated insulation layer
(permeability = μ)
paper. Insulations A and B are sometimes called bedding and
plastic sheath, respectively. Fig. 24. Insulation layer between two hollow conductors.

The ground-return impedance of an underground wire can

main insulation be calculated by means of the following general expression
core
insulation A [94], [95]:
metallic sheath insulation B
⎡ K 0 (mD1 ) − K 0 (mD2 ) ⎤
armor ρm 2 ⎢ + ∞ ⎥
Zg = ⎢ e −Y λ2 + m 2 ⎥ (65)
2π ⎢+ ∫ jλ x
e dλ ⎥
⎢⎣ − ∞ λ + λ2 + m 2 ⎥⎦
Fig. 22. Cross section of a coaxial cable.
where m is given by (62) and ρ is the ground resistivity.
Consider a hollow conductor whose inner and outer radii The p.u.l. self impedance of a wire placed at a depth of y
are a and b respectively. Fig. 23 shows its cross section. The with radius r is obtained by substituting
inner surface impedance Zaa and the outer surface impedance
D1 = r D2 = r 2 + 4 y 2 (66)
Zbb, both in per unit length (p.u.l.), are given by [22]:
ρm I 0 (ma) K1 (mb) + I1 (mb) K 0 (ma) into (65).
Z aa = (61a) To obtain the p.u.l. mutual impedance of two wires, placed
2πa I1 (mb) K1 (ma) − I1 (ma) K1 (mb)
at depths of yi and yj with horizontal separation xij, substitute
 68

D1 = ( xi − x j ) 2 + ( y i − y j ) 2 where
(67) ⎡V1i ⎤ ⎡ I1i ⎤
D2 = ( x i − x j ) + ( y i + y j ) Vi = ⎢⎢V2i ⎥⎥ I i = ⎢⎢ I 2i ⎥⎥
2 2
i = a, b, c (73a)
into (65). ⎢⎣V3i ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 3i ⎥⎦
Consider the coaxial cable shown in Fig. 22. Assume that I1 ⎡ Z11i Z12i 0 ⎤
is the current flowing down the core and returning through the
Z i = ⎢⎢ Z 21i Z 22i Z 23i ⎥⎥ i = a, b, c (73c)
sheath, I2 flows down the sheath and returns through the
armor, and I3 flows down on the armor and its return path is ⎢⎣ 0 Z 32i Z 33i ⎥⎦
the external ground soil. If V1, V2, and V3 are the voltage ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
differences between the core and the sheath, between the ⎢ ⎥
Z g ,ij = ⎢0 0 0 ⎥ i, j = a, b, c (73d)
sheath and the armor, and between the armor and the ground,
⎢0 0 Z g ,ij ⎥
respectively, the relationships between currents and voltages ⎣ ⎦
can be expressed as follows [25]: where Zg,ab is the mutual ground-return impedance between
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ Z11 Z12 0 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ the armors of the phases a and b; Zg,bc and Zg,ca are the mutual
∂ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
− ⎢V2 ⎥ = ⎢ Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I 2 ⎥⎥ (68) ground-return impedances between b and c and between c and
∂x a, respectively. These mutual ground-return impedances can
⎢⎣V3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 Z 23 Z 33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 3 ⎥⎦
be obtained from (65).
where Using the relationship (70) for each phase, an algebraic
Z11 = Z bb ( core) + Z i ( core − sheath ) + Z aa ( sheath ) manipulation leads to the following final form:
Z 22 = Z bb ( sheath ) + Z i ( sheath − armor ) + Z aa ( armor ) ⎡ Vcore, a ⎤ ⎡ I core, a ⎤
⎢V ⎥ ⎢I ⎥
Z 33 = Z bb ( armor ) + Z i ( armor − ground ) + Z g (69) ⎢ sheath, a ⎥ ⎢ sheath, a ⎥
⎢Varmor , a ⎥ ⎢ I armor , a ⎥
Z12 = − Z ab ( sheath ) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Vcore,b ⎥ ⎢ I core,b ⎥
∂
Z 23 = − Z ab ( armor ) − ⎢Vsheath,b ⎥ = Z 9×9 ⎢ I sheath,b ⎥ (74)
∂x ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Zaa(conductor), Zbb(conductor) and Zab(conductor) are calculated by ⎢Varmor ,b ⎥ ⎢ I armor ,b ⎥
substituting the inner and outer radii of the conductor into ⎢V ⎥ ⎢I ⎥
⎢ core,c ⎥ ⎢ core,c ⎥
(61a), (61b) and (63); Zi(insulator) is calculated by substituting ⎢Vsheath,c ⎥ ⎢ I sheath,c ⎥
the inner and outer radii of the designated insulator layer into ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
V
⎣ armor ,c ⎦ ⎣Varmor ,c ⎦
(64); Zg is the self ground-return impedance of the armor
obtained from (65). where Z9×9 is the p.u.l. series impedance matrix of the three-
An algebraic manipulation of (68) using the relationship phase coaxial cable.
V1 = Vcore − Vsheath I1 = I core A general and systematic method to convert the loop
impedance matrix of cables into their series impedance matrix
V2 = Vsheath − Varmor I 2 = I core + I sheath (70)
is presented in [96].
V3 = Varmor I 3 = I core + I sheath + I armor Expression (65) assumes that soils are homogeneous. An
gives extension for soils with two layers of different resistivities can
be found in [97], whose methodology can be extended to
⎡ Vcore ⎤ ⎡ I core ⎤
∂ ⎢ include additional layers. Nevertheless, practical applications
⎥
− ⎢Vsheath ⎥ = Z 3×3 ⎢⎢ I sheath ⎥⎥ (71) are limited as it is usually very difficult to characterize real
∂x
⎢⎣Varmor ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I armor ⎥⎦ soils to the detail required by multilayer earth models.
where Z3×3 is the p.u.l. series impedance matrix of the coaxial Shunt Admittance Matrix: The p.u.l. capacitance of the
cable shown in Fig. 22 when a single coaxial cable is buried insulation layer between the two hollow conductors shown in
alone. Fig. 24 is given by
When more than two parallel coaxial cables are buried 2πε
C1 = (75)
together, mutual couplings among the cables must be d
ln
accounted for. The three-phase case is illustrated in the c
following paragraph. Among the circulating currents I1, I2, and where ε is the permittivity of the insulation layer.
I3, only I3 has mutual couplings between different cables. If the dielectric losses are ignored, the p.u.l. admittance is Yi
Using subscripts a, b and c to denote the phases of the three = jωCi, and the relationship between currents and voltages can
cables, (68) can be expanded into the following form [25]: be expressed as follows:
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ Z a Z g , ab Z g , ac ⎤ ⎡I a ⎤ ⎡ I core ⎤ ⎡ Vcore ⎤
∂ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− ⎢ Vb ⎥ = ⎢Z g ,ba Zb Z g ,bc ⎥ ⎢⎢I b ⎥⎥ (72) ∂
− ⎢⎢ I sheath ⎥⎥ = Y3×3 ⎢⎢Vsheath ⎥⎥ (76)
∂x ∂x
⎢
⎢⎣ Vc ⎥⎦ Z g ,ca Z g ,cb ⎥
Z c ⎦ ⎢⎣I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I armor ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Varmor ⎥⎦
⎣
 69
where where m is given in (62), μ = μ0μr is the permeability of the
⎡ Y1 − Y1 0 ⎤ pipe, and K n′ (⋅) is the derivative of Kn(·).
Y3×3 ⎢
= ⎢− Y1 Y1 + Y2 − Y2 ⎥⎥ (77) To take into account the mutual impedance among the
coaxial cables in a pipe, the impedance matrix for circulating
⎣⎢ 0 − Y2 Y2 + Y3 ⎦⎥
currents given in (74) has to be built. Since an infinite pipe
is the p.u.l. shunt admittance matrix of the coaxial cable
thickness is assumed, Zg,ab, Zg,bc and Zg,ca are replaced by Zp,ab,
shown in Fig. 22 when a single coaxial cable is buried alone.
Zp,bc and Zp,ca (the subscript “p” designates a pipe) and they are
Note that there are no electrostatic couplings between the
deduced by substituting the phase indexes a, b, and c into i
cables, when more than two parallel coaxial cables are buried
and j in equation (83), shown below.
together. Thus, the p.u.l. shunt admittance matrix for a three-
phase cable can be expressed as follows: ⎡
jωμ ⎢ R K 0 (mR)
Z p ,ij = ln + μr +
⎡Ya 0 0⎤ 2π ⎢ d i + d j − 2d i d j cos θ ij
2 2 mRK1 (mR)
⎣
Y9 x 9 = ⎢⎢ 0 Yb 0 ⎥⎥ (78)
1 ⎫⎤
n
⎢⎣ 0 0 Yc ⎥⎦ ∞ ⎛ di d j ⎞ ⎧ K n (mR)
∑ ⎜⎜ R 2 ⎟⎟ cos(nθ ij )⎨2μ r − ⎬⎥
nμ r K n (mR) − mRK n′ (mR) n ⎭⎥
where n =1 ⎝ ⎠ ⎩ ⎦
⎡ Y1i − Y1i 0 ⎤ where di is the offset of the i-phase coaxial cable from the pipe
Yi = ⎢⎢− Y1i Y1i + Y2i − Y2i ⎥⎥ i = a, b, c (79) center, dj is the offset of the j-phase coaxial cable from the
⎢⎣ 0 − Y2i Y2i + Y3i ⎥⎦ pipe center, and θij is the angle that the i-phase and the j-phase
where the subscripts a, b and c denote the phases of the three cables make with respect to the pipe center.
cables. If the dielectric losses are considered, a real part is The expressions (81), (82) and (83) are from [98]. A
method to take into account the saturation effect of a pipe wall
added to Yi, see (87).
was presented in [99].
Pipe-Type Cables: The calculation of the series impedance
Shunt Admittance Matrix: The inverse of Y3×3 in (77)
matrix and the shunt capacitance matrix is presented in the
following paragraphs. multiplied by jω gives the p.u.l. potential coefficient matrix of
Series Impedance Matrix: Since the penetration depth into the each coaxial cable in the pipe. If potential coefficients of
pipe at power frequency is usually smaller than the pipe phases a, b, and c are denoted as Pa, Pb, and Pc, the potential
thickness, it is reasonable to assume that the pipe is the only coefficient matrix of the whole cable system, including the
return path and the ground-return current can be ignored. In pipe, is written in the form:
this case, an infinite pipe thickness can be assumed. A ⎡Pa + Paa Pab Pac ⎤
⎢
P9 x 9 = ⎢ Pab Pb + Pbb Pbc ⎥⎥ (84)
technique to account for the ground-return current is detailed
in [25] and [84].
⎣⎢ Pca Pcb Pc + Pcc ⎦⎥
For each coaxial cable in the pipe, the impedance matrix for
where the submatrices Pab, Pbc, and Pca consists of 9 identical
circulating currents given in (68) can be used. The matrix
elements which can be calculated by substituting the phase
elements are calculated using the equations (69), except that
indexes a, b, and c into i and j in the following formulas [98]:
for Z33, which is replaced by:
Z 33 = Z bb ( armor ) + Z i ( armor − pipe ) + Z aa ( pipe ) (80) 1 ⎡ R ⎧⎪ ⎛ d ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪⎤
Pii = ln ⎢ ⎨1 − ⎜ i ⎟ ⎬⎥ (85a)
where Zbb(armor) is obtained from (61b). 2πε ⎢ ri ⎪⎩ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎪⎭⎥
⎣ ⎦
Since the conductor geometry of a pipe-type cable is not
1 R
concentric with respect to the pipe center, the formula for Pij = ln (85b)
2πε d i2 + d 2j − 2d i d j cos θ ij
Zi(armor–pipe) is somewhat complicated compared with (64):
jωμ ⎡ R ⎧⎪ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤ where ε is the permittivity of the insulation between the
2

Z i ( armor − pipe ) = ln ⎢ ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥ (81) armors and the pipe.

2π ⎢ r ⎪⎩ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎪⎭⎥
⎣ ⎦ Finally, the p.u.l. shunt admittance matrix is calculated as
where μ is the permeability of the insulation between the follows:
armor and the pipe, R is the radius of the pipe, r is the radius Y9×9 = jωP9−×19 (86)
of the armor of interest, d is the offset of the coaxial cable of
interest from the pipe center. Material Properties
On the other hand, Zaa(pipe) is calculated as follows:
Conductive Materials: Table VI shows appropriate values
jωμ ⎡ K 0 (mR) for the resistivity of some common conductor materials.
Z aa ( pipe ) = ⎢ +
2π ⎣ mRK1 (mR) Stranded conductors need to be modeled as massive
(82) conductors. The resistivity should be increased with the
∞
⎛d⎞
2n
K n (mR) ⎤
2∑ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ inverse of the fill factor of the conductor surface so as to give
n =1 ⎝ R ⎠ nμ r K n (mR) − mRK n′ (mR) ⎥⎦ the correct resistance of the conductor.
 70
Table VI Resistivity of conductive materials Input Data Preparation
Material Copper Aluminum Lead Steel Actual cable designs can be different from those assumed
by CC routines, which are used to obtain cable parameters. In
ρ (Ω·m) 1.72E-8 2.83E-8 22E-8 18E-8
particular, users can be forced to decide how to represent the
The resistivity of the surrounding ground depends strongly core stranding, the inner semiconducting screen, the outer
on the soil characteristics, ranging from about 1 Ω·m (wet semiconducting screen or the wire screen (sheath).
soil) to about 10 kΩ·m (rock). The resistivity of sea water lies CC routines assume that the relative permittivity of each
between 0.1 and 1 Ω·m. insulating layer is real and frequency independent; therefore,
Insulating Materials: The relative permittivity of the main any relaxation phenomenon in the insulation is neglected. On
insulation is usually obtained from the manufacturer. Table the other hand, CC routines do not permit the user to directly
VII shows typical values for common insulating materials at specify the semiconducting layers, which must be introduced
power frequency. by a modification of the input data. Semiconducting layers,
which are in contact with a metallic conductor, can be taken
Table VII Relative permittivity of insulation materials into account by replacing the semiconductors with the
insulating material of the main insulation, and increasing the
Material XLPE Mass-impregnated Fluid-filled
permittivity of the total insulation so that the electric
Permittivity 2.3 4.2 3.5 capacitance between the core and the sheath remains
unchanged. The validity of this approach has been verified by
Most extruded insulations, including XLPE and PE, are measurements up to at least 1 MHz [3]. For a rigorous
practically lossless up to 1 MHz, whereas paper-oil type treatment of semiconducting layers see [101].
insulations exhibit significant losses also at lower frequencies. CC routines take into account the skin effect in the
The losses are associated with a complex, frequency- conductors, but neglect the proximity effect between parallel
dependent permittivity cables; i.e., a cylindrically symmetrical current distribution is
ε r (ω) = ε′r (ω) − jε′r′ (ω) assumed in all conductors and the helical winding effect of the
(87)
tan δ(ω) = ε′r′ / ε′r wire screen is not taken into account.
being tanδ the insulation loss factor. At present, CC routines The following paragraphs are focused on the representation
do not allow to enter a frequency-dependent loss factor, so a of a cable within the protective jacket (oversheath).
constant value has to be specified. However, this leads to non- Core: CC routines require core resistivity ρc and radius r1.
physical frequency responses which cannot be accurately However, the core conductor is often of stranded design,
fitted by frequency-dependent transmission line models. whereas CC routines assume a homogenous (solid) conductor.
Therefore, the loss-angle should instead be specified as zero. This makes necessary to increase the resistivity of the core
Breien and Johansen [100] fitted the measured frequency material to take into account the space between strands:
response of insulation samples of a low-pressure fluid-filled πr 2
ρ c = ρ′c 1 (89)
cable in the frequency range 10 kHz – 100 MHz. The Ac
permittivity is given as: where Ac is the efficient (nominal) cross sectional area of the
0.94 core. The resistivity ρ′c to be used for annealed copper and
ε r = 2.5 + (88)
( )
1 + jω ⋅ 6 ⋅10 −9
0.315
hard drawn aluminum at 20°C is shown in Table VI.
The permittivity at zero frequency is real-valued and equal If the manufacturer provides the dc resistance of the core,
to 3.44. According to [100], the frequency-dependent permitti- the sought resistivity can alternatively be calculated as
vity causes additional attenuation of pulses shorter than 5 µs. follows:
Semiconducting Materials: The main insulation of high- πr 2
voltage cables for both extruded insulation and paper-oil ρ c = RDC 1 (90)
l
insulation is always sandwiched between two semiconducting Insulation and semiconducting screens: The semiconducting
layers. The electric parameters of semiconducting screens can screens can have a substantial effect on the propagation
vary between wide limits; Table VIII gives indicative values characteristics of a cable in terms of velocity, surge impedance
for extruded insulation. The resistivity is required by norm to and possibly attenuation [102]. CC routines do not allow an
be smaller than 1E-3 Ω⋅m. Semiconducting layers can in most explicit representation of the semiconducting screens, so an
cases be taken into account by using a simplistic approach. approximate data conversion procedure must be applied:
Table VIII Parameters of semiconducting layers (extruded 1) Calculate the inner radius of the sheath, r2, as the outer
insulation) radius of the core, r1, plus the sum of the thickness of the
semiconducting screens and the main insulation.
Resistivity (Ω·m) < 1E-3 2) Calculate the relative permittivity εr1 as follows:
Relative Permittivity > 1000 C ln(r2 / r1 )
ε r1 = (91)
2πε 0
 71
where C is the cable capacitance stated by the core conductors, even in transient conditions. As a result, the
manufacturer and ε0 = 8.854E-12 (F/m). transients on phase conductors are insensitive to the specified
If C is unknown, εr1 can instead be calculated based on the properties of insulating materials external to the sheath.
relative permittivity εrins of the main insulation [103]: The magnetic flux external to the sheath is small at
ln(r2 / r1 ) frequencies above which the penetration depth δ is smaller
ε r1 = ε rins (92) than the sheath thickness.
ln(b / a)
where a and b are respectively the inner and the outer 2
δ= (94)
radius of the insulation. ωμσ
The inner and outer semiconducting screens have a relative It follows that high frequency transients are not very
permittivity of the order of 1000, due to the large amount of sensitive to ground and to the conductors external to the
carbon they contain. This implies that the capacitance of the sheaths. The shielding effect increases with decreasing
screens is much higher than that of the insulation and will tend resistance of the sheath.
to act as a short circuit when calculating the shunt admittance Some care is needed when modeling armored SC cables at
between core and sheath. A similar effect is caused by the low and intermediate frequencies as the return path of each
ohmic conductivity of the semiconducting screens, which is coaxial mode divides between the sheath and the armor. This
required by norm to be higher than 1.0E+3 S/m. At the same makes the propagation characteristics sensitive to the armor
time the conductivity of the semiconducting screens is much model (and to the separation distance between the sheath and
lower than that of the core and the sheath conductors, so these armor). The armor permeability is then an important
screens do not contribute to longitudinal current conduction. parameter. In addition, the armor/pipe must be accurately
This implies that, when entering the geometrical data in a CC represented during ground faults since it can strongly affect
routine, the user should let the XPLE insulation extend to the the zero-sequence impedance of the cable and thus the
surface of the core conductor and the sheath conductor, and magnitude of the fault current.
increase the relative permittivity to leave the capacitance
unaltered. This modeling neglects the possible attenuation Conclusions
caused by the semiconducting screens. The attenuation could When preparing available cable data for application of CC
have a strong impact on very high frequency transients. routines it is important to account for the following aspects:
Wire screen: When the sheath conductor consists of a wire 1) CC routines do not directly apply to SC cables with
screen, the most practical procedure is to replace the screen semiconducting screens, so a conversion procedure is
with a tubular conductor having a cross sectional area equal to needed before entering the cable data.
the total wire area As. With an inner sheath radius of r2, the 2) The nominal thickness of the various cable screens, as
outer radius r3 becomes: stated by manufacturers, can be smaller than those found
As in actual cables. This can result in a significant error for
r3 = + r22 (93) the propagation characteristics of the cable model.
π
3) CC routines do not take into account any additional
Discussion attenuation at very high frequencies resulting from the
Cable designs (single core, three-phase, pipe-type) analyzed semiconducting screens. A correct modeling of semicon-
in this section are based on 3 single core cables having a core ducting screens of SC coaxial type cables is important; a
conductor and a sheath conductor. High frequency cable careless model can have a too low surge impedance and a
transients essentially propagate as decoupled coaxial waves too high propagation velocity. The effect is strongly
between cores and sheaths [104], [105], so the transient dependent on the type of transient study.
behavior of the cable is sensitive to the modeling of the core, Some important conclusions derived from the literature can
main insulation, semiconductors, and metallic sheath. The be summarized as follows [3], [9]:
sensitivity of the coaxial wave can be summarized as follows: a) It is necessary to accurately specify the geometry and the
1) Increasing the core resistivity increases the attenuation and material properties of the core conductor, the main
slightly decreases propagation velocity. insulation, and the sheath. It is also important to take the
2) Increasing the sheath resistivity (or decreasing the sheath semiconducting layers into account.
thickness) increases the attenuation. b) Lossy effects of paper-oil insulation lead to a strong
3) Increasing the insulation permittivity increases the cable attenuation and dispersion of narrow pulses. None of the
capacitance. This decreases velocity and surge impedance. existing CC routines can take this into account.
4) With a fixed insulation thickness, adding semiconducting c) The representation of metallic conductors external to the
screens increases the inductance of the core-sheath loop sheath conductors is important at low frequencies where
without changing the capacitance. This decreases velocity the penetration depth exceeds the sheath thickness.
and increases surge impedance. d) Transient voltages can be strongly sensitive to the
Since the sheaths are normally grounded at both ends, the permeability of any steel armoring when the magnetic field
potential along these conductors is low compared to that of the penetrates the sheaths.
 72
VI. TRANSFORMERS obtaining information of the flux distribution in core and air.
Most commonly, however, transformer parameters are
Introduction estimated from test measurements. The procedures presented
Several factors make transformer modeling a difficult task: in this section assume by default that usual nameplate data are
transformer behavior is nonlinear and frequency-dependent; available. However, there could be some situations for which
many topological variations on core and coil construction are a more detailed and accurate model should be used, and some
possible; there are many physical attributes whose behavior additional information could be needed.
may need to be correctly represented (self- and mutual- Single-Phase Transformers: The behavior of a single-phase
inductances between coils, leakage fluxes, skin effect and transformer can be described by means of the circuit shown in
proximity effect in coils, magnetic core saturation, hysteresis Fig. 25. RH and RL are the series resistances, which include the
and eddy current losses in core, and capacitive effects). Table Joule losses and eddy current losses in the windings (when
IX shows the importance of some parameters and effects when data is available). LH and LL represent the leakage inductance
modeling a transformer for a specific frequency range. The (or series inductance), which has been divided among the two
table is a modified version of that proposed by the CIGRE windings. Rm and Lm, on the shunt branch, describe the core
WG 33.02 [14]. behavior including nonlinearities (saturation and hysteresis)
Most transformer models available in simulation tools for and eddy current phenomena.
analysis of electromagnetic transients are suitable only for This equivalent circuit has been used successfully for many
low- and mid-frequency transients; i.e., phenomena well years in steady-state studies and some low-frequency
below the first winding resonance (several kHz). The transients. The model is relatively easy to implement, but its
transients for which adequate models exist include: most line main disadvantage is the quasi-arbitrary division of the
switching, capacitor switching, harmonic interactions, or leakage inductance. The division of the leakage inductance
ferroresonance [106]. may also result in a wrong location of the core model in the
Simulation of fast-front transients (e.g., lightning) should transformer equivalent circuit. However, there are transient
be based on a detailed winding model that is usually not phenomena for which a duality derived model is better [10].
available as a standard model. This type of model could also The reason is that the parameters of the traditional model do
be developed as a standalone model; however, their assembly not have a direct relationship with the physical components of
require a high degree of expertise by the user, as well as the transformer. Except for the winding resistances, the other
knowledge of the transformer construction details, which are model components cannot be related in a topological sense to
not typically available. specific physical regions of the transformer.
Although much effort has been dedicated to the calculation RH LH NH : NL LL RL
of transformer parameters from geometric information, they
are usually derived from nameplate or test data. The following
information is usually available for any transformer: power Rm Lm
rating (S), voltage ratings (Vp, Vs), excitation current (Iexc),
excitation voltage (Vexc), excitation losses (Pexc), core losses
(Pcore), short-circuit voltage (Vsh), short-circuit current (Ish),
short-circuit losses (Psh), and in some cases information on the Fig. 25. Traditional equivalent circuit of a single-phase core.
saturation characteristics and capacitances. Excitation and The series parameters of the above circuit represent the
short-circuit currents, voltages and losses, must be provided transformer winding and may be computed from the short-
from both positive- and zero-sequence measurements. circuit test as follows:
Standards (e.g., IEC and IEEE) recommend procedures for P
measuring the above values and provide specifications and RH = α sh2
I sh
requirements for conducting tests. However, they neither (95a)
include expressions for parameter determination nor cover all (1 − α) Psh
RL =
tests needed to derive the parameters that must be specified in n 2 I sh2
some transformer models. 2 2
1 ⎛ Vsh ⎞ ⎛ Psh ⎞
Parameter Determination for Low-Frequency and Slow- LH = α ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟
Front Transients ω ⎝ I sh ⎠ ⎝ I sh ⎠
(95b)
Introduction: Methodologies to determine transformer 1 (1 − α) ⎛ Vsh
2
⎞ ⎛ Psh ⎞
2

parameters for low-frequency and slow-front transients are LL = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟

ω n2 ⎝ I sh ⎠ ⎝ I sh ⎠
based on experimental determination through laboratory tests
or use topological information and design data [4], [10], [107]. where n is the turn ratio, α is the percentage of the impedance
Electromagnetic field simulations are only possible for the to be placed at the high-voltage side (in general, α = 0.5), and
designer. Some utilities also perform these simulations when ω = 2πf, being f the power system frequency.
the internal construction is known [108]. They are useful for
 73
Table IX Modeling guidelines for transformers

Low-Frequency Slow-Front Fast-Front Very Fast-Front

Parameter/Effect
Transients Transients Transients Transients
Short-circuit impedance Very important (1) Very important Important Negligible
Saturation Very important(2) Important Negligible Negligible
(3)
Iron losses Important Negligible Negligible Negligible
Eddy currents Very important Important Negligible Negligible
(4)
Capacitive coupling Negligible Important Very important Very important

(1) Unimportant for ferroresonance. However, it may have an effect on the frequency of the upstream network, especially critical under 300 Hz (harmonics
range).
(2) Unimportant for most control interaction cases, harmonic conditions not caused by saturation, and other non-saturation cases.
(3) Only for resonance phenomena.
(4) Capacitances can be very important for some ferroresonance cases.

The most usual representation of the core is a parallel approach is used, some aspects are to be taken into account:
combination of a nonlinear inductance Lm, representing • the exciting current includes core loss and magnetizing
magnetic core saturation, and a constant resistance Rm, components,
representing core losses. This model is accurate enough for • manufacturers usually provide RMS currents, not peak.
most transformer energization studies However, more In addition, it can be important to consider that hysteresis
sophisticated models are mandatory for higher frequency biases saturation curve and that winding capacitances can
transients, for example the study of magnetizing current affect low-current data.
chopping. In the latter case, the modeling of hysteresis and the
determination of the residual flux are major issues. ϕe
Transformer saturation is an important component of many ϕsat
low-frequency electromagnetic transient phenomena, such as Flux
ferroresonance, temporary overvoltages during load rejection, ϕn
and transformer energization leading to inrush currents. In
general, saturation needs to be included in transients involving
high flux. The total flux in the iron core during an Io Isat Ie
energization is the sum of two fluxes, the residual flux and the Current
forced flux, the latter depends on the closing times of the
Fig. 26. Saturation curve of a transformer (main parameters).
circuit breaker poles.
For most phenomena, the critical transformer saturation
parameters are the slope (air-core inductance), and the
nominal flux and the corresponding excitation current, see
Fig. 26.
The manufacturers may provide the V-I curve for the
transformer, up to a voltage value of 1.1 p.u. for high voltage
transformers and up to 1.3 p.u. for lower voltages. Above
those values, the voltage wave-shape may be distorted, and
damage the laminations of the iron core during the test. This
explains why the available saturation curves are limited to the
knee of the curve.
From the Fig. 27, the hysteretic curve may be built using
the following additional parameters: Fig. 27. Hysteresis curve.
• the iron core losses, and especially the hysteresis losses,
The following procedure is suggested to obtain the
described by the area of the cycle,
excitation curve:
• the coercitive current, which may be given by simple 1) Extract loss component from excitation current for each
formulas, current point:
• the residual flux at the intercept of zero current, equal to
0.8 p.u. in Fig. 27. I m ≈ I exc
2
− ( Pexc / Vexc ) 2 (96)
Saturation can be incorporated into a transformer model 2) Convert the voltage-current RMS curve to an
using test data/manufacturer’s curves or estimating the key instantaneous flux-current relationship. To perform this
parameters from transformer geometry. When the first
 74
conversion the SATURATION supporting routine, current effects. Eddy currents are induced in conductors (win-
available in some EMTP-type programs, can be used [25]. dings and core) when the magnetic flux changes with time.
3) Compensate for effect of winding capacitance. Winding In steady state the eddy currents are undesirable because
capacitance can dominate magnetizing reactance causing they produce losses. However, when a transformer is
“cobra” flux-current curves, see Fig. 28, and cancel much subjected to a transient the induced eddy currents are
of the magnetizing current [109]. These capacitances are beneficial because they add damping to the transients and the
seldom given by the manufacturers. proper modeling of this damping could be important.
Flux
Eddy currents in windings: Winding losses are frequency
dependent. Fig. 29 shows the frequency dependence of a
winding resistance R as a function of the factor X/R, where X
is the leakage reactance. Winding resistances must incorporate
an ac component due to eddy currents in windings, skin effect
and stray losses. AC resistance is commonly approximated by
Current the following expression [112]:
R = R dc + ΔRac ⋅ ( f / f 0 )
m
(98)
where f0 is the power frequency and m is a factor between 1.2
and 2.
Fig. 30 shows a series-parallel R-L circuit (Foster
Fig. 28. Hysteresis characteristic with capacitive effect included.
equivalent) that can be used for an accurate representation of
the winding resistance and the leakage inductance in low-
The saturation characteristic can be modeled by a piece- frequency and switching transients. To obtain parameters of
wise linear inductance with two slopes, since increasing the such circuit, a frequency response test must be performed and
number of slopes does not significantly improve the accuracy. a fitting procedure applied [113], [114]. If such information is
However, there are some cases (e.g., ferroresonance) for not available, then effective resistance approximations
which a more detailed representation of the saturation presented in the literature could be considered, see for
characteristic may be required. instance [112]. A correction of the resistance value to account
When opening the circuit breaker linked to the transformer, for temperature effect should be also considered.
the initial value of the residual flux is the value at which the The series Foster equivalent circuit of Fig. 30 is only a
curve intercepts the zero value of the current (e.g., 0.8 p.u. on terminal model. The elements of the circuit are not related to a
the preceding curve). From that initial value, the residual flux section or region of the winding in a dual way. The elements
may decrease, caused generally by the oscillation of the circuit of a Cauer equivalent circuit to represent the eddy current
constituted by the inductance of the transformer and effects proposed in [115] can be related to currents and
capacitances (stray capacitances of the circuit breaker). The magnetic fluxes in the duality sense [116].
final value of the residual flux will depend on the initial value
300
on the hysteretic curve when intercepting the zero current, and
the chopped current of the circuit breaker. 250
Except for very specific applications, a very accurate
200
hysteresis model is not required. In addition, a good
X/R

knowledge of parameters to be specified in some models is 150 Actual Transformer

usually lacking. Reference [110] presents a summary of the 100
Series R- L Model
different methodologies available for representing hysteresis
in transformers. Promising results including the complex 50

physics of hysteresis when required can be found in [111]. 0

Core losses can also be critically important in some low- 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
current phenomena involving saturation, such as Frequency (Hz)
ferroresonance. As a first approach, core losses can be Fig. 29. Frequency dependency of the factor X/R [4].
represented as a linear resistance obtained from test
measurements at rated voltage as follows: L1 L2
2
Vexc R0
Rm= (97)
Pexc − RI exc
2

where Vexc is the rated voltage and R is the ac resistance to be

considered in the excitation test. R1 R2
An important aspect of transformer modeling for low
Fig. 30. Simplified frequency-dependent representation of a
frequency and switching transients is the proper estimation of winding.
the frequency dependence of the model parameters, or eddy
 75
Eddy currents in core: The magnetization curves presented circuit tests and no-load tests showing that the transformers
above are only valid for slowly varying phenomena as it has meet the specifications before being installed in the network.
been assumed that the magnetic field can penetrate the core In order to get model parameters directly from those tests
completely. For high frequency, this is not true. A change in some supporting routines (e.g., BCTRAN) have been imple-
the magnetic field induces eddy currents in the iron. As a mented in some EMTP-type programs, which can be applied
consequence of this, the flux density will be lower than that to both single- and multi-phase multi-winding transformers.
given by the normal magnetization curve. For high A detailed description of the procedure implemented in this
frequencies, the flux will be confined to a thin layer close to capability is out of the scope of this document. Only a
the lamination surface, whose thickness decreases as the summary of its main principles is described below. Readers
frequency increases. This indicates that inductances repre- are referred to [25] and [117] for more details. It should be
senting iron path magnetization and resistances representing noted that this approach, based on measurements made at
eddy current losses are frequency dependent [116]. steady state (50/60 Hz), may only give accurate information
The circulation of these eddy currents introduces additional for low-frequency transients. This method may not be
losses. To limit their influence, a transformer core is built up applicable to higher frequencies.
from a large number of parallel laminations. Eddy current The elements of the impedance matrix Z can be derived
models intended for simulation of the frequency dependence from the open- and short-circuit tests. By ignoring the
of the magnetizing inductance as well as losses can be excitation losses, the imaginary parts of submatrix diagonal
classified into two categories obtained, respectively, by the elements can be derived from the positive and zero sequence
realization of the analytical expression for the magnetizing excitation tests:
impedance as a function of frequency, and by subdivision of X s −ii = ( X 0 −ii + 2 X 1−ii ) / 3 (101a)
the lamination into sublaminations and the generation of their X m −ii = ( X 0 −ii − X 1−ii ) / 3 (101b)
electrical equivalents [113]-[116].
X1-ii and X0-ii are the positive and zero sequence reactances
Computationally efficient models have been derived by
measured by tests. Xs-ii represents the self reactance of
synthesizing a Foster or a dual Cauer equivalent circuit to
winding i (diagonal elements) and Xm-ii, the mutual reactance
match the equivalent impedance of either a single lamination
(off-diagonal elements of the winding submatrix) in p.u.
or a coil wound around a laminated iron core leg [112], [113].
values.
The accuracy of the standard Cauer representation over a
Excitation losses are not included in Z, but they can be
defined frequency range depends on the number of terms
added as shunt resistances across one or more windings.
retained in a partial fraction expansion and, therefore, on the
Winding resistances are obtained from the load losses
number of sections. To represent the frequency range up to
computed during the short-circuit tests at power frequency.
200 kHz with an error of less than 5%, only four terms are
The off-diagonal elements of the submatrix are calculated
required [112]. The first section governs its characteristics at
from the short-circuit impedances. First, the positive and zero
frequencies up to a few kilohertz; each subsequent section
sequence values are computed using the following expression:
comes into play as the frequency increases.
The effect of eddy currents due to flux penetration in the Z ik = Z ki = ( Z ii − Z ik ( sh ) ) / Z kk (102)
core can be described by means of the following expression Then, these values are converted using equations (101a)
[113]-[116]: and (101b). Their p.u. real parts are the p.u. load losses, while
4 N 2 Aρ core the imaginary parts are calculated as follows:
Z core = x tanh x (99)
ld 2 X ik ( sh ) = | Z ik ( sh ) |2 −( Ri + Rk ) 2 (103)
where
where (Ri + Rk) are the p.u. winding resistances, which can be
d jωμ core calculated from the p.u. losses measured in short-circuit tests.
x= (100)
2 ρ core There could be some accuracy problems with the above
and l is the length of the represented magnetic element (leg or calculations if exciting currents are low or ignored because the
yoke), d is the thickness of the lamination, µcore is the matrix could become singular. To avoid those problems an
permeability of the core material, ρcore is the resistivity of the admittance matrix representation should be used. For a
core material, N is the number of turns, A is the total cross- discussion of these problems and more details of the
sectional area of all laminations. alternative representation see [25] and [117].
Three-Phase Transformers: Guidelines on parameter This approach has a very simple usage, as it is based on
estimation for three-phase core configurations are presented nameplate data. However, as mentioned before, these models
below. They have been separated into two subsections, are linear and theoretically valid only for the frequency at
assuming that the transformer model to be used in transient which the nameplate data was obtained. Nonlinear behavior
simulations can be linear or must incorporate nonlinear can be incorporated by externally attaching the core
behavior, respectively, see [4]. representation at the model terminals in the form of nonlinear
Matrix Representation: This representation is usually derived elements. Attention must be paid as the real part of the
from tests performed by the manufacturers, mainly short- elements of the matrix may be negative in certain cases. Other
 76
aspects discussed in the original reference are the Alternatively, the zero sequence effect might have been
modifications to be used with delta-connected transformers. concentrated all at the center phase, or divided into two parts
Topology-Based Models: Several difficulties arise when at each of the other phases. In any case, the total effect is the
modeling and simulating three-phase core configurations: same. In the equivalent electrical circuit, it is seen that zero
Three-phase transformers have magnetic coupling between sequence operation results in an additional current (it can be
phases. Four- and five-legged transformers, as well as shell- seen in terms of superposition) which circulates through the R0
type transformers, have low reluctance for zero sequence and L0 elements. Regardless of how the R0 and L0 effect is
fluxes, as they can circulate directly through the core. Three- distributed, the total impedance of the zero sequence path
legged core type transformers have a high reluctance path for must be the same, as shown in Table X, where the zero
zero sequence fluxes, which close through the air and the sequence test is described.
transformer tank. The portion of the equivalent circuit inside the ideal
Only parameter estimation procedures for a three-legged transformers is valid regardless of winding connections; delta
stacked-core transformer model derived from the principle of or wye connections are made up at the outside. However,
duality are analyzed in this section. Details about five-legged procedures for parameter determination will depend on
stacked-core transformers are given in [118] and [4]. transformer connections since the same zero sequence tests
Fig. 31a shows the core configuration of a three-legged cannot be applied to all transformers: for wye-wye connected
stacked-core transformer. The magnetic circuit is depicted in transformers, data can be derived from excitation and short-
Fig. 31b [4]. ℑH and ℑL represent the MMFs at the high and circuit tests at both positive and zero sequences; for delta-wye
the low voltage side, respectively. Reluctances due to paths connected transformers, zero sequence tests from delta side
through iron are shown as solid rectangles: ℜm for the legs, ℜy cannot be performed, and excitation and short-circuit tests at
for the yokes. Flux leakage paths are shown as open zero sequence provide the same results; for delta-delta
rectangles: ℜ1 for paths between the legs and the innermost connected transformers, zero sequence tests are meaningless.
windings, ℜ2 for paths between the legs and the space As for single-core units, parameters of the model depicted
between the two windings, ℜ0 for paths between the legs and in Fig. 31c can be split into two groups: winding parameters
outside the windings and ℜ3 for leakage path through the air (RH, RL, Lsh, R0 and L0) and core parameters (Rm, Lm, Ry, Ly).
in parallel with the yokes. Reluctances ℜ0, also known as zero Tables X - XII show the diagram of the tests proposed for
sequence paths, have been halved [4]. parameter estimation. Note that the tests used for winding
After using duality, reluctances due to paths through iron parameters are the standard positive-sequence excitation test
will transform into nonlinear inductances, while flux paths in and the zero sequence tests, respectively. Tests for core
air will transform into linear inductances. Fig. 31c shows the parameter estimation were first proposed in [119], and they
are not supported by any standard. The procedures to obtain
equivalent circuit, where the effect of reluctances ℜ1 and ℜ3
all parameters are detailed in the following paragraphs [4].
has been neglected. In the figure RH and RL represent the
Winding parameters: Winding resistances can be obtained by
winding resistances of the high and low voltage windings; the
standard tests; if these values are not available, short-circuit
linear inductances Lsh represent the flux leakages between
test data should be used, following the same procedure that
both windings; zero sequence flux paths are represented by
was used with single-phase transformers.
the linear inductances L0; eddy current losses resulting from
Data from the short-circuit positive sequence test is used to
zero sequence fluxes are represented by resistances R0; the
obtain RH, RL, Xsh, as follows [4]:
parallel combination of resistances Rm and saturable
inductances Lm represent the flux paths through legs; each P /3
RH = k ⋅ α ⋅ sh2 (104a)
parallel combination of Ry and Ly represents the yoke section I sh
between a pair of phases [4]. 1 − α Psh / 3
Capacitances between terminals and ground (core and RL = k ⋅ ⋅ 2 (104b)
n2 I sh
tank), between windings and between phases could be added
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ (P 3) ⎞
2 2
to the equivalent circuit. The elements L0 and R0 represent k
leakage fluxes and associated losses that circulate outside the X sh = 2 ⋅ ⎜⎜ sh ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ sh2 ⎟⎟ (104c)
concentric coil pairs on each phase. Dividing the flux paths
n ⎝ I sh ⎠ ⎝ I sh ⎠
into two parts results in a more symmetric and convenient where Psh is the three-phase active power, n is the turn ratio
connection for the core equivalent in the resulting electrical and k is a factor that depends on the transformer connection at
equivalent circuit. the source side: for wye connection k = 1, for delta-
In the case of unbalanced excitation that includes zero connection k = 3. As for single-phase units, α is the
sequence, the total fluxes linked by the three sets of coils on percentage of the resistance to be placed at the HV side.
the phase legs will not add to zero, and the zero-sequence flux Data from zero sequence tests can be used to obtain R0 and
will circulate through the surrounding oil and air and through X0 according to the following sequence of calculations [4]:
fittings and tank walls. Following the assumptions made in the V0 = Vh − ( R L + jX sh) I h (105a)
development of the equivalent circuit, this flux is distributed
across the top of the coils on the three phase legs.
 77
Ph V 2 Core parameters: Diagram of the two tests required to obtain
P0 = − RL I h2 − 0
(105b) the parameters of the core are shown in Table XII. In both
3 RH / n 2
tests, the delta-connected HV side is left open. The first one is
Q0 = (V hI h ) 2 − ( Ph / 3) 2 − X shI h2 (105c) performed by shorting one outer leg and exciting the other
V 2 one; it will be used to determine leg characteristic; i.e., Rm, Lm.
R0 = 0
(105d) The second test is performed by shorting the center leg and
P0
exciting an outer leg; after obtaining the combined leg and
V02 yoke characteristic, the leg characteristic, obtained in the
X0 = (105e)
Q0 previous test, is subtracted.
where Vh and Ih are the rms values of voltage and current, The tests are also used to obtain core losses and therefore
respectively, and Ph is the three-phase active power, measured the full representation of legs and yokes. As for single-phase
in the zero sequence test. units, some care is needed to account for capacitances effects
during excitation (open-circuit) tests. Parameters R0 and X0
HV LV LV HV
can be also derived from a zero sequence open-circuit test for
both transformer connections. As for the tests shown in Tables
X - XII, the delta side of a delta-wye connected transformer
should also be open. In such case, the equivalent circuit would
be that shown in Fig. 32. A modified version of equations
(105a) to (105e) must be used. In fact only equation (105b)
has to be modified
P
a) Physical structure (coils and iron core) P0 = h − RL I h2 (106)
3
R3 R3 RL Xsh
Ry Ry
Ih

R1 Rm R1 Rm R1 Rm Vh R0 X0
R2 R2 R2
R0 R0 R0 R0 R0 R0
2 2 2 2 2 2
FL +- FL +- FL +-

FH +- FH +- FH +- Fig. 32. Equivalent circuit of a zero sequence open-circuit test (delta

side must be open in a delta-wye connection).
b) Magnetic circuit. Core is represented with reluctances
L0/2 Tests shown in Table X cannot be always performed, since
opening the delta side or even separating the three windings of
the wye side is only possible for very particular transformers.
RH Lsh R /2 RL
N H : NL 0 1:1
Therefore, an alternative procedure should be considered. An
Rm Lm efficient approach can be used if transformer geometry is
known. As illustrated in several works (see for instance [120]
R0/2 L0/2 Ly and [121]) an accurate enough estimation of the different core
reluctances, and therefore of the saturable inductances, can be
R0/2 L0/2 Ry performed by using some simple expressions presented in
RH N H : NL Lsh 1:1 RL textbooks [122].
Rm Lm
Some researchers suggest a core loss representation using
nonlinear resistors in parallel with each nonlinear inductance,
R0/2 L0/2 Ly with the nonlinear resistance values determined from test data
at different excitation levels. However, as discussed earlier for
single-phase transformers, there are significant limitations of
R0/2 L0/2 Ry
RH NH : N L Lsh 1:1 RL nonlinear resistance representation because the hysteresis
losses depend on the maximum flux level and not on the
Rm Lm
maximum voltage level. A fit of nonlinear resistances to loss
L0/2 data, which is accurate for one excitation waveform, may not
provide a match for excitation of a different frequency or
R0/2
waveform.
Topology models (see [107], [118]-[120], [123]-[125]) are
c) Electrical equivalent circuit
superior to matrix-based models (see [25], [117]). The most
Fig. 31. Duality derived equivalent circuit of a three-legged stacked- important difference is the way in which the core and winding
core transformer [4]. models are assembled. In the matrix formulation the location
 78
Table X Tests for the determination of winding parameters of three-legged stacked-core wye-wye transformers [4]
Test Diagram Equivalent Circuit

Ish RH n2Xsh
A a
Vsh /0º
B b Ish
Vsh /-120º
C c Vsh n 2R L
Vsh /+120º
n

RL Xsh
Ih
A a

Vh Ih
B b

Vh R0 X0 RH/n2
C c

Table XI Tests for the determination of winding parameters of three-legged stacked-core delta-wye transformers [4]
Test Diagram Equivalent Circuit

Ish RH/3 n2Xsh/3

A a
Vsh /0º
B b Ish
Vsh /-120º
C c Vsh n2RL/3
Vsh /+120º
n

RL Xsh
Ih
A a
Ih
Vh
B b

Vh R0 X0 RH/n2
C c

Table XII Tests for the determination of core parameters of three-legged stacked-core transformers [119]
Test Diagram Equivalent Circuit

A a RL jXsh+Z0 RL+jXsh+2Z0
V
B b
Ix
Vx
V Zm Zy Zm Vx
C c
Ix

A a
RL jXsh+Z0 RL+Z0 jXsh+Z0
V
B b
Ix
Ix
C c V Zm Zy Zy Zm Vx
Vx
 79
of the core model in the equivalent circuit is arbitrary, which oscillatory period in which high voltage magnitudes can
may lead to wrong results for some applications (e.g., be obtained at different points along the winding.
transformer energization), where the accurate representation Any point along the winding may be stressed at the
of the saturation is mandatory. In topology (duality-based) transitional period, given that voltages to earth that
models it is clear where in the circuit the core should be considerably exceed the magnitude of the incident impulse
connected, and each inductor representing the core can be may develop in the main body of the winding, which can also
related one-to-one with a section of the core, so the nonlinear give rise to risk of failure of the insulation between turns of
characteristics are properly considered. the winding.
The determination of parameters of a new hybrid model for As for low-frequency transients, methodologies for the
five-legged transformers has been presented in [126]. computation of parameters for high frequency transformer
models are based on (a) application of formulae from
Parameter Determination for Fast-Front and Very Fast-
geometrical configuration, or empirical equations from
Front Transients
measurements, (b) experimental determination through
Introduction: A transformer connected to a power network is laboratory tests, or (c) electromagnetic field simulations.
subjected to various types of transient voltages whose Regardless of the model employed, inductive, capacitive
magnitudes and waveshapes must be identified in order to and loss components of the model are in general required to
define the stresses undergone by the insulation. accurately describe the behavior at high frequencies.
Voltage distribution along the transformer windings The flux penetration into the core is usually neglected for
depends greatly on the waveshape of the voltage applied to very fast-front transients, such as those related to switching
the windings. It can be noticed that at low frequencies the operations in gas insulated substations (GIS), considering that
distribution is linear along the windings. In the case of fast the core acts as a flux barrier at these high frequencies.
transients, a larger portion of the voltage applied is distributed However, the flux penetration dynamics in the core should be
on the first few turns of the winding. High frequency taken into account for fast transients due to switching or
oscillations may generate internal resonances that can damage lightning, particularly when information about the internal
the insulation. These resonances can be better understood behavior of the transformer is required. The core inductance is
when considering the internal structure of a transformer. considered to behave as a completely linear element since
Behavior of the impulse propagation at different periods of high frequencies yield reduced magnetic flux density.
time can be described by means of voltage distribution curves. Frequency dependence of both series and shunt elements of
Three significant periods can be distinguished, see Fig. 33, the windings at high frequencies should be considered. Skin
[117], [128]: and proximity effects produce frequency dependence of
140 winding and core impedances because of the reduced flux
penetration. At very high frequencies, the conductance
120
(c)
representing the capacitive loss in the winding’s dielectric
% Applied voltage

100 also depends on frequency. This happens when the

80
polarization time constant of the dielectric is of the same order
(b) of magnitude (or larger) than the frequency of the applied
60 electric field.
40 High-frequency transformer models require very detailed
(a)
information of the transformer geometrical configuration,
20
which is only available to manufacturers. However, if
0 overvoltages generated within the windings are not required,
0 20 40 60 80 100
parameters can be obtained from terminal measurements for
% winding length
the desired frequency range. This is highly dependent on the
Fig. 33. Impulse voltage distribution: (a) initial, (b) final, (c)
transient (time of maximum).
measurement setup and related instrumentation, and therefore
an accurate derivation of parameters can be a complicated
1) Initial voltage distribution: At the beginning of the task.
phenomenon (wave front), the capacitances of the circuit High-Frequency Transformer Models: Electromagnetic
are the predominant elements, producing a non uniform transients in transformers due to high frequency waves are
voltage distribution. commonly studied using internal (gray box) models, which
2) Final voltage distribution: At the end of the phenomenon consider the propagation and distribution of the incident
(wave tail), the resistances govern the response of the impulse along the transformer windings. A typical internal
circuit, resulting in a uniform potential distribution. representation for a differential segment Δz of a single
3) Transient voltage distribution: Between the periods of transformer winding is shown in Fig. 34 (see [129], [130]),
time described in 1) and 2), interaction of the electrical where parameters per unit length are defined as follows:
and magnetic energies stored in the capacitances and • L is the series inductance,
inductances of the circuit is developed, giving rise to an • R is the series resistance (i.e., the loss component of L),
 80
• Cs is the series capacitance (turn-to-turn), where C, G, and Γ are nodal matrices of capacitances,
• Rs is the loss component of Cs, conductances and inverse inductances, respectively, with the
• Cg is the capacitance to ground (turn-to-earth), kth row and column removed, while v(t) is the output vector
• Rg is the loss component of Cg. of the k-1 node voltages that remain unknown, and Ck, Gk,
Proper choice of the segment length for lumped-parameter and Γk are the kth columns of C’, G’ and Γ’ without the kth
modeling is fundamental. Analysis of fast-front transients (in row.
the order of hundreds of kHz) using one segment per coil of Equation (108) expressed in the Laplace domain can be
the winding can be sufficient, whereas very fast-front rearranged as follows:
transients (in the order of MHz) might require considering I ( s) = Y( s )V ( s ) (109)
one segment per turn. Therefore, the resulting circuit can be where Y(s) is the nodal admittance matrix of the circuit and
very large and computationally expensive. I(s) is the nodal current vector, given by
i(z) RΔz LΔz i(z+Δz) Γ
+ + Y(s) = sC + G + (110a)
s
Cs/Δz
Γ
I( s) = −sCkU (s) − G kU ( s) − k U (s) (110b)
s
v(z) v(z+Δz) Voltage propagation along the winding can be computed by
RsΔz
solving equations (110) for V(s).
CgΔz Rg/Δz Distributed-Parameter Models: From the elements included in
the circuit presented in Fig. 34, a series impedance Z and a
_ _ shunt admittance Y per unit length can be defined as:
Δz R + sL
Z= (111a)
1 + ( R + sL)(sC s + 1 / Rs )
Fig. 34. Equivalent circuit per unit length of a transformer winding.
Y = sC g + 1 / R g (111b)
Wave propagation phenomena along the winding can only Modeling can be reduced to the well known equations of a
be reproduced with a distributed-parameter model. However, single-phase transmission line (STL), which are defined in the
the need to consider the turn-to-turn inductance can be a Laplace domain as follows:
serious shortcoming [131]-[135]. Lumped-parameter models dV ( z , s)
can give adequate results for fast-front transients (up to 1 = − Z ( s) I ( z, s) (112a)
dz
MHz); however, for very fast-front transients (above 1 MHz)
a distributed-parameter model provides better results [136]. dI ( z, s )
= −Y ( s )V ( z, s) (112b)
Surges affecting one winding can give rise to overvoltages dz
in the other windings. The analysis of this transference where V(z,s) and I(z,s) are the voltage and current at point z of
phenomenon can also be of importance at the design stage of the winding.
winding insulation. Lumped- and distributed-parameter The model described in the previous section cannot take
models have been used for these studies [137]-[139]. into account the mutual inductance between turns of a
Lumped-Parameter Models: The network equations for the winding coil. These mutual inductances can be important
circuit shown in Fig. 34, considering a cascaded connection when computing the interturn voltages due to a fast-front
(ladder network) of n equal segments, are described in nodal incident impulse. To overcome this problem, a model based
form as follows [140]: on representing the winding by a multiconductor transmission
d 2 v ′(t ) dv ′(t ) line (MTL) can be applied, as shown in Fig. 35. In this model,
C′ + G′ + Γ′v ′(t ) = 0 (107) each conductor represents a winding section (disc or turn). To
dt 2 dt
preserve continuity, the end of each conductor is topologically
where the loss component of the series branch has been
connected to the beginning of the next conductor, resulting in
neglected. C’, G’ and Γ’ are respectively the nodal matrices
a zig-zag connection [131]-[134]. This is defined simply as:
of capacitances, conductances (obtained from the inverse of
vri = v s ( i +1) iri = −is (i +1) i = 1K n − 1 (113)
elements Rg) and inverse inductances, while v’(t) is the vector
of node voltages, including also the input node. The number Taking this into account, the winding model is obtained
of equations in (107) is reduced by extracting the input node k from the equations of a multiconductor transmission line,
of known voltage u(t): which are defined in the Laplace domain as:
d 2 v (t ) dv (t ) dV( z, s )
C +G + Γv (t ) = = − Z ( s )I ( z , s ) (114a)
dt 2 dt dz
(108)
dI ( z, s )
d 2 u (t ) du (t ) = −Y( s )V ( z , s ) (114b)
− Ck − Gk − Γ k u (t ) dz
dt 2 dt
 81
is1 ir1 between non-adjacent turns can also be included, although
vs1 vr1 values for distant turns are considered negligible.
is2 ir2
vs2 vr2 Cg
is3 ir3 Clv Cit Cg

LV winding
vs3 vr3

N/2
1 … 1

2
1

3
isN
… irN
Cid

N/2+1

N/2+3
N/2+2
vsN vrN …

N
Zeq Fig. 36. Representation of two discs of a transformer winding.

Expressions for the turn-to-turn and disk-to-disk (axial)

capacitances based also on geometrical considerations, which
Fig. 35. MTL model for the transformer winding. take into account the fringe effects and related stray
Z and Y are the N×N matrices of series impedances and capacitances, have been obtained in [128]:
shunt conductances per unit length, where N is the number of ε ε (w + d it )
Cit = 0 it (117a)
conductors (discs or turns); V(z,s) and I(z,s) are the vectors of d it
voltages and currents at point z of the winding. In Fig. 35, the ⎛ k ⎞
equivalent impedance Zeq connected at the end of the N-th ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d it / ε it + d id / ε oil ⎟
⎟(R + d id )
element can be used to represent the remaining part of the Cid = ε 0 ⎜ (117b)
winding, when only a section of the winding needs to be ⎜+ 1− k ⎟
modeled in detail. Zeq can also represent the neutral ⎜ d /ε +d /ε ⎟
⎝ it it id id ⎠
impedance.
where εit and εid are the relative permittivities of the insulation
Parameter Determination: The following paragraphs
between turns and between discs, εoil is the relative
present some approaches proposed for the determination of
permittivity of the oil insulation, dit and did are the distances
the parameters to be specified in the above models.
between turns and between discs, k is a fraction of the
Capacitance: The most common and straightforward
circumferential space occupied by oil and R is the winding
approach to compute the winding capacitances is based on the
radial depth. The terms dit and did, added respectively to w and
formula for parallel plates. For the series capacitance, the
R in (117a) and (117b), are used to account for the fringe
following equation can be used:
effects.
εε h
Cs = 0 r (115) A more general and accurate capacitance calculation can be
ds obtained from electrostatic field simulation. A technique
where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity, εr is the relative based on the finite element method (FEM) to evaluate the
permittivity of the dielectric material between turns, h is the elements of the winding capacitance matrix from rather basic
rectangular conductor height and ds is the distance between electrostatic analysis has been described in [134].
turns. The relative permittivity can be distinguished according Inductance: Exact expressions for the self-inductance of a
to the insulation materials of corresponding local space. single-turn circular coil and for the mutual inductance
Similarly, the capacitance to ground can be computed as: between two thin wire coaxial loops have been presented in
ε ε w the literature, see [127], [141]. The approach for winding
Cg = 0 r (116) inductance calculation presented here is based on the MTL
dg
theory and therefore more suitable for the MTL-based model.
where w is the rectangular conductor width and dg is the
The inductance matrix per unit length is divided into a
distance between turn and ground plane.
geometrical inductance matrix Lg and a conductor inductance
For the MTL-based winding model, a capacitance matrix is
matrix Lc, such that
formed starting from the representation of Fig. 36 [131], whe-
L = L g + Lc (118)
re the 2 first discs of the HV side are considered. In the figure:
• Clv is the capacitance between the HV and LV sides, The easiest way to obtain the geometrical inductance
• Cit is the capacitance between adjacent turns, matrix Lg is directly from the capacitance matrix:
• Cg is the capacitance between a turn and ground, ε
L g = 2r C −1 (119)
• Cid is the capacitance between adjacent discs. c
Computation of these parameters can be completed by where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric material, c
means of simple parallel plates formulations, considering is the velocity of light in free space, and C is the capacitance
adequate values for dielectric permittivity, distance between matrix calculated as described above. The conductor
elements and transversal area for each element. Capacitances inductance matrix is computed as:
 82
Im(Z c )
Lc = U (120) Ii

…
ω Yjj = Ij / Vj
where Zc is the conductor impedance due to skin effect, which Vj Ij

…
Transformer
is defined in the next section, and ω is the angular frequency. Yij = Ii / Vj

…
Similarly to the capacitance matrix, the inductance matrix
can be computed directly from FEM analysis using the energy
method to obtain more accurate results for realistic Fig. 37. Measurement procedure for the jth column of the
arrangements [142], [143]. admittance matrix [146].
Conductor losses: Taking into account the skin effect at high To obtain the time-domain response of the system, the
frequencies, and considering a rectangular cross section, admittance matrix is approximated with rational functions
conductor impedance per unit length is computed from the dc [147]
resistance RDC and the impedance at high frequencies Zhf I t ( s) ≅ Y fit ( s)Vt ( s) (126)
[144]:
where Yfit represents the rational approximation of the
Z c = RDC
2
+ Z hf2 (121) admittance matrix.
where Next, Yfit is represented in the form of an electrical
ρc ρc network, whose admittance branches are calculated as
RDC = Z hf = (122) follows:
wh 2 p ( w + h) n
ρc is the resistivity of the conductor material, w and h are the
conductor cross-sectional dimensions, and p is the complex
yi = ∑Y
j =1
fit ,ij , yij = −Y fit ,ij (127)

penetration depth due to skin effect, defined as follows: where yi and yij represent admittance branches between node i
ρc and ground and between nodes i and j, respectively. Each
p= (123) admittance branch in (127) is described as a rational function:
jωμ c
N
cm
where µc is the permeability of the conductor material.
Core losses: The effect of eddy currents due to flux
y(s) = ∑ s−a
m =1 m
+ d + se (128)

penetration in the core can be described by means of the Finally, each branch can be represented by an electrical
equations (99) and (100). network as shown in Fig. 38. R0 and C0 are computed as:
Capacitive losses: The capacitive loss in the insulation C0 = e R0 = 1 / d (129)
material can be computed directly from the capacitance matrix
Real poles result in RL branches:
making use of the loss factor tanδ, and is defined in terms of a
R1 = −a / c L1 = 1 / c (130)
conductance matrix [144]:
G = ω tan δC (124) while complex conjugate pairs of the form
From Fig. 34, Gii corresponds to the addition of elements c′ + jc ′′ c ′ − jc′′
+ , (131)
1/Rs and 1/Rg converging at node i, while Gij is given by the s − (a ′ + ja ′′) s − (a ′ − ja ′′)
element 1/Rs connected between nodes i and j with a minus result in RLC branches:
sign. Note that G is a linear function of frequency; moreover, L = 1 /( 2c ′) (132a)
it has been observed that the loss factor tanδ in oil treated R = [− 2a′ + 2(c′a′ + c′′a′′)L] L (132b)
cellulose papers is also frequency dependent [136].
Black Box Model from Terminal Measurements: If the
[
1 / C = a′ + a ′′ + 2(c′a′ + c′′a′′)R L
2 2
] (143b)
computation of internal stresses along the windings is not G = −2(c′a ′ + c′′a ′′)CL (132d)
required, a transformer terminal model can be used. This
model is described in the frequency domain in terms of its
admittance matrix as [145], [146]: … …
I t (s) = Yt (s)Vt (s) (125)
R1 R
Considering a transformer with n terminals, Yt is the
admittance matrix of size n x n which relates terminal currents C0 R0 C0 R0 L
and voltages given by vectors It and Vt, respectively, both of
length n. If a 1 p.u. voltage is applied at node j of the L1
C G
transformer while the remaining terminals are short-circuited,
the jth column of Yt will be equivalent to the currents
measured from ground to each terminal. Applying this
procedure, direct measurement of all elements of Yt can be (a) (b)
completed, as presented in Fig. 37.
Fig. 38. Synthesization of electrical network from rational approxi-
mation: (a) real poles, (b) complex conjugate pairs [147].
 83
VII. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES constant.
Introduction Phase c
ic Direct
A synchronous machine is a complex component whose vc axis
ω
behavior is the result of the interaction of electrical and
mechanical systems. The detail with which a synchronous
machine must be represented depends on the frequency range θ
of the transients to be analyzed. Table XIII presents a
iD
summary of the guidelines proposed by the CIGRE WG 33.02
iF
for representing synchronous machines [14]. Note that the vF
representation of mechanical and control systems is crucial in va
ia
Phase a
low-frequency transients, but it can be neglected for higher- iQ2
frequency transients. This section deals with the determi- iQ1
nation of electrical parameters needed to represent three-phase
synchronous machines in low-frequency transients. A short
introduction to the behavior under fast-front and very fast- vb

front transients is included at the end of this section. ib Quadrature

axis
Synchronous Machine Equations Phase b

Fig.39 illustrates the circuits involved in the analysis of the a, b, c : Stator phase windings
machine. The stator circuits are composed of three-phase F : Field winding
armature windings and the rotor circuits are composed of the D : d-axis damper winding
field and the damper windings. Usually the damper effects are Q1 : First q-axis damper winding
Q2 : Second q-axis damper winding
represented with three damper windings: one located at d-
θ : Rotor angle, in electrical rad
axis, and other two located at q-axis. The machine equations
ω : Rotor angular velocity, in electrical rad/s
will be derived based on this assumption. In the derivation of
basic equations of the machine, the following assumptions are Fig. 39. Stator and rotor circuits of a synchronous machine.
made:
Voltage Equations: The voltage equations for the stator and
• The mmf in the air-gap is sinusoidally distributed and rotor windings are:
the space harmonics are neglected.
dψ s
• The effect of stator slots on the rotor inductances is − − R si s = v s (135a)
dt
neglected; i.e., saliency is restricted to the rotor.
dψ r
• Magnetic hysteresis and saturation effects are neglected. − − Rrir = vr (135b)
The omission of magnetic saturation effects is made to deal dt
with linear coupled circuits and make superposition where vs is the vector of instantaneous stator phase voltages,
applicable. However, saturation effects can be significant and vr is the vector of field and damper winding voltages, Rs is the
the methods of accounting their effects will be discussed later. matrix of stator resistances, and Rr is the matrix of rotor
Flux Linkage Equations: The stator and rotor flux linkages resistances.
can be written as: [v s ]t = [va vb vc ] (136a)
⎡ ψ s ⎤ ⎡L ss L sr ⎤ ⎡i s ⎤ [v r ]t = [− v F 0 0 0] (136b)
⎢ ψ ⎥ = ⎢L ⎥⎢ ⎥ (133)
⎣ r ⎦ ⎣ rs L rr ⎦ ⎣i r ⎦ R s = diag[Ra Ra Ra ] (136c)
where is and ir are the vectors of instantaneous stator phase R r = diag RF [ RD RQ1 RQ 2 ] (136d)
and damper circuit currents, ψs and ψr are the flux linkages in Generator convention is used in these equations; that is, the
stator and rotor windings, Lss is the matrix of stator-stator currents are assumed to be leaving the winding at the
inductances, Lsr and Lrs are the matrices of stator-rotor and terminals and the terminal voltages are assumed to be the
rotor-stator inductances, Lrr is the matrix of rotor-rotor voltage drops in the direction of currents.
inductances. The state space form of the voltage equations can be
[i s ]t = [ia ib ic ] (134a) written based on either the flux linkages or the currents as
[i r ]t = [iF iD iQ1 iQ 2 ] (134b) state variables [11].
Torque Equation: The electromagnetic torque expression
[ψ s ]t = [ψ a ψ b ψ c ] (134c) can be found from the co-energy function, W’, of the
[ψ r ]t = [ψ F ψ D ψ Q1 ψ Q 2 ] (134d) magnetic field in the air-gap. For a p-pole machine
p ∂W ′
The elements of matrices Lss, Lsr and Lrs vary with the Te = − (137)
2 ∂θ m
rotor angle θ (the angle by which the d-axis leads the
magnetic axis of phase a, see Fig. 39). The elements of Lrr are where the co-energy function is expressed as:
 84

Table XIII Modeling guidelines for synchronous machines [14]

Low-Frequency Slow-Front Fast-Front Very Fast-Front

Topic
Transients Transients Transients Transients
Representation A detailed representation of A simplified representation A linear per phase circuit A capacitance-to-ground
both mechanical and of the electrical part: an which matches the per phase
electrical parts, including ideal ac source behind the frequency response of the
saturation effects frequency-dependent machine
transient impedance
Voltage control Very important Negligible Negligible Negligible
Speed control Important Negligible Negligible Negligible
Capacitance Negligible Important Important Very important
Frequency- Important Important Negligible Negligible
dependent
parameters

1 ⎡L L rs ⎤ ⎡i s ⎤ equations for the phase flux linkage equations given in (133).

W′ = [i s i r ]⎢ ss ⎥⎢ ⎥ (138) The resulting equations can be expressed as
2 ⎣L sr L rr ⎦ ⎣i r ⎦
⎡ψ dq 0 ⎤ ⎡L′ss L′sr ⎤ ⎡i dq 0 ⎤
By substituting (138) into (137), and considering the fact ⎢ ψ ⎥ = ⎢L′ L ⎥ ⎢ i ⎥ (143)
that Lrr is constant, the electromagnetic torque expression can ⎣ r ⎦ ⎣ rs rr ⎦ ⎣ r ⎦

be written as follows: in which all parameters of the inductance matrices are time-
⎛ t ⎡ ∂L ss ⎤ invariant. Note that the rotor self-inductances remain
⎜ [i s ] ⎢ ⎥ [i s ] + ⎞⎟ unchanged, since there is no transformation of rotor
p⎜ ⎣ ∂θ ⎦ ⎟
Te = − ⎜ ⎟ (139) quantities.
2⎜ t ⎡ ∂L sr ⎤ ⎟ The complete set of flux linkage equations in dq0
⎜ 2[i s ] ⎢ ∂θ ⎥[i r ] ⎟ components is shown below.
⎝ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
Park Transformation: The electrical performance of the • Stator flux linkage equations
synchronous machine can be completely described by means ψ d = Ld id + Lad i F + Lad i D
of (133) and (135). Although these equations can be solved ψ q = Lq iq + Laq iQ1 + Laq iQ 2 (144)
numerically, it is almost impossible to obtain an analytical
solution due to the time-varying inductances. The time- ψ 0 = L0 i0
varying machine equations can be transformed to a time where Ld, Lq and L0 are the time-invariant inductances that
invariant set with a proper transformation of variables. The result from applying Park transformation to the matrix of
time-invariant set of machine equations can be obtained by stator-stator inductances, and Lad and Laq are the stator mutual
applying Park transformation [148], [149], with which all the inductances for d- and q-axis, respectively.
stator quantities are transformed into new variables in which • Rotor flux linkage equations
the reference frame rotates with the rotor. By definition ψ F = Lad id + LFF iF + LFD i D
f s = Pf dq 0 (140)
ψ D = Lad id + LFD i F + LDD i D
where fs are the stator phase quantities that can be either (145)
voltages, currents or flux linkages, and fdq0 are the new ψ Q1 = Laq iq + LQ1Q1iQ1 + LQ1Q1iQ 2
fictitious quantities. ψ Q 2 = Laq iq + LQ1Q 2 iQ1 + LQ 2Q 2 iQ 2
⎡ ⎤ Voltage equations: Applying Park transformation, (135) can
⎢ k d cos θ k q sin θ k0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ be rewritten as follows:
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
P = ⎢ k d cos⎜ θ − ⎟ k q sin ⎜ θ − ⎟ k0 ⎥ (141) d
− (Pψ dq 0 ) − R s Pi dq 0 = Pv dq 0 (146)
⎢ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥ dt
⎢ ⎥
⎢k d cos⎛⎜ θ + 2π ⎞⎟ k q sin ⎛⎜ θ + 2π ⎞⎟ k 0 ⎥ After some manipulations, the stator voltage equations in
⎢⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ dq0 components become:
The constants kd, kq and k0 are arbitrary and their values dψ d
− − ωψ q − Ra id = vd
may be chosen to simplify the numerical coefficients. In this dt
chapter these values are selected as follows: dψ q
kd = kq = 2 / 3 k0 = 1 (142) − + ωψ d − Ra iq = vq (147)
dt
Flux linkage equations: The flux linkage in dq0 components dψ 0
can be found by applying Park transformation to the basic − − Ra i 0 = v 0
dt
 85
where ω = dθ / dt . rotor offers paths for eddy currents having equivalent effect of
In the above equations the fictitious 0 winding, in which damper winding currents. Therefore, it is reasonable to
the zero-sequence currents flows, has no coupling with the assume that the armature and damper circuits all link a single
rotor windings and can be neglected in balanced conditions. ideal mutual flux represented by Laq [151].
The fictitious d winding is aligned with the d-axis and the Similar to d-axis, q-axis flux linkages can be rewritten as
fictitious q winding is aligned with the q-axis, so there is no follows:
coupling between the fictitious d winding and the rotor ψ q = ( Laq + Lal )iq + Laq iQ1 + Laq iQ 2
windings on q-axis, and vice versa.
ψ Q1 = Laq iq + ( Laq + LQ1l )iQ1 + Laq iQ 2 (152)
These equations have a form similar to those of a static
coil, except for the ωψq and ωψd terms, which are called ψ Q 2 = Laq iq + Laq iQ1 + ( Laq + LQ 2l )iQ 2
speed voltages. These terms result from the transformation of
where LQ1l and LQ2l are the leakage inductances of the first
the reference frame from stationary to rotating, and represent
and second damper windings.
the fact that the flux wave rotating in synchronism with the
The d- and q-axis equivalent circuits that include the
rotor creates voltages in the stationary armature coil.
voltage equations are illustrated in Figs. 40 and 41,
The rotor voltage equations remain unchanged and can be
respectively.
written in the expanded form as:
These equivalent circuits have been widely used in
dψ F transient studies. However, equivalent circuits with different
+ RF i F = v F
dt degree of complexity have been applied. Table XIV shows the
dψ D matrix of equivalent circuits with those model structures
+ RD iD = 0
dt proposed in IEEE Std. 1110 [152]. Note that up to twelve
(148) combinations are possible, but only seven are considered. The
dψ Q1
+ RQ1iQ1 = 0 selection of a model is usually based on the type of machine,
dt the study to be performed, the user’s experience, and the
dψ Q 2 available information. Depending on the characteristic
+ RQ 2 iQ 2 = 0 parameter source, the most complex models very often cannot
dt
Electrical torque: Applying Park transformation, and after be used due to lack of data. As mentioned in the introduction,
some manipulations, the electrical torque expression in dq0 these representations are suitable for simulation of low-
components becomes: frequency transients, such as transient stability,
subsynchronous resonance, load rejection, generator tripping,
Te = (iq ψ d − id ψ q )
p
(149) generator synchronization, and inadverted energization.
2
ωψq
Equivalent Circuits Ra
− +
Lal LFdl

Let Lal be the stator leakage inductance, LFl, LDl be the id iD iF

LFl
leakage inductances of the F and D windings, and LFdl be the
LDl
leakage inductance that represents the flux linking both the
field and the damper but not the d-axis winding. The d-axis vd Lad
RF
flux linkages can be rewritten as: RD +
ψ d = ( Lad + Lal )id + Lad i F + Lad i D vF

ψ F = Lad id + ( LFD + LFl )i F + LFD i D (150)

ψ D = Lad id + LFD i F + ( LFD + LDl )i D Fig. 40. d-axis equivalent circuit.
where Ra
ωψd
Lal
Ld = Lad + Lal + −

iq iQ2
LFF = LFD + LFl iQ1
(151) LQ1l
LQ2l
LDD = LFD + LDl
vq Laq
LFD = Lad + LFdl
RQ1
The inductance LFdl is usually omitted. Although this may RQ2
be reasonable due to the fact that the damper windings are
near the air-gap and the flux linking damper circuit is nearly
equal to that linking the armature, such approach is not valid Fig. 41. q-axis equivalent circuit.
especially for short-pitched damper circuits and solid rotor
iron paths [150].
In case of q-axis, there is no field winding and the solid
 86
Table XIV Synchronous machine models for transient studies [152] • The transient period, which spans a longer time and
during which the current amplitude decays slowly.
q-axis
• The steady-state period, during which the current
No One Two Three
amplitude remains constant.
d-axis Damper Damper Damper Damper
Circuit Circuit Circuits Circuits
Subtransient
MODEL MODEL Not Not
Field Circuit Only period
Transient
1.0 1.1 Used Used period Steady-state
period

Short-circuit current
Field Circuit + One Not MODEL MODEL MODEL
Damper Circuit Used 2.1 2.2 2.3
Field Circuit + Two Not Not Not MODEL
Damper Circuit Used Used Used 3.3

Synchronous Machine Parameters

The parameters of the equivalent circuits are known as
fundamental or basic parameters. Many of them cannot be Fig. 42. Fundamental frequency ac component of the armature
directly determined from test/field measurements. The short-circuit current.
parameters usually provided by the manufacturer are obtained
by means of standardized procedures and they need to be The amplitude of the fundamental frequency ac
converted to fundamental parameters. To understand data components of the armature current is a function of rotor flux
conversion procedures it may be useful to investigate the linkages and therefore it is not constant. The initial rapid
synchronous machine response to a sudden three-phase short- decay is due to the rapid decay of the flux that links the
circuit at the armature terminals or a to a step change in the subtransient circuit; i.e., the damper windings D and Q2 in
field voltage. Figs. 40 and 41. The slowly decaying part is due to the
Before applying the short circuit, the field current is relatively slow decay of flux linking the transient circuits; i.e.,
constant and the corresponding flux linkage of each armature the field and damper winding Q1 in Figs. 40 and 41.
winding varies sinusoidally in time having 120º phase Initially, the transient currents are strong enough to keep
difference between adjacent windings. The short circuit the flux linkage ψF and ψD constant at zero. Hence, at t = 0+,
generates currents in the armature in such a way that the ψ F = Lad id + LFF i F + LFD i D = 0
(153)
armature winding flux linkages are maintained at the instant ψ D = Lad id + LFD i F + LDD i D = 0
of the short circuit. In general the fault current in each phase Solving for iF and iD, equation (144a) becomes after
has two distinct components: a fundamental frequency ac substituting the resulting currents
component corresponding to the armature current opposing to
⎛ L + LDD − 2 LFD ⎞
the time varying flux produced by the rotor windings and a dc ψ d = ⎜⎜ Ld − L2ad FF ⎟id (154)
component corresponding to the initial flux linkage at the ⎝ LFF LDD − L2FD ⎟⎠
instant of the short circuit. The subtransient inductance is defined as the initial stator
Similar situation occurs on the rotor windings. Following flux linkage per unit of stator current with all rotor circuits
the short circuit, the rotor windings are rotating in a stationary short circuited. Thus,
trapped armature flux wave and respond with a fundamental ψ d = Ld′′id (155)
frequency ac current component to oppose the tendency of where L′′ is the d-axis subtransient inductance
this trapped armature flux to change the flux linkages of the L + LDD − 2 LFD
rotor windings. In addition, a dc component is also induced on Ld′′ = Ld − L2ad FF (156)
LFF LDD − L2FD
the rotor windings to oppose the synchronously rotating
component of the flux generated by the ac components of the When balance voltages are suddenly applied to a machine
armature current which tends to demagnetize the flux having no damper winding, the same procedure gives:
generated by the rotor windings. The dc component of each ψ d = Ld′ id (157)
phase current is determined from the initial flux in the related where Ld′ is the d-axis transient inductance
winding at the short-circuit instant. Lad ( LFl + LFdl )
The waveform of the fundamental frequency ac component Ld′ = Lal + (158)
Lad + LFl + LFdl
of the armature current following a three-phase short circuit
illustrated in Fig. 42 can be divided into three distinct time The decrement of the damper winding current is very rapid
periods: when compared to the decrement of field winding current, but
• The subtransient period, which includes the first few it becomes negligible after a few cycles, when the effective
cycles and during which the current amplitude decays armature reactance has increased from the subtransient to the
rapidly. transient value. The d-axis short-circuit subtransient and
transient time constants, T d′′ and Td′ , determine the
decrement of both the amplitude of the fundamental
 87
frequency ac components of the armature currents and the between transient and steady-state conditions. As a result, the
amplitude of the dc component of the rotor currents. Their expressions for the q-axis inductances and short-circuit time
values can be found as follows. From (144) - (145), and after constants of the salient-pole machine become:
some manipulations, the d-axis rotor voltage equations can be Laq LQ1l
written as: Lq′′ = Lal + (163a)
Laq + LQ1l
⎛ ⎡− LsD RF LMD RD ⎤ ⎡i F ⎤ ⎞
⎜⎢ +⎟ LsQ1
⎜ ⎣ LMD R F − LsF RD ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣i D ⎥⎦ ⎟ Tq′′ = (163b)
⎡ di F ⎤ ⎜ ⎟ RQ1
⎢ dt ⎥ 1 ⎜ ⎡ ( LsD − LMD ) Lad dψ d ⎤ ⎟ (159)
⎢ di ⎥ = If a step change is applied to the field voltage vF, the
⎜ − ⎟
⎢ D ⎥ LsF LsD − LMD ⎜ ⎢ dt ⎥ ⎟
2
Ld amplitude of the dc component of the d-axis rotor currents
⎣ dt ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎜ ⎢ − ( LsF − LMD ) Lad dψ d ⎥ ⎟ decay with the time constants Td′′ and Td′ when the stator is
⎜⎢ Ld dt ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠
⎝⎣ short-circuited. Tdo′′ and Tdo′ are the d-axis open-circuit
where subtransient and transient time constants that control the
⎛ L2 ⎞ decrement of the d-axis rotor currents following a step change
LsF = ⎜⎜ LFF − ad ⎟⎟ (160a) in the applied field voltage when the stator is open-circuited.
⎝ Ld ⎠
Let vF = u(t) be the voltage applied to the field winding
⎛ L2 ⎞ when the stator is open-circuited, being u(t) the unit step
LsD = ⎜⎜ LDD − ad ⎟
⎟ (160b)
⎝ Ld ⎠ function. From (145) and (148), the following equation is
obtained:
⎛ L2 ⎞
LMD = ⎜⎜ LFD − ad ⎟⎟ (160c) ⎛ ⎡− LDD RF LFD RD ⎤ ⎡i F ⎤ ⎞
⎝ Ld ⎠ ⎡ di F ⎤ ⎜⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎟
⎢ dt ⎥ 1 ⎜ ⎣ LFD R F − LFF RD ⎦ ⎣i D ⎦ ⎟
The time constants of transient d-axis rotor currents can be ⎢ di ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ (164)
⎢ D ⎥ LFF LDD − LFD ⎜
2
found by calculating the opposite of the two eigenvalues of ⎡ LDD v F ⎤ ⎟
⎣ dt ⎦ ⎜⎜ +⎢ ⎥ ⎟⎟
the matrix that relates the currents to their derivative when the
⎝ ⎣− LFD v F ⎦ ⎠
excitation voltage is zero. Hence the d-axis short-circuit
The time constants of transient d-axis rotor currents can be
subtransient time constant, Td′′ , and the d-axis short-circuit
found by calculating the opposite of two eigenvalues of the
transient time constant, Td′ , satisfy the following equations: matrix that relates the currents to their derivative when the
1 ⎛ L2 ⎞ 1 ⎛ L2 ⎞ excitation voltage is zero. Hence the d-axis open-circuit
Td′ + Td′′ = ⎜ LFF − ad ⎟ + ⎜ LDD − ad ⎟ (161a) subtransient time constant, Tdo′′ and the d-axis open-circuit
RF ⎜ Ld ⎟⎠ RD ⎜⎝ Ld ⎟⎠
⎝
transient time constant, Tdo′ satisfy the following equations:
⎛
1 L2 ( L + LDl ) ⎞
Td′Td′′ = ⎜ LFF LDD − L2FD − ad Fl ⎟ (161b) LFF LDD
⎜
RF RD Ld ⎟ Tdo′ + Tdo′′ = + (165a)
⎝ ⎠ RF RD
Repeating the same procedure for q-axis, the q-axis
subtransient and transient inductances ( Lq′′ and Lq′ ) and the q- LFF LDD − L2FD
Tdo′ Tdo′′ = (165b)
RF RD
axis short-circuit subtransient and transient time constants
( Tq′′ and Tq′ ) become: After similar analysis for the q-axis, the equations for q-
axis open circuit subtransient and transient time constants,
Laq LQ1l LQ 2l Tqo′′ and Tq′0 , are as follows:
Lq′′ = Lal + (162a)
Laq LQ1l + Laq LQ 2l + LQ1l LQ 2l
LQ1Q1 LQ 2Q 2
Laq LQ1l Tqo′ + Tqo′′ = + (166a)
Lq′ = Lal + (162b)) RQ1 RQ 2
Laq + LQ1l
LQ1Q1 LQ 2Q 2 − L2aq
Tqo′ Tqo′′ = (166b)
1 ⎛⎜ L ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
2 2

Tq′ + Tq′′ = LQ1Q1 − ⎟+ 1

aq
⎜ LQ 2Q 2 − aq
⎟ (162c) RQ1 RQ 2
⎜
RQ1 ⎝ Lq ⎟⎠ RQ 2 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ q ⎠ For a laminated salient-pole machine having one damper
1⎛ L ( LQ1l + LQ 2l ) ⎞
2 winding on q-axis, Tq′0 is not defined and Tq′′0 is obtained as:
Tq′Tq′′ = ⎜ LQ1Q1 LQ 2Q 2 − L2aq − aq
⎟ (162d)
⎜
RQ1 RQ 2 L ⎟ LQ1Q1
⎝ q ⎠ Tqo′′ = (167)
It should be noted that this machine model has two rotor RQ1
circuits in each axis and in general is not applicable for a Armature Time Constant: The dc component of the short-
laminated salient-pole machine having one damper winding circuit phase currents induce a fundamental ac frequency
on the q-axis, unless the second rotor circuit denoted by component of the currents in the rotor circuits, keeping the
subscript Q2 is ignored. Therefore, the first rotor circuit flux linking with these circuits constant. The flux path due to
denoted by subscript Q1 is considered to represent the rapidly the dc component of the armature current is similar to those
decaying subtransient effects and no distinction is made
 88
corresponding to subtransient inductances Ld′′ and Lq′′ . As the Ld
Tdo′ Tdo′′ = Td′Td′′ (174)
rotor rotates at synchronous speed with respect to the Ld′′
stationary mmf wave produced by the dc current component The basic definition of subtransient and transient induc-
of the short-circuit phase currents, the effective inductance tances ( Ld′′ and Ld′ ) in ANSI/IEEE Std 115-1995 is [154]:
seen by these currents lies between Ld′′ and Lq′′ , and is equal
⎛ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ sTd′ ⎞⎟
to the inductance L2 [153], seen by the negative sequence ⎜ + ⎜⎜ − ⎟
1 ⎜ Ld ⎝ Ld′ Ld ⎟⎠ 1 + sTd′ ⎟
currents applied to the armature windings. Thus, =⎜ ⎟ (175)
L Ld ( s ) ⎜ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ sTd′′ ⎟
Ta = 2 (168) ⎜⎜ + ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
Ra
⎝ ⎝ Ld′′ Ld′ ⎠ 1 + sTd′′ ⎠
where L2 is the negative sequence inductance, which is given
Expanding 1/Ld(s) from (171b) into partial fractions results:
by
⎡ (Td′ − Tdo′ )(Td′ − Tdo′′ ) sTd′ ⎤
Ld′′ + Lq′′ ⎢1 −
L2 = (169) 1 1 ⎢ Td′ (Td′ − Td′′) 1 + sTd′ ⎥
2 = ⎥ (176)
Operational Parameters: The relationship between the Ld ( s ) Ld ⎢ (Td′′ − Tdo′ )(Td′′ − Tdo′′ ) sTd′′ ⎥
⎢− ⎥
armature and field terminal quantities can be expressed in the ⎢⎣ Td′′(Td′′ − Td′ ) 1 + sTd′′ ⎥⎦
operational form as follows (see Fig. 43): Equating the coefficients of the right term in both (175) and
ψ d ( s ) = G ( s )v f ( s ) + Ld ( s )id ( s ) (170a) (176), the following result is obtained:
ψ q ( s ) = Lq ( s )iq ( s ) (170b) L ⎛ L L ⎞
Tdo′ + Tdo′′ = Td′ d + Td′′⎜⎜1 − d + d ⎟⎟ (177)
where G(s) is the armature-to-field transfer function. It is the Ld′ ⎝ L ′
d Ld′′ ⎠
Laplace ratio of the d-axis armature flux Similarly, for q-axis, the equations that describe the
linkages to the field voltage, with the armature relation between the open-circuit and the short-circuit time
open-circuited. constants in terms of subtransient and transient inductances
Ld(s) is the d-axis operational inductance. It is the can be written as:
Laplace ratio of the d-axis armature flux Lq
linkages to the d-axis current, with the field Tqo′ Tqo′′ = Tq′Tq′′ (178a)
Lq′′
voltage short-circuited.
Lq(s) is the q-axis operational inductance. It is the Lq ⎛ Lq Lq ⎞
Laplace ratio of the q-axis armature flux Tqo′ + Tqo′′ = Tq′ + Tq′′⎜1 − + ⎟ (178b)
Lq′ ⎜ Lq′ Lq′′ ⎟
linkages to the q-axis current. ⎝ ⎠
Data Conversion Procedures
id Direct axis id Quadrature axis
ψd stator and rotor iF vF ψq stator and rotor A wide range of test methods has been proposed and used
characteristics characteristics in order to obtain derived parameters that characterize the
synchronous machine. Therefore, depending on the performed
Fig. 43. d- and q-axis representations based on equation (170). tests, each machine might have different type of data sets in
terms of the derived parameters. This part details the
From the Laplace transforms of d-axis flux linkages and techniques which are used to obtain fundamental parameters
voltages, the following expressions for the d-axis parameters from the different type of data sets.
are derived: If synchronous machine has been subjected to a parameter
L 1 + sTkd determination study based on frequency response tests, the
G ( s ) = ad (171a)
R F 1 + (Tdo′ + Tdo′′ )s + (Tdo′ Tdo′′ )s 2 operational parameters of synchronous machine, G(s), Ld(s)
and Lq(s) are expected to be available. In this part the
1 + (Td′ + Td′′)s + (Td′Td′′)s 2
Ld ( s ) = Ld (171b) necessary procedures are presented in order to obtain second
1 + (Tdo′ + Tdo′′ )s + (Tdo′ Tdo′′ )s 2
and lower order models of d- and q-axes.
where Tkd = LDl/RD. Procedures for second order models: The parameters of the
Under steady-state conditions (i.e., s = 0), (171b) becomes: equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 40 can be obtained when G(s)
Ld ( s ) = Ld (172) and Ld(s) are provided together with the stator leakage
During fast transients (i.e., s → ∞), the limiting value of impedance Lal.
Ld(s) is Let
T ′T ′′ L L
Ld ( s ) = Ld′′ = Ld d d (173) T1 = Fl T2 = Dl (179a)
Tdo′ Tdo′′ RF RD
This equation can be written as: DS = (Tdo′ + Tdo′′ ) − (Td′ + Td′′) (179b)
DP = Tdo′ Tdo′′ − Td′Td′′ (179c)
 89
By substituting (161a) and (165a) into (179b), and (161b) Table XV Transient and subtransient inductances and time
and (165b) into (179b), the following equations are deduced: constants
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ L d-axis parameters q-axis parameters
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ = DS 2d (180a)
R R L Transient and Subtransient Inductances
⎝ F D ⎠ ad
Ld′ , Ld′′ Lq′ , Lq′′
⎛ T1 T ⎞ L
⎜⎜ + 2 ⎟⎟ = DP 2d (180b) Transient and Subtransient Short-Circuit Time Constants
⎝ RF RD ⎠ Lad Td′ , Td′′ Tq′ , Tq′′
By substituting (180a) into (165a), and (180b) into (165b), Transient and Subtransient Open-Circuit Time Constants
L Tdo′ , Tdo′′ Tqo′ , Tqo′′
T1 + T2 + LFD DS 2d = Tdo′ + Tdo′′ (181a)
Lad
The simplified second order d-axis model can be found
L when the d-axis operational inductance Ld(s) is known; i.e.,
T1T2 + LFD DP 2d = Tdo′ Tdo′′ (181b)
Lad both the d-axis open- and short-circuit time constants, Td′ ,
in which T2 = Tkd, T1 and LFD are the unknowns. Td′′ , Tdo′ and Tdo′′ are provided. However, if the d-axis
These equations can be used to obtain LFdl, RF, RD, LFl and subtransient and transient inductances of the machine, Ld′ and
LDl, see [11].
When G(s) is not available, it is not possible to extract the Ld′′ are known, one can deduce from (174) and (176) that the
parameters of the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 40, unless availability of either d-axis open-circuit time constants Tdo′
the so-called Canay’s characteristic inductance is provided and Tdo′′ , or short-circuit time constants Td′ and Td′′ , is
[155], [156]. Therefore, only the parameters of the simplified sufficient to obtain the second order d-axis model. In other
equivalent circuit, in which LFdl is omitted, can be obtained. words, the data sets shown in Table XVI are equivalent and
The omission of LFdl brings the assumption that all d-axis sufficient to obtain the simplified second order d-axis model.
rotor circuits link a single ideal mutual flux represented by
Lad. It should be noted that most stability software packages Table XVI Data sets to obtain simplified second order models
use the simplified second order d-axis model, while some Tdo′ , Tdo′′ , Td′ , Td′′ Tqo′ , Tqo′′ , Tq′ , Tq′′
First Data Set
EMTP-type programs provide the complete second order d-
axis model option. Since LFD is assumed equal to Lad, (181) Second Data Set Ld′ , Ld′′ , Tdo′ , Tdo′′ Lq′ , Lq′′ , Tqo′ , Tqo′′
become: Third Data Set Ld′ , Ld′′ , Td′ , Td′′ Lq′ , Lq′′ , Tq′ , Tq′′
L
T1 + T2 + DS d = Tdo′ + Tdo′′ (182a) The procedure for the simplified second order d-axis model
Lad
can be directly used if the first data set (i.e., Tdo′ , Tdo′′ , Td′ and
Ld
T1T2 + DP = Tdo′ Tdo′′ (182b) Td′′ ) is available. When either the second or the third data set
Lad
is available, the first data set should be obtained with the
In this case, the values to be obtained are RF, RD, LFl and following equations:
LDl, see [11]. Second Data Set → First Data Set
A solution for an accurate modeling of the synchronous
L2d L ⎛ L L ⎞
machine that includes the effect of the flux linking the two T 2 − d (Td′0 + Td′′0 ) T + ⎜1 − d + d ⎟ Td′0Td′′0 = 0 (183)
Ld′ Ld′′ Ld′′ ⎝ L ′ L ′′
d ⎠
rotor circuits on the d-axis was proposed by Canay [155], d

[156]. The so-called Canay’s inductance is used instead of Lal where Td′ and Td′′ are the roots of this equation, and the
to account for this effect [156]. This inductance is not greater root is Td′ .
recognized in standards, and therefore no standard test has Third Data Set → First Data Set
been proposed for its determination.
⎛L ⎛ L L ⎞ ⎞ L (184)
All armature and damper circuits in the q-axis link a single T 2 − ⎜⎜ d Td′ + ⎜ 1 − d + d ⎟ Td′′⎟⎟ T + d Td′Td′′ = 0
ideal mutual flux represented by Laq. Since, the second order L
⎝ d′ ⎝ Ld
′ L ′′
d ⎠ ⎠ Ld′′
q-axis model shown in Fig. 41 is similar to the simplified where Tdo′ and Tdo′′ are the roots of this equation, and the
second order d-axis model, the procedure used for the greater root is Tdo′ .
simplified second order d-axis model can be also applied to
Similar to d-axis, the data sets illustrated in the Table XVI
calculate the fundamental parameters of the second order q-
are equivalent and sufficient to obtain the simplified second
axis model, except field winding identification.
order q-axis model.
If the synchronous machine has been subjected to
parameter determination studies other than the tests based on Magnetic Saturation
frequency response, data set of the machine regarding the
Saturation effects should be taken into account in power
stability studies may contain the parameters listed in Table
system analysis. In the representation of the magnetic
XV in addition to the synchronous and leakage inductances
saturation, the following assumptions are usually made:
based on the standard tests.
 90
• The leakage fluxes pass partly through the iron and they When this representation method is applied, ψT1, ψT2, ψG2,
are not significantly affected by the saturation of the iron Asat, Bsat and Lratio specify the saturation characteristic.
portion; i.e., only mutual inductances Lad and Laq are It should be noted that in this representation there is a
saturable. discontinuity at the junction of segments I and II (ψ at = ψ T 1 ).
• Saturation is determined by the air-gap flux linkage. However, Asat is normally very small and this discontinuity is
• The sinusoidal distribution of the magnetic field over the inconsequential [151].
face of the pole is considered to be unaffected by In case of salient-pole machines, the magnetic structure
saturation, and d- and q-axes remain uncoupled. differ between the direct and the quadrature axes, and the
For solid-rotor machines, in addition to the assumptions cross flux is usually neglected in saturation representation
given above, the saturation relationship between the resultant [157]. As the path for q-axis flux is largely in air, Laq does not
air-gap flux and the mmf under loaded conditions is
vary significantly due to the saturation of the iron path, so it is
considered to be the same as at no-load conditions. With this
usually necessary to adjust only ψ ad ; thus
assumption, a single saturation curve (i.e., open-circuit
saturation curve) is sufficient to characterize this Lad = K s Ladu , Laq = Laqu (190)
phenomenon. where Ks is defined as in (186), with (187) modified as
Let the saturation factor, Ks, be defined as follows: follows:
Lad = K s Ladu , Laq = K s Laqu (185) I = id + i F + i D (191a)
where Ladu and Laqu are the unsaturated values of the mutual ψ at = ψ ad (191b)
inductances Lad and Laq. Air-gap
The saturation factor is determined from the open circuit Ψat0
line

characteristic (OCC), as illustrated in Fig. 44. For an

Ψl OCC
operating point “A”, the saturation factor is:

Voltage or Flux Linkage

ψ I Ψat
K s = at = 0 (186) A
Ψat0
ψ at 0 I Ladu =
I
where
I= (id + iF + iD )2 + (iq + iQ1 + iQ 2 )2 (187a) Lad =
Ψat
I
ψ at = ψ ad2 + ψ aq2 (187b)
being ψat0 the air-gap flux produced by current I, and I0 the iT
I0 I
current required to produce air-gap flux ψat, both measured on Field current
the air-gap line, see Fig. 44. Fig. 44. Open-circuit characteristic illustrating effects of saturation.
Upon definition of
ψ I = ψ at 0 −ψ at (188) Slope = Ladu
ΨG2
the expression of the saturation factor becomes:
ψ at III
Voltage or Flux Linkage

Ks = (189) Lincr
ψ at + ψ I Ψ T2
1.0
In [151], the saturation curve is divided into three II
ΨT1
segments: unsaturated segment, nonlinear segment and fully Ladu
Lratio =
saturated linear segment as illustrated in Fig. 45, in which ψT1 Lincr
and ψT2 define the boundaries of the segments.
I
ψI =0
Segment-I
( ψ at ≤ ψ T 1 )
ψ T 1 is the boundary of the iT

segments I and II Fig. 45. Representation of saturation characteristic.

ψ I = Asat exp(Bsat (ψ at −ψ T 1 ) )
Test Procedures for Parameter Determination
Asat and Bsat are the constants
Segment-II
describing saturation characteristic Conventional Tests: Standard testing methods can be
( ψ T 1 < ψ at ≤ ψ T 2 )
on segment II; ψ T 2 is the boundary classified into three groups [154], [158]: (1) acceptance tests;
of the segments II and III (2) performance tests; (3) parameter estimation tests. The last
group is the most important for the purposes of this section,
ψ I = ψ G 2 + Lratio (ψ at −ψ T 2 ) −ψ at
but some steady-state performance tests may provide useful
Segment-III Lratio is the ratio of the slope of the information for synchronous machine studies (e.g., losses,
( ψ at > ψ T 2 ) air-gap line to the incremental slope saturation curve, short-circuit characteristic).
of segment III of the OCC It is important to distinguish between: (i) test procedures
 91
(e.g., short-circuit, open-circuit, standstill frequency response, functions of d- and q-axis operational inductances (Ld(s),
load rejection and partial load rejection tests), (ii) Lq(s)). However, armature-to-field transfer function, G(s),
determination of characteristic parameters (e.g., open-/short- should be taken into account when defining machine model
circuit reactances and time constants), and (iii) determination and structure for precise modeling of the field circuit and
of parameters to be specified in equivalent models. Test excitation effects. Moreover, depending on the rotor
setups and testing conditions, as well as procedures for construction, equivalent circuits of order higher than Model
determination of characteristic electrical parameters, are 2.2 (see Table XIV) may be more appropriate in some cases.
described and justified in standards [154], [158]. However, SSFR tests as a mean to estimate synchronous machine
data conversion procedures for the determination of parameters were introduced to avoid onerous short-circuit
equivalent circuit parameters are not established in standards. tests, to enable q-axis parameters to be measured and
Conversion procedures for passing from manufacturer’s data parameters of high order models to be determined. SSFR tests
to model parameters were presented above, a review of the are performed independently for direct and quadrature axes;
most common tests is presented in this section. therefore, it is necessary to align the rotor to two particular
Steady-state tests are performed in order to obtain Xd, Xq, positions with respect to the stator. SSFR testing can be
negative-sequence reactance and resistance (X2, R2), zero- performed either in the factory or in site.
sequence reactance and resistance (X0, R0), as well as the Since 1956, when this technique was firstly proposed
open-circuit and the short-circuit characteristics [154]. [159], SSFR tests have played an important role in the
Short-circuit tests are performed to demonstrate that the determination of synchronous machine parameters.
mechanical design of the machine is adequate to withstand the References [159]-[173] are just a sample of the effort
mechanical stresses arising from short-circuit currents. These dedicated to this subject during the last 30 years. The list
tests also facilitate the determination of various synchronous should be also complemented by those works motivated by
machine characteristics quantities used to predict the machine the improvements suggested for a better modeling of
behavior under transient conditions. However, they do not synchronous. Reference [160] provides a short story of the
provide q-axis transient and subtransient characteristic work performed on these type of tests.
quantities. In addition, accurate identification of field circuit Table XVIII taken from [5] shows the test setups for each
is not possible with these procedures. of the measurable parameters and the main relationships
To derive q-axis quantities, special procedures are derived from each test.
presented in IEC 34-4 [158]. The methodology of these Zd(s) and Zq(s) are the direct and quadrature operational
procedures involves short-circuiting or open-circuiting the impedances as viewed from the armature terminals. The
synchronous machine operating at low voltage and low operational inductances can be computed by subtracting the
power, and connected either synchronously or asynchronously armature resistance from these impedances:
to a power network. Annex A of IEC 34-4 describes such Z ( s ) − Ra
tests and is titled “Unconfirmed”. These q-axis tests are also Ld ( s ) = d (192a)
s
summarized in Annex 11A of ANSI/IEEE Std 115-1995 and Z q ( s ) − Ra
titled “Informative” [154] Lq ( s ) = (192b)
s
Table XVII provides a summary of standard tests that can
be used for estimating synchronous machine parameters. The where Ra is the dc armature resistance and s = jω.
table includes a short description of each test and the list of The function sG(s) rather than G(s) is used since it can be
parameters that can be estimated with each one. For more measured at the same time as Zd(s). The parameters of d-axis
details on this subject, see [11], [154] and [158]. equivalent circuit can be obtained using the transfer functions
Zd(s) and sG(s). q-axis equivalent circuit parameters can be
Air-gap line
obtained using the transfer function Zq(s).
The armature to field transfer impedance, Zafo(s), is used for
SC armature current (pu)
OC terminal voltage (pu)

1.0 OCC
SCC determining the effective stator to rotor turns ratio.
1.0
The procedure for identification of d-axis parameters from
SSFR can be summarized as follows [154], [5]:
1. Obtain Ld(0), the low-frequency limit of Ld(s), then
determine
Lad (0) = Ld (0) − Lal (193)
where Lal is the best available estimate for the armature
IfNL IfSC leakage inductance, usually supplied by the manufacturer.
IfNL(ag) 2. Find the field-to-armature turns ratio from Zafo(0):
Field current
1 ⎡ Δe fd ( s ) ⎤
Fig. 46. Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics. N af (0) = lim ⎢ ⎥ (194)
sLad (0) s → 0
⎣ Δi d ( s ) ⎦
Standstill Frequency Response (SSFR) Tests: Short circuit
and decrement tests provide the second order transfer
 92

Table XVII Standard tests for parameter determination

Tests Description Parameters
Steady- Open-circuit characteristic (OCC) curve: It is obtained when the machine is running at rated X adu , X ads , X du , X ds
state tests speed with the armature terminals open circuited and the field winding excited. The terminal
voltage, field current and terminal frequency (or shaft speed) are recorded whereas the field
current is varied. A typical OCC curve is a straight line for low voltages; the air-gap line can be
obtained by extending that straight line. The degree of saturation is the departure of the OCC
from the air-gap line, see Fig. 46.
Short-circuit characteristic (SCC) curve: It is obtained when the machine is running at rated
speed with the armature terminals short-circuited and the field winding excited. The armature
current and field current are recorded as the field current is varied from zero to the value that
will induce 125% of rated armature current. Since the armature is short-circuited, the machine is
operating at a lower level of flux density when compared to the case of OCC. Therefore, the
SCC curve is a straight line, as illustrated in Fig. 46.
Slip test and measuring q-axis synchronous impedances: The slip test is conducted by X qu , X qs
driving the rotor at a speed very close to the synchronous speed with the field open-circuited
and the armature energized by a three-phase, rated-frequency, positive-sequence power source
at a voltage below the point on the open-circuit saturation curve, where the curve deviates from
the air-gap line. The armature current, the armature voltage, and the voltage across the open-
circuit field winding are recorded. The minimum and maximum ratios of the armature voltage to
the armature current are obtained when the slip is very small.
Sudden Sudden short-circuit with the machine operating open-circuited at rated speed: The short- X d′ , X d′′ , Td′ , Td′′
short- circuit is applied while the machine is operating open-circuited at rated speed. This test is
circuit tests performed at reduced voltage to eliminate the risk of damage. The parameters are obtained for
lower voltage levels (up to 65% of the rated voltage) and then extrapolated to the rated voltage
to obtain the saturated values. During the test, the field voltage should be kept constant. This test
is performed when the excitation can be supplied from a constant voltage low-impedance
source. The error resulting from minor speed changes is negligible, provided the machine is
operating at rated speed at the instant the voltages are measured, just before the short-circuit.
Sudden short-circuit of armature and field with the machine operating open-circuited at
rated speed: A three-phase short-circuit is suddenly applied to the armature of the machine
simultaneously with a short-circuit to the field winding while the machine is operating at rated
speed, being the armature open-circuited and the field excited with current corresponding to the
desired voltage. This method may be used when the excitation cannot be supplied from a
constant voltage low-impedance source.
Sudden short-circuit with the machine operating on load at low voltage: The sudden short- X q′ , X q′′ , Tq′ , Tq′′
circuit is applied when the machine is running on load with the armature winding connected to a
rated-frequency symmetrical three-phase low voltage supply (at about 10% of its nominal value)
and the excitation winding is short-circuited. The voltage should be chosen properly in order to
load the machine up to 90 ± 20 electrical degrees and to prevent damage during short-circuiting.
Following the short-circuit, the voltage supply is disconnected.
Decrement Voltage recovery test: This test is performed by the sudden removal of a steady-state three- X d′ , X d′′ , Tdo′ , Tdo′′
tests phase short-circuit at stator terminals when the machine is running at rated speed with a selected
excitation value. The circuit breaker should open all three phases as simultaneously as possible.
Disconnecting the armature with the machine running asynchronously on load: The rated X q′ , X q′′ , Tqo′ , Tqo′′
frequency symmetrical three-phase low-voltage supply is suddenly disconnected when the
machine is running asynchronously on load and the excitation winding is short-circuited to
avoid any saturation effect. The test is performed by disconnecting the machine after it has
reached an internal angle approaching 90±20 electrical degrees. The q-axis current is obtained
from the measured phase current, and the d-axis voltage is obtained from the measured line-to-
line voltage at the time of the q-axis signal.
Disconnecting the armature at a very low slip: The rated-frequency symmetrical three-phase
low-voltage supply (5% to 10% of normal voltage) is suddenly disconnected when the machine
is running at a slip considerably less than 0.01 p.u., being the excitation circuit open. The
disconnection must be performed when the rotor is magnetized in the q-axis. Armature current
and voltage, as well as rotor position, are measured and recorded. At the instant of switching off
the machine from the supply, the armature voltage suddenly drops to a particular value and then
gradually decays. This initial voltage drop is independent of the residual voltage, which must be
less than 0.2 of the applied voltage. To determine d-axis quantities, excitation circuit should be
short-circuited and the disconnection performed when the rotor is magnetized in the d-axis.
 93
Table XVIII Standard SSFR tests [5]

Test Diagram Measurement Relationships

Δ ed ( s)
Z d ( s) = −
d-axis Δ id ( s) Δ e fd = 0
operational
impedance
1 Δ varm ( s)
Zd(s)
Z d ( s) = = Ra + sLd ( s)
2 Δ iarm ( s)

Δ eq ( s)
q-axis Z q ( s) = −
Δ iq ( s)
operational Δ e fd = 0
impedance
1 Δ varm ( s)
Zq(s) Z q ( s) = = Ra + sLq ( s)
2 Δ iarm ( s)

Δ i fd ( s)
sG ( s) = −
Standstill Δ id ( s) Δ e fd = 0
armature to field
transfer function
Δ i fd ( s) 3 Δ i fd ( s)
sG(s) =
Δ id ( s) 2 Δ iarm ( s)

Δ e fd ( s)
Standstill Z afo ( s) = −
armature to field Δ id ( s) Δ i fd = 0
transfer
impedance Δ e fd ( s) 3 Δ e fd ( s)
Z afo ( s) = =
Zafo(s) Δ id ( s) 2 Δ iarm ( s)

3. Calculate the field winding resistance referred to the 7. Measure the field winding resistance, convert it to the
armature winding: desired operating temperature, and refer it to the stator
2
sLad (0) k + ts ⎡3 1 ⎤
RF = (195)
⎡ Δi fd ( s ) ⎤ 2 RF at t s = RFt ⎢ ⎥ (197)
lim ⎢ ⎥ N af (0) k + tt ⎢⎣ 2 N af (0) ⎦⎥
s → 0 Δi ( s )
⎣ d ⎦3 where RFt is the field resistance measured at field
4. Choose an equivalent circuit structure for the d-axis. terminals; tt is average field temperature during
5. Use the available parameters and a fitting technique to measurement (ºC); ts is the specified temperature (ºC). k is
find values for the unknown parameters that produce the 234.5 for pure copper and 225 for aluminum (ºC).
best fit for Ld(s) and sG(s). The most complex step in the detailed procedure is the
6. Adjust Lad to its unsaturated value Ladu. This unsaturated application of a curve fitting technique to derive the value of
value can be calculated from the rated speed open-circuit the equivalent circuit parameters that match SSFR curves.
curve [154]: Many techniques have been proposed for this purpose [154].
3 1 Vt One of the first techniques was the nonlinear least squares
Ladu = (196)
2 N af (0) ωI fd Marquadt-Levenberg algorithm [162]. Although this or
where Vt and Ifd define a point on the air-gap line, ω is the similar algorithms are still used, the gained experience has
electrical speed in electrical radians per second. Vt is the fired different approaches to cope with some of the
line-to-neutral peak voltage and Ifd is in dc A. Ladu is inconveniences related to SSFR tests.
substituted for Lad in d-axis equivalent circuit calculated Other techniques presented for parameters estimation from
from SSFR data. Laq can be adjusted to its unsaturated frequency response during the last years are based on a non-
value by multiplying by Ladu/Lad; i.e., the same factor used iterative parameter identification procedure [168] or pattern
in the d-axis. search methods [154].
Noise is always present in field tests and it can significantly
impact on parameter estimation from SSFR data [164]. To
 94
solve this aspect a maximum likelihood estimation technique excitation system with sinusoidal signals and measuring the
was proposed [163]: transfer function models are first steady-state changes in field voltage and current, rotor speed,
determined using a least square error method; they are then terminal voltage, and active and reactive power outputs [161],
transformed into time-domain responses; finally, a maximum [174].
likelihood technique is used to estimate parameters as a Load rejection test: It is carried out with the machine running
constrained minimization problem. at rated speed, with power injected to the system as near to
Not much work has been made on the influence of zero as possible and the excitation system on manual control
saturation on the parameter estimation from SSFR data [169], [161]. The generator circuit breaker is opened and terminal
although it is recognized that it can be important [165], [166]. voltage, field voltage and field current are recorded. This test
A permanent subject of discussion is the order of the is performed for both under- and over-excited conditions in
equivalent circuits. One of the advantages of manipulating order to obtain unsaturated and saturated values.
frequency response data is that the complexity of the Time-domain small disturbance test: The linear parameters of
equivalent circuits is not fixed. Several works have been the machine are identified from lightly loaded, under-excited
dedicated to analyze the improvement in accuracy that higher- conditions, while saturation characteristics are identified from
order equivalent circuits can introduce; see, for instance, a wide range of operating conditions [175].
[165]-[167]. Time-domain large disturbance test: A sudden large
Salient-pole machines have several features distinct from disturbance is introduced in the excitation reference voltage
round-rotor machines [170]-[172]: the ratio Lq/Ld is about 0.6, while the machine is operating under normal conditions [176].
as opposed to nearly unity for round rotor machines; a salient- The recorded variables are terminal and field voltages,
pole armature winding is usually designed with a fractional armature and field currents, as well as rotor speed.
number of slots per pole; most salient-pole machine have
Models for High Frequency Transient Simulations
damper windings in the pole faces; the field winding in round
rotor machines is distributed while in salient-pole machines it Steep-fronted transient voltages on multi-turn coils of
is concentrated. The positioning of the rotor for salient-pole rotating machines can be caused by lightning or by switching
machines has been a challenge when using SSFR operations, since fast-front or very fast-front transients can be
measurements for parameter estimation, since a small error in produced by circuit breakers with a high current chopping
the mechanical alignment could result in a large error in the level and capable of interrupting very high frequency
electrical degree. A methodology for estimation of salient- currents. Since switching of synchronous generators do not
pole machine parameters was presented [173], it avoids the occur very often, and these machines are well protected
requirement of a precise rotor mechanical alignment to obtain against lightning, most often these transients are related to
accurate parameters vales from standstill measurements. The switching of large ac motors; in general induction-type
experience gained with SSFR testing and analysis of salient- machines.
pole machines was summarized in [172]. As for transformer windings, the voltage distribution along
SSFR tests have also disadvantages [161], [166], [5]: the machine winding depends greatly on the waveshape of the
• Eddy current losses on the armature resistance during the applied voltage: at low frequencies the distribution is linear
SSFR are not accounted for when the operating along the windings; in case of steeped transients, a larger
reactances are deduced, see (192). portion of the voltage applied is distributed on the first few
• The test equipment requires very linear, very high power turns of the winding.
amplifiers. For details on computational models developed to analyze
• Standstill measurements are made at low currents; and predict the distribution and magnitude of the stresses
however, sLd(s) and sLq(s) can vary up to 20% in the originated by fast-front or very fast-front transients, and for
range from no load to rated current. the calculation of the parameters to be specified in those
• Tests are conducted at unsaturated conditions. models see [11].
• Centrifugal forces on damper windings are not
accounted for, being difficult to assess the error they VIII. SURGE ARRESTERS
introduce.
Introduction
• The resistance in the contact points of damper windings
can be higher at standstill than it is during running. Surge arresters are connected across an apparatus to
On-Line Tests: They have been developed in order to avoid provide a low-resistance path and to limit the various types of
some of the drawbacks and limitations of off-line tests. These transient voltages below the corresponding insulation level of
tests can be either time-domain or frequency-domain tests. the apparatus. A surge arrester should act like an open circuit
Some of these tests are briefly described in the following during normal operation of the system, limit transient voltages
paragraphs [5]. to a safe level and bring the system back to its normal
On-line frequency response test: It is carried out with the operational mode as soon as the transient voltages are
machine running at rated speed and near rated or at reduced suppressed [62]. Therefore, a surge arrester must have an
load. The frequency response is obtained by modulating the extremely high resistance during normal system operation and
 95
a relatively low resistance during transient overvoltages; that with a shunt gap, which is designed to spark over whenever
is, its voltage - current (V-I) characteristic must be nonlinear. the discharge current through the arrester exceeds a certain
The metal-oxide (MO) varistor material used in modern value; e.g. 10 kA. Some distribution-class arresters use series
high voltage surge arresters has a highly nonlinear V-I gaps that are shunted by a linear impedance network [177].
characteristic, being its electrical behavior determined solely MO Surge Arresters Requirements: Some information
by the properties of the MO blocks. The V-I characteristic of (voltage ratings, class or discharge current, frequency) is
ZnO valve elements is shown in Fig. 47. Gapless operation is needed for identification of a MO surge arrester. These values
possible with ZnO arresters because of the low leakage are obtained from tests established and detailed in standards.
current during normal operation. IEC standards classify arresters according to the nominal
The V-I characteristic of MO surge arresters can be divided discharge current and line discharge class. Discharge current
into three regions (see Fig. 47) [37]: and discharge class cannot be selected independently of each
1. In region 1, I is less than 1 mA and is primarily capacitive. other. IEEE standards classify arresters into three durability or
2. In region 2, I is from 1 mA to about 1 or 2 kA, and is capability classes [177], [178]: (1) station, used primarily in
primarily a resistive current. HV and EHV systems; (2) intermediate, used between station
3. In region 3, I is from 1 to 100 kA. For very large currents, and distribution; and (3) distribution, used in distribution
the characteristic approaches a linear relationship with systems, and further divided into heavy duty, normal duty and
voltage; i.e., the MO varistor becomes a pure resistor. light duty. In addition, specific arresters are produced for
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3
distribution systems: the riser pole arrester for cables, the
10
dead front arrester for pad-mount transformers, and the liquid
DC 20ºC
DC 100ºC
immersed arrester used internally in a transformer.
Voltage (kV)

5 IEC standards for high voltage (> 1 kV) arresters are

denoted IEC 60099; for gapless metal oxide arresters, Part 4
3
defines the tests and ratings [179], while Part 5 details the
2 AC 100ºC
application recommendations [180]. Main IEEE standards for
AC 20ºC
MO surge arresters are C62.11, which defines tests and
ratings [178], and C62.22, which provides the application
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 102 103 104 105 guide [177].
Current (A)
While in service a MO surge arrester must withstand the
Fig. 47. Typical characteristics of a MO surge arrester disc. maximum rms value of power-frequency voltage that may
The arrester discharge voltage for a given current appear across its terminals and be capable of operating under
magnitude is directly proportional to the height of the valve the maximum temporary overvoltage (TOV) that can occur at
element stack and is more or less proportional to the arrester its location during the length of time that such overvoltage
rated voltage. The operation of an arrester is sensitive to the will exist. In addition, the arrester should have an energy
rate of rise of the incoming surge current: the higher the rate capability greater than the energy associated with the
of rise of the current, the more the arrester limiting voltage expected switching surges on the system.
rises. It has been suggested that the higher discharge voltage The ratings of a MO surge arrester in the IEC Application
of the MO block for higher rates of current rise is caused by Guide are the continuous operating voltage (COV), the rated
the negative temperature coefficient of the valve resistance, voltage (TOV capability at 10 seconds), the nominal
see Fig. 47. The instantaneous temperature and resistance of a discharge current, the line discharge class, and the pressure
valve block is a function of the energy dissipated in the block relief class. The nominal discharge current is selected by
up to that instant. However, the energy dissipated in a valve calculation or estimation of the lightning current discharge by
block for any specific current level on the front of the current the arrester. The line discharge class is selected by
wave is smaller for a faster rising current than that for a comparison of the arrester energy capability with the energy
slower rising current at the same current level. Then, the discharge required. The pressure relief class is selected by
instantaneous resistance of a valve block will be higher for a comparison to the system fault current.
faster rising current than for a slower rising current. Hence, The selection of a MO arrester according to the IEEE
the discharge voltage for a faster rising current will be higher. standard is based on similar information. The IEC rated
Since the power-frequency voltage is continuously resident voltage is similar to the IEEE duty-cycle voltage except that
across the MO, high currents can result from temporary in IEEE this voltage is not defined in terms of the TOV
overvoltages (TOVs), such as faults or ferroresonance, and capability. Therefore, to determine arrester ratings, the
produce heating; if the TOVs are sufficiently large in following rules are to be considered:
magnitude and long in duration, temperatures may increase 1. The steady-state voltage that the arrester can support
sufficiently so that thermal runaway and failure occur. In indefinitely, known as the maximum continuous operating
addition, the discharge voltage increases as the arrester voltage (MCOV) in IEEE and continuous operating
discharge current increases. The performance of MO blocks at voltage (COV) in IEC, must be equal to or greater than the
higher discharge currents can be improved by equipping them maximum line-to-ground system voltage.
 96
2. The temporary overvoltage across the arrester must be less energy handling capability cannot be expressed by a single
than the arrester TOV capability. value of kJ/kV. Manufacturers publish some information on
3. Switching surge energy discharged by the arrester must be energy handling capability, but there are not standardized tests
less than the energy capability. to determine this capability. The switching surge energy
4. The pressure relief current must be equal to or greater than capability is important when selecting the arrester ratings; on
the fault current. the other hand, with the increased use of arresters for
Each class and type of arrester is subjected to a series of protection of transmission and distribution lines, the energy
tests, which may be divided between those that serve to define capability in the lightning region is also essential.
the arrester ability to protect itself (durability/capability) and 1.10

Arrester discharge voltage (pu)

those that define the arrester ability to protect the equipment
to which it is applied (protective characteristics). In addition, 1.08

manufacturers provide energy capabilities to define the

1.06
arrester ability to discharge the energy in a switching surge or
a lightning discharge. Tests to establish these energies are not 1.04
yet included in standards.
Protective Characteristic Tests: The purpose of the 1.02
discharge-voltage characteristic tests is to verify the voltage
level appearing across an arrester under specific surge 1.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
conditions. The protective characteristics are voltages across Time to crest of discharge current (μs)
the arrester for a specified discharge current magnitude and Fig. 48. Effect of time-to-crest of arrester current.
shape. Both IEC and IEEE standards identify three
characteristic tests whose objectives are to determine the The capability of discharging the energy contained in a
following voltages [37], [177], [179], [181]: switching surge is partially determined by the low-current,
1. Steep current impulse discharge voltage: This voltage is long-duration test [37], [182]-[187]. This energy is the energy
known as front-of-wave protective level (FOW) in IEEE. from multiple discharges, distributed over one minute, in
In the IEC standard, it is the discharge voltage obtained by which the arrester current is less than a specified magnitude.
discharging a current having a 1-μs front and a crest Thus it becomes evident that the energy capability depends on
current equal to the nominal discharge current. According the rate at which energy is discharged by the arrester. When
to the IEEE standard, it is the voltage across the arrester arresters are tested until failure, the energy capability shows a
having a time-to-crest of 0.5 μs when discharging the probabilistic behavior [37], [184].
lightning impulse current. This discharge voltage is An accurate quantification of the energy discharge may be
obtained by using different times to crest (usually 1, 2, and obtained through time-domain simulation; however, approxi-
3 μs) and plotting the voltage as a function of the time to mate results may be deduced by using the procedures
crest of the voltage. described below.
2. Lightning impulse protection level (LPL): It is the highest • A conservative estimate of the switching surge energy
of the discharge voltages obtained across the arrester for discharged by an arrester is [37]:
arrester discharge currents having an 8/20 μs waveshape 1
WC = CV S2 (198)
and crest magnitudes equal to 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 times the 2
nominal discharge current in IEC, or values of 1.5, 3.0, 5, where C is the total capacitance of the line. The peak
10, and 20 kA in IEEE. For arresters applicable to 500-kV voltage will be usually above 2 p.u. of the peak line-to-
systems, IEEE also specifies the 15-kA discharge. Manu- neutral voltage, although it may be higher for cases like
facturers may also provide the 40-kA discharge voltage. capacitor bank restrikes and line reclosing. The total
3. Switching impulse protection level: This is the voltage capacitance may be that of an overhead line, a cable, or a
across the arrester when discharging a current impulse capacitor bank.
with a front duration greater than 30 μs and a tail duration • If one arrester discharges all of the lightning stroke
less than 100 μs in IEC standard, or having a 45- to 60-μs current, a conservative estimate of the lightning surge
time-to-crest in IEEE standard. energy discharge is [181]:
The discharge voltage magnitude and time-to-crest are WC = QVd (199)
functions of the time-to-crest and magnitude of the discharge where Q is the total stroke charge and Vd is the arrester
current, see Fig. 48. discharge voltage at the peak lightning stroke current. The
Energy Capabilities: The energy that an arrester can absorb values of the wave front are unimportant to evaluate the
during an overvoltage is known as energy withstand lightning surge energy discharge. In practice, the actual
capability. This capability is often expressed in terms of kJ energy discharge is reduced by the nonlinear arrester
per kV of arrester MCOV/COV or per kV of duty-cycle characteristics and by sharing from nearby arresters.
rating. Because it is dependent on the specific form
Models for Metal Oxide Surge Arresters
(magnitude, waveshape and duration) of the overvoltage, the
 97
Introduction: The nonlinear V-I characteristic of an ZnO The choice of arrester V-I characteristic depends upon the
arrester valve is given by: type of transient being simulated since current waveshapes
I = kV α (200) with a faster rise times will result in higher peak voltages.
The parameter k depends upon the dimensions of the valve Manufacturers publish several curves:
block, while α, which describes the nonlinear characteristic, • the 8/20 μs characteristic, which applies for typical
depends upon the valve-block material. lightning surge simulations;
Coefficient α is variable for MO varistors, reaching a • the front of wave (FOW) characteristic, which applies
maximum of about 50 in the first region and decreasing to for transients with current rise times less than 1 μs;
about 7 to 10 in the third region. Thus, α is primarily used to • the switching discharge voltage for an associated
indicate the flatness of the characteristic and should not be switching surge current, which applies to switching
employed to model the arrester. However, in some cases, it is surge simulations;
convenient to use a α value within a limited range to assess • the 1 ms characteristic, which applies to low frequency
the arrester performance; e.g., the arrester TOV capability. phenomena.
Table XIX shows the modeling guidelines proposed by the In addition, manufacturers may supply minimum and
CIGRE WG 33.02 [14]. The commonly used frequency- maximum curves for each test waveshape. The maximum
independent surge arrester model is appropriate for curve is generally used since it results in the highest
simulations containing low and most switching frequencies overvoltages and the most conservative equipment insulation
(Groups I and II). However, a frequency-dependent model requirements. The minimum curves are used to determine the
should be used when very high frequencies are simulated highest energy levels absorbed by the arrester.
(Groups III and IV); such a model has to incorporate the A supporting routine available in most transients programs
inherent inductance of the surge arrester. A lumped allows users to convert the set of manufacturer’s V-I points to
inductance of about 1 μH per meter for the ground leads a set of p, q and Vmin values. A different curve should be
should also be included in models for high frequencies. created for each waveshape and manufacturing tolerance
The V-I characteristic of a surge arrester has several (maximum or minimum). The voltages are usually given in a
exponential segments [25], and each segment can be per unit fashion where the reference voltage (1.0 per unit) is
approximated by the following formula: either the voltage rating or V10, the peak voltage for a 10 kA,
q 8/20 μs current wave.
⎛ v ⎞
i = p⎜ ⎟ (201) The subsequent sections present the rationale for models
⎜ Vref ⎟ representing MO surge arresters in low (Groups I and II) and
⎝ ⎠
where q is the exponent, p is the multiplier for that segment, high frequency (Groups III and IV) transients simulations.
and Vref is an arbitrary reference voltage that normalizes the Models for Low-Frequency and Slow-Front Transients:
equation. To construct a surge arrester model for these frequency
The first segment can be approximated by a linear ranges, data to be obtained from the manufacturer’s literature
relationship to avoid numerical underflow and speed up the includes ratings and characteristics, as well as V-I curves. The
simulation. The resistance of this first segment should be very arrester model is then edited following the guidelines
high since the surge arrester should have little effect on the presented in Table XIX and the supporting routine mentioned
steady-state solution of the network. Remember that surge above.
arrester currents during normal steady-state operation are less Models for Fast-Front Transients: The surge arrester model
that 0.1 A. The second segment is defined by the parameters described above does not incorporate time or frequency
p, q and Vmin, the minimum voltage for that segment. Multiple dependence. Actually, the surge arrester waveshapes would
segments are typically used to enhance the accuracy of the be skewed if they were physically measured in a laboratory,
model since the exponent decreases as the current level and the peak of the arrester voltage would occur before the
increases. Each segment has its own values for p, q and Vmin. peak of the current. For a given peak current, the peak voltage
Manufacturers test each disc with a current pulse (typically increases as the front time decreases. However, the percentage
a current pulse with a 10 kA peak) and record a reference increase is only slightly proportional to the current magnitude.
voltage. The resulting peak voltage is the reference voltage The fast front phenomenon appears to be an inductive effect,
V10, the voltage at 10 kA for single column surge arrester. The but it is not that of a simple linear inductance.
V-I curves often use the V10 value as the 1.0 per unit value. The dynamic performance of MO surge arresters was first
The V-I curve can be determined by multiplying the per unit described in late 70’s [188]. Since then several models have
arrester voltages by the V10 for that rating. been developed to account for a frequency-dependent beha-
To construct an arrester model, the following information vior [189]-[198]. All these models incorporate a nonlinear
must be used [6]: resistor to account for the V-I characteristic of MO varistors,
• a reference voltage proportional to the arrester rating V10, and an inductor to include frequency-dependent behavior.
• the number of parallel columns of discs, A summary of some of the most popular models of a MO
surge arrester in high-frequency transients is presented below.
• the V-I characteristic in per unit of the reference voltage.
 98

Table XIX Guidelines to represent metal-oxide surge arresters [14]

Low-Frequency Slow-Front Fast-Front Very Fast-Front
Model Characteristics
Transients Transients Transients Transients
Temperature dependent V-I characteristic Important Negligible Negligible Negligible
Frequency dependent V-I characteristic Negligible Negligible Important Very important
MOV block inductance Negligible Negligible Important Very important
Ground lead inductance Negligible Negligible Important Very important

CIGRE model: The equivalent circuit of a gapless MO surge single resistance RI. The resulting equivalent circuit is then
arrester should include the possible time delays for the change reduced to a series combination of a nonlinear resistance RI,
in the conduction mechanism from thermal to tunnel effects, the turn-on linear resistance RT and the inductance of the
the capacitance formed by the parallel/series connection of the current path L, see Fig. 50.
granular layers and the inductance of the varistor elements, The resistance RI can be determined from the discharge
determined by the geometry of the current path in the varistor voltage for 8/20 μs currents with various peak values. For a
[193], [194]. description of the turn-on resistance see [194]. As for the
Real tests show that for fast-front currents (i.e., lightning element L, it can be represented either as an inductance or as
currents), the discharge voltage of a MO block reaches the an ideal line [194].
peak prior to the current peak. Furthermore, an increase of
this voltage can be observed with decreasing current.
However, for two different discharge current shapes, the RI(i)
discharge voltages differ in the current front, but they
approach in the current tail. In addition, the difference
between voltages remains constant during the current front.
RT(t)
This conduction time delay can be represented by a resistance
in series with the conventional steady-state nonlinear
resistance, which reproduces the behavior of MO blocks for L
low frequency discharge currents.
To describe the dynamic performance of a MO surge
arrester, the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 49 was proposed Fig. 50. MO surge arrester model for fast-front surges [194].
[193]. The current-dependent resistance of the granular layer IEEE model: It is shown in Fig. 51; it incorporates two time
is subdivided into the steady-state current-dependent independent nonlinear resistors (A0 and A1), a pair of linear
resistance R(i), the turn-on resistance R(dv/dt, V, τ) and the inductors (L0 and L1) paralleled by a pair of linear resistors (R0
temperature-dependent resistance R(θ); all of them represent and R1), and a capacitor C. The V-I characteristic of A1 is
the behavior of the arrester for low frequency. The elements R slightly less than the 8/20 μs curve while A0 is 20% to 30%
and L represent the ZnO grain, whereas the other circuit higher. L1 and R1 form a low pass filter that sees a decaying
elements are related to the grain boundaries. voltage across it. A lumped inductance of about 1 μH per
meter for the ground leads should also be included in series
with the model. In transients simulations the nonlinear
R(dv/dt, V, τ) resistors should be modeled as exponential segments as
Grain described above. This model was proposed by D.W. Durbak
R(θ) C
boundary [190] and adopted by the IEEE, including committee papers
R(i) [195] and standards [177].
For low frequency surges, the impedance of the filter R1
and L1 is very low and A0 and A1 are practically in parallel.
R During high frequency transients, the impedance of the filter
ZnO
grain
becomes very high and the discharge current is distributed
L between the two nonlinear branches.
Fig. 52 shows V-I characteristics of A0 and A1, see also
Table XX, where voltage values are in per unit of V10. A0 is
Fig. 49. Equivalent circuit for an MO arrester block [193]. presented as 5 segments and A1 as 2 segments.
This model was later simplified and adopted by a CIGRE Formulas to calculate parameters of the circuit shown in
WG [194]. The temperature-dependent resistance R(θ) and Fig. 51 were initially suggested in [190]. They are based on
the capacitance C can be neglected, and the current-dependent the estimated height of the arrester, the number of columns of
resistance R(i) and the ZnO resistance can be combined to a MO disks, and the curves shown in Fig. 52.
 99

R0 R1 These formulas do not always give the best parameters, but

provide a good starting point. The procedure proposed by the
IEEE WG to estimate all parameters can be summarized as
follows [195]:
L0 L1 1. Determine linear parameters (L0, R0, L1, R1, C) from the
C0 A0 A1 previously given formulas, and derive the nonlinear
characteristics of A0 and A1.
2. Adjust A0 and A1 to match the switching surge discharge
voltage.
3. Adjust the value of L1 to match the V10 voltages.
Fig. 51. IEEE MO surge arrester model for fast-front surges [195].
Hysteretic model: The dynamic frequency-dependent behavior
can be included by adding an inductance in series with the
conventional nonlinear resistance, which reproduces the
behavior of MO blocks for low frequency discharge currents.
The V-I characteristic of a MO surge arrester with a stepped
discharge current has a looping hysteretic tendency.
Therefore, the series inductance must be also nonlinear. The
equivalent circuit of a MO surge arrester can consist of a
series combination of a nonlinear resistor and a nonlinear
inductor, as shown in Fig. 53. The procedure for calculating
the nonlinear inductance from the original hysteresis loop was
presented in [196]. A previous version of this model was
presented in [189].

L
Fig. 52. V-I characteristics for nonlinear resistors [190].
Table XX Values for A0 and A1 in Fig. 52 [190]
Fig. 53. MO surge arrester model for fast-front surges [196].
Current Voltage (per unit of V10)
(kA) Simplified model: A simplified version of the IEEE model was
A0 A1
proposed in [197]. According to the authors of this model, the
0.01 0.875 0.681 capacitance C in the model shown in Fig. 51 can be
1 1.056 0.856
eliminated, since its effect is negligible, and the two
5 1.131
10 1.188 resistances in parallel with the inductances can be replaced by
15 1.244 a single resistance R, of about 1 MΩ, placed between model
20 1.313 1.000 terminals to avoid numerical problems, see Fig. 54.
L0 L1
The information required to determine the parameters of
the fast-front model is as follows:
• d = height of the arrester, in meters
• n = number of parallel columns of MO disks
R A0 A1
• V10 = discharge voltage for a 10 kA, 8/20 μs current, in
kV
• Vss = switching surge discharge voltage for an
associated switching surge current, in kV.
Linear parameters are derived from the following equations Fig. 54. Simplified MO surge arrester model for fast-front surges
[195]: [197].
d d This model does not take into consideration any physical
L0 = 0.2 (μH ) R0 = 100 (Ω) (202a)
n n characteristic of the arrester and its operating principle is
d d similar to that of the IEEE model:
L1 = 15 (μH ) R1 = 65 (Ω) (202b)
n n • The definition of nonlinear resistors characteristics A0
n and A1 is the same that for the IEEE model.
C = 100 ( pF ) (202c)
d • The two inductances are calculated by means of the
 100

following equations: 2) When opened, it is a good insulator and withstands the

1 voltage between contacts, the voltage to ground or to the
L0 = ⋅ (K − 1) ⋅ Vn (μH ) (203a)
12 other phases.
1 3) When closed, it can quickly and safely interrupt any
L1 = ⋅ (K − 1) ⋅ Vn (μH ) (203b) current below or equal to the rated short-circuit current.
4
where 4) When opened, it can quickly and safely close a shorted
circuit.
V
K = 1/ T 2 (204) In a real circuit breaker an electric arc is formed after
V10
contacts start separating; it changes from a conducting to a
being Vn the arrester rated voltage (in kV), V10 the discharge non-conducting state in a very short period of time. The arc is
voltage for a 10 kA, 8/20 μs current (in kV), V1/T2 the normally extinguished as the current reaches a natural zero in
discharge voltage for a 10 kA steep current pulse (in kV). The the alternating current cycle; this mechanism is assisted by
decrease time T2 in V1/T2 is not specified since it can vary drawing the arc out to maximum length, increasing its
between 2 and 20 s and each manufacturer can choose the resistance and limiting its current. Various techniques are
preferred value. The value V1/T2 is similar to the front-of-wave adopted to extend the arc; they differ according to size, rating
(FOW) discharge voltage defined in the IEEE standard [177]. and application. In high-voltage circuit breakers (> 1 kV), the
The model was refined in a later work [198]. It was proved current interruption is performed by cooling the arc. Power
that whenever V1/T2 is not available and the factor K is more circuit breakers are categorized according to the extinguishing
than 1.18, the inductance parameters can be estimated as medium in which the arc is formed.
follows: All methods of interrupting current in high voltage systems
L0 = 0.01 ⋅ Vn (μH ) (205a) introduce a non-conducting gap into a conducting medium.
L1 = 0.03 ⋅ Vn (μH ) (205b) This can be achieved by mechanically separating the metallic
contacts so that the gap formed is either automatically filled
Models for Very Fast-Front Transients: Limited experience
by a liquid, a gas or even vacuum. However, insulating media
is presently available on modeling and validation of MO surge
may sustain electrical discharges which can prevent electrical
arrester for very fast-front transients simulation. An
isolation from being achieved.
interesting discussion on this subject was presented in
The goal of this section is to present the different models
reference [193]. Basically, the recommended models are
for gas-filled circuit breakers proposed and applied to date in
similar to those proposed for modeling surge arresters in fast-
opening and closing operations, as well as the procedures that
front surge simulations, but representing frequency dependent
can be used for estimating the parameters to be specified in
behavior by means of a distributed parameter lossless line.
these models. For more details on breaking technologies, and
Parameter Determination from Field Measurements: The
circuit breaker models for other interrupting technologies
estimation of parameters to be specified in the above arrester
(e.g., vacuum circuit breakers) readers are referred to the
models is usually based on manufacturer’s data and arrester
specialized literature [200]-[203].
geometry. A technique based on the measured residual
voltage derived from 8/20 μs input current test was presented Modeling of Circuit Breakers
in [199]. The proposed optimization procedure was applied to
Introduction: Circuit breaker models are needed to analyze
models presented in [195], [196] and [197], see Figs. 51, 53
both closing and opening operations.
and 54.
The separation of the contacts of a circuit breaker causes
the generation of an electric arc. Although a large number of
IX. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
arc models have been proposed, and some of them have been
Introduction successfully applied, there is no model that takes into account
all physical phenomena in a circuit breaker. Several
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device, capable approaches can be used to reproduce the arc interruption
of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal phenomenon in the development, testing and operation of
circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified circuit breakers [204]:
time and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit a) Physical arc models, which include the physical process in
conditions such as those of short-circuit. In normal operating detail; that is, the overall arc behavior is calculated from
conditions, a circuit breaker is in the closed position and some conservation laws, gas and plasma properties, and more or
current is flowing through the closed contacts. The circuit less detailed models of exchange mechanisms (radiation,
breaker opens its contacts when a tripping signal is received. heat conduction, turbulence).
The performance of an ideal circuit breaker may be b) Black box models, which consider the arc as a two-pole
summarized as follows [200]: and determine the transfer function using a chosen
1) When closed, it is a good conductor and withstands mathematical form, and fitting the remaining free
thermally and mechanically any current below or equal to parameters to measured voltage and current traces.
the rated short-circuit current.
 101

c) Formulae and diagrams, which give parameter voltage (PFRV). The TRV has a direct effect on the
dependencies for special cases and scaling laws. They can interrupting ability of a circuit breaker, but the PFRV is also
be derived from tests or from calculations with the two important because it determines the center of the TRV
previous models. oscillation. The waveform and magnitude of the TRV vary
The most suitable representations of a circuit breaker in a according to many factors, such as system voltages,
transients program are the so called black box models [204], equipment parameters and fault types. The waveform
[205]. The aim of a black box model is to describe the determined by the system parameters alone is called the
interaction of an arc and an electrical circuit during an inherent TRV. All regions of the TRV have an effect on the
interruption process. Rather than internal processes, it is the breaking interrupting ability. For some kinds of circuit
electrical behavior of the arc which is of importance. breakers, the initial TRV is the most critical period.
Several models can also be used to represent a circuit The circuit interruption is complete only when the circuit
breaker in closing operations. As for models used to breaker contacts have recovered sufficient dielectric strength
reproduce opening operations, different approaches and after arc extinction near current zero. Here, the dielectric
different levels of complexity may be considered. When using strength recovery characteristics play an important role.
a black-box type model, the simplest approach assumes that Depending on the type of circuit breaker, this period is also
the breaker behaves as an ideal switch whose impedance dangerous. An interruption failure during this period is known
passes instantaneously from an infinite value to a zero value as dielectric failure or restrike.
at the closing time. A more sophisticated approach assumes The aim of a black box model is to describe the interaction
that there is a closing time from the moment at which the of the switching device and the corresponding electrical
contacts start to close to the moment that they finally make circuit during an interruption process. Rather than internal
and its withstand voltage decreases as the separation distance processes, it is the electrical behavior of the circuit breaker
between contacts decreases. Finally, a dynamic arc which is of importance. Black box models are aimed at
representation can be included in case of breaker prestrike. obtaining a quantitatively correct performance of the circuit
Table XXI shows modeling guidelines proposed by the breaker. Several levels of model complexity are possible
CIGRE WG 33.02 for representing circuit breakers in both [206]:
closing and opening operations [14]. 1) The simplest model considers an ideal breaking action that
is completely independent of the arc. The breaker is
Circuit Breaker Modeling During Opening Operations
represented as an ideal switch that opens at first current
Introduction: Circuit breakers accomplish the task of zero crossing after the tripping signal is given. This model
interrupting an electrical current by using some interrupting can be used to obtain the voltage across the breaker, this
medium for dissipating the energy input. For most breaking voltage is to be compared with a pre-specified TRV
technologies the interrupting process is well understood and withstand capability for the breaker. This model cannot
can be described with some accuracy. reproduce any interaction between the arc and the system.
The electric arc is a self-sustained discharge capable of 2) A more elaborated model considers the arc as a time-
supporting large currents with a relatively low voltage drop. varying resistance or conductance. The time variation is
The arc acts like a nonlinear resistor: after current determined ahead of time based on the breaker
interruption, the resistance value does not change rapidly characteristic and perhaps upon the knowledge of the
from a low to an infinite value. For several microseconds after initial interrupting current. This model can represent the
interruption, a post-arc current flows. The interruption process effect of the arc on the system, but requires advanced
can be separated into three periods: the arcing period, the knowledge of the effect of the system on the arc. Arc
current-zero period, and the dielectric recovery period. parameters are not always easy to obtain and the model
During arcing period, the time constant of the dc still requires the use of precomputed TRV curves to
component in a short-circuit current becomes smaller because determine the adequacy of the breaker.
of the arc resistance. As the arc current approaches a current- 3) The most advanced model represents the breaker as a
zero point, the ratio of arc heat loss to electrical input energy dynamically varying resistance or conductance, whose
increases and the arc voltage rises abruptly. After the arc value depends on the past history of arc voltage and
current is extinguished, the recovery voltage appears. Since current. This model can represent both, the effect of the
the space between contacts does not change to a completely arc on the system and the effect of the system on the arc.
insulating state, a small current, the post-arc current, flows No precomputed TRV curves are required. These models
through breaker as the recovery voltage builds up and soon are generally developed to determine initial arc quenching;
disappears. If the extinguishing ability of the circuit breaker is that is, to study the thermal period only, although some
small, the post-arc current does not decrease, and an can be used to determine arc reignition due to insufficient
interruption failure can occur; it is known as thermal failure or voltage withstand capability of the dielectric between
reignition. breaker contacts. Their most important application cases
The recovery voltage has two components: a transient are short-line fault interruption and switching of small
recovery voltage (TRV) and a power-frequency recovery inductive currents.
 102

Table XXI Modeling guidelines for circuit breakers [14]

Low-Frequency Slow-Front Fast-Front Very Fast-Front
Operation
Transients Transients Transients Transients
Closing Mechanical pole spread Important Very important Negligible Negligible
Prestrikes (decrease of Negligible Important Important Very important
sparkover voltage vs.
time)
Opening High current interruption Important only for Important only for Negligible Negligible
(arc equations) interruption capability interruption capability
studies studies
Current chopping Negligible Important only for Important only for Negligible
(arc instability) interruption of small interruption of small
inductive currents inductive currents
Restrike characteristic Negligible Important only for Very important Very important
(increase of sparkover interruption of small
voltage vs. time) inductive currents
High-frequency current Negligible Important only for Very important Very important
interruption interruption of small
inductive currents

Many models for circuit breakers, represented as a dynamic strictly constant for an actual arc, but observations
resistance/conductance, have been proposed. A survey on indicate that during the brief time around current zero
black box models of gas (air, SF6) circuit breakers was these parameters vary sufficiently slowly to assume them
presented in [204]. These models are almost exclusively to be constant.
applied to gas-filled circuit breakers and are useful to • A combination of both models gives the Cassie-Mayr
represent a circuit breaker during the thermal period [207]- model [7]:
[225]. They are less attractive for other types of switching 1 1 1
= + (208)
devices (e.g., oil circuit breakers) because the thermal process g gc gm
is less significant in the behavior of these types of circuit
This is justified by the fact that at high currents the entire
breaker.
voltage drop takes place in the Cassie equation, but
The most widely used models are derived from Cassie and
before current zero the contribution from the Mayr
Mayr equations, of from a combination of both models.
equation increases, while the Cassie part goes to zero.
• The Cassie model is given by the following equation These models give a qualitative description of an arc
[207]: behavior; they should be carefully used for quantitative
1 ⎛⎜ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ ⎛ i ⎞2 ⎞
2
1 dg c representations. A great number of modifications of these
= ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟ (206)
g c dt τ c ⎜ ⎜⎝ v0 ⎟⎠ ⎟ τ c ⎜ ⎜⎝ v0 g c ⎟⎠ ⎟ equations have been formulated. These modifications
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ introduce more parameters into the equation or define the
It assumes an arc channel with constant temperature, equation in a more general form, making models more
current density and electric field strength. Changes of the adaptive.
arc conductance result from changes of arc cross section; Other widely used models are presented below [206], [7].
energy removal is obtained by convection. 1. The model proposed by Avdonin is for air-blast and SF6
• The Mayr model is given by the following equation breakers [213]. The arc resistance of this model is
[208]: expressed by
1 dg m 1 ⎛ vi ⎞ 1 ⎛ i2 ⎞ dra ra1− α r 1− α −β
= ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ (207) = − v a ia a (209)
g m dt τ m ⎝ P0 ⎠ τ m ⎝ P g
0 m ⎠ dt A AB
This model assumes that changes of arc temperature are which is derived from the modified Mayr equation
dominant, and size and profile of the arc column are dra ra ⎡ va ia ⎤
= ⎢1 − ⎥ (210)
constant. Thermal conduction is the main mechanism of dt τ ⎣ P0 ⎦
energy removal.
with
In these equations, g is the arc conductance, v is the arc
voltage, i is the arc current, τ is the arc time constant, P0 τ = Araα P0 = Braβ (211)
is the steady-state power loss and v0 is the constant part of where ra, va and ia are respectively the arc resistance,
the arc voltage. gc is in the region of 1 µs (SF6) and gm is voltage and current; τ is the arc time constant and P0 is the
between 0.1 and 0.5 µs (SF6). These parameters are not breaker cooling power.
 103

This model can be used to represent thermal failure near requires a prohibitive computer time for statistical studies.
current interruption and conductivity in the post-arc Another difficulty is the availability of parameters from the
region. Resistance instability near current interruption can breaker manufacturer. This is why a simplified model must be
cause current chopping. Although parameters for this used in statistical studies [226], [227].
model are best derived from short-line fault breaking tests,
Circuit Breaker Modeling During Closing Operations
it is, however, feasible to provide some typical data.
2. The Urbanek model can represent arc interruption and Introduction: A circuit breaker is a mechanical device with a
both thermal and dielectric failure [210]. Both current voltage-withstand capability between contacts that depends on
chopping and reignition are also represented. It is the separation between them. As the contacts of a breaker
characterized by the following equation for the arc close and the gap between them gets smaller, breakdown will
conductance: occur if the voltage across the gap exceeds its dielectric
⎛ vi ⎞ strength; that is, electrical closing can happen before
⎜ 2
−1 − ⎟ mechanical closing. Fig. 55 shows the prestrike phenomenon
⎜ e g ⎟
1 dg 1 at the time the stress exceeds the strength [206]. An effect of
= ⎜ ⎟ (212)
g dt τ ⎜ P0 ⎛⎜ ⎛ v ⎞ τ dv ⎞⎟ ⎟
2
prestrikes is that the probability distribution of closing
⎜ 2 ⎜1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ −2 2 v ⎟
⎜e g ⎝ vd ⎟⎠ vd dt ⎟ ⎟ instants will not be uniformly distributed, as shown in Fig. 56
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ [206].
where e is the arc voltage for high currents, P0 is the Order to close
minimum power to maintain the arc and vd is the dielectric Voltage the switch
breakdown voltage for cold arc channel.
3. Another model for simulation of thermal breakdown is the Gap strength

Kopplin model [212]. It is characterized by a Mayr-type Voltage magnitude

equation for the arc conductance: across the breaker

1 dg 1 ⎛ vi ⎞
= ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ (213)
g dt τ ⎝ P0 ⎠
Prestrike Time
with
τ = K I ⋅ ( g + 0.0005) 0.25 Aiming
point
(214)
P0 = K P ⋅ ( g + 0.0005) 0.6 Fig. 55. Prestrike phenomenon.
where Kp and KI are model parameters. Voltage Gap strength
From the modifications proposed to date, arc models can be
divided into several groups. All models keep the basic idea of
describing arc behavior using parameters τ and P, with
different physical interpretation.
Discussion: Arc models for gas-filled circuit breakers (air, Voltage across
SF6) are only applicable for the thermal period of current the breaker
interruption, and they link the arc conduction to the internal
energy. The arc is described by a differential equation relating Time

arc conductance with arc voltage and current. The equation Fig. 56. Distribution of the closing time during prestrike.
contains some free parameters which are determined by tests.
These models can be only used for simulating short-line fault For a multi-phase breaker, the probability distribution of
interruption and current chopping when breaking small closing times is more complicated to determine since the
inductive currents. However, some models have also been order in which breaker poles close will be random in a cycle.
proposed to represent arc conductivity during the dielectric For some studies it may be of interest to represent also the
period. Other mathematical formulations different from those prestrike arc conductance. Since an oscillatory arc current at a
presented in this section have been developed and applied, see very high frequency may be caused during prestrike, such
for instance [213], [218], [219]. current may result in multiple quenchings and prestrikes prior
Although in some cases it is feasible to simulate arc model to the ultimate contact.
equations using control diagram blocks and sufficiently small A closing operation can produce transient overvoltages
time-steps, the best solution is achieved using a hard-coded whose maximum peaks depend on several factors, for instance
arc model with sophisticated iterative techniques, as explained the network representation on the source side of the breaker,
in [220]. A highly nonlinear arc model requires a small or the charge trapped on transmission lines in a reclosing
integration time-step to correctly account for its time operation. One of the factors that have more influence on the
constants and achieve nonlinear solution method maximum peak is the instant of closing, which can be
convergence. Such a small time-step (0.1 μs typically) different for every pole of a three-phase breaker. Most
transients programs allow users to analyze the influence of
 104

this factor and obtain a statistical distribution of switching where Trandom is the time delay, which is randomly deduced
overvoltages (see below), usually provided in the form of an from an average time and a standard deviation. However, the
accumulative frequency distribution. Therefore, several three poles can be mechanically linked so that each pole
models can be used to represent a circuit breaker in closing attempt to close at the same instant, the aiming point. In
operations [7]: reality, there will be a finite time or pole span between the
• The simplest model assumes that the breaker behaves as first and the last pole to close. For instance, if the closing is
an ideal switch whose impedance passes instantaneously described by a normal distribution, a random generation
from an infinite value, when open, to a zero value at the according to a normal distribution is performed to obtain the
closing time. This performance can be represented at any closing time from the aiming point. The normal distribution
part of a power cycle. The effect of the operation (e.g., curve ranges from –∞ to +∞, but it can be truncated at –4σ
switching overvoltage) depends of the closing time of the and +4σ; i.e., pole span is 8 times the standard distribution.
breaker. In multiphase systems an additional factor is If pre-insertion resistors are used to mitigate switching
added since all poles do not close simultaneously. A overvoltages, the closing times of both main and auxiliary
further improvement of this approach assumes that the contacts are statistically determined, using a dependency
closing instant for either single-phase or multiphase similar to that presented above.
breakers is randomly determined. If systematic switches are used to represent a circuit
• A more advanced approach assumes that there is a breaker with preinsertion resistors, the closing times of the
closing time from the moment at which the contacts start auxiliary contacts are determined as follows:
to close to the moment that they finally make. The Tclose ( dependent ) = Tclose ( master ) + Toffset (216)
withstand voltage decreases as the separation distance where Toffset is now a constant value.
between contacts decreases, an arc will strike before the Prestrike Models: The prestrike phenomenon can be
contacts have completely closed if the voltage across represented as an ideal switch for which the only information
them exceeds the withstand voltage of the dielectric of concern is the closing time of each pole. This model can be
medium. Modeling of the pre-strike effect and its influence represented using built-in capabilities in most transients
on the switching overvoltages produced during line programs. A more sophisticated model may include the arc
energization has been analyzed in [228]. conductance and the possibility of multiple quenchings and
• As for the study of opening operations, a third approach restrikes prior to the ultimate metallic contact if during
includes the prestrike dynamic arc conductance. prestrike a very high-frequency oscillatory current is induced.
Statistical switch models: The concept of statistical switch has
been developed and implemented into transients programs to Parameter Determination
facilitate the calculation of the statistical distribution of Introduction: The application of an arc modeling technique
switching overvoltages Two approaches can be considered may consist of the following steps [205]: (1) choice of model
[25]: equations; (2) tests with measurement of voltage and/or
• The closing time is systematically varied from a current during the period of interaction between arc and
minimum to a maximum instant in equal increments of circuit; (3) evaluation of arc parameters; (4) numerical
time; this type of switch is known as systematic switch. simulations of the interruption processes in various circuits.
An accurate evaluation of the switching overvoltage A specific method of arc parameter evaluation has to be
probability distribution using this type of switches can be made in close connection with the selected arc model and the
very laborious. measurements to be made. An increasing number of
• The closing time is randomly varied according to a given parameters improve the model adaptability, but it also
probability distribution; this type of switch is known as requires more information from measurements and does not
statistics switch. Data required to represent these necessarily provide a more accurate prediction.
switches are the mean closing time and the standard Black box models cover the thermal period of the
deviation. The closing time of a statistics switch is switching process, the duration of which depends on the
randomly selected according to a probability distribution, switching process itself and on the arc quenching medium.
which is usually uniform or normal (Gaussian). In Typical values of the characteristic quantities for air blast and
general, it is assumed that the closing of an independent SF6 circuit breakers are given in Table XXII.
breaker pole may occur at any point of the power- In general arc parameters are evaluated from voltage and
frequency cycle with equal likelihood. current traces. Therefore, the accuracy of the modeling
A three-phase breaker can be represented as three single depends to a great extent on the resolution and accuracy of
breakers each with an independent probability distribution. So these measurements; moreover, the type of arc equation and
the breaker is then represented as a master switch and two the specific procedure of parameter evaluation are crucial, in
dependent switches whose mean closing times are dependent particular if the quotient of voltage and current, or even the
on the first pole to close time derivative of arc conductance, are used. Finally, the
Tclose ( dependent ) = Tclose ( master ) + Trandom (215) measurement accuracy must be validated together with the
whole modeling procedure. Achieving an adequate accuracy
 105

is mainly a resolution and sensitivity problem since the Solving for the time constant and the power loss
measurement devices have to withstand large current
τ( g ) =
( )
g i22 − i12
(220a)
amplitudes before current zero and high voltage amplitudes dg dg
after current zero. i12 2 − i22 1
dt dt
Table XXII Quantities characterizing the thermal period of a dg dg
switching process [205]
i12 2 − i22 1
P( g ) = dt dt (220b)
⎛ dg 2 dg1 ⎞
Switching g⎜ − ⎟
process
Characteristic quantities Air blast SF6 ⎝ dt dt ⎠
where g = g1 = g2.
Short-line Thermal period duration 25 μs 5 μs This step is repeated several times along the conductance
fault curve to obtain the functions τ(g) and P(g). To analyze
Current range before zero 500 A 100 A
successful interruptions, two different measurements of
Post-arc current peak value 20 A 2A
different current steepness are necessary.
Voltage range after zero 40 kV 20 kV 2 – Rijanto’s method [231]: It is based on the fact that the
Interruption Thermal period duration 2 μs 1 μs
parameter functions may be deduced from singular points of
of small the dynamic arc traces. Consider again the Mayr-Schwarz
inductive Current range before zero 100 A 50 A equation.
currents Voltage range after zero 10 kV 7 kV • If dg/dt = 0, then
P ( g ) = vi (221)
Parameter determination methods: Arc equations with two
which allows the determination of P.
parameter functions will generally suffice under the condition
• If i = 0 or v = 0, then
that the parameter functions are evaluated in a mathematically
unique way from arc current and recovery voltage 1 dg 1 ⎛ g ⎞
=− ⎜⎜ τ( g ) = − ⎟ (222)
measurements derived from a normal circuit breaker test. A g dt τ( g ) ⎝ dg / dt ⎟⎠
larger number of free parameters require additional which allows the determination of τ.
assumptions, the validity of which has to be separately That is, to obtain dynamic arc parameter functions, several
proven. Any other possibility may lead to non-unique singular conditions in arc current/voltage (zero crossings) and
solutions. arc conductance (minima/maxima) are required. Such
A description of some of the methods developed to date for conditions are found several times in a current chopping; for
parameter estimation of gas-filled circuit breaker models is short-line fault interruption they have to be forced by using
presented in the following paragraphs [205], [229]. special test circuits.
1 – Amsinck’s method [230]: It is suitable to evaluate 3 – Ruppe’s method [232], [233]: The Mayr equation can be
parameters that are functions of the same arc quantity, either rewritten as follows:
current or conductance. These parameters result from the ⎛ 1 dg ⎞
solution of a set of two model equations at the same value of vi = P0 ⎜⎜ τ + 1⎟⎟ (223)
this arc quantity, but at different values of power input and ⎝ g dt ⎠
time derivative of conductance. which leads to a straight line if the product vi is plotted versus
Consider that the arc behavior is described by means of the (dg/dt)/g. The intersection of this line with the two axes is P0
Mayr-Schwarz equation, in which the time constant τ and the on the vi-axis and -1/τ on the (dg/dt)/g-axis.
power loss P are functions of the arc conductance Several conditions with the same arc conductance value, as
for the Amsinck’s method, can be deduced from a high
1 dg 1 ⎛ vi ⎞
= ⎜ − 1⎟ (217) number of traces. Using regression these points can be
g dt τ( g ) ⎜⎝ P ( g ) ⎟⎠
approximated by a straight line with a constant arc
This method uses the information obtained during conductance value, and then obtain the corresponding values
reignition. From the application of the arc equation to two of P0 and τ. Functions P0(g) and τ(g) can be derived by
points of the arc conductance with the same value, the repeating the procedure with other values of g. An advantage
following relationships are obtained: of this method is that it does require data from only
dg1 1 ⎛ i12 ⎞ reignitions or from only the application of synthetic test
= ⎜⎜ − g1 ⎟⎟ (218a)
dt τ( g1 ) ⎝ P ( g1 ) ⎠ circuits.
4 – Application of curve fitting techniques: An approach
dg 2 1 ⎛ i22 ⎞ based on curve fitting technique allows the formulation of
= ⎜⎜ − g 2 ⎟⎟ (218b)
dt τ( g 2 ) ⎝ P ( g 2 ) ⎠ parameters functions in a concise manner. Several methods
where using current and voltage records have been proposed for
dg k dg determination of arc parameters. Some of them are
= ik = i (t k ) (219) summarized in the following paragraphs.
dt dt t =t k
St-Jean et al. developed a testing and measuring setup that
 106

was applied to one air-blast and two SF6 circuit breakers This derivative is also calculated from the arc equation
[214], whose behavior was assumed to be according to the model. For the Mayr model it is:
modified arc-resistance model: dg m (t ) g m ⎛ vi ⎞
= ⎜ − 1⎟⎟ (232)
dr
=
r ⎛
⎜1 −
vi ⎞
⎟ (224) dt τ m ⎜⎝ P0 ⎠
dt τ( g ) ⎜⎝ P ( g ) ⎟⎠
The estimation of τm and P0 may be made from the
where differences between these values by using a fitting technique
τ( g ) = Ar α P ( g ) = Br β (225) based on the least square method.
Therefore, the unknown parameters of this model are four: Discussion: Although a large variety of black box arc models
A, B, α, β. Assume the error function is defined as follows for gas-filled circuit breakers have been developed to date,
[214]: there is not yet a general standard approach and they must be
applied with caution. The progress in measuring techniques
⎛ dr vir r ⎞
∫ ⎜⎜ + − ⎟⎟dt = ε (226) and in computer models has lead to successful approaches and
⎝ dt τ( g ) P ( g ) τ( g ) ⎠ a common understanding of basic questions.
Experimental data are then divided into n sections for The choice of a model, measurements and parameter
integration purposes, and the total error is given by evaluation are not independent from each other, but have to
n
Total error = ∑ ε i2 (227) be seen as a whole. In general, an increasing number of free
i =1 parameters improves the adaptability, but also requires more
where εi is the error of section i. information from measurements and it is not necessarily
The best results are obtained when the total error is divided linked with a higher predictive capacity. In practice, a broad
by the factor r2, r being the arc resistance. This operation range of modeling techniques have been developed reaching
reduces this error in the region of high arc resistance and from very general models requiring sophisticated
extremely low arc current, which can originate inaccurate experimental techniques for parameter determination to
calculations of the resistance value. simple models that require not much more than the standard
A similar approach was previously developed by Blahous measurements at the normal circuit breaker type tests. Most
[234], who established a procedure for determination of applications focus with 3-4 scalar parameters.
parameters of the Urbanek model defined by the following The validity of the procedure within a chosen application
equation: domain has to be checked. This validation should contain at
least the following steps: (a) identification of the model at an
1 dg 1 ⎛⎜ vi P ⎛ ⎛ v ⎞ τ dv ⎞ ⎞
2

= ⎜ 2 − 1 − 20 ⎜1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 2 2 v ⎟ ⎟ (228) operating point (e.g., establishment of arc parameters); (b)

g dt τ ⎜ e g e g ⎜ ⎝ vd ⎠ vd dt ⎟ ⎟⎟ prediction of performance in a changed circuit; (c)
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
experimental validation of the performance in the changed
The parameters that define this model are the minimum
circuit.
power input to maintain the arc, P0, the voltage drop across
Successful applications have been reported mainly in two
the high current arc, e, the arc time constant, τ, and the fields [205]:
breakdown voltage of the cold arc channel, vd. These
• Prediction of short-line fault breaking capability for
parameters are derived from the minimization of the sum of
restricted circuit conditions (influence of parallel
squares
capacitance, line surge impedance, ITRV). Practical
f ( P0 , τ, e, v d ) = ∑ [g theo ( P0 , τ, e, vd , ti ) − g meas (ti )]
n 2
(229) examples are prediction and comparison of breaking
i =1
limits during circuit breaker development, comparison of
where gtheo is the arc conductance calculated according to the the severity of actual circuit conditions in a substation
Urbanek equation, and gmeas is the arc conductance derived with the severity of the corresponding standard test
from measurements. circuit or theoretical check for the validity of new results.
A further simplification is introduced by assuming that the • Prediction of the influence of the circuit on chopping
voltage across the breaker is much smaller than the parameter current levels at small inductive current switching. In
vd after a thermal regnition, so the term (v/vd)2 may be cases where the circuit cannot be described by a simple
neglected [234]. In such case, only three parameters have to be parallel capacitance to the breaker this is the only
determined and the system of equations is: technique that uses laboratory test results for accurate
∂f ∂f ∂f prediction of the behavior in a substation.
=0 =0 =0 (230)
∂P0 ∂e ∂τ
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 112

Techniques and Computer Codes for Rational

Modeling of Frequency-Dependent Components
and Sub-Networks
Bjørn Gustavsen, Senior Member, IEEE

“fitting” a rational function to the data, known as Vector

Abstract—This paper presents a brief overview of techniques Fitting [10]. A perturbation method [11] is described which is
for modeling frequency-dependent components for the purpose of capable of enforcing passivity of the model, thereby
electromagnetic transient simulation. It accompanies an IEEE guaranteeing the stability of time domain simulations. We next
Tutorial on “Transients Analysis of Power Systems - Solution
describe a freely available computer implementation of the
Techniques, Tools, and Applications”, to be presented at the PES
2010 General Meeting. The paper discusses available techniques above methods. Finally, the application of the software is
for extracting rational function-based models of components and demonstrated for high-frequency modeling of a transformer
subsystems that are characterized by frequency responses. The starting from frequency sweep measurements.
main focus is on the Vector Fitting method, which is explained in
some detail. A perturbation method is described for enforcing II. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
passivity of the model, which is a necessity for guaranteeing stable
simulations. Procedures for including the obtained model in A rational function can in the frequency domain be
EMTP-type simulation tools are also mentioned. Finally, a expressed in alternative forms, including
collection of free Matlab-based computer implementation of these
methods is applied for high-frequency transformer modeling. § Polynomial form (1)
§ Pole-zero form (2)
Index Terms—Frequency dependency, rational function, pole-
§ Pole-residue form (3)
residue model, state-space model, passivity, simulation.
§ State-space form (4)
I. INTRODUCTION a0 + a1 s + L an s N
h( s ) ≅ (1)
S EVERAL power system components are characterized by
strong frequency-dependent effects in their behavior, for
1 + b1 s + L bn s N

instance overhead lines, underground cables, and power

∏
N
( s − zm )
transformers. The accurate simulation of electromagnetic h( s ) ≅ k m =1
(2)
∏
N
transients [1] requires to take the frequency dependency into m =1
( s − am )
account. One way of modeling such components is by
N
rm
characterizing their behavior in the frequency domain, h( s ) ≅ ∑ + r0 (3)
followed by a model extraction procedure. The use of rational m =1 s − am

function is an essential ingredient in such modeling as it leads

to highly efficient time domain simulations [2]. h( s ) ≅ cT ( sI − A ) −1 b + r0 (4)
Since most difficulties in frequency-dependent modeling of
The problem at hand is to calculate the rational function
overhead lines and underground cables have been overcome
such that it approximates the given frequency response h(s) as
these days [3]-[5], this paper focuses on the modeling of
closely as possible. This process is often referred to as
terminal equivalents from tabulated data. Here, significant
“fitting”.
challenges remain. Typical applications include modeling of
sub-networks by frequency dependent network equivalents III. TIME DOMAIN SIMULATION
[6],[7] and high-frequency transformer modeling [8],[9]. We
first list the rational fitting methods that have been The motivation for using rational functions is twofold. It
traditionally applied within the power systems area, and we allows direct transformation from the frequency domain into
describe the basic steps for including a rational model in a the time domain, and it leads to highly efficient simulations in
circuit simulator. We next describe a very powerful method for the time domain via recursive convolution [2]. For instance,
with the pole-residue form (3), each term leads directly to the
exponential form (5) for the time domain impulse response,
B. Gustavsen is with SINTEF Energy Research, N-7465 Trondheim, and the convolution between the impulse response and an
Norway (e-mail: [email protected]).
input can with a fixed time step be expressed by the recursive
 113

convolution form (6) [12]. The formulation (6) can be solving the eigenvalue problem (9) with matrices established
interfaced to EMTP-type programs via a Norton equivalent from the rational model of σ. By replacing the poles with new
where the current source is updated in each time step. An poles, a better set of poles is achieved such that {am(i ) } → {am } .
alternative procedure is to generate an equivalent lumped Stability of the poles is ensured by flipping any unstable pole
circuit in an EMTP-type netlist [6]. The latter approach, into the left half-plane. Finally, the unknown residues are
however, often gives large circuits and is less efficient than the calculated by solving (8) with σ equal to unity.
recursive convolution approach.
N N
rm
h( jω ) = ∑ → h(t ) = ∑ rm e am t (5)
m =1 s − am m =1

 x = α xn −1 + un −1
y (t ) = h(t ) ∗ u (t ) →  n (6)
 yn = β xn + γ un

IV. FITTING TECHNIQUES

A. Polynomial Fitting
The rational fitting can in principle be easily done via the
polynomial form (1) by multiplying with the denominator.
This leads to the following linear least-squares (LS) problem
Fig. 1 JMarti fitting of rational function asymptotes to magnitude (depicted
(1 + b1 s + L bn s N )h( s ) ≅ a0 + a1 s + L an s N (7) from [30])

σ (s)
Direct solving of (7) leads to an approximation which is
strongly biased. Although the biasing can be removed via N
r%m N
r
iteration (Sanathanan-Koerner iteration [13]), the method is (∑ + 1)h( s ) ≅ ∑ m (i ) + r0 (8)
m =1 s − am m =1 s − am
(i )

troubled with effects of numerical ill-conditioning which often

limits its application to problems of low order and small z = eig ( A − bcT ) (9)
bandwidths.
In the actual implementation, all poles and residues are
B. Bode’s Asymptotic Fitting
enforced to be real or come in complex conjugate pairs. This is
In the case of frequency responses that are smooth and of a requirement in order to satisfy the physical property of
minimum phase shift type, a quite accurate model can be causality.
obtained using real poles and zeros in the left half-plane. This VF can also be applied to a vector of elements (hence its
allows the fitting process to be based on the asymptotes of the name), which results in that all elements in the vector become
rational function on pole-zero form (2) [14]. The fitting fitted with a common pole set. By stacking the upper (or
process was automated by J.R. Marti [3] in 1982 for lower) triangle of a matrix H in a single vector and subjecting
application to traveling-wave type transmission line modeling. it to VF, a symmetrical and stable pole-residue model (10) is
Starting from a low frequency, a pole/zero is added when the obtained.
asymptote departs by a positive/negative amount higher than a
N
Rm
predefined tolerance, see Fig. 1. Finally, the zero locations are H(s) ≅ ∑ + R0 (10)
adjusted iteratively to improve the accuracy of the final result. m =1 s − am
The method has proved to be robust and usually sufficiently
accurate. More importantly, it avoids the numerical problems Several improvements have been made to the original VF
associated with polynomial formulations. It is still in use in formulation in [10], including
several EMTP type simulators for frequency-dependent § Relaxation of the non-triviality constraint in order to
modeling of transmission lines by the traveling wave method. achieve faster convergence and less biasing [15].
§ Orthonormalization of basis functions in order to reduce
C. Vector Fitting sensitivity to initial poles [16].
More general fitting approaches are those based on Vector § Fast implementation [17] when applied to vector of
Fitting (VF) [10]. These methods are applicable to both elements.
smooth an non-smooth data as the fitter will automatically § Modal formulation which allows to retain the relative
produce real and/or complex poles and residues as needed. VF accuracy of the eigenvalues of a matrix H, via inverse
relocates a set of initial poles to better positions by solving a weighting [18].
linear equation (8) with known poles, {am(i ) } . It can be shown
that the zeros of σ approach the poles of h(s), provided that a In addition, VF has been extended for use with responses in
good approximation of (8) exists. The zeros are computed by the time domain [19] and the z-domain [20].
 114

In this paper we will apply a variant of VF which uses a perturbation of Hamiltonian matrix eigenvalues with
combination of relaxation and fast implementation – the Fast minimization of an energy norm [23], but the perturbation to
Relaxed Vector Fitting (FRVF). the model will be larger. In this paper we will be using one
version which perturbs the residue matrix eigenvalues in order
D. Optimization
to reduce the computational effort [24].
Although VF leads to excellent results, the extracted model
is not optimal. The result by VF can be biased and the pole VI. THE MATRIX FITTING TOOLBOX
relocation may stall at local minima, in particular if the
frequency response is contaminated with noise. A better result A. General
can in principle be overcome by usage of generic optimization Some software packages are available which can be applied
methods. However, such approaches are computationally very for rational function approximation. Among these, we mention
expensive and they will not guarantee that an optimum is
reached. § IdEM (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) [25]
§ Matrix Fitting Toolbox (SINTEF, Norway) [26]
V. PASSIVITY Many useful tools are also available in the SUMO Lab [27]
Although a model extracted by VF has stable poles only, the from University of Ghent, Belgium.
model may still yield unstable results when included in a time In this paper we will be using routines from the Matrix
domain simulation. This is because the model may generate Fitting Toolbox (MFT). These routines are open source
power under certain terminal conditions, since VF does not Matlab functions that can be freely downloaded from the web
guarantee the passivity of the extracted model. Passivity, can site [26].
however be enforced by a postprocessing step, as described
B. Overview
below.
We will assume that the model is formulated in terms of Tabulated data
admittance parameters and a pole-residue model, defining the
Y(s) (or S(s))
relation between terminal voltages v and terminal currents i, VFdriver.m

i ( s ) = Y( s ) v ( s ) (11) Iterative pole relocation using

vector fitting (vectfit3.m)
with
Rational model (stable)
N
RPdriver.m
Rm
Y(s) = ∑ + R0 (12) Perturbation
m =1 − am
s –Passivity assessment
–Passivity enforcement (FRPY.m, FRPS.m )
When the extracted model (12) is symmetrical, passivity
Rational model (stable and passive)
entails that the real part of Y has positive frequencies, i.e. netgen.m

eig (Re{Y( s )}) > 0 (13) Convert rational model into lumped circuit

The passivity can be enforced [11] by perturbing the

residues of the model while minimizing the change to its
behavior (14a) such that the passivity condition (14b) is netlist for ATP-EMTP
satisfied. Fig. 2 Computational procedure
N
∆R m
?Y = ∑ + ∆R 0 ≅ 0 (14a) VFdriver.m is a routine for fitting a symmetrical, square
m =1 − am
s matrix H given at frequencies in array s. The performance of
the routine is controlled via a structure opts, such as number of
N
∆R m
eig (Re{Y + ∑ + ∆R 0 }) > 0 (14b) iterations, automated initial pole specification, least squares
m =1 s − am weighting (error control) and plotting of results. The extracted
The actual solving of (14) [11] can be done using quadratic model is returned in a structure SER, on pole-residue form and
programming (15). Alternative formulations (based on residue on state-space form. The user can request the state-space
perturbation) are also available [21],[22]. model to have A diagonal with a mix of real and complex
conjugate elements, or a real-only model (with 2×2 blocks on
1 the diagonal of A). The actual fitting is done by routine
min (∆xT A sysT A sys ∆x) (15a)
∆x 2 vectfit3.m which is an implementation of the Fast [17] Relaxed
[15] Vector fitting [10] (FRVF).
B sys ∆x < c (15b)
Function call:
[SER,rmserr,Hfit,opts2]=VFdriver(H,s,poles,opts)
Other passivity enforcement schemes are possible, including
 115

RPdriver.m is a routine for enforcing passivity of a model 0

Approximation of f
10
that has been previously extracted by VFdriver. The routine
identifies bands of passivity violations and enforces passivity
at a set of carefully selected frequencies so as to enforce -5
10
passivity while minimizing the change to the original behavior.
The performance of the routine is controlled via a structure

Magnitude [p.u.]
opts, such as least squares weighting (error control) and
-10
iterations. The passivity assessment is done using a half-size 10

test matrix [28],[29] while the passivity enforcement is done

using perturbation of residue matrix eigenvalues [24]. The
-15
associated quadratic programming problem (15) is solved 10
Original
using the Matlab routine quadprog.m, which is part of the FRVF
Deviation
Matlab Optimization Toolbox. Note that the routine can be
-20
applied to models that represent admittance (or impedance) 10
1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10
parameters, as well as scattering (S-) parameters. Frequency [Hz]

Function call: Fig. 4 Rational fitting of Y

[SER,Yfit,opts2]=RPdriver(SER,s,opts)
1 volt (step)
netgen.m is a routine for converting the model (contained in 1
+
structure SER) into a lumped RLC circuit representation. The
2
RLC network is dumped to file as an ATP-EMTP netlist.
Function call: i2
netgen_ATP(SER,NOD,fname); Fig. 5 Step voltage excitation on terminal 1.

0.02
VII. EXAMPLE: ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
0.015
One of the examples included in the MFT is the electrical
0.01
circuit in Fig. 3. The frequency response is calculated in the
range 10 Hz–100 kHz and subjected to rational fitting by 0.005

routine VFdriver using eight pole-residue terms (10). The

Current [A]

fitting error is close to machine precision, see Fig. 4. -0.005

The resulting model is exported to a netlist for ATP by
-0.01
routine netgen_ATP. A time domain simulation is carried out
where a unit step voltage is applied to terminal 1 in Fig. 3 with -0.015

terminal 2 grounded, see Fig. 5. The simulated current flowing -0.02

from ground into terminal 2 is shown in Fig. 6 along with the -0.025
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
analytical solution. Clearly, a very accurate result has been Time [ms]

achieved. Fig. 6 Current response on terminal 2. ATP simulation vs. analytical solution.
1 1e-3 1e-6 5 5e-3 Blue: analytical. Red: simulation.
1

VIII. EXAMPLE: HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER MODELING

1
4 A. Measurement
2
1e-6 This example is taken from wide-band modeling of power
3 transformers from frequency sweep measurements. The
1e-2 1e-3 10 10e-6 1 2e-6 transformer is an 300 kVA distribution transformer with
11 kV/230 V voltage ratio. Using a measurement setup similar
20e-3
to the one in [9], the 6×6 admittance matrix Y has been
measured in the range 50 Hz–10 MHz.
1e-2

Fig. 3 Lumped circuit. Circuit values in Ohm, Henry, and Farad. B. Rational Approximation
Using routine VFdriver, a rational model (10) with 80 pole-
residue terms is extracted. The call requests stable poles only,
10 iterations, and inverse magnitude weighting for achieving
relative error control. Total computation time: 9 sec. Fig. 8
shows that a highly accurate fitting results is achieved over the
full frequency band.
 116

C. Passivity Enforcement
The model is passed to routine RPdriver in order to enforce
passivity of the model. The function call requests inverse
weighting for the least squares part of the problem (15a). Two
iterations are used for the inner loop of the iterative procedure.
After a total of 13 sec, a passive model is returned. Fig. 9
shows that the passivity enforcement step removes a large
passivity violation above 10 MHz, i.e. all eigenvalues of
G=Re{Y} are enforced to be positive.
D. Time Domain Simulation
Using routine netgen_ATP, a lumped circuit equivalent is
generated for use with ATP-EMTP. Using ATP, the voltage
step response on terminals 4 and 6 is simulated for the terminal
conditions in Fig. 10. The voltage waveforms are shown in
Fig. 11, together with the simulated response using recursive Fig. 8 Rational approximation. Elements of Y.
convolution [2]. The simulation based on recursive
convolution was done in a small Matlab program, assuming
trapezoidal integration [12]. The two approaches give a nearly
identical result. (The difference between the traces is smaller
than 1E–5).
E. Comparison With Time Domain Measurement
As a validation of the measurement and modeling
procedure, we compare measured and simulated time domain
waveforms for the excitation in Fig. 10. The measured step
voltage excitation on terminal 1 is realized in the simulation
(Matlab program with recursive convolution) as an ideal
voltage source, and the voltage response at terminals 4 and 6
are simulated and compared with the measurement. Fig. 12
shows that an excellent agreement is achieved. (The red dots
represent a fraction of the time steps). Fig. 9 Passivity enforcement. Eigenvalues of G.
Fig. 13 shows the same result as in Fig. 12, when the
passivity enforcement step has been skipped. It is seen that the
simulation becomes unstable. Thus, passivity enforcement is a 11 kV 230 V
1 4
mandatory step in the modeling procedure. 2 5
3 6
11 kV 230 V
1 4
2 5 Fig. 10 Step voltage excitation
3 6

Fig. 7 Distribution transformer

Fig. 11 Step voltage response.

 117

Fig. 12 Simulated vs. measured voltage response Fig. 15 Transient overvoltages. (Depicted from [31]).

IX. REFERENCES
[1] H.W. Dommel, ElectroMagnetic Transients Program. Reference Manual
(EMTP Theory Book), Bonneville Power Administration, Portland,
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dominating frequency component coincides with a peak in the matrices approximated by rational functions”, IEEE Trans. Power
transformer transfer voltage from high to low. This results in Systems, vol. 16, pp. 97-104, Feb. 2001.
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first breaker pole at t=0. (Depicted from [31]). [16] D. Deschrijver, B. Haegeman, and T. Dhaene, “Orthonormal vector
fitting: a robust macromodeling tool for rational approximation of
 118

frequency domain responses”, IEEE Trans. Advanced Packaging, vol.

30, no. 2, pp. 216-225, May 2007.
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 119

Dynamic System Equivalents: A Survey of

Available Techniques
IEEE PES General Systems Subcommittee – Task Force on Dynamic System Equivalents
U. D. Annakkage Senior Member (Chair), N. C. Nair Member, Y. Liang Student Member, A. M. Gole Fellow,
V. Dinavahi Member, B. Gustavsen Senior Member, T. Noda Senior Member, H. Ghasemi Member, A. Monti
Senior Member, M. Matar Member, R. Iravani Fellow J.A. Martinez Member

Abstract—This paper presents a brief review of techniques transient phenomena occur and an external system encompass-
available for reducing large systems to smaller equivalents. ing the rest of the system, in order to reduce computational
The paper is divided into High Frequency Equivalents, Low burden. The generators in the external system are represented
Frequency Equivalents, and Wide-band Equivalents. Numerical
examples are presented to demonstrate selected methods of both by power frequency voltage sources. This simplification elim-
High Frequency and Low Frequency equivalencing. inates electro-mechanical type low frequency behaviour from
the model and the resulting model is suitable for the simulation
Index Terms—Dynamic Equivalents, Frequency Dependent
Network Equivalents, Two Layer Network Equivalents, Co- of lightning and switching overvoltages. In situations where
herency, Modal Analysis, Vector Fitting. power electronic devices are used to mitigate low frequency
electromechanical oscillation problems in a power system
the high frequency equivalent network representation for the
I. I NTRODUCTION external system is inadequate. Therefore, there is a need for de-
veloping suitable techniques to determine dynamic equivalent
T HERE are two commonly used power system simulation
models: (a) Electromagnetic Transient (EMT) models,
and (b) Transient Stability models or “phasor models”. In EMT
models that accurately represent the relevant low-frequency as
well as the high-frequency behaviour of the external system.
The adequacy of the power system model depends on the
programs, power system components are adequately modelled
transient or dynamic phenomena to be studied. This could
to simulate high frequency transients in power systems. This
be broadly classified into three categories: To investigate
makes EMT programs very valuable in studies of lightning
(a) high frequency transients, where the transmission lines
and switching overvoltages, and the effects of power electronic
must be properly modelled to reflect the frequency dependent
devices on system behaviour. In order to cover the necessary
effects, (b) for low frequency electromechanical oscillation
bandwidth, these programs use small integration time steps of
studies, where the transmission lines can be modelled as
the order of 50 µs or less, making EMT programs much slower
constant impedances and the generators can be modelled
than Transient Stability programs. On the other hand, Stability
without stator winding transients and (c) studies that involve
programs, based on ”phasor models” of transmission lines
sub-synchronous oscillations, where both the turbine-generator
and simplified rotating machine models, use a much larger
dynamics and network transients must be adequately modelled.
integration time step (typically half a cycle) enabling such
These three types of studies need three types of equivalents:
programs to solve large power systems in excess of 50,000
High Frequency Equivalents (HFE), Low Frequency Equiv-
busses.
alents (LFE), and Wide-Band Equivalents respectively. The
The common practice in dealing with large systems in EMT paper is divided according to this classification.
programs is to divide the system into a study zone where

U.D. Annakkage, Y. Liang and A.M. Gole are with the University of Mani- II. H IGH F REQUENCY E QUIVALENTS (HFE)
toba, Canada; email: [email protected], [email protected], A. Introduction
and [email protected]
N. C. Nair is with the University of Auckland, New Zealand; email: The HFEs can be further classified into Frequency Depen-
[email protected] dent Network Equivalents (FDNE), and Two Layer Network
V. Dinavahi is with the University of Alberta, Canada; email: di-
[email protected] Equivalents (TLNE). Both these methods attempt to model the
B. Gustavsen is with SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway; email: frequency dependent terminal admittance of a network using
[email protected] either a lumped parameter circuit model or a rational function
T. Noda is with Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry
(CRIEPI), Japan; email: [email protected] model.
H. Ghasemi is with Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO), The modeling, which assumes linearity of the considered
Toronto, Canada; email: [email protected] sub-system, is normally based on an admittance formulation
A. Monti is with E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen, Germany;
email:[email protected] which defines the relation between voltage V and currents I
M. Matar and R. Iravani are with the University of Toronto, Canada; email: on the ports (terminals) of the equivalent.
[email protected] and [email protected]
J.A. Martinez is with Departament d’Enginyeria Electrica, Universitat
Politecnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain; email: [email protected]. YV = I (1)
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B. Frequency Dependent Network Equivalent (FDNE) poles {dk }. This pole relocation procedure usually converges
The known frequency response admittance characteristic of in 3-5 iterations. After the poles have been identified, the
the external system can be estimated by fitting it to a function residues of (3) are finally calculated by solving the correspond-
of the appropriate order: ing least-squares problem with known poles.
The fitting process works better when the arbitrarily as-
p0 + p1 s + p2 s2 + · · · + pN sN signed poles dk of σ(s) are close to the poles ak of f (s).
ff it (s) = (2) Hence, although one pass through the procedure should be
1 + q1 s + q2 s2 + · · · + qN sN
sufficient, using the values of ak determined through an earlier
Or the equivalent form:
iteration as seed values dk for the next iteration can yield
N improved fitting. Additional care is required to ensure that the
X ck
f (s) = c0 + (3) fitted function is stable and passive.
s − ak Most practical applications involve one or more three-phase
k=1
busses. In such multi-port cases, the same modeling procedure
As measured or calculated values of f (jωp ) are known
is applicable as vector fitting can be applied to several elements
at an arbitrarily large number of frequency points, (3) (or
simultaneously. In practice, one stacks the elements of Y
equivalently, (2)) can be expressed as an overdetermined
into a single vector and subjects it to vector fitting which
fitting problem in the 2n + 1 variables a1 ,a2 · · · aN , and c0 ,
produces a rational model with a common pole set, which
c1 ,c2 · · · cn . However, this is a nonlinear problem that cannot
after rearrangement of fitting parameters gives the pole-residue
be solved by well known linear regression methods.
model (7). A symmetrical model is obtained by fitting only the
Early work reported in literature used frequency domain
upper (or lower) triangle of Y .
computed data to fit parameters to the model in (2) [1].
References [2], [3] overcome ill-conditioning problems of N
X Rk
FDNE, by dividing the frequency response into sections. Y = + R0 (7)
Other techniques like column scaling, adaptive weighting, and s − ak
k=1
iterations step adjustment are also utilized in these references. 1) Example on High-Frequency FDNE: Modeling:This ex-
A time domain approach to obtain the fitted function (3) ample taken from reference [8] demonstrates how to calculate
using Prony Analysis is presented in [4]. Time domain ap- a high-frequency FDNE (HFDNE) for the distribution sys-
proaches have also been applied to identify the external system tem in Fig. 1 with respect to the two three-phase buses A
as a digital filter in [5], [6]. In [7], [10], and [11], the external and B. The admittance matrix with respect to these buses
system is modelled using lumped parameters. is established via the nodal admittance matrix where each
Recently a more powerful vector fitting technique has been branch (line/cable) is represented by its exact PI-equivalent in
employed [12]–[14], [19], [20]. Vector Fitting converts the phase domain co-ordinates. Using Vector Fitting and passivity
problem in (2) into a linear problem as described below. An enforcement, a rational model is obtained in the frequency
unknown rational function of the form (4) is introduced with range 10 Hz 100 kHz, see Fig. 2 . The model has 60 pole-
an initial pole set d1 , d2 · · · dN : residue terms.

σ(s) = 1 +
N
X bk
(4)  
B   2.0  
 
s − dk

   
k=1

 
1.000
The function σ(s) with yet to be determined residues bk ,

       
1.045
A 0.112

 
is required to satisfy the condition (5) where the right side has
0.250
the same poles as σ(s). Since the poles in (5) are known, the 0.700 0.600
2.0

              
equation is linear in its unknown residues and can therefore 0.420 0.550
be solved as an overdetermined linear problem in the least- 0.667
   
0.389 0.991 1.331 0.914 0.110 0.462
squares sense. 0.195
0.555 0.700

f (s)σ(s) = e0 +
N
X ek
s − dk
(5)     Overhead line
Underground cable
k=1

An improved pole set for the approximation of f (s) is Fig. 1. Topology of the distribution test system (lengths in km)
calculated as the zeros of σ, which are obtained by solving
an eigenvalue problem (6) [12]. In (6), A is a diagonal matrix
Time Domain Simulation: The model is included in the
holding the initial poles {dk }, b is a column vector of ones,
PSCAD/EMTDC circuit simulator via a user-defined compo-
and cT is a row vector holding the residues {bk }.
nent. In a time domain simulation, bus A is energized from a
three-phase voltage source with bus B being open. At t=20 ms,
am = eig(A − bcT ) (6)
a ground fault occurs at A3, see Fig. 3. The voltage response at
This procedure is applied in an iterative manner where (5)(6) B3 is simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC in two alternative ways:
are solved repeatedly with the new poles replacing the previous 1) Using HFDNE
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Fig. 2. Rational fitting of Y (6?6) (depicted from [8] ) Fig. 4. Transient voltage on B3 (depicted from [8]). FDTF stands for Fre-
quency Dependent Transfer Function model and FDTE stands for Frequency
Dependent Terminal Equivalent.

2) Standard simulation with all lines/cables explicitly rep-

resented by the Universal Line Model [9] .
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 show the voltage response on B3 with the
two alternative simulation procedures. The response by the two
approaches are seen to match very closely. The computation
time by the HFDNE can be made much smaller than that by
the full model [8]. With the full model, the time step must
be kept smaller than 0.2 µs due to the presence of small stub
lines, since the traveling wave method requires the time step to
be smaller than the time delay of all lines. With the HFDNE,
however, a larger time step is permissible. This is seen to give
large savings in computation time.

 
Fig. 5. Transient voltage on B3 (expanded view) (depicted from [8]) ,FDTF
stands for Frequency Dependent Transfer Function model and FDTE stands
for Frequency Dependent Terminal Equivalent.

equivalent circuit used to represent the transformers TR 1-4,

consisting of the ∆−Y ideal transformer and the L1 −R2 −L2
circuit block. This circuit block represents the frequency
dependence of the leakage impedances of the transformers.
The loads LD 1-6 are modeled by the simple R − L circuit in
Fig. 7(c). As in Fig. 7(d), the capacitor bank consists of the

 Fig. 3.
delta-connected capacitors and the step-down transformer. The
Energization and ground fault initiation (depicted from [8]) step-down transformer is represented in the same way as TR 1-
4, and the stray capacitance to the ground is considered by the
Partitioning the Frequency Response: This example was 1-nF capacitances. Refer to [2] for details of the transmission
taken from [2] to demonstrate the effectiveness of partitioning line model.
the frequency response. The test system shown in Fig 6 is a The admittance matrix Y(s) of the test network’s external
3-phase, 500-kV transmission network. Figure 7(a) shows the zone is calculated at equidistant 2000 frequency points be-
equivalent circuit for the generators G 1-4. The electromotive tween 0 Hz and 10 kHz. The trace of Y(s) is then calculated
forces (emf) are represented by the three-phase sinusoidal and partitioned into ten frequency sections as shown in Fig. 8
voltage source E, and the subtransient impedance by the Each partition of the trace is fitted by the rational fitting
circuit block consisting of L1 , R2 , and L2 . Figure 7(b) is the method described in [2]. Fig. 9 shows the fitted result, where
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R2
only some elements of the admittance matrix are shown, but L1
the other elements are also fitted with the same degree of L2 E (15 kV base)
accuracy. The responses have many resonance peaks mainly
G1 1.14 ∠ 37.6°
due to the transmission lines, and all of those peaks are fitted
accurately. G2 1.10 ∠ 12.4°

LD 1 G3 1.10 ∠ 10.4°
G1
G4 1.45 ∠ 24.5°
TL 1
capacitor TR 1
bank
For all generators,
E
L1 = 7.96 µH, R1 = 0.0262 Ω, and L2 = 18.1 µH.
TL 5 (a)

15 kV : 500 kV
LD 5 LD 2 TR 2 L1 R2 L2
[mH] [Ω] [mH]
G2
TR1 10.0 2.75 0.587
TL 2

TR2 14.5 3.97 0.847

R2
L1 TR3 14.5 3.97 0.847
TL 7 TL 6
L2 TR4 4.89 1.34 0.286

(b)
LD 6 LD 3

Bus A G3
R [Ω] L [mH]
TL 3
TR 3
CB 1 LD1 58.0 57.4
R LD2 86.6 86.6
TL 4 external zone
LD3 85.1 89.4
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
L
LD4 14.8 6.71
CB 2 study zone
LD5 130 3.45
Bus B LD 4

TR 4 LD6 129 3.41

G4 (c)

500 kV : 20 kV
Fig. 6. 500 kV Test Network

The switching transient due to closing the CB 1 at 7.09 ms

is shown in Fig. 10. It compares the calculated voltages at
CB 2 obtained by the full system representation and by the 0.160 mH 1 nF
identified equivalent, where these results are practically the 1.72 Ω 2650 µF
same. 6.27 mH

C. Two-Layer Network Equivalent (TLNE) 0.367 mH

In large systems, the complexities of external system result (d)
in high-order rational function (matrix), which requires exces-
sive computations in transient simulations. This is not only an Fig. 7. Representations of the network components: (a) generator representa-
tion, (b) transformer representation, (c) load representation, and (d) capacitor
obstacle in off-line simulation, but also the main bottleneck bank representation
in achieving real-time simulation of realistic size power sys-
tems. The TLNE [22]–[24] in which the external system is
further partitioned (Fig. 11) into a surface-layer comprising of
low order frequency-dependent transmission lines and a deep in study zone do not travel very far in external systems,
region composed of low-order FDNE model, overcomes this the deep region mainly contributes to the lower frequency
obstacle. The contribution of surface layer and deep region on range, while the high-frequency characteristics of the external
the external system input admittance varies with frequency. system are predominantly determined by the surface layer
In particular, both surface layer and deep region have effects transmission lines immediately connected to the study zone.
on the admittance at low frequency. However, since transients Both the surface layer and deep region parameters can be
 123

101
magnitude [S]
100

10-1

10-2
0 2 4 6 8 10
frequency [kHz]

Fig. 8. Frequency response (magnitude) of the trace of the test network’s

admittance matrix and its partitioning. The response is partitioned into ten
frequency sections and the boundaries are marked as by the ’+’ symbols.

!
Fig. 10. Switching transient simulation results by (a) the full system
representation and (b) the identified equivalent. (Solid line: phase a, dashed
line: phase b, and dahs-dot line: phase c)

zone. The frequency domain model of the external system

! is obtained by performing Fourier Transform over the time
domain data collected over a period of 2τ , where τ is the
wave travel delay in the transmission line.
The passivity criterion has a strong impact on the stability of
time-domain simulations; an electric network with passivity vi-
olations will result in unstable and erroneous simulations. For
a network represented by the nodal equation 1, the passivity
criterion requires that the real part of the input admittance
Y be positive at all frequencies for a single-port network, or
all eigenvalues of the real part of the input admittance matrix
Y be positive in the entire frequency range for a multi-port
network.
In the TLNE method the approximations of Surface
Layer admittance Ysurf ace (ω) and Deep Region admittance
Ydeep (ω) are obtained from low-order vector fitting [32]. Then
! the input admittance Yinput (ω) of external system is obtained
Fig. 9. Fitted result for some elements of the admittance matrix: (a) (1,1) by combining Ysurf ace (ω) and Ydeep (ω) as shown in Fig. 12.
element, and (b) (1,2) element. The given responses are shown by the solid
lines. The fitted responses are superimposed with the dashed lines and the In the Robust TLNE, genetic algorithms are used to find
difference from the solid lines cannot be observed. out the best low-order Deep Region Ydeep (ω) approximation
which can minimize the deviation of external system input
admittance Yinput (ω) approximation. Further improvement is
further optimized in terms of their accuracy and efficiency in achieved by constrained nonlinear least-square optimization
order to achieve a Robust TLNE [24] for real-time simulation. with the inclusion of frequency response at DC and the optimal
An application of the Robust TLNE for real-time transient Deep Region order determination feature.
simulation of large-scale systems on a PC-cluster based real-
time simulator is shown in [31]. The concept similar to this has 1) Surface Layer: The Surface Layer consists of reduced-
been applied in [30] where the time delay in a transmission order frequency-dependent transmission line models. In
line which connects the external system and the study zone the Robust TLNE model, Marti’s frequency-dependent line
is used to perform the necessary calculations to interface the model [33] is employed for real-time implementation. It is
frequency domain model of the external system to the study based on the well-known line model equations in frequency-
 124

External system from the Study Zone by the Surface Layer. Thus, the order of
Study Zone Deep Region can be significantly reduced.
The first approximation of external system input admittance
0
Ỹinput (ω) is the initial mathematical combination of admit-
Frequency-Dependent
Network Equivalent tance matrix Ỹsurf ace (ω) of the Surface Layer constituting
(FDNE) reduced-order line models and Ỹdeep (ω) of the Deep Region
comprising low-order FDNE:
0 0 0
Ỹinput (ω) = ỸAA (ω) − ỸAB (ω) ∗
Study Zone Surface Layer Deep Region
0
[ỸBB 0
(ω) + Ỹdeep (ω)]−1 ỸBA
0
(ω) (10)
where the superscript 0 denotes “first” since the subsequent op-
Trans. Line 0 0 0
timizations are to be carried out; ỸAA (ω), ỸAB (ω), ỸBA (ω),
0
and ỸBB (ω) corresponds to the blocks of the first approx-
Trans. Line Low-order FDNE 0
imation of Surface Layer admittance Ỹsurf ace (ω) in (9).
(Reduced-order) The ultimate goal of building the Robust TLNE is to match
Ỹinput (ω) with the original external system input admittance
Yinput (ω) as close as possible while ensuring stability and
Fig. 11. Two-layer network equivalent (TLNE) concept [24] passivity of the model, and accurate frequency response at
DC and power frequency.
Since genetic algorithms try to find out the best low-
0
order Deep Region Ỹdeep (ω) that minimizes the difference
0 0
between Ỹinput (ω) and Yinput (ω) while ensuring Ỹdeep (ω)
is positive-real, the objective function for a m-port external
system is defined as follows:
2
0
fobj = Yinput (ω) − Ỹinput (ω) + µ

F
Xm  2 (11)
0
= Yinput,ij (ω) − Ỹinput,ij (ω) + µ
 
i,j=1
Fig. 12. Admittance matrix construction for the TLNE external system [24]
where Yij (ω) is the ijth element of the matrix Y(ω); µ
denotes a penalty term when the passivity criterion violation
domain: occurs in the Deep Region. If the criterion is violated, µ will
be a large positive number, or else µ = 0. This ensures that
Vk (ω) = cosh[γ(ω)`]Vm (ω) − Zc (ω) sinh[γ(ω)`]Im (ω) the outputs from genetic algorithms are the best fitted Deep
(8a) Regions, which are both stable and positive-real.
1 The complete flowchart of the Robust TLNE procedure is
Ik (ω) = sinh[γ(ω)`]Vm (ω) − cosh[γ(ω)`]Im (ω) given in [24]. This method was employed to derive an accurate
Zc (ω)
(8b) frequency-dependent network equivalent of the 240kV back-
bone network of the Alberta Interconnected Electric System
where Vk (ω), Vm (ω), Ik (ω) and Im (ω) are the voltages and (AIES), and used in real-time transient simulations which
currents corresponding to the sending-end (k) and receiving- were validated using off-line simulations with full system
end (m), respectively; ` is the line length; Zc (ω) and γ(ω) are representation.
the frequency-dependent characteristic impedance and propa-
gation function respectively. D. Modified Two-Layer Network Equivalent (M-TLNE)
From individual lines which have the nodal equations (8a) The modified TLNE (M-TLNE) developed in [25] is an
and (8b), the admittance matrix of the reduced-order Surface effort to further enhance the computational efficiency of the
Layer network can be constructed as follows: TLNE. The M-TLNE focuses on the surface region of the

ỸAA (ω) ỸAB (ω)
 TLNE and significantly reduces its order. The model for the
Ỹsurf ace (ω) = (9) transmission lines in the surface layer is further simplified by
ỸBA (ω) ỸBB (ω)
representing the characteristic impedance as a constant resis-
where subscript A stands for the ports connected to the Study tance rather than by a frequency dependent rational function.
Zone, subscript B stands for the ports connected to the Deep The adverse impact of this simplification, which mainly shows
Region (Fig. 12), and ˜ designates an approximation. up in the frequency response of the equivalent, approximately
2) Deep Region: The fitting of external system by vector within 0-150Hz, is overcome by adding a first-order rational
fitting is stressed on relatively lower frequency range since function to the input port of the M-TLNE. Thus in the M-
high frequency transients do not travel very far in the external TLNE, the surface layer is approximated with a set of low-
system. In the TLNE, the Deep Region is further insulated order transmission lines and a first order rational function
 125

simplified low-order
transmission rational
lines function

Surface Layer Fig. 14. Frequency dependent transmission line model

first-order low frequency region, i.e. 0 to 150 Hz. In the M-TLNE, this
rational deviation is effectively compensated by a first-order rational
function function connected at the input port of the transmission line
model. Thus, in the time domain model of the proposed
M-TLNE, these RC blocks are discarded and only a fixed
resistance is used to represent Zc at each segment of the line
Fig. 13. Conceptual representation of the M-TLNE
model.
The merits of such a simplification are more pronounced
when a multi-phase multi-port system is considered and the
connected at the interface port of the equivalent, whereas
surface layer has a number of transmission lines. Thus, elim-
the deep region is approximated with a low-order rational
ination of the RC blocks (Fig. 14), significantly reduces the
function. Fig. 13 shows a schematic of the proposed M-TLNE
number of equations required for the time-domain simulation
equivalent.
model and thus noticeably reduces the computation time, par-
Although the schematic of the proposed M-TLNE (Fig. 13)
ticularly when the model is intended for real-time simulation.
appears more complicated than that of the original TLNE, the
transmission line model used in the M-TLNE is significantly The first approximation of the M-TLNE is constructed by
simpler than the one used in the original TLNE. connecting the approximated surface layer and the approx-
imated deep region together. The input admittance of the
A transmission line is characterized by two frequency
first approximation is close to the original input admittance.
dependant functions; a propagation function Hp and a char-
However, the parameters of the equivalent need to be fine
acteristic impedance Zc [26]–[28]. The propagation function
tuned to minimize deviations between the M-TLNE and the
Hp defines the relationship between the reflected wave at one
original network input admittance. The initial approximation
end of the line and the incident wave at the other end
provides a starting point to initiate the optimization process.
The optimization can be achieved based on a least square
Hp = e−γ` , (12)
process, with the objective function
where γ is the propagation constant and ` is the line length. ∼
2
O = Yinput − Y input . (15)

Hp can be decomposed into a delay component, Ho , and a
shaping component, Hsh ,
All the parameters of the equivalent, either in the surface layer
Hp = Ho Hsh , (13) or in the deep region, are subject to optimization.
In comparison with the conventional TLNE, the M-TLNE
where Hsh is extracted from the propagation function through adopts a simpler surface-layer model and thus reduces com-
its multiplication by ej$τ , and approximated by a low-order putation time. This is a salient feature when real-time and
rational function, e.g. using Vector Fitting (VF) [13]. The statistical time-domain simulation studies are of interest. The
shaping function is approximated as a strictly proper rational generalized methodology for developing the M-TLNE along
function. with several case studies of single- and multi-port systems are
The characteristic impedance is approximated as the sum of presented in [25]. [29] presents an implementation methodol-
partial fractions in the form of ogy for the M-TLNE in a FPGA-based real-time power system
n
simulator.
X ri
Zc = Rc + . (14)
s + pi
i=1 E. Other Methods
th th
Usually, a 4 to 6 order rational function is used to model In [35] and [34] the time delay in a transmission line is
the frequency dependence of Zc . used to interface the EMT model of the study-zone with
Fig. 14 shows the transmission line model, including the the Transient Stability Model (low frequency model) of the
frequency dependence of the characteristic impedance [28]. external system.
The frequency dependence of Zc can only be neglected if Different approaches have also been proposed that try to find
the transmission line is open-ended, otherwise it results in a compromise for the dichotomy between time and frequency
deviation in the frequency response [28]. The deviation caused analysis. The concept of dynamic phasors has been applied
by neglecting the frequency dependence of Zc is mainly in the in [36], and [37] to allow the use of a larger time step
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of integration than that used in EMT simulations. Basically, Frequency Equivalents is still relevant when the influence of
dynamic phasors provide a dynamic model for the dominant power electronics devices on low frequency oscillations is
Fourier components of a signal assuming a sliding window of simulated using EMT type simulations.
time. The resulting model is a state space model representation For transient stability simulation the dynamics of the gener-
where the state variables are time variant Fourier components ators and their auxiliary controllers are modelled as nonlinear
of the signal. differential equations. The transients in the network are typi-
cally at high frequency and also highly damped. Therefore, the
F. Numerical Issues voltage and current relationships are modelled using algebraic
equations. This allows the currents and voltages, I and V , to
1) Accuracy Issues: When the terminals of the HFE in- be modelled in rms quantities and the network to be mod-
cludes more than a single three-phase bus, the modeling elled with the admittance matrix, [Y ], calculated at constant
becomes more challenging as error magnification problems frequency. This gives Differential and Algebraic Equations
may arise. When applying a voltage source to one bus, the (DAE) for k th generator (including auxiliary controllers) in
model is required to produce large short-circuit currents with the form given in equations (17) and (18).
a short circuit applied to the other bus, and small currents
if the second bus is open (charging currents). This behavior
Ẋk = f (Xk , Vk , uk ) (17)
is reflected in the admittance matrix Y by large and small
eigenvalues, respectively. Direct fitting of the elements of
Y may easily result in corruption of its small eigenvalues, Ik = g(Xk , Vk ) (18)
which may lead to error magnification with certain terminal
conditions [21]. Some approaches such as modal vector fitting and the network equations in the form of nodal equations
[21] overcome this problem by assigning high weights to the (1).
small eigenvalues of Y in the least-squares fitting process. The main interest in low frequency equivalents is to model
2) Passivity: One major difficulty with rational function- the electromechanical oscillation modes which are typically
based models is unstable simulation results due to passivity vi- in the range of 0-2 Hz. These oscillations are relatively less
olations. Loss of passivity implies that the model can generate damped. The purpose of equivalencing is to reduce the com-
power under certain terminal conditions. A model is passive puting time. This can be achieved by reducing the number of
iff its nodal admittance matrix satisfies the passivity criterion generators and the network nodes. Alternatively, the dimension
[15]. of the problem can be reduced by extracting only the relevant
modes of oscillation from the dynamic model.
eig(Y + Y H ) > 0 (16) There are three main approaches reported in literature:
1) Modal methods where the external system is represented
The passivity of the model can be checked by assessing the by an approximate linear model.
eigenvalues in (16) over a set of discrete frequency samples. In 2) Coherency methods where coherent groups of generators
the case of rational models, the boundary frequencies of pas- are identified and the generators in coherent groups are
sivity violations can be checked by assessing the eigenvalues represented by an equivalent generator.
of a Hamiltonian matrix that is established directly from the 3) Measurement or simulation based methods where the
models’ state-space matrices [16]. In the case of symmetrical external system response is either measured or simulated
models, half-size matrices can be applied. The passivity can and curve fitting techniques are used to determine the
then be enforced by perturbing parameters of the model. Most model parameters.
commonly, this is done by perturbing the residues [17]–[19].
Some methods are combinations of the above three.
3) Transmission Line Delay-Effects: In many applications
the FDNE contains long transmission lines. The representation
of time delays in the FDNE may require to use an excessively B. Modal Methods
high order with a pure rational model if the fitting has to Modal methods are based on the linearized state space
done over a wide frequency band. In such cases, the two- model, (19), derived from equations (17), (18), and (1).
layer FDNE is particularly useful since it can greatly reduce
the required order of the inner layer. ˙ = [A][X] + [B][u]
[X] (19)
Eigenvalues of the system matrix [A] give the modes of the
III. L OW F REQUENCY E QUIVALENTS
dynamic system. The complex conjugate eigenvalues give os-
A. Introduction cillatory modes, and the real eigenvalues give non-oscillatory
These models are used in simulating transient rotor angle modes.
stability of synchronous machines (transient stability simula- When a system undergoes a transient subsequent to a
tion). Most of the research efforts in this area have been in disturbance, the oscillation modes with high damping decay
1970s and 1980s when the computing power was dramatically faster than the modes with lower damping. Modal methods
less than today. The current industry practice is to simulate try to extract the relatively less damped modes (represented
the full model due to the availability of fast computers. In by eigenvalues of [A] which are closer to the origin) and
spite of the availability of fast computers, the need for Low remove the highly damped modes (represented by eigenvalues
 127

of [A] which are farthest away from the origin). The relatively
less damped modes are present in the responses over a longer
period and hence determine the overall response [38]–[42].
Modal methods have also been used to supplement the
coherency methods where coherent groups are identified using
modal methods [43]. A special class of modal methods is
the structure preserving techniques where the zero entries of
the device matrices are still retained as zero entries in the
equivalent system matrix [44], [45].

C. Coherency Methods
In coherency methods [46]–[49], coherent groupings of
machines are obtained by analyzing the system response to
a perturbation. An equivalent of the external system is then
obtained by replacing each such coherent group of machines Fig. 15. New England 39 Bus System: shaded area is the study zone (internal
by a large equivalent machine. Unlike the Modal method this system) and the remaining network is the external system
approach retains the physical models of the generators in an
equivalent form. The equivalent generator models are non-  
linear. Coherency methods involve the following steps:
1) Identification of the groups of coherent generators.
2) Aggregation of the generator busses.
3) Aggregation of generator models and their associated
control devices. [45], [46], [50]
4) Reduction of load busses.
An application of coherency based dynamic reduction to
a large power system using DYNRED program developed by
EPRI [51] is reported in [52]. In [53] Coherency identification
is done using the eigenvectors of the system matrix [A] in
(19). The method is based on identification of slow eigen
basis matrix corresponding to the electromechanical model of
the power system (i.e. only the swing equations are modelled
Fig. 16. Partitioning of system matrix [A] to compute the coupling factor
in (19)). The r number of most linearly independent rows
of the eigen basis matrix become the corresponding reference
generators. A grouping algorithm is then applied to group non-
can be extended to more than two subsystems using a coupling
reference generators to reference generators. Finally an eigen-
factor defined as explained below.
vector method is used to include load busses into coherent
areas. This approach is referred to as Two Time Scale method Assume an arbitrary system divided into two subsystems
because it is based on the separation of system dynamics to such that the first subsystem consists of 2n1 states of n1
fast and slow modes. A combination of a modal and coherency machines and the second subsystem contains states of the
methods is presented in [54] and [55]. In [55] weak couplings remaining machines. The coupling factor is then defined as the
that exist in the system matrix [A] is used to identify weak sum of the absolute values of the elements of the sub-matrix
coupling between machines. This method is referred to as the [A] appearing in the shaded area of Fig. 16, divided by the sum
Weak Link Method. The application of the Two Time Scale of the absolute values of the elements of the sub-matrix in the
method and Weak Link Method are illustrated below using non-shaded area. The coupling factor computes the relative
the New England 39 bus system. The power system is divided smallness of the off-diagonal terms (shaded) in comparison
into external and internal subsystems as shown in Fig. 15 with the diagonal terms (non-shaded). The coupling factor S
is expressed as:
1) Weak Link Method: This example is taken from [44]. SN U M
Consider the state space representation given in (20) where S= (21)
SDEN
X1 and X2 are state vectors.
    
Ẋ1 A11 A12 X1 n n1 n1 n
= (20) X X X X
Ẋ2 A21 A22 X2 SN U M = kAij k + kAij k (22)
j=n1 +1 i=1 j=1 i=n1 +1
A small value of  gives rise to two weakly coupled
subsystems. The idea of the Weak Link method is to divide the n X
X n
state vectors into subsystems such that  is small. The equation ST OT = kAij k (23)
(20) is applicable to two weakly coupled subsystems. This idea j=1 i=1
 128

 
  Fig. 18. Coherent Areas of the NE 39 bus system. The generators groups
Fig. 17. Rate of change of Coupling Factor for the six areas are (2,3), (4,5), (6,7), (9), (8,1), (10).

2) Two Time Scale method: This example is taken from

SDEN = ST OT − SN U M (24) [53]. Consider the differential and algebraic equation repre-
sentation in (25).
The synchronous machines in the system state matrix are
reordered to reflect their strength of coupling with other
M δ̈ = f (δ, V )
machines. First the coupling between each machine and the
rest of the system is calculated. The synchronous machine 0 = g(δ, V ) (25)
that has the weakest coupling with the rest of the system The linearized form of (25) is given in (26) and the system
becomes the first machine of the ordered array of synchronous matrix [A] can be written as (27).
machines. The next step is to find the synchronous machine
    
to be placed in the second position of the ordered array. To ∆δ̈ JA JB ∆δ
do this, all the two machine subsystems consisting of the = (26)
0 JC JD ∆V
first machine in the ordered array and each of the remaining
machines are formed. Then, the two machine subsystem that −1
A = JA − JB JD JC (27)
has the weakest coupling to the rest of the system is identified.
That synchronous machine, which has not been already placed Using the system matrix [A], the grouping is done according
in the ordered array, is now placed into the second position of to the following algorithm:
the ordered array. This form of ordering of the synchronous 1) Choose the number of areas r.
machines goes on until all the generators are ordered. 2) Compute the eigenvector matrix U of r smallest eigen-
Let S(R) be the coupling factor when the Rth synchronous values.
machine is included into the coherent group, ∆S(R) be the 3) Apply Gaussian elimination with complete pivoting on
slope of S(R), and ∆2 S(R) be the rate of change of ∆S(R). U to obtain r reference machines.
Then the coherent groups are identifed by applying the 4) Order the first r rows of U (Called U1 ) according to the
following rules: order found in Step 3 and solve for L in U1T LT = U2T ,
A negative rate of change in the slope following a positive where U2 is r + 1 to n rows of U .
rate of change in the slope marks the beginning of a strongly 5) Use the L matrix to assign other machines to the
coherent group of synchronous machines. The next positive coherent areas according to the largest entry in each row
∆2 S marks the last synchronous machine of the group. Single of L.
machine groups are identified by a positive ∆2 S that does not When this algorithm is applied to the New England 39 bus
mark the end of a strongly coherent group. The rate of change system with r = 6, the six reference busses are identified as
in slope of the first machine of the ordered array is not clearly busses 9,5,7,10,1, and 3. The resulting L matrix is given in
defined by this method. If the ∆2 S of the second machine is Table (I).
negative, then the first machine may be taken as part of the The non-reference generators are grouped into reference
first group. If the ∆2 S of the second machine is positive, then generators by tracing the largest entry (shown in boldface)
the first and second machines are single groups. in each row. According to this, Bus 6 is grouped with Bus 7,
Fig. 17 shows the rate of change of coupling factors Bus 8 is grouped with Bus 1, Bus 2 is grouped with Bus 3, and
obtained for the New England 39 bus system. According to Bus 4 is grouped with Bus 5. Note that this coherent grouping
this, the 10 machines fall into 6 coherent groups (2, 3), (4,5) is identical to that obtained with the Weak Link method shown
(6,7), (9), (8, 1), (10). This grouping is shown in Fig. 18. in Fig. 18.
 129

TABLE I
L M ATRIX FOR N EW E NGLAND 39 B US SYSTEM WITH R =6 V. C ONCLUSIONS

#9 #5 #7 # 10 #1 #3 A brief review of techniques available for obtaining Dy-

0.022 0.111 0.702 -0.007 0.093 0.079 # 6 namic System Equivalents has been presented in this paper.
0.019 0.015 0.022 -0.014 0.854 0.013 # 8
0.007 -0.011 -0.016 0.182 -0.117 0.955 # 2 The need for equivalent models has been driven by the demand
0.023 0.681 0.150 -0.013 0.083 0.076 # 4 for fast and accurate simulation tools. For EMT simulations,
large networks need to be modelled using equivalent network
models that accurately represent the high frequency response
D. Measurement or Simulation based Methods of the original network. The generators are represented by
Measurement or simulation based techniques use either voltage sources in these studies. For Transient Stability simula-
real time measurements or simulated responses of the power tions, the high frequency response is not important. The system
system. System identification techniques are used to identify reduction is achieved by grouping the generators together
the parameters of an equivalent model [56]–[59]. and eliminating the load busses to reduce the size of the
In [56], parameter identification is carried out using a network. The transmission network is modelled as constant
least-squares algorithm with an adaptive step-size scheme. To impedances calculated at the power frequency. Wide-band
start with, an equivalent model is firstly estimated. It is re- models that accurately model the High Frequency as well as
evaluated against the original system until the cost function Low Frequency response is required in some applications of
has reached the minimum and all equivalent parameters have real time simulation.
been identified. Similar principle is suggested in [57] and [58].
The main attempt here is to search for the best parameter
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 131

Calculation of Power System Overvoltages

Juan A. Martinez-Velasco (*)

usually associated with high voltage disconnect switch

Abstract—This chapter presents the application of digital operation in GIS, and with cable connected motors.
time-domain simulation methods to the calculation of power Standards also include continuous power frequency
system overvoltages. The simulation of overvoltages may require voltages, which are originated with the system under normal
a representation of network components valid for a frequency
operating conditions [1], [2]. For systems whose maximum
range that varies from DC to several MHz. An acceptable
representation of each component throughout this frequency voltage exceeds that given in the standards, the actual
range is very difficult, and for most components is not practically maximum system operating voltage should be used.
possible. Modeling of power components taking into account the A short description of the main causes and methods for
frequency-dependence of parameters can be currently achieved limitation of overvoltages is presented is the following section
through mathematical models which are accurate enough for a [1], [2]. Sections III through VI are dedicated to illustrate the
specific range of frequencies. The chapter presents the classes of
overvoltages that can arise in power systems, describes the
calculation of typical overvoltages. Each section provides the
physical phenomena that cause the most important overvoltages, modeling guidelines to be used with any class of overvoltage,
identifies those components that must be accounted for analyzig a description of the phenomena that cause overvoltages and
each type of overvoltage, provides guidelines for representing some illustrative cases. Due to space limitations only some of
power systems when calculating overvoltages, and includes some the main causes are analyzed. For more details readers are
illustrative case studies of each overvoltage class. referred to the specialized literature on overvoltage calculation
and insulation coordination studies [3]-[5].
Index Terms—Modeling, Simulation, Temporary Overvol-
tages, Ferroresonance, Slow-Front Overvoltages, Switching
Overvoltages, Fast-Front Overvoltages, Lightning Overvoltages, II. POWER SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES
Very Fast-Front Overvoltages.
Temporary Overvoltages
I. INTRODUCTION The representative temporary overvoltage is characterized

A N overvoltage is a voltage, between one phase and

ground or between two phases, having a crest value
exceeding the corresponding crest of the maximum system
by a standard short duration (1 min) power-frequency
waveshape. The causes that lead to temporary ovevoltages are
many; the most frequent are summarized below.
voltage. Standards distinguish several classes and shapes of Fault overvoltages: Phase-to-ground faults produce power
different types of overvoltages [1], [2]: frequency, phase-to-ground overvoltages on the unfaulted
1) Temporary overvoltages: They are undamped or weakly phases. The overvoltage magnitude depends on the system
damped oscillatory phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase grounding and on the fault location. In effectively grounded
overvoltages of relatively long duration (seconds, even systems, the temporary overvoltage is about 1.3 p.u. and the
minutes). Temporary overvoltages are originated by faults, duration of the overvoltage, including fault clearing, is
load rejection, resonance and ferroresonance conditions, or generally less than 1 s. In resonant grounded systems the
by a combination of these factors. temporary overvoltage is about 1.73 p.u. or greater and, with
2) Slow-front overvoltages: They are unidirectional or fault clearing, the duration is generally less than 10 s.
oscillatory overvoltages, with a slow front, highly damped, Depending on the system configuration, separated portions of
short-duration. These overvoltages are caused by switching the system may become ungrounded during fault clearing, and
operations, fault initiation, or remote lightning strokes. high overvoltages can be produced in the separated part.
3) Fast-front overvoltages: Transient overvoltages whose fast Load rejection overvoltages: Overvoltages caused by load
front shape is caused primarily by lightning strikes, rejection are a function of the rejected load, the system
although they can also be caused by some switching topology after disconnection, and the characteristics of the
operations or fault initiation. sources (e.g., speed and voltage regulators of generators). In a
4) Very fast-front overvoltages: In general, they are the result symmetrical three-phase power system the same relative
of switching operations or faults. These overvoltages are overvoltages occur phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase. The
longitudinal temporary overvoltages depend on whether phase
opposition is possible; such phase opposition can occur when
the voltages on each side of the open switching device are not
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco is with the Departament d’Enginyeria
synchronized. A distinction should be made between various
Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.
(*) Some parts of this chapter (where indicated) are based on references system configurations when large loads are rejected. A system
[7], [42], [91] and [137]. Credit should be also given to contributors of those with relatively short lines and high short circuit power at
references.
 132

terminal stations will have low overvoltages. A system with controlled closing of the breaker, or (c) surge arresters.
long lines and low short circuit power at generating sites will Preinsertion resistors and controlled closings reduce the
have high overvoltages. overvoltage along the entire line. Surge arresters only reduce
Resonance and ferroresonance overvoltages: Temporary the overvoltages close to the arresters. Within a substation,
overvoltages may arise from the interaction of capacitive arrester separation effects may be neglected; i.e., the switching
elements (lines, cables, series capacitors) and inductive impulse voltage is approximately the same throughout the
elements (transformers, shunt reactors). The resonant substation, and the arrester provides protection to all
overvoltage is initiated by a sudden change in the system connected equipment. Surge arresters are usually installed
configuration (e.g., load rejection, single-phase switching of a phase-to-ground.
transformer terminated line, isolation of a bus potential Fault overvoltages: Slow-front overvoltages can be
transformer through breaker capacitance). Resonant and produced during phase-to-ground fault initiation and clearing.
ferroresonant overvoltages can have magnitudes greater than These overvoltages are only between phase-to-ground. If the
3.0 p.u. and last until the condition is cleared. switching overvoltages for energizing and reclosing are
Other causes of temporary overvoltages are transformer controlled to below 2.0 p.u., fault and fault clearing may
energization, electromagnetic induction, or open conductors. produce higher overvoltages. A conservative estimate may
Temporary overvoltages are used to select surge arresters; assume that the maximum overvoltage during fault clearing is
that is, arresters are selected to withstand these overvoltages, about 2.0 p.u., and the maximum value caused by a fault
which are not limited. Resonant and ferroresonant initiation is about (2k - 1) p.u., where k is the ground fault
overvoltages are an exception and they should not be used for factor in per unit of the peak line-to-ground system voltage.
arrester selection, instead they should be limited by detuning Load rejection overvoltages: Load rejection may increase
the system from the resonant frequency, by changing the longitudinal voltage stresses across switching devices, the
system configuration, or by installing damping resistors. phase-to-ground insulator stress and the energy discharged
through the arresters. If the arresters are used to limit
Slow-Front Overvoltages
energization and reclosing overvoltages to below 2 p.u., the
They are generally caused by switching operations (line and energy dissipation in the arresters should be studied, especially
cable energization, faults and fault clearing, load rejections, when generators, transformers, long transmission lines, or
switching of capacitive or inductive currents). These over- series capacitors are present.
voltages may have times-to-crest from 20-5000 µs and time to Inductive and capacitive currents switching overvoltages:
half value of less than 20000 µs. The representative slow-front The switching of inductive or capacitive currents may produce
overvoltage is characterized by a standard switching impulse, overvoltages. Capacitor bank energizing produces over-
and a peak voltage or a probability distribution of overvoltage voltages at the capacitor location, line terminations,
amplitudes. transformers, remote capacitor banks, and cables. The
Line/cable energization and reclosing overvoltages: A energizing transient at the switched capacitor location should
three-phase energization or reclosing of a line/cable may be less than 2.0 p.u. phase-to-ground and 3.0 p.u. phase-to-
produce switching overvoltages on all three phases. The phase. The phase-to-phase transients at line terminations can
overvoltage generation depends on the circuit breaker, and its be 4.0 p.u. or higher due to traveling wave reflections. The
calculation has to consider trapped charges left on the phases higher phase-to-phase overvoltages are most commonly
in case of high-speed reclosing. In the worst case each associated with energizing ungrounded capacitor banks.
switching operation produces three phase-to-ground and three Restrikes or reignitions during the interruption of capacitive
phase-to-phase overvoltages. Two methods are in use for currents (switching off unloaded lines, cables, or capacitor
characterizing the overvoltage probability distribution banks) can produce extremely high overvoltages. The
function: the case-peak method (each switching operation chopping of inductive current may also produce high
contributes one value to the overvoltage distribution) and the overvoltages due to the transformation of magnetic energy to
phase-peak method (each operation contributes three crest capacitive energy.
values to the probability distribution). The longitudinal
Fast-Front Overvoltages
insulation between non-synchronous systems can be subject to
energization overvoltages of one polarity at one terminal and They are generally produced by lightning discharges,
the crest of the operating voltage of the other polarity at the although switching of nearby equipment may also produce
other terminal; consequently, the longitudinal insulation is fast-front waveshapes. Their time to peak value may vary
exposed to significantly higher overvoltages than the phase-to- between 0.1 and 20 µs.
ground insulation. In synchronized systems, the highest Fast-front lightning overvoltages can be caused by strokes
switching overvoltage and the operating voltage have the same to phase conductors (shielding failure), strokes to line shield
polarity, and the longitudinal insulation is exposed to a lower wires which flash over to phase conductors (backflash), or by
overvoltage than the phase-to-ground insulation. nearby strokes to ground. Induced voltages by nearby strokes
Line/cable switching overvoltages may be limited through are generally below 400 kV and are important only for lower
the use of: (a) preinsertion resistors on the circuit breakers; (b) (distribution) voltage systems. Either cause will generate surge
 133

voltages that impinge on the substation equipment, being those zone, and a discussion about the required input data. IEC TR
surges caused by the backflash more severe than those caused does not cover ferroresonance.
by shielding failures. As these surges travel from the stroke A summary of the guidelines proposed in [9] and other
terminating point to the station, corona decreases both the references (e.g., [10] and [11]), is presented below. See also
front steepness and the crest magnitude. the chapter on Parameter Determination of this tutorial.
Fast-front switching overvoltages: The connection or • The power supply model will depend on the case study.
disconnection of nearby equipment can produce oscillatory It can be represented as an ideal voltage source in series
short duration fast rising surges with similar waveshapes to with a three-phase impedance (specified by its positive-
lightning. The insulation strength for this waveshape is closer and zero-sequence impedances), as a synchronous gene-
to that of the standard lightning impulse than that of the rator, or as a network equivalent whose impedance has
standard switching impulse. Arresters cannot limit these very been fitted in a frequency range typically below 1 kHz. If
steep front surges. However, as their magnitudes usually are a synchronous generator model is required, then it has to
smaller than those caused by lightning, their importance is include saturation, control units and the mechanical part.
restricted to special cases. Their maximum value is appro- • Lines and cables will be represented by a pi-equivalent
ximately 3.0 p.u. with restrike and 2.0 p.u. without restrike. with parameters calculated at power frequency, although
Very Fast-Front Overvoltages in some cases zero-sequence parameters must be fitted in
a frequency range of up 1 kHz. The number of pi-
Very fast-front transients belong to the highest frequency sections required for representing a line/cable will
range of transients in power systems (from 100 kHz up to 50 depend on the length and the frequency range of the
MHz). Their shape is usually unidirectional with time to peak transients to be analyzed. Line transpositions and cable
below 0.1 µs, total duration below 3 ms, and with crossbonding will also affect the number of pi-sections.
superimposed oscillations at frequencies below 100 MHz. • Corona effect is required only when the overvoltage can
Causes that can originate these overvoltages are disconnector exceed the ionization threshold.
operations and faults within gas insulated substations (GIS), • Line towers and insulators are not required. Footing
switching of motors and transformers with short connections impedances of a line may be required in some fault
to the switchgear, and certain lightning conditions. calculations; in such case a low-frequency low-current
model will suffice.
III. TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES • Models for transformers, shunt reactors and capacitor
banks will be usually required. Transformer models
Introduction
should be implemented with caution, mainly in
The most frequent causes of temporary overvoltages are ferroresonant studies. It is important to properly model
faults, load rejection, resonance and ferroresonance. Except the transformer core and its saturation characteristics.
for some types of resonances and for ferroresonance, these Note that a saturable reactance can be a source of
causes lead also to slow-front overvoltages. For instance, a harmonics which may cause resonance problems.
phase-to-ground fault can cause a slow-front overvoltage • Models for loads and power electronic converters can be
during fault initiation and clearing, and a temporary also required. As a rule of thumb a no load condition will
ovevoltage when the during-fault steady-state condition is usually represent the most conservative scenario, since
reached. Therefore, modeling guidelines for these causes load adds damping. However, in some cases a load
might be also those recommended for analysis and simulation model may be required to limit the conditions under
of slow-front (switching) overvoltages. The following which overvoltages can arise. Different approaches for
subsection summarizes the modeling guidelines that can be representing loads were presented in [9]; see also the
applied for calculating temporary overvoltages, except next section of this chapter.
ferroresonance. The rest of the section is dedicated to the • Models of power electronic converters are usually
analysis and simulation of ferroresonance [6], [7]. For an required mainly when the converter can be the source of
introduction to the origin and the mitigation of these harmonics that can cause resonance overvoltages. In such
overvoltages see [8]. cases, including filter models is mandatory.
Modeling Guidelines for Temporary Overvoltages • Substation busbars models are not required since it can
be assumed that the voltage is the same in the whole
Temporary overvoltages arise with frequencies close to the substation. However, some substation equipment and the
power frequency, usually below 1 kHz, so the models required substation ground grid may be required. For instance, the
for their analysis are power-frequency models for which the model of a voltage transformer can be critical in some
frequency dependence of parameters does not have to be ferroresonance studies.
considered. • As mentioned above, temporary overvoltages are used to
A methodology for analysis of temporary overvoltages is select arresters, and the arrester model is not usually
presented in IEC TR 60071-4 [9], which provides guidelines required. However, there are some exceptions for which
for representing components and for determining the study
 134

the arrester model can be important; for instance, in the Rw1 Lw1 Rw2 Lw2
study of ferroresonant overvoltages.
Iex
Ferroresonance [7]
VS Rc Lm
Ferroresonance in power systems can involve large
substation transformers, distribution transformers, or
instrument transformers. The general requirements for
Ideal transformer
ferroresonance are a (applied or induced) source voltage, a
saturable magnetizing inductance of a transformer, a a) Equivalent circuit f a single-phase transformer
capacitance, and little damping. The capacitance can be in the 20
Voltage
form of capacitance of underground cables or transmission 10

lines, capacitor banks, coupling capacitances between double 0

circuit lines or in a temporarily-ungrounded system, and -10
voltage grading capacitors in HV circuit breakers. Other -20
0.2
possibilities are generator surge capacitors and SVC’s in long 0.1 Current
transmission lines. In fact, ferroresonance may also arise due -0.0
solely to transformer winding capacitance. -0.1
System events that may initiate ferroresonance include -0.2
single-phase switching or fusing, or loss of system grounding. 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Time (ms)
Ferroresonance in a Single-Phase Transformer: Fig. 1
shows an illustrative example. A very small excitation current b) Exciting current without series capacitor
flows when rated voltage is applied to an unloaded single- 20
phase transformer. This current consists of two components: 10 Voltage
the magnetizing current and the core loss current. The 0
magnetizing current, which flows through the nonlinear -10
magnetizing inductance Lm, is required to induce a voltage in -20
1.0
the secondary winding of the transformer. The core loss 0.5 Current
current, flowing through Rc, makes up the eddy current losses 0.0
and hysteresis losses in the transformer’s steel core. Although -0.5
usually assumed linear, Rc, is dependent on voltage and -1.0
frequency. The excitation current contains high order odd 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Time (ms)
harmonics, due to transformer core saturation, see Fig. 1b.
Rw1/Rw2 and Lw1/Lw2 are the winding resistances and winding c) Exciting current with series capacitor
leakage inductances, respectively. They are assumed to be Fig. 1. Ferroresonance in an unloaded single-phase transformer with
linear, with magnitudes relatively small compared to Rc and rated voltage applied.
Lm, so they are usually ignored in no-load situations [6], [7].
If a capacitor is placed between the voltage source and the Ferroresonance in Three-Phase Systems: Ferroresonance is
unloaded transformer, ferroresonance may occur, see Fig. 1c. rarely seen provided all three source phases are energized, but
An extremely large exciting current is drawn and the voltage may occur when one or two of the source phases are lost while
induced on the secondary may be much larger than rated. The the transformer is unloaded or lightly loaded. The loss of one
high current here is due to resonance between the series or two phases can happen due to clearing of single-phase
capacitor and Lm. Due to nonlinearity, two other ferroresonant fusing, operation of single-phase reclosers or sectionalizers, or
operating modes are possible, depending on the magnitudes of when energizing or deenergizing using single-phase switching
source voltage and series capacitance. In general, gradual procedures. If one or two poles of the switch are open and if
changes in source voltage or capacitance will cause state either the capacitor bank or the transformer have grounded
transitions. A reversal to conditions that caused a transition neutrals, then a series path through capacitance(s) and
will not reverse the transition, due to nonlinearity of Lm [12]. magnetizing reactance(s) exists and ferroresonance is possible.
Transients can also trigger transition from mode to mode. If both neutrals are grounded or both are ungrounded, then no
Damping added to the circuit will attenuate the series path exists and there is no clear possibility of
ferroresonant voltage and current. Although some damping is ferroresonance. In all of these cases, the voltage source is the
always present in the form of resistive source impedance, applied system voltage.
transformer losses, and even corona losses in high voltage Ferroresonance is possible for any transformer core
systems, most damping is due to the load applied to the configuration. Three-phase core types provide direct magnetic
secondary of the transformer. A lightly-loaded or unloaded coupling between phases, where voltages can be induced in
transformer fed through capacitive source impedance is the the open phase(s) of the transformer.
most frequent scenario for ferroresonance.
 135

Whether ferroresonance occurs depends on the type of the main requirements for initiating ferroresonance.
switching and interrupting devices, type of transformer, the Replacement of all single-phase switching and interrupting
load on the secondary of the transformer, and the length and devices with three-phase devices would eliminate this
type of distribution line. However, due to nonlinearities, problem. An alternate solution would be to replace multi-
increased capacitance does not necessarily mean an increased legged core transformers with single-phase banks or triplex
likelihood of ferroresonance. designs wherever there is a small load factor.
Fig. 2 depicts three examples of ferroresonance occurring in Nonlinear Dynamics Applied to Ferroresonance: Even
a network where single-phase switching is used. A wye- though ferroresonance involves a capacitance and an
connected capacitance is paralleled with an unloaded wye- inductance, there is no definite resonant frequency, and more
connected transformer. The capacitance could be a capacitor than one response is possible for the same set of parameters,
bank or the shunt capacitance of the lines or cables connecting and gradual drifts or transients may cause the response to jump
the transformer the source. Each phase of the transformer is from one steady-state response to another.
represented only by the magnetizing reactance jXm. Ferroresonant circuits can be analyzed as damped nonlinear
systems driven by sinusoidal forcing function(s) [13]. The
A
+ jXm nonlinear behavior of ferroresonance falls into two main
VA C jXm
-
categories. In the first, the response is a distorted periodic
VB C C waveform, containing the fundamental and higher-order odd
-

jXm
-

harmonics of the fundamental frequency. The second type is

+
+

VC
B
characterized by a nonperiodic response. In both cases the
response’s power spectrum contains fundamental and odd
harmonic frequency components. In the nonperiodic response,
C
however, there are also distributed frequency harmonics and
A subharmonics.
+ C jXm
VA “Lower energy modes” occur more typically for very large
- capacitance values and produce periodic voltages. Some of the
VB C C
-

jXm
jXm periodic modes of ferroresonance may contain subharmonics,
-

+
+

VC
B but still have strong power frequency components, and take
longer than one fundamental cycle to repeat [14]. The “higher
energy modes” of ferroresonance involve relatively large
C capacitances and can produce nonperiodic voltages [14].
A
Transitions between periodic and nonperiodic modes occur
+ C jXm due to gradual changes in circuit parameters or to transients.
VA jXm
- Initial conditions determine the mode that operation stabilizes
VB C C
in after the transients die down.
-

jXm
-

Techniques developed for analysis of nonlinear dynamical

+

VC
B
systems and chaos (phase plane projections and Poincaré
sections) can be applied to analyze ferroresonance [13], [15].
C Modeling for Ferroresonance [7]
Fig. 2. Examples of ferroresonance in three-phase systems [6], [7].
Simulation can be used to avoid ferroresonance when
If one of the three switches of Fig. 2 were open, only two designing a system. However, simulation results have a great
phases of the transformer would be energized. If the sensitivity to the model used and errors in nonlinear model
transformer is of the triplex design or is a bank of single-phase parameters. Although much effort has been made on refining
transformers, the open phase is simply deenergized and the equivalent circuit models for transformers and performing
energized phases draw normal exciting current. However, if simulations using transient circuit analysis program such as
the transformer is of the multi-legged core type, a voltage is EMTP and like, determining the model’s nonlinear parameters
induced in the “open” phase. This induced voltage will is probably the biggest modeling difficulty. A different model
“backfeed” the distribution line back the open switch. If the is required and a different means of determining the model
shunt capacitance is significant, ferroresonance may occur. parameters for each type of core.
The ferroresonance that occurs involves the nonlinear magne- The transformer model is probably the most critical part of
tizing reactance of the transformer’s open phase and the shunt any ferroresonance study. Another critical part is the system
capacitance of the distribution line and/or transformer winding zone that must be represented in the model. Both aspects are
capacitance. Single-phase loads connected along this backfeed discussed in the following paragraphs.
phase will continue be supplied with poor power quality. The Study Zone: Parts of the system that must be simulated
The use of single-phase interruption and switching practices are the source impedance, the transmission or distribution
in systems containing multi-legged core transformers is one of line(s)/cable(s), the transformer, and any capacitance not
 136

already included. Source representation is not generally Modern low-loss transformers have comparatively large
critical; unless the source contains nonlinearities, it is interwinding capacitances which can affect the shape of the
sufficient to use the steady-state Thevenin impedance and excitation curve [23]. This can cause significant errors when
open-circuit voltage. Lines and cables may be represented as the above method is being used to obtain core parameters. In
RLC coupled pi-equivalents, cascaded for longer lines/cables. these cases, factory tests must be performed to get the V-I
Shunt or series capacitors may be represented as a standard curve before the coils are placed on the core. A means of
capacitance, paralleled with the appropriate resistance. Stray removing the capacitive component of the exciting current has
capacitance may also be incorporated either at the corners of also been developed [16]. See also the chapter on Parameter
open-circuited delta transformer winding or midway along Determination of this tutorial.
each winding. Other capacitance sources are transformer For three-winding transformers, a star-connected short-
bushings, interwinding capacitances, and busbar capacitances. circuit equivalent may be obtained from binary short-circuit
Single-Phase Transformers: They are typically modeled as tests (shorting two windings at a time while leaving all others
shown in Fig. 1. This model is topologically correct only for open). Although the terminal-to-terminal transfer impedances
the case where the primary and secondary windings are not are always positive, one of the reactances in this mathematical
concentrically wound. Lw2 is essentially zero for concentric representation may be negative. Such short-circuit models do
coils. Errors in leakage representation are not significant, not correctly account for mutual coupling between all
however, unless the core saturates. Obtaining the linear windings and may cause problems in time-domain transient
parameters for this two-winding transformer may be difficult. simulation [24], [25]. Another weakness of this short-circuit
Short circuit tests give total impedance; i.e., (Rw1+Rw2) + representation is that the core equivalent cannot be correctly
j(Xw1+Xw2). A judgment must be made as to how it is divided incorporated (the only place it can be attached is to one of the
between the primary and secondary windings. external transformer terminals). Although a solution to these
Model performance depends mainly on the representation problems has been presented in [26], some difficulties still
of the nonlinear elements Rc and Lm. Rc has traditionally been remain since no standard nonlinear model is available in any
modeled as a linear resistance. Such a core loss model simulation package.
represents the average losses at the level of excitation being Three-Phase Transformer Models: A simplified model is
simulated, and may yield reasonable results. Since eddy possible for triplex core configuration by connecting together
current losses and hysteresis losses are nonlinear, the three of the above single-phase models. However, including
calculation of the loss resistance Rc gives a different value for the zero-sequence effects for three-phase single-core
each level of excitation. Using the value of Rc closest to rated transformers is not obvious, and some of the proposed
voltage may be a good enough estimate. Past research has approaches are questionable.
shown low sensitivities to fairly large changes in Rc for single- A complete transformer representation can be obtained by
phase transformers, but a high sensitivity for three-phase cores using a coupled inductance matrix (to model the winding
[16]. Lm is typically represented as a piecewise linear λ-i characteristics) [27], to which the core equivalent is attached.
characteristic or as a hysteric inductance [17], [18], [19]. The The inductance matrix is obtained from standard short circuit
linear value of Lm (below the knee of the curve) does not much tests involving all windings. Problems can arise for RMS short
affect the simulation results [20], although great sensitivities circuit data involving windings on different phases, since the
are seen for the shape of the knee and the final slope in current may be nonsinusoidal. The hybrid model presented in
saturation. [28] and [29] is based on this approach.
Factory test data provided by the transformer manufacturer A method of obtaining topologically correct models is
may be insufficient to obtain the core parameters. It is based on the duality between magnetic and electrical circuits.
important that open circuit tests be performed for voltages as Developed by Cherry [30] and Slemon [31], the method uses
high as the conditions being simulated, otherwise the final λ-i duality transformations, and equivalent circuit derivations
slope of Lm must be guessed. Open circuit tests should be reduce to exercises in topology. This approach results in
therefore made for 0.2 to 1.3 (or higher) p.u. models that include saturation in each individual leg of the
The SATURATION supporting routine, available in some core, interphase magnetic coupling, and leakage effects.
EMTP-type programs [21], is often used to convert the RMS Several topology transformer models based on the principle
V-I open circuit characteristic to the instantaneous λ-i of duality have been presented in the literature [32]-[35], [18],
characteristic of Lm. To successfully use this method, the first [19]. (See also the chapter on Parameter Determination of this
(lowest) level of excitation must result in sinusoidal current, or tutorial). However, since no standard model is available in any
errors will result in the form of an S-shaped λ-i curve. Also, simulation package, tests suggested in the literature cannot be
the V-I characteristic must extend as high as the highest always performed and no standard test have been developed
voltage that will be encountered in the simulation. An for determining the parameters specified in some models [18],
extension on this method has been proposed to obtain a the use of some models is presently very limited.
nonlinear representation of Rc [22], but the resulting flux- Factory excitation test reports will not provide the
linked versus excitation current (IEX) loop does not seem to information needed to get the magnetizing inductances for this
correctly represent the core losses. model. Standards assume the exciting current is the “average”
 137

value of the RMS exciting currents of the three phases, which Observe that the configuration of the system zone to be
is not correct except for triplex cores, since the currents are analyzed is very similar to the system shown in Fig. 2.
not sinusoidal and they are not the same every phase. Therefore the scenarios to be analyzed can be those depicted
Therefore, the waveforms of the applied voltage and exciting in that figure.
currents in all three phase should be given by the manufacturer The models selected for each component (HV network,
for all levels of applied voltage. cable, transformers) have the following features:
a) The HV transmission network is represented as an ideal
Case Study
balanced and constant three-phase voltage source in series
Fig. 3 shows the diagram of the test system. The objective with a three-phase impedance specified by its symmetrical
of the study is to estimate the cable length that can initiate impedances Z1 and Z0.
ferroresonance when one or two poles of a circuit breaker are b) The cable is represented by its pi-equivalent whose
open and the load at the LV side of the distribution parameters are obtained at power frequency.
transformer is very low. As discussed above, the system c) A different approach has been used for representing the
configuration exhibits the prerequisites for ferroresonance: substation and the distribution transformers. In fact, neither
capacitance provided by the insulated cable, saturable the model nor the parameters of the substation transformer
inductance provided the distribution transformer, and little are critical, and it can be represented by using any of the
damping (i.e., unloaded or lightly loaded transformer). standard models implemented in most transients programs
Distribution Distribution (e.g., XFORMER or BCTRAN), or even a simpler model
system transformer without including nonlinearities. The model implemented
for the distribution transformer is that described in
Substation
reference [18] (see also the chapter on Parameter
Transmision
system
Distribution cables Determination of this tutorial).
d) The switch needed to open the phases that can originate
ferroresonance has an ideal behavior.
The scenarios analyzed always consider a lightly loaded
Fig. 3. Ferroresonance study. Diagram of the test system. transformer. In all cases the load was assumed only active and
represented by means of constant resistors.
An important conclusion from the study is that
ρterr = 200 Ω.m
ferroresonance does not originate when the cable length is
0.9 m
shorter than 50 m, but it can appear with lengths above 10 km.
300

250
RMS Voltage (V)

200
0.1 m
150
Fig. 4. Ferroresonance study. Configuration of the distribution cable 100
system.
50
The main parameters of the components that are of concern 0
for a ferroresonance study are detailed below: 0 5 10 15 20
RMS Current (A)
1. HV network: 110 kV, 1500 MVA, X/R = 10, X0/X1 = 1.1.
2. Substation transformer: Triplex core, 110/25 kV, 35 MVA, a) Legs
300
12%, Yd11, grounded through a zig-zag reactance with 75
250
ohms per phase.
RMS Voltage (V)

• No load test (positive sequence, MV side): V0 = 100 %; 200

I0 = 0.296 %; W0 = 18.112 kW. 150

• Short circuit test (positive sequence, HV side): Vsh = 12 100

%; Ish = 83.34 %; Wsh = 348.263 kW. 50

3. Cable: Al RHV, 3 x (1x240 mm2), 18/30 kV (see Fig. 4). 0

0 5 10 15 20
4. Distribution transformer: Three-legged stacked core,
RMS Current (A)
25/0.4 kV, 1 MVA, 6%, Dyn11.
b) Yokes
• Short-circuit test (positive sequence, MV side): Vsh = 6
%; Ish = 100 %; Wsh = 12 kW. Fig. 5. Ferroresonance study. Saturation curves of the distribution
• No load test (homopolar sequence, LV side): Vh = 100 transformer.
%; Ih = 0.5 %; Wh = 1.8 kW.
• Saturation curves are shown in Fig. 5.
 138

100 100

50
50

Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)

0
0
-50

-50
-100

-100 -150
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (ms) Time (ms)

a) Unloaded distribution transformer a) Unloaded distribution transformer

100 100

50
50

Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)

0
0
-50

-50
-100

-100 -150
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (ms) Time (ms)

b) Transformer load: 5 kW b) Transformer load: 5 kW

100 50

50
Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)

0 0

-50

-100 -50
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (ms) Time (ms)

c) Transformer load: 10 kW c) Transformer load: 10 kW

Fig. 6. Ferroresonance study – MV side. One pole open (Cable Fig. 7. Ferroresonance study – MV side. Two poles open (Cable
length = 1 km). length = 1 km).
As for the effect of the number of poles that are open, plots been presented in this section, which has been mostly
of Figs. 6 and 7 show than less damping is required when two dedicated to analyze the phenomenon of ferroresonance.
poles are open to avoid ferroresonance. One can also observe Ferroresonance can lead to heating of transformer, due to
that the pattern of the oscillations is different for any of the high peak currents and high core fluxes. Practical interest was
cases presented in these figures. generated in the 1930’s when it was shown that use of series
The effect of transformer capacitances was not considered capacitors for voltage regulation caused ferroresonance in
in any of the simulations. Although these parameters can have distribution systems resulting in damaging overvoltages.
some influence on the conditions that can originate ferroreso- Although there is a significant experience on ferroresonance
nance, one should not expect large differences with respect to studies [36]-[39], and some validation work has been
the results presented here since the cable capacitances are presented [40], some effort is still required. Present research is
much larger than the transformer capacitances. focused in improving transformer models and studying
Figs. 6 and 7 show some simulation results with a cable ferroresonance at the system level. Theories and experimental
length of 1 km. According to these results the overvoltages at techniques of nonlinear dynamics and chaotic systems can be
the MV side of the distribution transformer can reach values applied to better understand ferroresonance and limitations
higher than 3 p.u. when one or two poles are open. As inherent in modeling a nonlinear system. Future improvements
expected, a lightly load favors ferroresonance, which can be are expected in the areas developing improved transformer
avoided by increasing the damping, in this case the models and applying nonlinear dynamics to the simulation of
transformer load. ferroresonance.
Because of nonlinearities, solution of the ferroresonant
Conclusions
circuit must be obtained using time domain methods; that is,
A summary of modeling guidelines for calculation of computer-based numerical integration method using time-
temporary overvoltages using a digital time-domain tool has domain simulation programs such as the EMTP.
 139

IV. SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES than the integration step ∆t of the simulation [21], [42].
However, cascaded pi-sections can be used without excessive
Introduction loss of accuracy for some studies; e.g., line energization [9],
Switching transients in power systems are caused by the [43]. The number of pi-circuits used depends on the desired
operation of breakers and switches. The switching operations accuracy, and selecting an appropriate number is important.
can be classified into two categories: (i) energization and (ii) The parameters for the pi-section of an overhead line can be
de-energization. The former category includes energization of obtained from positive- and zero-sequence fundamental
lines, cables, transformers, reactors, or capacitor banks. The frequency impedance values that are used in load flow studies.
latter category includes current interruption under faulted or Typical positive and zero-sequence parameters of overhead
unfaulted conditions. lines are presented in Table I.
The results from the study of switching transients are useful Table I - Typical transmission line parameters at 60 Hz
to (a) determine overvoltages stresses on equipment; (b) select (ρ = 100 Ω.m) [41]
arrester characteristics; (c) calculate the transient recovery
voltage across circuit breakers; (d) analyze the effectiveness of Voltage level
transient mitigating devices (e.g., pre-insertion resistors or 230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV
inductors).
Number of circuits 2 1 1 1
The level of detail required in the model varies with the
study. For example, a line may be represented by a pi-section Conductors/phase 1 2 3 4
equivalent in some line energization studies; in other
Ground wires 1 2 2 2
situations, a distributed-parameter model with frequency
dependence may be necessary. In addition, the results are X1 (Ω/km) 0.5000 0.3800 0.3800 0.3400
highly sensitive to the value of certain parameters; for R1 (Ω/km) 0.0520 0.0320 0.0180 0.0170
example, the maximum overvoltage for a line energization
depends on the exact point on the wave at which the switch X0 (Ω/km) 2.5000 1.3000 1.2000 1.0090
contacts close. Thus a number of runs for the same system R0 (Ω/km) 0.4900 0.3410 0.3300 0.3300
have to be made with the time of energization being different
in each run either in a predictable manner (i.e., for determining C1 (µF/km) 0.0088 0.0120 0.0130 0.0130
the peak overvoltage) or statistically (for obtaining an C0 (µF/km) 0.0041 0.0083 0.0075 0.0093
overvoltage probability distribution).
The self and mutual impedances to be used in the pi-
Modeling Guidelines [41]
representation can be deduced using the following
This section presents modeling requirements. A discussion expressions:
of the extent of the system to be modeled and details about
X s = (X 0 + 2 X1 ) X m = (X 0 − X1 )
1 1
equipment models typically used for switching transient 3 3
simulation are presented below. (1)
C s = (C0 + 2C1 ) Cm = (C0 − C1 )
1 1
Lines and Cables: The most efficient and accurate
transmission line models are distributed-parameter models 3 3
based on the traveling time τ and characteristic impedance Zc In many cable studies in which the frequencies span a large
of the line. Lumped-parameter models (pi-circuits) are less bandwidth and the cable parameters significantly vary within
accurate and computationally more expensive, since a number this range, the constant-parameter assumption can be too
of cascaded short-sections are needed to approximate the limiting, so a frequency-dependent parameter model must be
distributed nature of the physical line/cable. used. However for solid dielectric cables, the constant
The frequency dependence of the line parameters may be an parameter model is often adequate. The estimation of the
important consideration, particularly when the ground return maximum allowable pi-sections length and the associated
mode (zero sequence) is involved (e.g., during a line to ground errors are discussed below.
fault). In these cases, a frequency-dependent distributed- Consider a single-phase line/cable with an impedance Z per
parameter line model gives a very accurate representation for a unit length and an admittance Y per unit length. Then the
wide range of frequencies in transient phenomena. The propagation constant γ and the surge impedance Zc are given
parameters for the selected model (with either frequency- by
dependent or constant parameters) are obtained from Z
γ = YZ Zc = (2)
geometrical and physical information (line/cable geometry, Y
conductor and soil resistivities) by using line/cable constants Suppose a lossless behavior, and assume that each pi-
supporting routines, embedded in most EMTP-type programs. section is used to represent a length ∆x. The surge impedance
The use of nominal pi-circuits is usually restricted to the for the pi-section is given by
case of very short lines when the traveling time?τ ?is smaller
 140

 ( γ ⋅ ∆x ) 2  Opening: Transient studies are based on an ideal switch

Z oπ ≈ Z o 1 +  (3) model that opens at a current zero. The dynamic characteristic
 8 
of the arc is usually not important and is not modeled in most
From this expression it is easy to see how small ∆x has to cases, although it can be useful in some cases [51]-[54].
be for any desired matching of the surge impedance. In certain instances where small inductive currents are
Consider now the phase error across the length for any being interrupted, the current in the switch can extinguish
frequency f. If γπ is the phase shift at any frequency across one prior to its natural zero crossing. Severe voltage oscillations
pi-section, then γπn is the phase shift across n sections. It can can result due to this current-chopping that can stress the
be shown that circuit breaker. Modeling of this phenomenon is described in
γ ⋅ l ⋅ ( γ ⋅ ∆x) 2 γ 3l 3 additional detail in the literature [55].
γ πn ≈ γ ⋅ l − = γ ⋅l − (4)
24 24n 2 Statistical Switching: Transient voltage and current
where l is the total length (= ∆x·n). Since the correct phase magnitudes depend upon the instant on the voltage waveform
shift is γl , the error in the phase shift can be found. at which the circuit breaker contacts close electrically. A
Transformers: For switching surge transient studies, a statistical switching case typically consists of 100 or more
lumped parameter coupled-winding model with a sufficient separate simulations, each using a different set of circuit
number of RLC elements that fit the impedance characteristics breaker closing times. Statistical methods can be used to
at the terminal within the frequency range of interest will process the peak overvoltages from each simulation. Circuit
suffice. The nonlinear characteristic of the core should usually breakers can close at any time (angle) on the power frequency
be included, although the frequency characteristic of the core wave. For a single-phase circuit, the set of circuit breaker
is often ignored. This may be an oversimplification as the closing times can be represented as a uniform distribution
eddy current effect prevents the flux from entering the core from 0 to 360 degrees with reference to the power frequency.
steel at high frequencies thereby making the transformer The standard deviation for a uniform distribution over 1 cycle
appear to be air-cored. This effect begins to be significant is 1/2√3f), where f is the frequency of the waveform.
even at frequencies in the order of 3-5 kHz. A three-phase (pole) circuit breaker can be modeled as
For switching surge studies, the following approaches may three single-phase circuit breakers, each with an independent
be used: uniform distribution covering 360 degrees. However, an
• A model developed from the transformer nameplate. alternative (dependent) model can be used if the three poles
Most standard EMTP models fall into this category [21], are mechanically linked and adjusted so that each pole
[27], [44]. attempts to close at the same instant. In reality, there will be a
finite time or pole span between the closing instants of the
• A model synthesized from the measured impedance vs.
three poles. The pole span can be modeled with an additional
frequency response of the transformer, as described in
statistical parameter, typically a normal (Gaussian) distribu-
[45]-[48].
tion. For a mechanically linked three-pole circuit breaker, the
• A very detailed model obtained from the transformer
closing times use both uniform distribution parameters and
geometry and material characteristics. The model is then
Gaussian distribution parameters. All three dependent poles
reduced to one that is usable in the time-domain solution
use the same parameter from the uniform distribution, which
[49], [50].
varies from 0 to 360 degrees. Each pole uses a unique
When possible, validation of the model should be made. A
parameter from the Gaussian distribution. The standard
frequency response obtained by simulation can be compared
deviation of the maximum pole span is typically 17 to 25
within the desired bandwidth with the actual characteristic if
percent of the maximum pole span.
available. Determining the fundamental frequency response in
Statistical cases with pre-insertion resistors or reactors
the form of open and short circuit impedances is a standard
require a second set of three-phase switches. The first set is
check, and should be done for all possible open and short
modeled as described above. The closing times of the second
circuit conditions on the windings. Induced winding voltages
set (which shorts the resistors or reactors) depend upon the
at fundamental frequency are of interest. Comparison with
first set plus a fixed time delay; typically one-half to one cycle
factory tests if available also validates the model. If terminal
for pre-insertion resistors used with circuit breakers, and 7 to
capacitance measurements are available a comparison between
12 cycles (depending on application voltage class) for pre-
measured and computed responses is useful.
insertion reactors used with circuit-switchers closing in air
Switchgear: Switchgear includes circuit breakers and other
through high-speed disconnect blades.
devices that make or break circuits. In switching surge studies,
Pre-Striking: The withstand strength of the contacts
the switch is often modeled as an ideal conductor (zero
decreases as the contacts come closer. When the field stress
impedance) when closed, and an open circuit (infinite
across the contacts exceeds this withstand strength, pre-strike
impedance) when open. Transients packages allow various
occurs. If this is taken into account, the distribution of closing
options to vary the closing time ranging from one-shot
angles is confined to the rising and peak portions of the
deterministic closings to multi-shot statistical or systematic
voltage waveshapes [56]. Some modern devices can control
closings [21].
the closing angle of the poles to close at or near the voltage
 141

zero between the contacts [57]-[59]. Such devices can reduce for most switching transient simulations. The surge arrester
overvoltages and inrush currents. For such devices, the lead lengths and separation effects can also be ignored for
maximum angle in the tolerance of the voltage zero closing such studies [9].
control should be used. Alternatively, a statistical switching Loads: In general, the power system load is represented
method can be applied to the breaker poles over the time span using an equivalent circuit with parallel-connected resistive
around the voltage zero, within the tolerance of the closing and inductive elements. The power factor of the load
time [56]. determines the relative impedance of the resistive and
Faults: Faults are usually modeled as ideal switches in inductive elements. Shunt capacitance is represented with the
series with other elements if necessary. The switch can be resistive and inductive elements of the load if power-factor
closed during the steady state solution or closed at a specific correction capacitors are used. Whenever loads are lumped at
time or voltage. Several runs with variations in the closing a load bus, the effects of lines, cables, and any transformers
instant should be carried out as the point on wave of switching downstream from the load bus need to be considered [9].
can affect the transient. Faults may also be modeled with This is particularly important for the modeling of high-
flashover controlled switches to represent a gap; the switch is frequency transient phenomena. In such cases, an impedance
operated typically, when the gap voltage exceeds a fixed Zs in series with the parallel RLC load equivalent circuit is
value. appropriate as shown in Fig. 8. The series impedance,
More sophisticated models include a volt-time combined with the equivalent source impedance at the load
characteristic. Faults generally involve arcs, which can be bus, is typically in the range of 10 to 20 percent of the load
modeled by various approximations: (i) ideal switch (V = 0, R impedance.
= 0); (ii) constant voltage V or linear resistance R; (iii) Certain types of load may require specific representation of
constant V and series R; (iv) series V and R that vary according some components (e.g., induction motors, adjustable-speed
to some assumed function; (v) V and/or R that vary according drives, fluorescent lighting loads, etc.). The need for such
to some differential equation [60]. The most commonly used detailed representation is determined by the phenomenon
option is the first one since the arc voltage is usually small being investigated.
compared with voltage drops elsewhere (i.e., along the Load bus
transmission line). Arc modeling can be important when
studying secondary arc phenomena, such as single-pole IL
reclosing. Discussion on the modeling of this phenomenon is RS
available in the literature [61]. ZS
Capacitors and Reactors: Capacitor banks are usually
XS
modeled as a single-lumped element. However, some
switching transient simulations require the modeling of
secondary parameters such as series inductance and loss RL XL XC
resistance. The inductance of the buswork is sometimes
important when studying the back-to-back switching of
Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit representation of power system loads for
capacitor banks, or in the study of faults on the capacitance
simulating switching transients.
bus. The damping resistance of this inductance should be
estimated for the natural frequency of oscillations. A load model will be included in the study only when it can
Reactors are usually modeled by a simple lumped inductor add crucial information; otherwise, the load is not considered
with a series resistance. A parallel resistance may be added for and the most conservative results are derived.
realistic high frequency damping. Core saturation Power Supply: As for other components, the power supply
characteristic may also have to be modeled. A parallel model depends on the phenomenon being investigated. In
capacitance across the reactor should be included for reactor some studies, a source modeled as an ideal sine-wave source
opening studies (chopping of small currents). The total in series with its equivalent impedance will suffice. Generators
capacitance includes the bushing capacitance and the are modeled as a voltage behind a (subtransient) Thevenin
equivalent winding to ground capacitance. For series reactors, impedance.
there is a capacitance from the terminal to ground and from Often a network equivalent is used in order to simplify the
terminal to terminal. More sophisticated models may be representation of the portion of the power network not under
developed for determining internal stresses [62]. study. Fig. 9 shows some simple network equivalents [41].
Surge Arresters: Gapless metal oxide surge arresters can The first type a) represents the short circuit impedance
be modeled as a nonlinear resistance. The preferred model is a (Thevenin equivalent) of the connected system. The X/R ratio
true non-linear element which iterates at each time-step to a is selected to represent the damping (the damping angle is
convergent solution and is thus numerically robust [63]-[65]. usually in the range 75º-85º). The second type b) represents
The V-I characteristic should be modeled with 5-10 the surge impedance of connected lines. This equivalent may
(preferably exponential as opposed to linear) segments. be used to reduce connected lines to a simple equivalent surge
Waveshape dependent characteristics are usually not required impedance and where the lines are long enough so that
 142

reflections are not of concern in the system under study. If the for pipe-type cables a frequency-dependent distributed-
connected system consists of a known Thevenin equivalent parameter model is recommended, since eddy current losses in
and additional transmission lines, the two impedances may be the iron pipe can have a considerable effect in switching
combined in parallel as in Fig. 9c. It should be noted however, transients, specially if the frequency content is above 1000 Hz.
that this approach may yield an incorrect steady-state solution Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV): A transient voltage is
if the equivalent impedance of the parallel connected lines is developed across the contacts of a switch when they start to
of comparable magnitude to the source impedance. In such a open. This voltage, known as transient recovery voltage, is
case it may not be possible to lump the source and the lines present immediately after the current zero and in actual
into a single equivalent impedance. systems its duration is in the order of milliseconds. The
R X recovery voltage will consist of two components: a transient
a) Short-circuit impedance component, which occur immediately after a current zero, and
a steady-state component, which is the voltage that remains
Z
after the transient dies out. The actual waveform of the voltage
b) Surge impedance oscillation is determined by the parameters of the power
system. Its rate of rise and amplitude are of vital importance
Z for a successful operation of the interrupting device. If the rate
of recovery of the contact gap at the instant of current zero is
c) Short-circuit impedance faster than the rate of rise of the recovery voltage (RRRV), the
+ Surge impedance interruption is successful in the thermal region. It may be
R X
followed by a successful recovery voltage withstand in the
Fig. 9. Conventional network equivalents [41].
dielectric region and then by a full dielectric withstand of the
More complex equivalents which properly represent the recovery voltage. If, however, the RRRV is faster than the
frequency response characteristic (as opposed to the ones recovery of the gap, then failure will occur either in the
above that are most accurate near fundamental frequency) may thermal region or in the dielectric region. A good
be required [66], [67]. An update of the work performed on understanding of the transient phenomena associated to circuit
network equivalents has been presented in [68]; see also the breaker operations in power systems has led to improved
chapter on Network Equivalents of this tutorial. testing practice and resulted in more reliable switchgear.
Recommended characteristic values for simulation of the TRV
Switching Overvoltages
are fixed in standards [70]-[72]. Some important cases of
Typical case studies are analyzed for a practical current interruption are analyzed in this section [41], [54].
demonstration of the modeling guidelines [3], [41], [54]. Single-Line Fed Bus Fault: Consider the circuit in Fig. 10
Several different examples are considered: energization of which shows a fault fed from a single line, which in turn is fed
lines and cables, transient recovery voltage determination for by a bus with substantial capacity and several connected long
line and transformer faults, and switching of shunt and series transmission lines. When a fault at the remote end of a
capacitor banks. transmission line is cleared, the receiving end voltage at the
Energization of Lines and Cables: The aim of such a remote end oscillates with a half period equal to the travel
study is to determine the overvoltage stresses and choose the time of the line. The peak magnitude in the lossless case can
insulation strength in order to achieve an outage rate criterion be up to twice the sending end voltage at the instant of fault
[4], [69], see case studies at the end of this section. clearing. This voltage now appears as the TRV across the
The energization of lines and cables by closing the circuit open breaker. In the actual case, the slope and magnitude of
breaker produces significant transients. It is important to the TRV is dependent on the damping present in the system.
distinguish between energization and reclosing. In the former Fig. 10b shows the equivalent circuit that could be used to
case, there is no trapped charge. In the latter case of reclosing, analyze this case. The network equivalent may be of the types
the line/cable may have been left with a trapped charge after a) and c) presented above. The inductance value is obtained
the initial breaker opening. In this case, the transient from the short circuit current at the bus. If a type c) network
overvoltages can reach higher values (up to 4.0 p.u.). equivalent is chosen, the parallel resistance results from
The source, transformer, overhead lines, insulated cables, combining the surge impedance (parallel combination) of the
circuit breaker and the trapped charges (if any) are to be unfaulted lines. This representation is appropriate when the
modeled in order to study energization transients. lines are long and no reflections affect the protective device
A variety of line and cable models can be used in these during the transient period under consideration. If the
studies, including pi-circuit and distributed-parameter models. fundamental frequency impedance of the source is much
The equations previously discussed can assist in making a smaller than the equivalent parallel impedance of the
selection, if a pi-circuit is to be used. transmission lines, the warning sentence of the previous
As shown in [41], either a constant distributed-parameter subsection does not apply. If the lines are not so long, then
model or a pi-circuit model can be used to represent a cable in each one is represented by its traveling time and surge
statistical energizations, being results very similar. However impedance, as in Fig. 9b. When considering unbalanced faults,
 143

a full model may be necessary. The faulted line may be also “oscillation” on the source side of the protective device with a
represented as a low-frequency lossless line with lumped period determined by the positive- and zero-sequence travel
resistance at the midpoint and at the end of the line. Lumped times of the line. For short lines the source inductance
capacitances represent the bus capacitances of the supply dominates, reducing the magnitude of oscillations that occur at
station and the station at the end of the line. The transient a higher frequency. The voltage on the transformer side of the
recovery voltage across the circuit breaker will exhibit a switch collapses to zero in an oscillatory fashion with a
waveform that will depend on the distance of the fault location frequency determined by the leakage reactance of the
to the bus, the surge impedance of the lines, and the number of transformer and its equivalent terminal capacitance. The
lines, see Fig. 10c. resulting switch transient recovery voltage rate-of-rise is very
steep with a substantial peak value (see Fig. 11c).
X F X

F
Multiple
a) Diagram of the test system
lines
CHL

a) Diagram of the test system XTH XTL

RDH CH CL RDL Fault

Fault

b) Equivalent circuit of the transformer

b) Equivalent circuit

c) Typical waveform
Fig. 11. Transformer secondary fault.

The transformer can be represented as shown in Fig. 11b.

c) Typical waveform Transformer terminal capacitances are calculated from the
Fig. 10. Single-line fed bus fault.
transformer oscillation frequency when a fault on one side of
the transformer is cleared from the other side. The capacitive
Transformer Secondary-Fault: The aim is to find the TRV coupling ratio, CHL/(CHL+CL), is generally lower than 0.4. The
on the circuit breaker on the primary side of a transformer capacitance is calculated from the known winding frequencies.
after it clears a secondary side fault, see Fig. 11. Representative frequencies for power transformers are
When a fault occurs on the secondary-side of a transformer, reported in [73]. The effective terminal capacitances can be
the relatively large leakage inductance of the transformer will determined based on the frequency of oscillation of each
limit the magnitude of the fault current through the primary winding by using the following equation:
side protective device. In addition, the source-side bus voltage 1
drops to a level determined by the leakage inductance of the C= (5)
(2πf ) 2 LT
transformer and the effective source impedance. At the same
where f is the frequency of oscillation of each of the windings
time, the transformer secondary-side voltage collapses to zero,
in Hz, LT (Henries) is the transformer leakage inductance
dropping the bus voltage (reduced from its pre-fault value due
(referred to the winding of interest) and C (Farads) is the
to the fault) across the leakage inductance of the transformer.
effective capacitance:
When the fault is cleared, the source-side bus voltage recovers
in an oscillatory fashion with a frequency determined by the C = C H + C HL for the high-voltage winding (6a)
source inductance and its equivalent capacitance. If the C = C L + C HL for the low-voltage winding (6b)
transformer is located at the end of a line, the source-side bus Due to high-frequency winding resistance and eddy current
voltage will attempt to recover to the pre-fault voltage level losses, the oscillations are damped. This damping is
through a ramp, and overshoot. This sets up a damped represented by the resistance to ground in the equivalent
 144

circuit. For most transformers the damping is usually such that due to current chopping, the interruption will be abnormal and
the damping factor (i.e., the ratio of successive peaks of it can cause high-frequency reignitions and overvoltages.
opposite polarity in the oscillation) is on the order of 0.6 to When the breaker chops the peak current, the voltage
0.8. increases almost instantaneously, if this overvoltage exceeds
Short-Line Fault: A fault on a transmission line close to the the specified dielectric strength of the circuit breaker,
terminals of a high-voltage circuit breaker is known as a short- reignition takes place. When this process is repeated several
line fault, see Fig. 12a. The clearing of a short-line fault puts a times, due to high-frequency reignitions, the voltage increase
high thermal stress on the arc channel in the first few continues with rapid escalation of voltages. The high-
microseconds after current interruption due to the frequency oscillations are governed by the electrical
electromagnetic waves reflecting from the short-circuit back to parameters of the concerned circuit, the circuit configuration
the terminals of the circuit breaker which can result in a TRV and the interrupter design, and result in a zero crossing before
with a rate of rise from 5 to 10 kV/µs [74], [75]. Fig. 12c the actual power frequency current zero.
shows the typical saw-tooth shape of the recovery voltage
during a short-line fault clearing. For some kinds of circuit
breakers, the initial TRV is the most critical period, and the
stress caused by a short-line fault may be the most severe one. C L
The value of the rate of rise at the line side depends on the
interrupted short-circuit current and the characteristic
impedance of the overhead transmission line. The parameter a) Equivalent circuit
of concern is not the maximum TRV but its initial rate of rise.
For the system represented in Fig. 12b, this value may be Circuit breaker
approached by [74], [54] current
S
RRRV ≈ 2Vω sh (ω = 2πf ) (7)
SIL
where Ssh is the short-circuit capacity at the circuit breaker
location and SIL is the surge impedance load of the Voltage across
transmission line. the circuit breaker

Source
voltage

b) Interruption at current zero

a) Diagram of the test system

X Zc Circuit breaker
current

Fault

Voltage across
b) Equivalent circuit the circuit breaker

Source
voltage

b) Interruption before current zero

Fig. 13. Interruption of small inductive currents.
c) Typical waveform
Fig. 13 compares the transient recovery voltages that are
Fig. 12. Short-line fault. generated when arc interruption takes place at current zero and
Interruption of Small Inductive Currents: The interruption before current zero (current chopping), respectively. It is
of small currents can lead to situations that are known as obvious from this example that the second case is more severe.
current chopping and virtual chopping [55], [75]. If the The maximum voltage at the capacitance in p.u. can be
current is interrupted at current zero, the interruption is normal estimated from the following equation [54]:
and the transient recovery voltages are usually within the L
Vmax( pu ) ≈ 1 + I 02 (8)
specified values. However, if premature interruption occurs, C
 145

where L and C are the parameters of the equivalent circuit (see increase as system strength is reduced, relative to capacitor
Fig. 13a) and I0 is the current through the inductance at the size. In addition to reducing system surge impedance and
moment the current is interrupted. In this expression L, C, and increasing system strength, transmission lines provide
I0 are in physical quantities. damping. These three characteristics of transmission lines help
Since the frequency of the oscillations, 1 /(2π LC ) , will be reduce capacitor energizing transients. Other capacitors in the
vicinity of a switched bank help reduce capacitor energizing
usually much higher than the power frequency, the above
transients because they reduce system surge impedance.
value should be added to the peak voltage of the source to
Switching devices can be designed to reduce transients by
obtain the TRV across the circuit breaker.
using closing control, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion
In the case of current chopping, the instability of the arc
inductors. The closer to zero voltage at which a capacitor
around current zero causes a high-frequency transient current
energized, the lower the resulting transients. The optimum
to flow in the neighboring network elements. This high-
closing resistor size is approximately equal to the surge
frequency current superimposes on the power frequency
impedance of the source inductance and capacitor bank
current whose amplitude is small and which is actually
capacitance as calculated below:
chopped to zero. In the case of virtual chopping, the arc is
made unstable through a superimposed high-frequency current LS
Roptimum = (10)
caused by oscillations with the neighboring phases in which C
current chopping took place. Virtual chopping has been Voltage Magnification: Normal capacitor bank energizing
observed for gaseous arcs in air, SF6 and oil. Vacuum arcs are transients, which are limited to twice the pre-switch capacitor
also very sensitive to current chopping. bus voltage, are not a concern at the switched capacitor
The circuit shown in Fig. 13a was used to illustrate the location. Significant transient voltages can occur at remote
problems related to current chopping, more accurate models capacitors or cables when magnification of the capacitor
are usually required, mainly when reignitions/restrikes must be energizing transient occurs. The simple circuit in Fig. 14
analyzed, see for instance [76], [75], [54]. illustrates the voltage magnification phenomena.
Capacitor Switching [41]: Capacitor switching can cause
L1 L2
significant transients at both the switched capacitor and remote
locations. The most common transient problems when
switching capacitors are (1) overvoltages at the switched
f1 C1 f2 C2
capacitor during energization, (2) voltage magnification at
lower voltage capacitors during capacitor energization, (3)
transformer phase-to-phase overvoltages at a line termination
Fig. 14. Voltage magnification.
during capacitor energization, (4) breaker current due to
inrush from capacitors at the same bus as a capacitor being The highest transient voltages, on a per unit basis, occur at
energized, (5) breaker current due to outrush from a capacitor the lower voltage capacitance (C2) during capacitor C1
into a nearby fault, and (6) capacitor restrike. Although all of energization when (1) the capacitive Mvar rating of C1 is
these phenomena can be initiated by capacitor switching or significantly greater than that of C2 and (2) the natural
fault initiation near a capacitor, they each produce different frequencies f1 and f2 (as defined below) are nearly equal.
types of transients that can adversely affect different power 1 1
f1 = f2 = (11)
system apparatus. Each phenomenon and its modeling 2π L1C1 2π L2 C2
requirements are briefly discussed. Many practical cases have The magnitude of the voltage magnification transient at C2
been presented in the literature, see for instance [77]-[80]. is dependent on switched capacitor size, source impedance,
Capacitor Energization: Energizing a shunt capacitor from the impedance between the two capacitances, system loading,
a predominately inductive source results in an oscillatory and the existence of other nearby low voltage capacitors.
transient voltage at the capacitor bus with a magnitude that can Moderate increases in distribution system loading can
approach twice the peak bus voltage prior to energization. The significantly reduce voltage magnification transients. Because
characteristic frequency of the energization transient is: transformer losses increase significantly at higher frequencies,
1
f = (9) modeling the frequency dependence of transformer losses, or
2 π LS C simply modeling the transformer X/R ratio at the capacitor’s
where LS is the source inductance and C is the capacitor bank natural frequency, can improve model accuracy and reduce the
capacitance. severity of the voltage magnification simulated. Controlled
This energization transient can excite system resonances or breaker closing, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion
cause high frequency overvoltages at transformer terminations. inductors can be used to reduce voltage magnification related
The magnitude and duration of the energizing voltage transient transients. Voltage magnification can also cause excessive
is dependent upon a number of factors including system energy duty at arresters protecting distribution capacitors.
strength, local transmission lines, system capacitances, and High energy arresters may be necessary if other methods of
switching device characteristics. Voltage transient magnitudes reducing voltage magnification are not implemented.
 146

Transformer Termination Phase-to-Phase Overvoltages: ANSI Circuit Breaker Standard C37.06 contains specific
Capacitor energization can initiate traveling waves that will inrush current magnitude and frequency limits for general and
increase in magnitude when reflected at transformer definite purpose breakers [81]. A simple model that includes
terminations. These reflected surges will be limited to all impedances between the energized and switched capacitors
approximately 2 p.u. by the transformer line-to-ground arres- will suffice to simulate back-to-back switching inrush currents.
ters. 4 p.u. phase-to-phase voltage transients can be caused by If the calculated inrush currents are excessive, current limiting
2 p.u. surges of opposite polarity appearing simultaneously on reactors can be used to bring them within acceptable limits.
different phases. This 4 p.u. switching transient may exceed a The size of the current limiting reactor necessary to limit the
transformer’s switching surge withstand capability. IEEE inrush current to an acceptable level can be estimated by
standards do not specify transformer phase-to-phase switching rearranging the equation for I x f above as shown below and
surge withstand capability. As a worst case assumption, the using peak pre-switch current and voltage values:
phase-to-ground withstand could be used, but a value closer to VC1
Leq = (14)
3.4 p.u. is probably more realistic. 2 π( I × f )
System short circuit capability and the number of lines at Current Outrush into a Nearby Fault: Current outrush from
the switched capacitor location do not significantly affect this a capacitor can be a concern when a breaker closes into a
phenomenon. Switched capacitor size affects the frequency of fault. For general purpose breakers, ANSI standards indicate
oscillation that occurs when a capacitor is energized, and thus that the product of the outrush current peak magnitude and the
the voltage that the traveling wave component of the transient frequency is limited to less than 2 x 107 [81]. The limitation
rides on, but no generalization relating capacitor bank size and for definite purpose breakers is less severe, generally 6.8 x
reflected phase-to-phase transient can be made. Radial line 107.
length may have a more predicable effect. Fig. 16 illustrates the capacitor current outrush phenomena.
Higher phase-to-phase transients often occur on longer lines The equations necessary to calculate current magnitude and
as the traveling wave oscillation peak begins to match up with frequency are:
the natural frequency of the capacitor energization transient.
V 1 V
Oscillations that occur on very short lines may also be I = C1 f = I × f = C1 (15)
important, as they have the potential for exciting transformer Z 2π Leq Ceq 2πLeq
internal resonances. where
As with other capacitor switching related transients, these Leq
transients can be reduced by the use of synchronous closing Z= Leq = L1 + L3 Ceq = C1 (16)
control, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion inductors. Ceq
Back-to-back Capacitor Switching: The inrush currents where VC1 is the voltage across C1 as switch closes, L1 is the
associated with back-to-back capacitor switching must be self inductances of the capacitor bank, and L3 is the inductance
evaluated with respect to the capacitor switch capabilities and between the capacitor banks and the fault.
overvoltages on CT secondaries. A circuit illustrating back-to- L3
back switching is shown in Fig. 15. System

L3 L1
I
System Breaker C1 VC1
I
L1 L2 C1
F
C1 C2 VC1
C1 C2 Fig. 16. Outrush switching.

If outrush currents are a concern, they can be brought

Fig. 15. Back-to-back switching. within limits by the use of outrush reactors. The reactor size
can be quite accurately determined by the following equation
The equations for calculating current magnitude and
when peak pre-switch voltage and current values are used:
frequency are
VC1
V 1 V Leq = (17)
I = C1 f = I × f = C1 (12) 2 π( I × f )
Z 2π Leq Ceq 2πLeq
Arrester Energy Duty During Capacitor Breaker Restrike:
where If the circuit breaker restrikes during the interruption of a
Leq C1 ⋅ C 2 capacitive current, there will be an inrush current flow which
Z= Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 Ceq = (13)
Ceq C1 + C 2 will force the voltage in the capacitor to oscillate with respect
to the instantaneous system voltage to a peak value that is
where VC1 is the voltage across C1 as switch closes, L1, L2 are approximately equal to the initial value at which it started but
the self inductances of the capacitor banks, and L3 is the with a reversed polarity. If the restrike happens at the peak of
inductance between capacitor banks. the system voltage, then the capacitor voltage will reach a
 147

value of 3.0 p.u. Under these conditions, if the high-frequency Series Capacitor Switching: Series capacitors are usually
inrush current is interrupted at the zero crossing, then the installed on transmission lines to increase power transfer
capacitor will be left with a charge corresponding to a voltage capability. Electromagnetic transient studies may be required
of 3.0 p.u. and half cycle later there will be a voltage of 4.0 to determine the impact of the series compensation on the
p.u. applied across the circuit breaker contacts. If the sequence existing system to ensure safe and reliable operation.
is repeated, the capacitor voltage will reach a 5.0 p.u. value The aspects of system performance to be evaluated may
[3], [54]. If damping is ignored, there could be a theoretical include the following:
unlimited voltage escalation across the capacitor. • Surge arrester sizing: Establish surge arrester duty and
Arresters applied at large shunt capacitors should be related protection settings for the capacitor bank.
evaluated for their energy duty during breaker restrike, even • Line breaker TRV: Determine the transient recovery
when the capacitor breakers are designed to be “restrike free.” voltage for the transmission line breakers.
There are several methods of determining arrester energy • Line energization: Investigate system behavior when the
requirements during the first capacitor breaker restrike. The compensated line is energized.
energy during subsequent restrikes can be much higher, but is • Bank insertion and bypass: Investigate system behavior
usually not considered when sizing arresters. when the series capacitor is bypassed or inserted.
The most accurate method of determining arrester energy • Single-phase reclosing: Determine line end arrester duty
requirements during capacitor breaker restrike is to simulate for single-phase reclosing operation.
the restrike event using a detailed transient model. The • Line protection: Investigate relay requirements.
transient simulation should model the system in detail at least Simulated events may consider varying size and location of
two busses in each direction from the capacitor. the series capacitor, although these are generally determined
Hand calculations can be used to estimate arrester energy by steady-state, transient stability and subsynchronous
requirements. The equation for calculating arrester energy resonance studies, and by relaying requirements.
during restrike of a grounded capacitor is shown below [82] The system model typically includes lines and transformers
C ×V p
E= [
2(V p − Vs )
]
⋅ 4Vs2 − (V p − Vs ) 2 (18) at least one bus back from the switching locations of interest.
Transmission lines are modeled as distributed-parameter lines.
where C is the capacitor capacitance, Vp is the arrester Transformers are modeled using a saturable transformer
protective level, and Vs is the peak line-to-ground voltage. component model. Equivalent sources can be modeled as
Because the effects of system losses, loads, or transmission mutually-coupled elements considering their positive and zero
lines are not included, the resulting arrester energy sequence characteristics. Series capacitors and other system
requirements will be conservatively, but not excessively high. components are modeled as lumped-parameter elements with
Some derating of arrester energy ratings may be required typical quality factors represented. The model should also
because of the high magnitude currents associated with include the bypass breaker with its series reactor, and the
capacitor restrike transients. The arrester manufacturer should surge arrester connected across the series capacitor.
be consulted to determine the level of arrester energy derating, The worst case fault conditions that keep the capacitor bank
if any, is necessary. inserted determine the maximum surge arrester energy
Additional Concerns: In addition to the capacitor switching requirements. The case list includes three-phase, double-phase
phenomena listed above, there are two other capacitor and single-phase faults. Single-phase reclosing events under
switching phenomena that should be considered. The first is fault conditions must be also considered: the line end breakers
dynamic overvoltage, which may occur when energizing a open on the faulted phase only to clear the fault, and then one
capacitor and transformer simultaneously during fault clearing end recloses.
and line re-energization. During line faults, even if the The maximum TRV of line breakers may be evaluated by
capacitors are normally switched separately, the bus applying three-phase and single-phase faults at various
transformer and capacitor bank may be de-energized and locations along the line and at the series capacitor. In some
subsequently reenergized together with the line. The resulting cases arresters or pre-insertion devices may be required to
long term, low magnitude, but high energy, overvoltage cannot reduce the TRV to acceptable levels. The effect of energizing
be effectively limited by surge arresters. It must be controlled the series compensated line with and without the capacitor
by using an acceptable switching scheme. bypassed can be evaluated. The impact of capacitor bank
Another concern when switching shunt capacitor banks is insertion and bypass should be simulated under varying power
internal overvoltages at remote transformers. These flow and other operating conditions. The bypass switch TRV
overvoltages are a function of the switching transient and is evaluated from the simulation of capacitor bank insertion.
transformer internal resonance characteristics. Transformer The simulation of capacitor bypass determines the inrush
terminal arresters may not adequately protect for this currents. Results should be then compared to the withstand
condition. Possible solutions include (1) capacitor switch pre- ratings at the breaker and its series reactor.
insertion resistors or reactors and (2) capacitor bank reactors. An illustrative example of series capacitor switching was
presented in [41].
 148

10 m
Case Studies
Transmission Line Energization: Fig. 17 shows the tower
design of the test line, a 50 Hz, 400 kV transmission line.
14.05 m
Characteristics of phase conductors and shield wires are 40 cm

provided in Table II. The objective is to determine the

probability distribution of switching overvoltages. For the case 10 m 10 m

under study the line length is 200 km. To perform the A B C

5.1 m 31.25 m
calculations, the source side will be represented by a network (21.25 m)
26.1 m
equivalent with a short-circuit capacity of 10000 MVA and (14.1 m)
22.5 m
assuming the following ratios: Z1 = Z2, X1/R1 = 12.0, X1/X0 = (10.5 m)
17.20 m
1.3, X0/R0 = 8.0.
The transmission line is represented by means of a non-
transposed, constant and distributed-parameter model, with
parameters calculated at power frequency. Although a more
rigorous approach should be based on a frequency-dependent 7.164 m

line model [9], [41], the model used in this study will provide Fig 17. Transmission line energization - Test line configuration.
conservative values since parameter dependence with respect to
Table II - Characteristics of wires and conductors
the frequency increases the conductor resistance and damping.
As a consequence of multimodal wave propagation, the Conductor Diameter DC Resistance
overvoltages that can occur at the open end of an overhead type (mm) (Ω/km)
transmission line during energizing may be greater than 2 p.u. Phase
CURLEW 31.63 0.05501
However, the most onerous scenario corresponds to a conductors
reclosing operation; that is, a line energization with trapped Shield wires 94S 12.60 0.64200
charge, since in such situation the magnitude of the resulting 3
2
voltages at the open end may be above 3 p.u. 1
Fig. 18 show some simulation results obtained when 0
-1
energizing and reclosing the test line. Note that the peak -2
Voltage (pu)

voltages can exceed 2 p.u. with a simple energization and 3 2

1
p.u. when reclosing (in the case of Fig. 18 there was a 1 p.u. 0
trapped charge in all line phases). -1
-2
Reclosing overvoltages can be reduced by preinserting
2
resistors. First, the auxiliary contacts of the preinsertion 1
0
resistors close; after a time interval of about half-cycle of the -1
power frequency the main contacts close. -2
-3
The three scenarios (energizing, reclosing, preinsertion of 0 20 40 60 80
resistors) are analyzed to decide which one should be used to Time (ms)
achieve a reasonable striking distance. The simulations in all a) Open terminal voltages – Line energization
scenarios made with following common features: 4
• It is assumed that only phase-to-ground overvoltages are of 2
0
concern, and only the highest peak value of the three
-2
overvoltages is collected from each run.
Voltage (pu)

• The energizations are performed over the entire range of a 2

cycle and assuming that the three poles are independent. 0
The closing time of each pole is randomly varied -2

according to a normal (Gaussian) probability distribution,

2
with a standard deviation of 2.5 ms.
0
Table III shows the characteristic parameters that result for -2
the scenarios analyzed in this chapter. The aiming time was -4
chosen following the method presented in [54]. Reclosing is 0 20 40 60 80
Time (ms)
analyzed by assuming that a 1 p.u. voltage is trapped on each
phase, and a pre-insertion resistance of 400 ohm is used. Fig. b) Open terminal voltages – Line reclosing
19 depicts the peak voltage distributions. Fig. 18. Transmission line energization – Simulation results.
 149

Table III - Statistical distribution of phase-to-ground voltages The transients analyzed with this example are the voltage
Mean value Standard deviation magnification that can occur at the lowest voltage load nodes
Case when connecting the capacitor bank and the overvoltages that
(p.u.) (p.u.)
can arise at the same nodes as a consequence of a capacitor
Energizing 2.301 0.268
breaker restrike. The energy duty of the arresters installed in
Reclosing 3.190 0.666 parallel with the capacitor bank is also of concern in this
Pre-insertion second case.
1.541 0.032
resistors – 400 Ω Fig. 21 compares the switching overvoltages caused at
nodes L1 and L2 after switching a 4 Mvar shunt capacitor
100
bank. The oscillograms show that the peak overvoltage is
Cumulative probability (%)

Pre-insertion much higher at the LV node L1, where a compensating

80 resistors - 400 Ω
capacitor has been installed, although the load is higher (i.e.,
60 the equivalent parallel RL model has lower parameter values)
Reclosing than at the other load node, L2, where the peak voltage is less
40 than twice the rated peak value. This confirms the prerequisite
of a lower voltage capacitance for voltage magnification. On
20
the other hand, a more moderate peak overvoltage value
0
should be expected with a more accurate transformer model.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Per unit voltage
Fig. 22 compares again the overvoltges caused at the same
load nodes when a restrike occurs during the interruption of
Fig 19. Transmission line energization - Peak voltage distribution.
the capacitor current. The restrike happens a few milliseconds
Shunt Capacitor Switching: Fig. 20 shows the diagram of before the peak of the transient recovery voltage for the first
the 60 Hz power system that will be used to illustrate some of open pole is reached. The simulation results show that the
the overvoltages that can be caused by capacitor switching. peak overvoltage is again higher at the LV node where a
The system zone included in the system model has up to three remote capacitor bank was installed, and that the value is even
voltage levels. The goal is to estimate some of the higher than for the previous case.
overvoltages that can be originated at nodes L1 and L2 when The simulations were performed with a Y-connected
switching the capacitor bank installed at the MV side of the ungrounded capacitor bank, so the TRV across the breaker
substation transformer. poles are very different from those that would be derived with
The main parameters of the system components are a grounded capacitor bank. In fact, the TRV across the other
indicated in the figure. The 115 kV network equivalent is poles can reach much higher values than for the first pole after
represented by its symmetrical impedances (Z1 = Z2 = 0.715 + this one restrikes; consequently a second restrike should be
j4.370 Ω, Z0 = 0.557 + j5.041 Ω). The feeders that supply the expected.
two load nodes of interest, L1 and L2, have the same Fig. 23 shows that the maximum energy discharged by the
characteristics and are also represented by their symmetrical MV surge arrester in parallel with the capacitor bank is much
impedances (Z1 = Z2 = 1.822 + j2.195 Ω, Z0 = 3.688 + j6.404 below a dangerous value. This seems to be due to the highly
Ω). The transformers are modeled without including the damped oscillation originated at the capacitor bank.
saturation characteristics and assuming triplex core, which 1000
may be unrealistic for all of them. The other components
Node L1
(surge arresters, capacitor banks and loads) are represented by
Voltage (V)

500
means of the models presented in the previous subsection.

0
115 kV
115/13.2 kV, 15 MVA
7.65%, X/R = 10, Dy -500
13.2 kV 1000
Node L2
10 kV
Voltage (V)

MCOV = 8.47 kV 2.5 MW 500

0.95 pf
4 Mvar
0
13.2/0.48 kV, 1.5 MVA
6%, X/R = 10, Dy
1 MW L1 L2 1 MW -500
0.7 pf 0.7 pf 0 10 20 30 40 50
0.5 MVA 0.2 MVA Time (ms)
0.90 pf 0.90 pf
200 kvar
Fig. 21. Voltage magnification – Low voltage side.
Fig 20. Capacitor bank switching - Diagram of the test system.
 150

1500 to find optimum location for surge arresters for lightning surge
1000 Node L1 protection, or to estimate minimum phase-to-ground and
phase-to-phase clearances.
Voltage (V)

500
Lightning Overvoltages
0
They are caused by the impact of a lightning stroke to a
-500
transmission line, to a phase conductor (shielding failure), or
-1000
1500 to a tower or a shield wire (backflashover). Direct strokes to
1000 Node L2 substations are generally ignored, since it is commonly
assumed that the substation is perfectly shielded, via shield
Voltage (V)

500 wires or lightning masts; that is, only strokes with a peak
0 current magnitude below the critical value will hit substation
equipment.
-500
Direct Strokes to Phase Conductors: Direct strokes to the
-1000 phase conductors of a shielded transmission line occur
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (ms) typically when lightning strokes of low magnitude (a few kA)
bypass the overhead shield wires (shielding failure).
Fig. 22. Capacitor restrike – Low voltage side. Traditionally, the electrogeometric model based upon strike
50 distance has been used to determine the maximum prospective
peak lightning current that can bypass the shielding and hit on
40
phase conductors. A detailed description of this model can be
Energy (J)

30 found in the literature [4]. A usual approach has been to

20 design the transmission line insulation to withstand the
maximum shielding failure current predicted by the
10
electrogeometric model without an outage to the line.
0 Backflashovers: The event of greater concern is
0 10 20 30 40 50
backflashover, which occurs when the lightning discharge
Time (ms)
strikes the tower or the shield wire, and the resultant tower top
Fig. 23. Capacitor restrike – Arrester energy. voltage is large enough to cause flashover of the line
Validation insulation from the tower to the phase conductor. When
backflashover occurs, a part of the surge current will be
The validation of transients caused by switching operations transferred to the phase conductors through the arc across the
is perhaps the most affordable one due to the range of insulation strings. By default, it is assumed that the
frequencies associated to most switching transients and to the backflashover causes a temporary line-to-ground fault that will
fact that the initiation of the transient is previously scheduled; be cleared by a circuit breaker. A line outage results until the
that is, there is no randomness involved in the origin of the circuit breaker is reclosed.
transient. Several field measurements have been presented to The voltage surge as a result of the backflashover is very
date for validation of computer models. Reference [83] steep, and generally dictates the modeling requirements of the
presents some cases, including ferroresonance, with a good study, since direct strokes to the phase conductors will create
agreement between simulation results obtained with an EMTP- relatively less steep voltage waveforms. The steepness and the
type program and either field measurements or TNA results. magnitude of the voltage decrease as the surge propagates
along the line, depending upon the line parameters. Corona is
V. LIGHTNING OVERVOLTAGES another important factor that reduces the steepness of the
incoming voltage surge.
Introduction
The lightning performance of the transmission lines is
Lightning strokes are one of the primary causes of fast front characterized by the outage rate which may dictate the
transients in power systems. Lightning studies are performed insulation requirements of the line. In the design studies, the
to design lines and substations, and for the protection of power minimum lightning stroke current (i.e., critical current) that
system equipment [84]. Some of the objectives of these studies causes insulator backflashover is determined. The probability
are to characterize the magnitude of the lightning overvoltages of occurrence of a lightning current is described by a log-
for insulation requirements, and to find the critical lightning normal distribution [85], [86]. The number of strokes to the
stroke current that causes insulation flashover. Specific study line per year depends on the keraunic level of the region and
objectives for transmission lines may be to determine lightning the exposed area of the shield wires. The LFOR for the line
flashover rate (LFOR) and to select line arresters. For can be calculated by multiplying the probability of the
substations the objectives may be to calculate Mean Time flashover and the number of the strokes to the shield wire.
Between Failure (MTBF), to determine surge arrester ratings, For substation design studies, lightning is assumed to hit a
 151

nearby tower or shield wire of the incoming line causing a represented by multi-phase untransposed distributed-parameter
backflashover. The resultant lightning surge enters the line sections for each span. Bundled phase conductors are
substation and propagates inside. A discontinuity exists at represented by one equivalent conductor. The line parameters
junction points where a change in height or cross section of can be determined by a Line Constants routine, using the
the busbar takes place, and at equipment terminals. The tower structure geometry and conductor data as input. The
discontinuity points inside the substation, status of circuit parameters are generally calculated at 400/500 kHz for
breakers/switches (open/close), and location of lightning lightning studies with skin effect considered in calculations.
arresters are especially important for the overvoltage Comparative EMTP studies for single-circuit transmission
characterization at the substation. These overvoltages will lines have shown that computer simulation results with
provide the data required for detailed arrester specifications. frequency-dependent line models are very similar to those
Then, the insulation levels (i.e., BIL) of the substation obtained with constant-parameter line models in lightning
equipment can be coordinated with the protective level of the studies. A constant parameter line model with parameters
arresters. calculated at 500 kHz gives satisfactory performance,
eliminating the extra CPU time burden associated with
Modeling Guidelines [88]
frequency-dependent line models. Typical values for surge
This section describes the models of power system impedances range from 250 ohms to 500 ohms for line modes,
components to be used in lightning studies. For each while the ground mode surge impedance is generally around
component, model parameters are justified, and typical values 700 ohms. The velocity of propagation for aerial modes is
are provided. General trends and rules of thumb that should be close to the speed of light, being much slower for the ground
followed in the model development are also discussed. A mode.
critical question is the extent to which the power system has to Line Length and Termination: In transmission line design
be represented. Since lightning-related surge voltages and studies, the peak voltage at the struck tower may be influenced
currents cannot be easily measured or verified, the models by reflections from the adjacent towers. A sufficient number of
presented should be treated as the recommended approach in adjacent towers at both sides of the struck tower should be
representing the behavior of the power system components modeled to determine the overvoltages accurately. This can be
within the specified frequency range [87], [88]. achieved by selecting the number of line spans modeled such
Overhead Transmission Lines: The model of an overhead that the travel time between the struck tower and the farthest
line in lightning studies must include the representation of tower is more than one-half of the lightning surge front time.
phase conductors and wires, towers and footing impedances. The number of line spans modeled must be increased when the
Phase conductors and shield wires are explicitly modeled effects due to the tail of the lightning surge are considered,
between towers, and only a few spans are normally especially while evaluating the insulator flashovers with the
considered. Tower models include the effects of tower leader propagation method or the energy discharged by
geometry and tower grounding impedance, with special arresters. In substation design studies, a similar approach can
emphasis on its lightning current magnitude dependent be followed provided that all the line spans and towers
characteristics due to soil ionization. Insulators are also between the struck tower and the substation are modeled in
modeled with their flashover characteristics. Fig. 24 shows the detail. Furthermore, it may be desirable to determine the first
model for lightning studies. reflections of overvoltages accurately at any point inside the
substation. This criterion may require detailed modeling of
Stroke
Vs Shield additional towers further away from the substation depending
IS wire
upon the distance from the struck tower and substation layout.
Vs
In both transmission line and substation design studies, the
Vt
Vc Phase line extended beyond the last tower can be represented with a
conductor matrix of self and mutual resistances equal to the
Vc corresponding line surge impedances. This matrix can be
Insulator determined by a Line Constants routine [21]. Another simpler
option is to add a line section long enough to avoid reflections
Tower
from the open point reaching the last tower included in the
model.
Towers: The representation of a tower is usually made in
circuit terms. The simplest model represents a tower as a
Grounding single-phase distributed-parameter lossless line, whose surge
impedance impedance depends on the structure details [84]. Typical
values range from 100 to 300 ohms, and the velocity of
Fig. 24. Overhead transmission line representation. propagation can be assumed to be equal to the speed of light.
Since the surge impedance of the tower varies as the wave
Phase Conductors and Shield Wires: The overhead line is travels from top to ground, more complex models have been
 152

developed that represent a tower by means of several line characteristics are a function of insulator length and applicable
sections and circuit elements that are assembled taking into only within the range of parameters covered experimentally
account its structure. These models are based on non-uniform [84], [96], [97]. The insulator flashover voltage for the
transmission lines, or on a combination of lumped- and standard volt-time curves can be calculated using the
distributed-parameter circuit elements [89], [90]. The latter following equation:
approach is also motivated by the fact that in many cases it is K
Vv − t = K1 + 0.752 (21)
important to obtain the lightning overvoltages across t
insulators located at different heights above ground; this is where Vv-t is the flashover voltage, in kV, K1 = 400*l , K2 =
particularly important when two or more transmission lines 710*l , l is the insulator length, in m, and t is the elapsed time
with different voltage levels are sharing the same tower. after lightning stroke, in µs.
Footing Impedance: The peak overvoltage on the tower The insulator is represented as a voltage-controlled switch
depends on the footing impedance, whose influence on the across the capacitor which is closed automatically when the
tower top voltage is determined by its response time and insulator voltage exceeds the flashover voltage calculated
current dependence. The response time is usually only from volt-time curve, simulating a flashover. The front time
important in cases where counterpoises with distances greater for the arcing can be quite steep, (around 20 ns) and is
than 30 m from the tower base are installed. In that case, a determined by the physics of air gap breakdown. The start-up
frequency-dependent distributed-parameter model should be time (i.e., zero time) for the volt-time characteristics must be
considered [4], [90], [91]. Within 30 m of the tower base, the synchronized to the instant that lightning stroke hits the
time response can generally be neglected and the tower shielding wire or the tower top.
footing impedance is determined by using the current Multiple flashovers at consecutive towers are also possible,
dependence of the footing resistance as follows [85], [92]: which are likely to reduce the peak overvoltages. It is
Ro recommended to represent all the insulators that are on the
RT = (19)
1+ I / I g path of the lightning surge with their volt-time characteristics
for accurate calculation of the overvoltages.
where RT is the tower footing resistance, in ohm, Ro is the
The behavior of insulation under the stress of the standard
tower footing resistance at low current and low frequency, in
impulse cannot accurately predict its performance when
ohm, Ig is the limiting current to initiate sufficient soil
exposed to any non-standard lightning impulse. Furthermore,
ionization, in A, and I is the lightning current through the
it is inaccurate to assume that flashover will occur when a
footing impedance, in A. The limiting current is a function of
voltage wave just exceeds the volt-time curve at any time. The
soil ionization and is given by:
experimental volt-time characteristic is only adequate for
1 Eo ρ
Ig = (20) relating the peak of the standard impulse voltage to the time of
2π Ro2 flashover. In order to obtain correct results, further
where ρ is the soil resistivity, in ohm-m, and Eo is the soil modifications to volt-time curve would be required.
ionization gradient (about 300-400 kV/m [93]). Accurate representation of air gap (insulator strings and
In most studies, it is recommended to consider the spark gaps) breakdown subject to standard and non-standard
waveshape dependence of tower foundation and counterpoise lightning impulses is necessary for insulation coordination
grounding. Lumped footing resistance may not be adequate as studies. Analytical procedures to predict the performance of
compared to more detailed models of counterpoise grounding. insulation as a function of the impulse voltage waveform, the
The counterpoise can be represented as a nonlinear resistance time to flashover, the gap configuration and others, have been
with values calculated by (19), or as distributed-parameter developed and validated by tests performed in the high voltage
lines at ground level with dispersed conductive connections to laboratories. The most widely used procedures are the
earth. The typical tower footing resistance is between 10 and integration method and the leader progression model (LPM)
100 ohms. [85], [90], [98]. A description of these methods is presented in
Insulators: The insulators may be represented by voltage- the chapter on Parameter Determination of this tutorial.
dependent flashover switches in parallel with capacitors Corona: Corona has a significant effect on overvoltage
connected between the respective phases and the tower. The surges associated with lightning strokes to overhead lines [99]-
capacitors simulate the coupling effects of conductors to the [103]. The important work carried out by Wagner, Cross and
tower structure. Typical capacitance values for suspension Lloyd [104] resulted in the following important conclusions
insulators are of the order of “some 10 pF” [94], [95], while concerning corona effects:
for pin insulators, the capacitance is around 100 pF/unit. 1. For high magnitude positive surges, the corona effect is
Capacitance values for non-ceramic insulators are an order of independent of the conductor size and geometry. The
magnitude less for comparable ceramic insulators. same applies for negative polarity surges except for one
For a simplified analysis, a detailed arcing model for conductor size (24 millimeter diameter).
flashover is not necessary, and an idealized representation can 2. For low voltages, the effect differs due to different
be adequate. In such case, the flashover mechanism of the corona inception voltages.
insulators is represented by volt-time curves, whose
 153

3. Weather conditions have no significant impact on 1. The model is based on lumped elements and must,
corona distortion. therefore, be lumped at sufficiently small intervals along
4. The coupling factor between phases increases with the line so that error introduced by the discretization is
increasing surge voltage. minimal. A minimum interval length of 50 meters has
5. The tail of the surge is not influenced by corona. been suggested; however, shorter intervals are likely
Corona introduces a time delay to the front of the impulse necessary.
corresponding to the loss of energy necessary to form the 2. The model does not adequately address corona in a
corona space charge around the conductor. This time delay multiphase model. Here, the voltage dependence of the
takes effect above the corona-inception voltage (Vi) and varies corona should be transformed into charge dependence,
with surge magnitude. This variation with voltage can be because corona depends on the electric field around the
expressed as a voltage-dependent capacitance (Ck) which is conductor.
added to the geometrical capacitance of the transmission line. 3. The available data on corona parameters of actual three-
The corona-inception voltage (Vi) for a single conductor phase overhead lines is insufficient to enable general
above earth is given by the following approach [84]: practical application of these types of models.
 1.22  2h
Vi = 23 ⋅ 1 + 0.37  ⋅ r ⋅ ln (22) Conductor
 r  r
where r is the conductor radius, in cm, and h is the conductor
height, in cm.
The modeling details of corona can be expressed by curves
C1 R1 C2 R2 C3 R3
of charge (q) versus impulse voltage (V). These q/V curves can
be divided into three parts:
VC 2VC 3VC
1. Below corona inception, the q/V curve is a straight line
determined by the geometrical capacitance.
Fig. 25. Linear corona model [88].
2. Above corona inception Vi, the q/V curve shows an
initial capacitance jump (Ci) plus an increase in The approach proposed in [101] can be used to estimate the
capacitance, which is voltage dependent as long as the variation of the steepness of lightning overvoltages impacting
voltage is increasing. on substations with travel length. This approach relies upon
3. For decreasing voltages, the q/V curve again is the observation that for voltages substantially higher than the
practically determined by the geometrical capacitance. corona-inception level, the time delay as a function of travel
The excess capacitance (Ck) to be added during the second distance becomes linear; that is, in this region, the steepness of
stage of the q/V curve is given by [85]: the overvoltage is independent of the voltage value. This
Ck = Ci + K (V − Vi ) (23) yields the following relationship [1], [2]:
where Ci is the initial capacitance jump, K is a corona 1
S= (26)
constant, Vi is the corona inception voltage, V is the 1
+ A⋅ d
instantaneous impulse voltage. So
The sum of the excess capacitance (Ck) and the geometric where So is the original steepness of the overvoltage, S is the
capacitance (Cg) is the dynamic capacitance (Cdyn): new steepness after the waveform travels for a distance d, and
C dyn = C k + C g (24) A is a constant. The constant A is a function of the line
The constant K varies with conductor diameter and the geometry only and is dependent as well on the surge polarity.
number of subconductors, as well as the polarity of the applied Typical values are given in [1], [2], [101]. See the case study
surge voltage. For a 31mm conductor diameter, K varies from at the end of this section.
4.8x10-3 pF/kVm for a single conductor and positive polarity Although corona effects may reduce the peak of lightning
surges to 2.4x10-3 pF/kVm for 8 subconductors and positive related overvoltages more than 20% [102], in some studies
polarity surges. For negative polarity surges, the constant is corona is neglected to obtain conservative results.
approximately half of these values. Substations: An overall substation model can be derived
The coupling factor between phases increases due to corona from the substation layout drawing, and must include buswork,
and is given by: insulators and other substation equipment.
K c / K g = 1 + Ck / C g (25) Buswork and Conductors: The buswork and conductors
between the discontinuity points inside the substation, and
where Kc is the coupling factor in corona, and Kg is the
connections between the substation equipment are explicitly
geometric coupling factor [85]. Kg is calculated using the
represented by line sections. These line sections are modeled
method proposed in [84].
by untransposed distributed-parameter sections if they are
Corona models, such as the linear one suggested in Fig. 25,
longer than 3 m; otherwise, a lumped-parameter inductance of
can be used to model the dynamic capacitance region of the
1.0 µH/m can be used. The line parameters can be calculated
q/V curve in a piecewise linear fashion [102], [90]. However,
using a Line Constants routine [21]. Take into account that the
a number of problems remain:
 154

minimum conductor length with distributed-parameter 6 -10 pF 10 pF

representation dictates the simulation time step. However,
caution must be exercised when performing calculations for
GIS, since the surge impedance of the gas-insulated buswork 50 pF 50 pF 5 pF
is considerably smaller than the surge impedance of the air
insulated line or buswork, typically about 60 ohms. Wave Dead tank Live tank
reflection at the GIS entrance could rapidly result in sizable
overvoltages at the open disconnect position within the Fig. 26. Circuit breaker representations [87], [88].
substation (i.e., due to multiple reflections).
Table IV - Minimum capacitance-to-ground values for substation
Substation Equipment: The substation equipment, such as
equipment [87], [88]
circuit breakers, substation transformers, and instrument
transformers, are represented by their stray capacitances to Capacitance-to-ground
ground. Fig. 26 shows some circuit breaker representations, Equipment
115 kV 400 kV 785 kV
while Table IV provides minimum capacitance values used in
Disconnector switch 100 pF 200 pF 160 pF
lightning studies for different types of substation equipment,
when the actual data is not available. These data are based on Circuit breaker (dead tank) 100 pF 150 pF 600 pF
supplier information, and only the lowest values are reported Bus support insulator 80 pF 120 pF 150 pF
as a pessimistic assumption. If the disconnect switches or Capacitive potential
breakers have more than one support, appropriate capacitances 8000 pF 5000 pF 4000 pF
transformer
should be added to the model. Furthermore, if some of the Magnetic potential
500 pF 550 pF 600 pF
substation equipment is close to each other (i.e., closer than 3 transformer
m to 5 m), their capacitances can be grouped together for Current transformer 250 pF 680 pF 600 pF
simplification. The open/close status of circuit breakers/ Autotransformer (*) 3500 pF 2700 pF 5000 pF
switches should be considered. (*) Capacitance also depends on MVA.
In lightning studies, conducted to design transformer
protection at the terminals against high-voltage high-frequency Insulators and Bus Support Structures: The bus support
disturbances, a conservative approach is to represent the structures are represented by a distributed-parameter model
transformer as an open circuit. To increase the level of with surge impedances calculated from the structure geometry,
accuracy, it is recommended to account for the capacitance of and with velocity of propagation equal to the speed of light,
the winding. A resistance equal to the surge impedance of the similar to the transmission line bus tower models [87], [88].
winding can be placed across the capacitance. The model can Typical bus support configurations are shown in Fig. 27.
be enhanced by adding the inductive transformer model and The representative grounding resistance inside the substations
relevant capacitances between windings, windings to core and is usually between 0.1 to 1 ohms. Comparative simulations
windings to ground as well as bushing capacitances. This have shown that the support structures do not have much
model is used to calculate the surge transfer from winding-to- impact on the simulation results, and can be neglected [88].
winding as in the case of generator (or motor) protection The capacitance to ground of all insulators should be
studies. represented, since the substation capacitance is one of the
Capacitances can be determined from the geometry of the critical parameters that modify lightning surge waveshapes.
coil and core structure, or from manufacturers and tables. a b c a b c
Values of the winding capacitance together with capacitance
values for outdoor bushings are presented in [3]. C C C C C C 10 pF < C < 100 pF
Some transformer models can accurately determine how a
voltage applied to one set of terminals is transferred to another
ZT ZT ZT ZT 100 Ω < Z T < 300 Ω
set of terminals, see [45], [48], [105], [106], [19]. These
models duplicate the transformer behavior over a wide range
RG RG RG RG 0.1 Ω < RG < 1 Ω
of frequencies, and act like a filter suppressing some
frequencies and passing others. The use of a frequency-
a) b)
dependent transformer model is important when determining
the surge that appears on a generator bus when a steep-fronted Fig. 27. Insulator and bus support structure models. Bus support
surge impinges on the high voltage terminals of the generator structure: (a) common to all phases; (b) individual for each phase
step-up transformer. Some of the above models allow the [88].
simulation of any type of multi-phase, multi-winding
Surge Arresters: The voltage-current characteristics of
transformer as long as its frequency characteristics are known,
metal-oxide surge arresters are a function of the incoming
either from measurements or from calculations based on the
surge steepness. Protective characteristics for surge arresters
physical layout of the transformer.
showing crest discharge voltage versus time-to-crest of
 155

discharge voltages are available from manufacturers. Since backflashover which will maximize the voltage surge. Other
arrester terminal voltage and current do not reach their peak power-frequency voltages will cause earlier backflashovers on
values at the same time, the frequency-dependent the other phases. Note that under these conditions, two of the
characteristics of arresters may be of significant importance phases may backflashover at the same time due to similar
when excited by fast-front transient surges [64], [65]. voltages across the insulators, and give the impression of
The arresters can be modeled as nonlinear resistors with 8 x reduced current and/or energy at the substation arresters due to
20 µs maximum voltage-current characteristics. Several current sharing which may not be the case in reality.
frequency-dependent surge arrester models have been Lightning Stroke: The lightning stroke is represented by a
developed [63]-[65], [107]-[112]. These models can current source. Its parameters, such as crest, front time,
reproduce metal-oxide surge arrester characteristics over a maximum current steepness, duration, and polarity are
wide range of frequencies such as lightning, switching, and determined by a statistical approach, since they all are
temporary overvoltages. statistical in nature, generally characterized by log-normal
The nonlinear arrester characteristics need to be modeled distributions [85], [86]. In addition, the peak current can be
up to at least 20 to 40 kA, since high current surges initiated statistically correlated to the steepness and the time to crest of
by close backflashovers can result in arrester discharge the current wave form. Both the steepness and the front time
currents above 10 kA. The arrester lead lengths at the top and increase as the peak current increases. The detailed calculation
at the bottom must be considered to account for the effects of procedure for these parameters is shown in the CIGRE Guide
additional voltage rise across the lead inductance. A lumped [85]; see also [4].
element representation with an inductance of 1.0 µH/m will be A rigorous approach requires the front of the lightning
sufficient. current source to be upwardly concave, although for practical
In all studies, the energy through the arresters must be purposes a linearly rising front at the selected maximum
monitored, and verified that the maximum allowed energy current steepness can be sufficient. In this case, a negative
dissipation is not exceeded. Furthermore, if the arrester current triangular wave shape for the lightning current source can be
increases beyond 40 kA, it may create hot spots in the blocks selected. The double exponential impulse model should be
due to high rate of rise times associated with backflashovers. used with caution since this model does not accurately reflect
Sources: Two types of inputs must be considered in the concave wave shape of the wave front [87], [88]. Typical
lightning studies, the instantaneous phase voltage at the time lightning current values for backflashovers and direct strokes
the stroke hits the line and the lightning stroke current. The are discussed below.
insulator stress is a combination of the voltage due to the • Backflashover: Lightning strokes of high magnitude, in
lightning current and the power-frequency voltage. the range of 20 kA up to values rarely exceeding 200 kA,
Initial Conditions: The instant of lightning stroke with cause the backflashovers. In this current range, median
respect to the instantaneous steady-state ac voltage must be front times (30% - 90%) range from about 3 µs at 20 kA
coordinated to maximize its impact for worst case conditions. to about 8 µs at 200 kA. Maximum current steepness
This can be achieved by properly selecting the magnitude and ranges from about 20 kA/µs at 20 kA to about 48 kA/µs
phasing of the three-phase sinusoidal voltage sources at the at 200 kA [85], [113].
terminating point of the transmission lines. • Shielding Failure: Lightning strokes of amplitude below
In transmission line design studies, one of the objectives is the critical shielding current, generally less than 20 kA,
to determine the highest line outage rate which is generally can bypass the overhead shield wires and strike directly
maximized by finding the minimum critical lightning current on the phase conductors. The maximum lightning current
that causes insulator backflashovers. If the lightning hits the that can strike the phase conductors of any given
tower when the contribution of ac power frequency voltage to overhead transmission line can be predicted by using the
the insulation stress is maximum, the backflashover can occur method recommended in [114], [96], [115].
with a smaller lightning current. While setting the initial Other issues that should be also considered follow [88]:
magnitude and angle of the ac power frequency voltage, the a) Regardless of the mechanism by which a lightning
phase which is most likely to flashover due to relative overvoltage is generated, the maximum amplitude of the
conductor position must be selected. surge may be taken equal to 1.2CFO, where CFO is the
In substation design studies, it is desirable to maximize the critical flashover voltage of the insulation [4]. The 1.2
steepness and magnitude of the line-to-ground voltage surges multiplier accounts for two effects: (i) the CFO is a
toward the substation. The steepness is directly related to the median value and hence the insulation can carry higher
arcing mechanism across the flashing insulator while the voltages 50% of the time, and (ii) the CFO is based on
magnitude jumps up to the tower top voltage after the the standard 1.2 x 50 µs impulse waveform. The
backflashover. Thus, if the tower voltage has sufficient time to withstand voltage is higher for steeper fronts and may
build up before the backflashover, the worst case overvoltages also be higher for some non-standard waveforms.
can be observed. Setting the magnitude of the power b) In determining the maximum stroke current which can
frequency voltage to +0.5 p.u. for a negative polarity lightning cause shielding failure, several references use a model in
strike will minimize the insulator stress and delay the which the striking distance to ground is taken equal to ßS
 156

(see for instance [4], [84], [115]), where S is the striking towers to the grounding cable, were represented with lumped
distance to the wires, and ß is a factor which is a function linear elements.
of either the voltage or the height of the phase wires. As The substation stress was caused by a surge impinging on
noted in the discussion by Mousa [96], varying ß (with the substation from an incoming line, being the steep voltage
voltage or height of the conductors) produces results entering the substation the result of a backflashover of the line
which are inconsistent with the physics of the problem. insulation in close proximity to the substation. The magnitude
Reference [116] presents a revised electrogeometric of the voltage is limited by surge arresters installed at the
model in which the striking distance to ground is kept substation entrance. Good agreement was found between the
constant. This approach is more consistent with the calculated voltage waveforms and the oscillograms obtained
physics of the problem. by direct measurements. Therefore, it was concluded that the
benchmarking was satisfactory. More detailed information
Validation [88]
concerning measurements and calculations is available in
The validation of lightning simulations is very difficult due [117].
to the random nature of lightning and to the fact that there are
Case Studies
not two lightning strokes with the same characteristics.
The analysis of transient surges generated during the The modeling guidelines presented previously are applied
backflashover of a transmission line in close proximity to a in two case studies. The first one is aimed at obtaining the
substation was the main goal of an EPRI investigation [117]. lightning performance of an overhead transmission line, and
A full-scale mockup of a 115 kV rated (550 kV BIL) includes a sensitivity study of lightning-caused overvoltages.
substation was constructed to investigate the behavior of The second case presents the calculation of lightning
substation insulation in front of nonstandard voltage impulses. overvoltages within a substation for which the surge arresters
The substation clearances and insulation were reproduced must be selected, assuming that the characteristics of the
according to standard design procedures. The substation incoming surge are already known.
contained a combination of 795 kcmil aluminum strain bus Lightning Performance of a Transmission Line:
and 5” diameter aluminum rigid bus with various types of Consider the tower design shown in Fig. 17. It corresponds to
insulators, cap-and-pin switches, station post insulators, and a 400 kV transmission line, with two conductors per phase and
standard suspension insulators on strain bus dead-ends. The two shield wires, whose characteristics are presented in Table
switches were installed to provide reflections under different II. The goal of this example is to estimate the lightning
operating modes as well as realistic substation equipment gap performance of this line.
configurations. Other typical substation air gaps (rod-rod, The average span length is 400 and the striking distance of
ring-ring, and conductor-structure) were also incorporated into insulator strings is 3.212 m. The calculations will be made by
the substation design. High voltage flashover tests were assuming that the line is located at the sea level.
conducted by applying phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase Modeling guidelines: The models used to represent the
impulses. The impulses were generated by discharging a bank different parts of the line are detailed in the following
of capacitors into the tertiary winding of a single-phase paragraphs [9]-[11], [87], [88].
autotransformer and then through a peaking gap and capacitor, 1) The phase conductors and shield wires are modeled by
which resulted in an impulse having a shape of 0.2/200 µs. including four spans at each side of the point of impact.
Computer simulations of several flashover tests were Each span is represented as a multi-phase untransposed
performed for benchmarking the substation model. The frequency-dependent and distributed-parameter line
substation mockup and test circuit were modeled based on section. Corona effect is not included.
guidelines similar to those described above, and considering 2) A line termination at each side of the above model is
the individual element models as detailed as possible. For needed to avoid reflections that could affect the simulated
example, even the shortest connections between two insulator overvoltages caused around the point of impact. Each
supports were represented, as well as the stray capacitance of termination is represented by means of a long enough
each insulator. The phase conductors were represented using a section whose parameters are also calculated as for line
line model which takes into account the distributed nature of spans.
the conductor parameters and the earth damping. The 3) A tower is represented as an ideal single-phase distributed-
insulators were represented by capacitances, and three parameter line. The approach used in this example is the
different types of insulators were used (cap-and-pin, station twisted model recommended by CIGRE [85]. This model
post, and suspension), each of which with a different stray can suffice for single circuits with towers shorter than 50
capacitance. The nodes, where the insulators are connected meters [4].
together on the support structure, are connected to the 4) The grounding impedance is represented as a non-linear
grounding cable by copper conductors. This cable was resistance whose value is approximated by the expression
represented as distributed-parameter line segments. The (19), recommended in standards [1], [2]. The soil
grounding cable was solidly grounded at the substation ionization gradient E0 is 400 kV/m [93].
entrance. The grounding conductors, which connected the
 157

5) This analysis will be performed by using two different kA

approaches to represent insulator strings. In the first model I100
insulator strings are represented as open switches
I90
controlled by the voltage generated across them, when the
voltage exceeds the BIL of any insulator string, the line
flashovers. The CFO is calculated according to the
expression proposed by IEC 60071-2 for negative polarity I50

strokes [2]
CFO − = 700S (27) I30
where S is the striking distance of the insulator strings.
With this model, a flashover occurs if the lightning over-
voltage exceeds the lightning insulation withstand voltage. t30 t90 th time

In the second model, the representation of insulator strings Fig. 28. Stroke current concave waveform.
relies on the application of the leader progression model
(LPM), being the leader propagation obtained by means of Sensitivity study: The goal is to simulate overvoltages
the following equation [85], [98], [118], [119]: caused by strokes to towers and phase conductors, and
dl  V (t )  determine the influence that some parameters have on the peak
= k lV (t )  − El 0  (28) voltages. All the calculations presented in this example have
dt g −l 
been performed by representing insulator strings as open
where V(t) is the voltage across the gap, g is the gap
switches and grounding impedances as constant resistances.
length, l is the leader length, El0 is the critical leader
A. Stroke to a tower: Fig. 29 depicts the relationships with
inception gradient, and kl is a leader coefficient.
respect to some parameters. These results were derived
6) Phase voltages at the instant at which the lightning stroke
without including power-frequency voltages. One can
hits the line are included. For statistical calculations, phase
easily deduce that both parameters have a strong influence:
voltage magnitudes are deduced by randomly determining
the greater the grounding resistance value and the shorter
the phase voltage reference angle and considering a
the rise time, the higher the overvoltages.
uniform distribution between 0º and 360º.
7) A lightning stroke is represented as an ideal current source 80

(infinite parallel impedance) of negative polarity and a tf = 10 µs

Overvoltage (kV)

concave waveform, with no discontinuity at t = 0, see 60 tf = 6 µs

tf = 2 µs
Figure 28. The mathematical expression used in this
example is the so-called Heidler model, which is given by 40
[120]:
I p k n −t / τ 2 20
i (t ) = e (29)
η 1+ k n
where Ip is the peak current, η is a correction factor of the 0
0 50 100 150 200
peak current, n is the current steepness factor, k = t/τ1, and Resistance (Ω)
τ1, τ2 are time constants determining current rise and decay
a) Insulator string overvoltage vs grounding resistance (Ip = 1 kA)
time, respectively. The value selected for parameter n, to
be specified in (29), is 5 in all simulations performed for 60

this example. In statistical calculations, stroke parameters R = 100 Ω

50
Overvoltage (kV)

are randomly determined according to the distribution R = 50 Ω

40
density functions recommended in the literature [85], [86]. R = 10 Ω
See below for more details. 30
When the stroke hits a shield wire or a phase conductor 20
midway between two towers the model has to be modified; the
line span model has to be split up into two sections and the 10

current source that represents the lightning stroke moved to 0

the new impact position. 0 2 4 6 8 10
Rise time (µs)
The study of this example has been divided into two parts.
The first part summarizes the main results of a sensitivity b) Insulator string overvoltage vs rise time of the lightning return
study aimed at analyzing the influence that some line stroke (Ip = 1 kA)
parameters have on the overvoltages originated across Fig. 29. Example 2.6: Overvoltages caused by strokes to a tower.
insulator strings. The second part presents the application of
the Monte Carlo method to assess the lightning performance B. Strokes to a phase conductor: For the same stroke peak
of this line. current, overvoltages originated by strokes to phase
 158

conductors will be much higher than those originated by will be based on the application of the electrogeometric
strokes to towers or shield wires. A new parametric study model recommended by Brown-Whitehead [122]
was made to deduce the influence of the stroke peak rc = 7.1I 0.75 rg = 6.4 I 0.75 (30)
current and the voltage angle, using the phase angle of the
where rc, is the striking distance to both phase conductors
outer phase (phase A) to which the lightning stroke
and shield wires, rg is the striking distance to earth, and I is
impacts as a reference. Fig. 30 presents the results obtained
the peak current magnitude of the lighting return stroke
by considering the worst case from each simulation. The
current. With this model, only return strokes with a peak
plots show very high voltages, but it is worth noting that
current magnitude below 20 kA will reach phase
shield wires will prevent strokes with a peak current higher
conductors.
than 20 kA from reaching phase conductors, as it is shown
c) The overvoltage calculations can be performed once the
in the subsequent section. The influence of the grounding
point of impact of the randomly-generated stroke has been
resistance when the lightning stroke hits a phase conductor
determined. Overvoltages originated by nearby strokes to
is negligible. The voltage caused by a lightning stroke to a
ground are neglected.
phase conductor increases linearly with the peak current
d) Voltages across insulator strings are continuously
magnitude and depends on the phase angle at the moment
monitored. When the goal of the procedure is to obtain the
it hits the conductor.
lightning flashover rate, every time a flashover is produced
2500
Ip = 10 kA Ip = 5 kA Ip = 1 kA the run is stopped, the counter is increased and the
2000 flashover rate is updated.
Overvoltage (kV)

e) The entire simulation is stopped when the convergence of

1500 the Monte Carlo method is achieved or the specified
maximum number of iterations is reached. The
1000
convergence is checked by comparing the probability
500 density function of all variables to their theoretical
functions, so the procedure is stopped when they match
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 within the maximum error or the maximum number of runs
Phase angle (degrees) is reached.
a) Insulator string overvoltage vs reference phase angle Lightning stroke waveform and parameters: Only single-
4000
stroke negative polarity flashes are considered in this study.
The stroke waveform is that shown in Fig. 28. Main
parameters used in statistical calculations to define the
Overvoltage (kV)

3000
waveform of a lightning stroke are the peak current magnitude,
2000
Ip (or I100), the front time, tf (= 1.67 (t90 – t30)), and the tail
time, th, see Fig. 28. Since these values cannot be directly
1000
defined in the Heidler model, a conversion procedure (see
[123]) is performed to derive the parameters to be specified in
0
(29) from the stroke parameters, which are randomly
0 5 10 15 20 calculated, as detailed below.
Peak current magnitude (kA) The statistical variation of the lightning stroke parameters is
b) Insulator string overvoltage vs the peak current magnitude usually approximated by a log-normal distribution, with the
Fig. 30. Overvoltages caused by strokes to phase conductors. following probability density function [86]:
1   ln x − ln xm 
2

Statistical calculation of lightning overvoltages: The main p ( x) = exp − 0.5   (31)
2π xσ ln x   σ ln x  
aspects of the Monte Carlo procedure used in this example are
discussed below [121]: where σlnx is the standard deviation of lnx, and xm is the
a) The values of the random parameters are generated at median value of x. In addition, it is assumed that stroke
every run according to the probability distribution function parameters are independently distributed.
assumed for each one. The calculation of random values Random parameters: The following probability
includes the parameters of the lightning stroke (peak distributions have been assumed for each random value:
current, rise time, tail time, and location of the vertical • Insulator string parameters are determined according to a
channel), the phase conductor voltages, the grounding Weibull distribution. The mean value and the standard
resistance and the insulator strength. deviation of El0 are 570 kV/m and 5%, respectively. The
b) The determination of the point of impact requires of a value of the leader coefficient is kl = 1.3E-6 m2/(V2s) [85].
method for discriminating strokes to line conductors from The value of the average gradient at the critical flashover
those to ground. It is important to distinguish return strokes voltage is assumed to be the same that El0.
to shield wires from those to phase conductors. This step
 159

• The phase conductor reference angle has a uniform 0.0025

distribution, between 0 and 360 degrees.

• The grounding impedance has a normal distribution with a
0.0020

mean value Rm= 50 Ω and a standard deviation σ = 5 Ω.

Probability
0.0015
Remember that the grounding resistance model accounts
for soil ionization effects, so parameter Rm is the mean 0.0010
value of the low-current and low-frequency resistance, Ro.
The value of the soil resistivity is 200 Ω-m. 0.0005
• Stroke parameters are determined assuming a log-normal
distribution for all of them. Table V shows the values used 0.0000
30 110 190 270 350 430 510 590 670
for each parameter. Peak currrent magnitude (kA)

Table V - Statistical parameters of the return stroke [86] a) Strokes to shield wires
0.00008
Parameter x σlnx
0.00007
I100, kA 34.0 0.740 0.00006

tf, µs 2.0 0.494

Probability
0.00005

0.00004
th, µs 77.5 0.577
0.00003
• The stroke location, before the application of the electro- 0.00002
geometric model, is estimated by assuming a vertical path 0.00001
and a uniform ground distribution of the leader.
0.00000
The line model has been implemented considering that only 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
flashovers across insulator strings can occur. Peak currrent magnitude (kA)

Simulation results: All the studies have been performed by b) Strokes to phase conductors
executing a maximum of 40000 runs [121]. Figs. 31 and 32 Fig. 31. Distribution of stroke currents that caused flashovers.
show the results obtained with each of the scenarios Voltage controlled switch model.
considered in this example. Note that the range of peak current 0.0008
magnitudes that cause backflashover (stroke to a shield wire or
0.0007
to a tower) is different from the range of values that cause
0.0006
shielding failure flashover (strokes to phase conductors).
Probability

0.0005
It is evident that after 40000 runs the statistical distribution
is well defined for backflashovers, but not for shielding 0.0004

failures, indicating that even more runs are needed to obtain an 0.0003
accurate enough distribution of this type of overvoltages. 0.0002
The lightning flashover rate of the test line, assuming a 0.0001
ground flash density Ng = 1 fl/km2-year, is 0.845 per 100 km-
0.0000
year when the insulator strings are modeled as voltage- 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720
controlled switches, and 0.347 per km-year when they are Peak currrent magnitude (kA)

represented by means of the LPM. Although the parameters a) Strokes to shield wires
used in both approaches are those recommended by IEC [2] 0.00008
and CIGRE [85], the difference between rates is significant. 0.00007
Note that the range of values that cause flashover with each 0.00006
insulation representation is different and each modeling
Probability

0.00005
approach exhibits a different trend: when the LPM is used, the
0.00004
range of values that cause flashover is narrower than when the
insulation is modeled as a voltage-controlled switch, while the 0.00003

trend is opposite in case of shielding failure flashover. This 0.00002

later performance means that, when the LPM is used, there can 0.00001
be flashovers caused by lightning strokes with lower peak 0.00000
current magnitudes. Remember that with the LPM a flashover 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Peak currrent magnitude (kA)
can occur during the tail of the lightning current; that is, the
insulation can flashover after passing the peak value of the b) Strokes to phase conductors
lightning overvoltage, which is not possible with the other Fig. 32. Distribution of stroke currents that caused flashovers.
modeling approach. Leader progression model (LPM).
 160

Substation Overvoltages: Consider the diagram shown in the duration of the temporary overvoltage is 1 second, using
Fig. 33. It corresponds to a 50 Hz, 220 kV single-line the IEC expression, the following values are obtained:
substation. The objective of this example is to calculate the • MCOV – COV
lightning overvoltages that will be produced inside the 245
COV = = 141 .45 kV
substation when the surge arresters are selected to obtain a 3
specified MTBF for the substation. The results derived for this • TOVC
overvoltage study should be later used for selecting the BIL of 245
substation equipment [65]. TOVC = 1.4 ⋅ = 198.0 kV
3
The information required for this study is as follows:
• Power system: • TOV10
0.02
Frequency = 50 Hz 245  1 
TOV10 = 1.4 ⋅ ⋅   = 189.1 kV
Rated voltage = 220 kV 3  10 
Grounding = Low impedance system, EFF = 1.4 The switching surge energy discharged by the arrester is
Duration of temporary overvoltage = 1 second about 113.6 kJ (see [4]), or less than 1 kJ/kV for any arrester
• Line: of Table VI, which is lower than the usual switching impulse
Length = 80 km energy ratings of station-class arresters.
Span length = 250 m From the catalogue of a manufacturer, the ratings of the
Insulator string strike distance = 2.0 m selected arrester are as follows:
Positive polarity CFO (U50 in IEC) = 1400 kV • Rated voltage (rms): Ur = 210 kV.
Conductor configuration = 1 conductor per phase • MCOV (rms): Uc = 156 kV (170 kV according to IEEE).
Capacitance per unit length = 10.5 nF/km • TOV capability at 10 seconds: TOV10 = 231 kV.
Backflashover rate (BFR) = 2.0 flashovers/100km-years • Nominal discharge current (peak): I = 20 kA (15 kA
Ground wire surge impedance = 438 Ω according to IEEE).
High current grounding resistance = 25 Ω • Line discharge class: Class 4.
Peak voltage at the remote end = 520 kV From the manufacturer data sheets, the height and the
• Substation: creepage distance of the selected arrester are respectively
Single-line substation in an area of high lightning activity 2.105 and 7.250 meters.
MTBF = 200 years The procedure to calculate parameters of the fast-front
Transformer capacitance = 2 ÷ 4 nF. model will be applied to a one column arrester, with an overall
The surge impedance of each substation section is the same height of 2.105 meters, being V10 = 478 kV, and Vss = 435 kV
that the surge impedance of the line, 400 Ω. for a 3 kA, 30/60 µs current waveshape.
The substation is located at sea level, and calculations are • Initial values: The parameters that result from using the
performed assuming standard atmospheric conditions. procedure recommended in [109] are R0 = 210.5 Ω, L0 =
Incoming
surge
12 m 18 m 9m 0.421 µH, R1 = 136.85 Ω, L1 = 31.575 µH, C = 47.51 pF.
• Adjustment of A0 and A1 to match switching surge
Transformer discharge voltage: The arrester model was tested to adjust
Substation
entrance
Circuit
breaker 6m the nonlinear resistances A0 and A1. A 3 kA, 30/60 µs
double-ramp current was injected into the initial model.
The result was a 436.1 kV voltage peak that matches the
Arrester manufacturer’s value within an error of less than 1%.
• Adjustment of L1 to match lightning surge discharge
voltage: Next, the model was tested to match the discharge
Fig. 33. Diagram of a 220 kV substation.
voltages for an 8/20 µs current. This is now made by
Arrester selection: In IEC the rated voltage is the TOV modifying the value of L1 until a good agreement between
capability at 10 seconds with prior energy, TOV10, whose the simulation result and the manufacturer’s value is
value can be obtained from the following expression [124]: achieved. The resulting procedure is shown in Table VI.
m
 t  Table VI - Adjustment of surge arrester model parameters
TOV10 = TOVC ⋅   (32)
 10 
where TOVC is the representative temporary overvoltage, t is L1 Simulated V10 Difference Next value
Run
(mH) (kV) (%) of L1
the duration of this overvoltage and m is a factor, for which
the recommended value is 0.02. 1 31.57 496.7 3.76 15.78
The standard maximum system voltage for 220 kV is Um = 2 15.78 480.0 0.42 14.20
245 kV in IEC, and 242 kV in IEEE. Taking into account that
3 14.20 478.2 0.04 -----
there is a low impedance grounding system (EFF = 1.4) and
 161

Incoming surge: A conservative estimate of the crest 1000

Entrance
voltage for the incoming surge is to assume it is a 20% above
800
the CFO [1]. For the line under study, the crest voltage is
1.2∗1400 = 1680 kV. The distance to flashover is obtained by 600

Voltage (kV)
using the following expression:
400
1
dm = (33)
n ⋅ ( MTBF ) ⋅ BFR 200

where n is the number of lines arriving to the substation, Transformer

0 Breaker
MTBF is the mean time between failures of the substation, and
BFR is the backflashover rate of the line. -200
The desired MTBF for the substation is 200 years. Since 4 5 6 7 8
Time (us)
the BFR of the line is 2.0 flashovers/100 km-years, the span
length is 250 meters, and it is a single-line substation (n = 1), a) Transformer capacitance = 2 nF
the distance to flashover is 0.25 km. 1000
This distance coincides with a tower location, so it does not Entrance
800
have to be modified. That is, d = dm.
The steepness, S, and tail time, th, of the incoming surge are 600

Voltage (kV)
calculated by using the following expressions [1], [2]:
400
K Zg
S= S th = ts (34)
d Ri 200

where KS is the corona constant, obtained from Table VII, d is

0 Breaker Transformer
the backflashover location, Zg is the shield (ground) wire surge
impedance, Ri is the high current resistance and ts is the travel -200
4 5 6 7 8
time of one line span. Time (us)

Table VII - Corona constant [1], [2] b) Transformer capacitance = 4 nF

Conductor KS (kV.km)/µs Fig. 34. Simulation results.
Single conductor 700
Table VIII - Voltage at substation equipment
Two conductor bundle 1000
3 or 4 conductor bundle 1700 Transformer capacitance
Voltage
6 or 8 conductor bundle 2500 2 nF 4 nF
Transformer 752 kV 785 kV
For a single-conductor line KS = 700 (kV.km)/µs. The other
Station entrance 737 kV 645 kV
values to be used in the above expressions are: Zg = 438 Ω, Ri
Circuit breaker 669 kV 632 kV
= 25 Ω, and ts = 0.833 µs. The incoming surge will have the
Arrester - bus junction 684 kV 657 kV
following characteristic values: S = 2800 kV/µs, tf = 0.60 µs,
Transformer 917 kV 858 kV
where tf is the front time. The tail time is th = 14.6 µs.
Simulation results: The voltage at the different equipment
VI. VERY FAST TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES IN GAS
locations (station entrance, circuit breaker, arrester-bus
INSULATED SUBSTATIONS
junction, transformer) must be calculated taking into account
the power-frequency voltage at the time the incoming surge
Introduction
arrives to the substation. IEEE Std 1313.2 recommends a
voltage of opposite polarity to the surge, equal to 83% of the Very Fast Transients (VFT), also known as Very Fast-Front
crest line-to-neutral power frequency voltage [1]. In the case Transients, belong to the highest frequency range of transients
under study, the value of this voltage is 149 kV. Fig. 34 and in power systems. Several causes can originate these transients
Table VIII shows some results obtained with two values of the in power systems: disconnector operations and faults within
transformer capacitance. gas insulated substations (GIS), switching of motors and
These results can be now used to select the basic lightning transformers with short connections to the switchgear, certain
impulse insulation level (BIL) of substation equipment by lightning conditions [2]. This section is exclusively dedicated
following the procedures recommended in standards [1]. to explain the origin of VFT overvoltages (VFTO) in GIS, and
However, it could happen that the resulting BIL values were to analyze the propagation and the effects they have on
above the standardized values, see [65]. In such case, an equipment.
arrester with lower protective characteristics should be VFT arise within a GIS any time there is an instantaneous
selected. change in voltage. Most often this change occurs as the result of
 162

the opening or closing of a disconnect switch, but other events, originates two surges VL and VS which travel outward in the
such as the operation of a circuit breaker, the closing of a bus duct and back into the source side respectively. The
grounding switch, or the occurrence of a fault, can also cause magnitude of both traveling surges is given by:
VFT. These transients generally have a very short rise time, in ZL
VL = (V1 − V2 ) VS = −VL (35)
the range of 4 to 100 ns, and are normally followed by ZS + ZL
oscillations having frequencies in the range of 1 to 50 MHz. where ZS and ZL are the surge impedance on the source and on
Their magnitude is in the range of 1.5 to 2.0 p.u. of the line-to- the load side, respectively. V1 is the intercontact spark voltage,
neutral voltage crest, but they can also reach values as high as while V2 is the trapped charge voltage at the load side.
2.5 p.u. These values are generally below the BIL of the GIS
and connected equipment of lower voltage classes. R
VFTO in GIS are of greater concern at the highest voltages,
for which the ratio of the BIL to the system voltage is lower
[125]. Some equipment failures and arcing problems between C
grounded parts have occurred at system voltages above 420 kV;
they have been correlated with disconnect switch and circuit
breaker operation.
The generation and propagation of VFT from their original a) Diagram of the capacitive circuit
location throughout a GIS can produce internal and external 1.0
Source
overvoltages. The main concern is internal overvoltages voltage
0.5

Voltage (V)
between the center conductor and the enclosure. However,
external VFT can be dangerous for secondary and adjacent 0.0

equipment. The external transients include transient voltages -0.5 Capacitor

between the enclosure and ground at GIS-air interfaces, voltages voltage
across insulating spacers in the vicinity of GIS current -1.0
0 50 100 150 200
transformers, when they do not have a metallic screen on the Time (ms)
outside surface, voltages on the secondary terminals of GIS
b) Opening operation
instrument transformers, and radiated electromagnetic fields
(EMF), which can be dangerous to adjacent control or relay 1.0
Source
equipment. 0.5
voltage
Voltage (V)

Background 0.0

Origin of VFTO in GIS: VFT overvoltages are generated in a -0.5 Capacitor

GIS during disconnector or breaker operations, or by line-to- voltage

ground faults. During a disconnector operation a number of pre- -1.0

0 50 100 150 200
or restrikes occur due to the relatively slow speed of the moving Time (ms)
contact [126]. Fig. 35 shows the simplified configuration used to
c) Closing operation
explain the general switching behavior and the pattern of
voltages on closing and opening of a disconnector at a Fig. 35. Variation of load and source side voltages during discon-
capacitive load [126]-[129]. nector switching [127].
During closing, as the contacts approach, the electric field
VL
between them will rise until sparking occurs. The first strike
will usually occur at the crest of the power frequency voltage. VS
Thereafter current will flow through the spark and charge the
capacitive load to the source voltage. As it does so, the ZS V1 V2 ZL
potential difference across the contacts falls and the spark will
eventually extinguish. The behavior on opening is very nearly
a complete reversal of the above description.
In case of a line-to-ground fault, the voltage collapse at the Fig. 36. Generation of VFT in GIS.
fault location occurs in a similar way as in the disconnector Propagation of VFT in GIS: VFT in GIS can be divided into
gap during striking. Step-shaped traveling surges are generated internal and external. Internal transients can produce
and injected to GIS lines connected to the collapse location. overvoltages between inner conductors and the encapsulation,
The rise time of these surges depend on the voltage preceding external transients can cause stress on secondary and adjacent
the collapse. equipment. A summary about the propagation and main
The scheme shown in Fig. 36 will be very useful to characteristics of both types of phenomena follows.
illustrate the generation of VFT due to a disconnector Internal Transients: Breakdown phenomena across the
operation. The breakdown of a disconnector when it is closing contacts of a disconnector during a switch operation or a line-
 163

to-ground fault generate very short rise time traveling waves 75

f = (37)
which propagate in either direction from the breakdown d
location. As a result of the fast rise time of the wave front, the where d is the duct length, in meters. When a more realistic
propagation throughout a substation must be analyzed by representation of the source is used, (e.g., R = 40 O), the
representing GIS sections as low-loss distributed-parameter maximum overvoltage at the open terminal will depend on the
lines, each section being characterized by a surge impedance voltage at the disconnector just before striking, and on the
and a transit time. Traveling waves are reflected and refracted trapped charge which remains on the load side.
at every point where they encounter a change in the surge Overvoltages can reach higher values in more complex GIS
impedance. The generated transients depend on the GIS configurations. The simulations performed for the T
configuration and on the superposition of the surges reflected configuration gave the highest values, being node 4 the
and refracted on line discontinuities like breakers, T junctions location were the highest overvoltages were originated.
or bushings. As a consequence of multiple reflections and External Transients: An internally generated VFT propagates
refractions, traveling voltages can increase above the original throughout the GIS and reaches the bushing where it causes a
values and very high frequency oscillations occur. transient enclosure voltage and a traveling wave that propagates
The internal damping of the VFT influencing the highest along the overhead transmission line. An explanation about the
frequency components is determined by the spark resistance. generation of external transients and some comments on their
Skin effects due to the aluminum enclosure can be generally main characteristics follow.
neglected. The main portion of the damping of the VFT occurs a) Transient enclosure voltages: Transient enclosure voltages
by outcoupling at the transition to the overhead line. Due to (TEV), also known as transient ground potential rise (TGPR),
the traveling wave behavior of the VFT, the overvoltages are short duration high voltage transients which appear on the
caused by disconnector switches show a spatial distribution. enclosure of the GIS through the coupling of internal transients
Normally the highest overvoltage stress is reached at the open to enclosure at enclosure discontinuities. The usual location for
end of the load side. these voltages is the transition GIS-overhead line at an air
Overvoltages are dependent on the voltage drop at the bushing, although they can also emerge at other points such as
disconnector just before striking, and on the trapped charge visual inspection ports, insulated spacers for CTs or insulated
which remains on the load side of the disconnector. For a flanges at GIS/cables interfaces. The simplified circuit shown in
normal disconnector with a slow speed, the maximum trapped Fig. 39 will be used to explain the generation of TEV [129].
charge reaches 0.5 p.u. resulting in a most unfavorable voltage At the GIS-air interface three transmission lines can be
collapse of 1.5 p.u. For these cases, the resulting overvoltages distinguished: the coaxial GIS transmission line, the
are in the range of 1.7 p.u. and reach 2 p.u. for very specific transmission line formed by the bushing conductor and the
cases. For a high speed disconnector, the maximum trapped overhead line, and the GIS enclosure-to-ground transmission
charge could be 1 p.u. and the highest overvoltages reach line. Each of them has different surge impedance. When an
values up to 2.5 p.u. Although values larger than 3 p.u. have internal wave propagates to the gas-to-air bushing, a portion of
been reported, they have been derived by calculation using the transient is coupled onto the overhead line-to-ground
unrealistic simplified simulation models. The main frequencies transmission line, and a portion is coupled onto the GIS
depend on the length of the GIS sections affected by the enclosure-to-ground transmission line. The latter constitutes
disconnector operation and are in the range of 1 to 50 MHz. the TEV.
The following examples will be useful to illustrate the In general, TEV waveforms have at least two components,
influence of some parameters on the frequency and magnitude the first one has a short initial rise time and is followed by
of VFT in GIS. Fig. 37 and 38 shows two very simple cases, a high frequency oscillations determined by the lengths of
single-bus duct and a T junction in which GIS components are various sections of the GIS; they are concentrated in the range
modeled as lossless distributed-parameter transmission lines. of 5 to 10 MHz. The second component is of lower frequency,
The source side is represented as a step-shaped source in hundreds of kHz, and is often associated with the discharge of
series with a resistance. This is a simplified modeling of an capacitive devices with the grounding system.
infinite length bus duct. The surge impedance of all bus Both components are damped quickly as a result of the
sections is 50 O. For the simplest configuration, the reflections lossy nature of the enclosure-to-ground plane transmission
of the traveling waves at both terminals of the duct will mode. TEV generally persists for a few microseconds. The
produce, when the source resistance is neglected, a pulse- magnitude varies along the enclosure; it can be in the range of
shaped transient of constant magnitude - 2 p.u. - and constant 0.1 to 0.3 p.u. of the system voltage, and reaches the highest
frequency at the open terminal. The frequency of this pulse magnitude near the GIS-air interface.
can be calculated from the following expression: The TEV wave which couples onto the enclosure
1 encounters grounding connections which form transmission
f = (36)
4τ line discontinuities and attenuate TEV. Mitigation methods
being t the transit time of the line. If the propagation velocity include grounding using low surge impedance, short length
is close to that of light, the frequency, in MHz, of the voltage leads and the installation of metal-oxide arresters across any
generated at the open terminal will be insulating spacers.
 164

0 R 1 2
R 12 m
0 1 2

6m
12 m

24 m 4

a) Scheme of the network a) Scheme of the network

3 3
Source Open end Source Node 4

2 2
Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)
1 1

0 0

-1 -1
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (µs) Time (µs)
b) R = 0, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = 0 p.u. b) R = 0, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = 0 p.u.
1.5 1.5
Source Open end Source Open end
Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (µs) Time (µs)

c) R = 40 Ω, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = 0 p.u. c) R = 40 Ω, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = 0 p.u.

6 6

4 Source Open end 4 Source Open end

Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

2 2

0 0

-2 -2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (µs) Time (µs)

d) R = 0, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = −1 p.u. d) R = 0, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = −1 p.u.

3 3
Source Open end Source Open end
2 2
Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

1 1

0 0

-1 -1
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (µs) Time (µs)
e) R = 40 Ω, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = −1 p.u. e) R = 40 Ω, V1 = 1 p.u., V2 = −1 p.u.
Fig. 37. Generation of VFTO in a GIS bus duct. Fig. 38. Generation of VFTO in a GIS with a bifurcation point.
 165

Due to the traveling nature of VFT, modeling of GIS

components makes use of electrical equivalent circuits
composed of lumped elements and distributed-parameter lines.
At very high frequencies, the skin losses can produce a
noticeable attenuation. However, due to the geometrical
structure of GIS and the enclosure material, skin losses are
usually neglected, which gives conservative results. Only the
dielectric losses in some components (e.g., capacitively graded
bushing) need be taken into account.
Only modeling guidelines for representing GIS equipment
in computation of internal transients are discussed in the
a) GIS-air transition
following paragraphs [9], [10], [130]-[135]. The models are
based on single-phase representations; however, depending on
the substation layout and the study to be performed, three-
phase models for inner conductors should be considered [137].
More advanced guidelines were analyzed and proposed in
[137].
For the calculation of internal transients all the distributed-
parameter lines take into account the internal mode (conductor-
enclosure) only, assuming that the external enclosure is perfectly
b) Single-line diagram
grounded. If TEV is of concern, then a second mode (enclosure-
Fig. 39. Generation of transient enclosure voltages (TEV). ground) is to be considered. A short explanation about the
b) Transients on overhead connections: A portion of the representation of the most important GIS components follows
VFT traveling wave incident at a gas-air transition is coupled [133] - [135].
onto the overhead connection and propagates to other a) Bus ducts: For a range of frequencies lower than 100 MHz,
components. This propagation is lossy and results in some a bus duct can be represented as a lossless transmission line. The
increase of the waveform rise time, although transients can inductance and the capacitance per unit length of a horizontal
have rise times in the range of 10 to 20 ns if the air connection single-phase coaxial cylinder configuration, as that shown in
is relatively short. In general, external waveforms have two Fig. 40, are given by the following expressions:
different characteristics: (a) the overall waveshape is dictated µ R
L = o ln (38a)
by lumped-circuit parameters, such as the capacitance of 2π r
voltage transformers or line and grounding inductances; the 2πε
C= (38b)
rise time is in the range of a few hundred nanoseconds; (b) a R
ln
fast-front portion which is dictated by transmission line r
effects; it has a rise time in the range of 20 ns and is usually from where the following form for the surge impedance is
reduced in magnitude due to discontinuities in the derived
transmission path. The fast rise time of the initial portion is µo / εo
L R R
possible because capacitive components, such as bushings, are Z= ≈ ln = 60 ln (39)
C 2π r r
physically long and distributed, and they cannot be treated as
lumped elements. R
The magnitude of the rise time portion of external transients
is generally lower than that of internal VFT, the voltage rate- r

of-rise can be in the range of 10-30 kV/µs. However, as VFT

occur during normal conditions in GIS and each disconnector
operation can generate tens to hundreds of individual h

transients, possible aging on the insulation of external

components must be considered. These overvoltages can cause
stress on adjacent equipment, and resonance phenomena can
occur in exposed transformers.
c) Transient electromagnetic fields: EMF are radiated from Fig. 40. Coaxial bus duct cross section.
the enclosure and can cause some stress on secondary A different approach should be used for vertically oriented
equipment, especially when sophisticated computer-controlled bus sections. As for the propagation velocity, empirical
equipment may be affected. Their frequency depends on the GIS corrections are usually needed to adjust its value.
arrangement, but is typically in the range of 10 to 20 MHz. Experimental results show that the propagation velocity in GIS
Modeling Guidelines ducts is close to 0.95 - 0.96 of the speed of light [130]. The
 166

error committed by ignoring skin effect losses is usually computation were discussed in [139]. The terminal
negligible. capacitance to ground must be added to (40) to obtain the total
Other devices, such as elbows, can also be modeled as capacitance of the winding. Most of this terminal capacitance
lossless transmission lines. comes from the capacitance of the terminal bushing to ground.
b) Surge arresters: Experimental results have shown that If voltage transfer is not of concern, an accurate
switching operations in GIS do not produce voltages high representation can be obtained by developing a circuit that
enough to cause metal-oxide surge arresters to conduct, then matches the frequency response of the transformer at its
the arrester can be modeled as a capacitance-to-ground. terminals. At very high frequencies, the saturation of the
However, when the arrester conducts, the model should take magnetic core can be neglected, as well as leakage
into account the steep front wave effect, since the voltage impedances.
developed across the arrester for a given discharge current During the last years, modeling of transformers and their
increases as the time to crest of the current increases, but analysis in front of very fast-front transients has been the
reaches crest prior to the crest of the current. A detailed model subject of several works; see, for instance, [106], [140]-[145].
must represent each internal shield and block individually, and f) Current transformers: Insulating gaps are usually installed
include the travel times along shield sections, as well as in the vicinity of current transformers. During high voltage
capacitances between these sections, capacitances between switching operations, these gaps flash over, establishing a
blocks and shields, and the blocks themselves. continuous path. Traveling waves propagate with little
c) Circuit breakers: A closed breaker can be represented as a distortion. Current transformers can often be neglected. In any
lossless transmission line, whose electrical length is equal to case several approaches have been proposed to represent these
the physical length, being the propagation velocity reduced to transformers, see for instance [132].
0.95 - 0.96 of the speed of light. The representation of an open g) Spark dynamics: The behavior of the spark in
circuit breaker is more complicated due to internal disconnector operations can be represented by a dynamically
irregularities. In addition, circuit breakers with several variable resistance, with a controllable collapse time. In
chambers contain grading capacitors, which are not arranged general, this representation does not affect the magnitude of
symmetrically. The electrical length must be increased above the maximum VFT overvoltages, but it can introduce a
the physical length due to the effect of a longer path through significant damping on internal transients [146].
the grading capacitors, while the speed of progression must be
Case Study [134]
decreased due to the effects of the higher dielectric constant of
these capacitors. As explained above, VFT in GIS are caused by dielectric
d) Gas-to-air bushings: A bushing gradually changes the breakdowns. The collapsing electric field during a breakdown
surge impedance from that of the GIS to that of the line. A produces traveling waves which propagate in both directions
detailed model of the bushing must consider the coupling from the disturbance location. This propagation can be
between the conductor and shielding electrodes, and include analyzed assuming that propagation losses are negligible.
the representation of the grounding system connected to the Traveling waves appear externally at enclosure transitions, e.g.
bushing. A simplified model consists of several transmission gas-to-air terminations. At these transitions, reflected waves
lines in series with a lumped resistor representing losses. The traveling back onto the station and transmitted waves coupled
surge impedance of each line section increases as the location onto the outside of the enclosure sheaths are generated. The
goes up the bushing. If the bushing is distant from the point of magnitude of the traveling waves will depend on their source
interest, the resistor can be neglected and a single-line section (disconnect switch operation, fault) and the GIS configuration.
can be used. A more advanced model for capacitively graded Due to the very high frequencies generated by a dielectric
bushings was proposed in [138]. breakdown within the GIS, a digital simulation is restricted to
e) Power transformers: A common practice is to model a calculations during the VFT waveform period, usually 1 or 2 µs.
power transformer as a capacitor representing the capacitance If the simulation is performed with an EMTP-type program,
of the winding to ground. When voltage transfer has to be which uses a constant time step size, then the value of this step
calculated, interwinding capacitances and secondary size will depend on the shorter transit time in the GIS, and must
capacitance-to-ground must also be represented. At very high be equal or smaller than one-half the shorter transit time.
frequencies a winding of a transformer behaves like a Low voltage tests are a very useful tool for development and
capacitive network consisting of series capacitances between validation of GIS models. The case analyzed in this section
turns and coils, and shunt capacitances between turns and coils presents the simulation of internal transients during low voltage
to the grounded core and transformer tank. The equivalent tests of a 765 kV GIS.
capacitance, Ce, is given by Figs. 41 and 42 show the one-line and the connectivity
Ce = C g C s (40) diagram of a 765 kV test bay. Detailed data are given in Table
IX. Models used to represent components of this case are those
where Cs and Cg are the equivalent series and ground
discussed above.
capacitances of the winding. The equivalent series
capacitance, Cs, is more difficult to compute. The details of
 167

Bushing

UC1

UK

Fig. 41. One-line diagram of the test system.

D1

10 pF

D22

D44

D66 T3

T25 T24 J7 T26 T27 T12

D88 T4

T16 T17 T14 T13 J2

D9 J1
T11

T23 T22 J3 T21 T20 T18

T9 T5
J4 T19

UC1 T10 T6

75 Ω
UK J6 T28 J5 T30 T32

75 Ω

T29

Fig. 42. Connectivity diagram of the test system.

These models were developed by using the following 1) Low voltage tests on individual components were
procedure: performed using waves with fronts of 4 and 20 ns.
 168

2) Models based on physical dimensions were developed, Waveforms obtained for each case at two nodes are shown in
assuming a propagation velocity equal to that of light. Figs. 43 and 44. It can be observed that waveforms for both
3) Digital models were adjusted so simulation results were cases are essentially the same, except for the first nanoseconds
matched to measurements. The main adjustment was to in the vicinity of the input node UC1. These simulation results
decrease propagation velocity to 0.96 that of light. were validated by comparison with low voltage measurements.
100
Table IX - Data of the 765 kV GIS
80
Branch Z (Ω) Travel time (ns)

Voltage (V)
UC1 - J3 75 6.40 60
J3 - J4 75 48.0
40
J4 - T22 75 2.20
T22 - T23 51 1.90 20
J4 - D9 78 2.20
D9 - D88 68 1.80 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
D88 - D66 59 4.20 Time (us)
D44 - D22 33 5.80
a) Voltage at location UC1
D22 - D1 330 9.10
100
J3 - T21 75 2.20
T21 - T20 51 1.90 80

T20 - T19 160 0.67

Voltage (V)
60
T19 - T18 65 1.70
T19 - T17 75 6.80 40

T17 - T16 65 1.70

20
T17 - J7 75 8.50
J7 - T24 75 2.20 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
T24 - T25 51 1.90
Time (us)
J7 - T26 75 2.20
T26 - T27 51 1.90 b) Voltage at location UK
T17 - T14 160 0.67 Fig. 43. Simulation results with 4 ns ramp.
T14 - T13 51 1.90 100
T13 - T11 75 9.90
T11 - T12 65 1.70 80
Voltage (V)

T11 - J2 75 7.50 60
J2 - T9 75 2.20
T9 - T10 51 1.90 40

T10 - T28 160 0.67

20
T28 - J6 75 7.10
J6 - UK 75 6.40 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
T28 - T29 65 1.70 Time (us)
T28 - J5 75 8.80
a) Voltage at location UC1
J5 - T30 75 2.20
100
T30 - T32 51 1.90
J2 - J1 75 6.70 80
J1 - T4 75 2.20
Voltage (V)

60
T4 - T3 51 1.90
J1 - T5 75 2.20 40
T5 - T6 51 1.90
20
Two transients have been reproduced:
• in the first one, a ramp voltage is applied at t = 0, 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
• in the second case, the ramp voltage source is also used but Time (us)
the transient starts after closing a switch at the instant the
b) Voltage at location UK
ramp reaches its maximum value.
Fig. 44. Simulation results from closing a switch.
 169

For normal studies, the transient may be originated by any of • The asymmetry of the intercontact breakdown voltage
the following three causes: can also affect the trapped charge distribution; in general,
• a ramp voltage with a magnitude determined by the voltage both the magnitude and the range of values are reduced if
across the switch; there is a difference in the breakdown voltage of the gap
• two ramp currents on opposite sides of the switch such that for positive and negative values.
the voltage across the switch is equal to zero at the crest of
Validation
the inputs;
• a switch closing operation after charging both sides of the The results presented in Figs. 45 and 46 illustrate the
switch to the desired value. accuracy with which VFT can be obtained by means of
simulation. Fig. 45 demonstrates the accuracy of such
Statistical Calculation techniques by comparing a computer simulation with a direct
The level reached by VFTO is random by nature. The measurement of a transient waveform in an actual GIS. The
maximum overvoltage produced by a disconnector breakdown simulation performed neglects the presence of propagation
depends on the geometry of the GIS, the measuring point, the losses which result in somewhat less damping of the high
voltage prior to the transient at the load side (trapped charge) frequency part of the waveform. The effects of spacers,
and the intercontact voltage at the time of the breakdown. flanges, elbows, corona shields, and other connection
Several works have been performed to determine the statistical hardware, were included in the model, while propagation
distribution of VFT overvoltages in a GIS [127], [146], [147], losses were neglected.
[148]. Fig. 46 shows that certain differences in the range of higher
The following expression has been proposed to calculate frequencies can occur when the simulation is performed with a
the transient overvoltages as a function of time t and position low damping equivalent circuit and measuring instruments
s: cannot capture very high frequencies. However, the main
V (t , s ) = Vb ⋅ K (t , s ) + Vq (41) waveform has been reproduced with sufficient accuracy [149].
where K(t, s) is the normalized response of the GIS, Vb is the
intercontact spark voltage and Vq the voltage prior to the
transient at the point of interest. Since Vb and Vq are random
variables, V(t, s) is also random. This equation can be used to
estimate worst case values [148].
The performance of a disconnector during an opening
operation can be characterized by the pattern of arcing on a
capacitive load, see Fig. 35. A difference in breakdown
voltages for the two polarities indicates a dielectric
asymmetry. When the asymmetry is large compared to the
statistical variance in breakdown voltage a systematic pattern
is originated near the end of the arcing sequence [147]. The Fig 45. Comparison of measurement and simulation of disconnect
final trapped charge voltage has a distribution which is very switch induced overvoltages in a 420 kV GIS [133], [149].
dependent on the asymmetry in the intercontact breakdown
voltage.
The dielectric asymmetry of a disconnector is usually a
function of contact separation. A disconnector may show a
different performance at different operating voltages.
Consequently, very different stresses will be originated as a
result of different operational characteristics.
The following conclusions may be derived from the results
presented in the literature [127], [146]-[148]:
• The value of the trapped charge is mainly dependent on
the disconnect switch characteristics, the faster the
switch, the greater the mean value that the trapped charge
voltage can reach.
• For slow switches the probability of a re-/prestrike with
the greatest breakdown voltage, in the range 1.8-2 p.u., is
very small; however, due to the great number of re-
/prestrikes which are produced with one operation this Fig. 46. Measurement and simulation of overvoltages in a 420 kV
probability should not always be neglected. GIS at closing a disconnect switch [133].
 170

The characterization and quantification of VFT in GIS as connections to ground, introducing shielding to prevent
well as the electromagnetic fields radiated during switching internally generated VFT from reaching the outside of the
operations in GIS have been the subject of several recent enclosure, and installing voltage limiting varistors where
works which have also validated the approaches proposed to spacers must be employed.
date for representing GIS equipment, see [150]-[152]. e) Bushings: Very few problems have been reported with
capacitively graded bushings. High impedances in the
Effects of VFT on Equipment
connection of the last graded layer to the enclosure should be
The level reached by VFT overvoltages caused by avoided.
disconnector switching or line-to-ground faults inside a GIS is, f) Secondary equipment: TEV may interfere with secondary
in general, below the BIL of substation and external equipment or damage sensitive circuits by raising the housing
equipment [153]. However, aging of the insulation of external potential if they are directly connected, or via cable shields to
equipment due to frequent VFT must be considered. TEV is a GIS enclosure by emitting free radiation which may induce
low energy phenomenon, and it is not considered dangerous to currents and voltages in adjacent equipment. Correct cable
humans; the main concern is in the danger of the surprise- connection procedures may minimize interference. The
shock effect. External transients can cause interference with or coupling of radiated energy may be reduced by mounting
even damage to the substation control, protection and other control cables closely along the enclosure supports and other
secondary equipment [129], [153]. grounded structures, grounding cable shields at both ends by
Although surge arresters may limit the amplitude of VFTO, leads as short as possible, or using optical coupling services.
they cannot effectively reduce the wave steepness. A recent Voltage limiting devices may have to be installed.
solution to address the stresses created by VFTO is to
suppress them from the source side by installing ferromagnetic VII. CONCLUSIONS
rings which can be mounted on the conductors linked to the This chapter has provided an introduction to the causes of
disconnector from both sides so as to effectively suppress both overvoltages in power systems and general rules for their
the steepness and the amplitudes of VFTO [154]. study using electromagnetic transient tools. Main concerns are
The main effects caused by VFT to equipment and the related to modeling and to the extent of the system to be
techniques which can be used to mitigate these effects are modeled. These aspects have been addressed through several
summarized below [128]. test studies that have covered the full range of transient
a) SF6 insulation: The probability breakdown caused by overvoltages. Specific recommendations and conclusions for
VFTO increases with the frequency of the oscillations. In each type of overvoltage are summarized in the following
addition, breakdown values can be reduced by insulation paragraphs.
irregularities like edges and fissures. At UHV, for which the Ferroresonance: Because of the nonlinear nature of this
ratio of BIL to the system voltage is lower, breakdown is more phenomenon, it is difficult to predict if and where it may
likely to be caused; at these levels, VFTO can be reduced by occur. Transient simulations may be used to confirm or predict
using resistor-fitted disconnectors [125]. the likelihood of ferroresonance only if a correct model is
b) Transformers: Due to steep fronted wave impulses, used. A crucial aspect is therefore a proper transformer model:
direct connected transformers can experience an extremely a complete three-phase model must be used, transformer core
nonlinear voltage distribution along the high voltage winding, configuration must be accurately represented and the
connected to the oil-SF6 bushings, and high part-winding saturation curve must be specified to operating levels well
resonance voltages due to transient oscillations generated above rated voltage [7].
within the GIS. Transformers can generally withstand these Swiching overvoltages: One of the main difficulties is the
stresses; however, in critical cases, it might be necessary to great variety of scenarios to be analyzed. In addition, several
install varistors to protect tap changers. approaches can be considered for representing a single
c) Disconnectors and breakers: The insulation system of element; see the discussion about line and cable models. As
breakers and switches is not endangered by VFTO generated for other transient studies, the main goal is to have as simple a
in adjacent GIS equipment. Ground faults induced by VFTO model as possible without a significant loss in accuracy. Load
have been observed in disconnectors operations, as residual modeling and the presentation of losses are two interesting
leader branches can be activated by enhanced field gradient to aspects. In general, the load model is omitted and conservative
ground. These faults can be avoided by a proper disconnector results (when load may have an influence) are obtained.
design. Losses are one of the most difficult aspects to be represented
d) Enclosure: TEV can cause sparking across insulated in a transient model. In some cases, losses are not a very
flanges and to insulated busbars of CTs, and puncture of critical aspect, since they introduce damping and their effect
insulation which is intended to limit the spread of circulating on maximum voltages and oscillation frequencies is very
currents within the enclosure. TEV can be minimized with a limited. However, there are a few examples (e.g., some
proper design and arrangement of substation mats, keeping capacitor switching operations) for which an accurate
ground leads as short and straight as possible in order to representation of losses is recommended.
minimize the inductance, increasing the number of
 171

Lightning overvoltages: Although the emphasis has been on the minimum length of traveling wave models, plus the use of
lightning analysis of transmission lines and substations, flashover gaps and surge arresters with significant lead
modeling guidelines are applicable for other phenomena lengths. As a general rule, it will range from 1 to 20 ns, with a
having the same frequency range (i.e., 10 kHz up to 1 MHz). simulation length from 20 to 50 ms. However, there can be
Examples where such modeling guidelines are applicable some studies for which much longer simulation time can be
include (a) selection of surge arrester location and rating for necessary; e.g., arrester energy stresses.
protection of transmission lines, as well as air-insulated and The validation of a transient model can be crucial aspect
gas-insulated substations; (b) selection/ verification of and is always a difficult task, mainly when the cause of the
clearances within substations and transmission towers (i.e., transient is random (e.g., lightning) or the system is very
phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase), or (c) calculation of nonlinear (e.g., ferroresonance). There is, however, a
flashover rates or MTBF. significant experience in validating transients caused by
Very fast-front transient overvoltages in GIS: A description switching operations; that is, when the starting time of the
of the origin and main characteristics of VFT in GIS, as well transient is previously scheduled, see Sections IV and VI.
as their effects on substation and adjacent equipment, has been
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 175

Analysis of FACTS Controllers and

Their Transient Modeling Techniques
Kalyan K. Sen, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—This chapter presents analysis and transient

modeling techniques, which are used in FACTS (Flexible
Alternating Current Transmission Systems) controllers, but are
Power Load
suitable for other power electronics applications, such as custom Source
power, adjustable speed drives, and so on. A rough order
magnitude of benefits from using the FACTS controllers can be
estimated using some simple formulae. These estimates can be
refined further using models of FACTS controllers with various
levels of details. Even though this chapter refers to modeling
techniques using an EMTP-type simulation package, other
Load
circuit simulation packages can be employed for this purpose.
A sufficiently-detailed circuit model of a Voltage-Sourced
Fig. 1. Part of a large interconnected transmission system supplying electric
Converter (VSC) with Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) thyristor switches
power from the generating point to the loads.
is developed. Applications of FACTS controllers are developed
using simplified VSC models, which are replaced by more
Controlled Path
detailed VSC models for verification of finer details.
Power
Index Terms—Electromagnetic Transient Program, FACTS. Flow
Controller

I. INTRODUCTION Power Load

Source

E LECTRICAL energy is transported from the generating

point to the point of use through interconnected
transmission lines as shown in Fig. 1. The flow of
electricity takes place freely through the path of least
impedance. This natural or uncompensated flow of electricity
is, in general, not economically optimal and may cause certain Load
transmission lines to be overloaded or underloaded. The flow
Fig. 2. Power flow along a controlled path.
of electricity in a particular line of a transmission system can
be controlled with the use of a power flow controller (PFC),
The definition of FACTS, namely flexible alternating
as shown in Fig. 2 [1, 2].
current transmission systems, states that “alternating current
The transmission of power in a single line with a sending-
transmission systems incorporating power electronic based
end voltage, Vs (of magnitude, Vs, and angle, δs), and a
and other static controllers to enhance controllability and
receiving-end voltage, Vr (of magnitude, Vr, and angle, δr),
increased power transfer capability.”
connected by a line reactance (X) and the related phasor
diagrams are shown in Fig. 3. Ignoring the line resistance, the
Psn, Qsn Prn, Qrn
natural voltage, VXn (i.e., Vs − Vr), across the line reactance
VXn
(X) is the difference between the sending- and receiving-end I I
voltages. The resulting line current (I) lags the voltage (VXn)
by 90ο. The natural active and reactive powers (Psn and Qsn) at I
Vs X ο Vr
the sending end and (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end are 90
VXn
Psn = Prn = An sin δ (1)
Qsn = An [(Vs / Vr ) − cos δ ] (2a)
Vs Vr
Qrn = An [cos δ − (Vr / Vs )] (2b) δ
where An = VsVr / X and δ = δ s − δ r .

The author can be contacted at [email protected]. Fig. 3. Simple power transmission system and the related phasor diagrams.
 176

Two-winding Switched Switched

Transformer Inductor Capacitor

Autotransformer SVC STATCOM

Fig 4. Transmission line voltage regulators.

The power flow control parameters are voltage magnitudes, secondary windings, whereas, in the autotransformer, only a
their phase angles, and line reactance. Any of these parameters fraction of the line voltage is induced in the secondary
can be controlled individually with the use of the following, windings that are connected to the primary windings to
now considered conventional, equipment: produce the full line voltage. In both cases, the magnitude of
• Voltage regulating transformer (VRT), shunt or the line voltage is regulated. The secondary voltage is varied
parallel-connected switched inductor/capacitor, static with the use of load tap changers (LTCs) [3]. An LTC can
var compensator (SVC), or static synchronous step up/down the voltage without interruption of the load
compensator (STATCOM) for voltage regulation, as current. Both primary and secondary windings in the two-
shown in Fig. 4 winding transformer carry the full transmitted power. Both
• Phase angle regulator (PAR) or phase shifting primary and secondary windings in the autotransformer carry
transformer (PST) for phase angle regulation, as shown only a fraction of the full transmitted power. The indirect way
in Fig. 5 to regulate the line voltage is to connect an inductor or a
• Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC) for series capacitor in shunt with the transmission line. A shunt-
reactance regulation, as shown in Fig. 6. connected inductor absorbs reactive power from the line and
lowers the line voltage, whereas a shunt-connected capacitor
raises the line voltage with its generated reactive power. The
SVC connects fixed capacitors in a step-like manner in shunt
with the line through thyristor switches and also connects an
inductor in shunt with the line through thyristor switches
whose duty cycle can be varied, thereby making it function as
a variable inductor. The indirect way to regulate the shunt-
connected inductor or capacitor is to use a voltage-sourced
converter (VSC)-based STATCOM that connects an
electronically generated sinusoidal voltage (with some
harmonic components) in shunt with the transmission line
through a tie inductor. The same concept has been practiced
Fig. 5. Transmission line voltage phase angle regulator. with the use of a synchronous condenser. The power flow in a
transmission line has also been regulated with the use of the
PAR. The line voltage is applied to the primary windings and
the induced secondary voltage that is varied with the use of
LTCs is connected in series with the line. Through the use of
the TCSC, a series-connected variable capacitor or a variable
inductor can be implemented.
By changing any one of the power flow control parameters
(voltage, its phase angle, and line reactance) using a PFC,
both active and reactive power flows in a transmission line
Fig. 6. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor for transmission line reactance
regulation. can be affected simultaneously. The independent control of
active and reactive power flows in a transmission line can
The VRT is in the form of a two-winding transformer with maximize the flow of active power while minimizing the flow
isolated windings and an autotransformer with electrical of reactive power, thus generating the most revenue from an
connection between the windings. In both transformers, the AC transmission system.
line voltage is applied to the primary windings. In the two- An ideal PFC controls the above-mentioned three power
winding transformer, the full line voltage is induced in the flow control parameters simultaneously to regulate the
 177

magnitude and the phase angle of the line voltage (0ο) or out of phase (180ο) with the line voltage and, therefore,
independently by adding a series-connected compensating regulates the magnitude of the transmission line voltage. The
voltage to the original voltage with the use of a shunt-series compensating voltage in the PAR is in quadrature (+90ο or –
power converter, as shown in Fig. 7. As a result, the active 90ο) with the line voltage and, therefore, regulates the phase
and reactive powers in the line can be controlled angle of the transmission line voltage. The Sen transformer
independently. This concept was implemented in transmission (ST), as shown in Fig. 9, creates a series compensating
line applications using a unified power flow controller voltage that is variable in magnitude and phase angle and can
(UPFC) as shown in Fig. 8. The series-connected VSC that is control the transmission line voltage in both magnitude and
rated for a fraction of the line voltage carries the full line phase angle in order to achieve independent control of active
current. The shunt-connected VSC that is rated for the full line and reactive power flows in the line. This compensating
voltage carries only a fraction of the line current. Therefore, voltage may be thought of as two orthogonal compensating
each VSC carries only a fraction of the full transmitted power. voltages of a separate autotransformer and a PAR. Therefore
in the ST, the functions of the autotransformer and the PAR
are combined in a single unit that results in a reduced amount
of hardware from what is required for a separate
autotransformer and a PAR.
The objective of this chapter is to present transient
modeling techniques of FACTS controllers with various levels
of details. To verify the steady-state results from the
Pexch simulation, some simple formulae are derived.
The modeling techniques used in this chapter refer to an
EMTP-type simulation package, although any circuit
simulation package can be employed for this purpose. The
EMTP models and accompanying descriptions are powerful
tools that provide the sequence of how a VSC is
Fig. 7. Independent active and reactive power flows controller using a shunt- commissioned step-by-step and used as a FACTS controller.
series power converter.
The models include all the necessary components: a VSC with
a DC link capacitor, a magnetic circuit, and a realizable
controller. The same techniques can be employed to model
other power electronics-based system, such as an adjustable
speed drive, arc furnace compensator, HVDC transmission
system, and so on.

II. THEORY OF POWER FLOW CONTROL

The basic principle of electric power flow enhancement in
an AC transmission line is explained in Figs. 10 through 14.
The power flow is a function of the line impedance (R, X), the
magnitudes of the sending-end voltage (Vs) and the receiving-
Fig. 8. Realization of Fig. 6 by a shunt-series power converter (Unified Power
end voltage (Vr) and the phase angle (δ) between these
Flow Controller). voltages.
Consider a simple power transmission system of Fig. 3 with
a series-connected compensating voltage, Vs’s, (of magnitude,
Vs’s, and angle, δs + β) as shown in Fig. 10a. For simplicity, Vs
and Vr are considered to be 1 pu each, the phase angle, δ (= δs
− δr), between these voltages to be 30ο, and X to be 0.5 pu.
When uncompensated (i.e., Vs’s = 0), the natural voltage, (VXn
= Vs − Vr) across the transmission line is the difference
between the sending-end and receiving-end voltages, the
magnitude of which is 0.5176 pu.
Consider that the point of compensation in a transmission
line is at its sending end. Assuming that there are no changes
in the transmission line’s impedance and the voltage at the
receiving end, a power flow controller can control the flows of
active and reactive powers (P and Q) to be a particular pair of
values by modifying the transmission line’s sending-end
voltage to be of one particular magnitude and at a specific
Fig. 9. Realization of Fig. 6 by a tap-changer transformer (Sen transformer). angle. Successful injection of a compensating voltage in series
The compensating voltage in an autotransformer is in phase with the transmission line modifies the line voltage so that the
 178

active and reactive power flows in the line is independently which is a circle centered at (Psn, Qsn) with a radius of As. The
controlled. For a desired amount of active and reactive power active and reactive power flows at the sending end of the line
flows in the line, the compensating voltage has to be of one can be regulated within the range defined by the P-Q plot in
particular magnitude and at a specific angle with respect to the Fig. 11b by controlling the magnitude (Vs’s) of the
line voltage. compensating voltage (Vs’s) within its rated value and the
angle (β) between 0ο and 360ο, respectively. For desired
Vs's power flows (Ps* and Qs*) at the sending end, the required
Ps , Q s Ps', Q s' Pr , Q r magnitude (Vs’s) and the angle (β) of the compensating voltage
Vd Vq are calculated from the equations (3) and (4) as
VX
I
(a) Vs 's = ( X / Vs ) ( Ps * − Psn ) 2 + (Qs * −Qsn ) 2 (5a)
X β = tan −1 {( Ps * − Psn ) /(Qs * −Qsn )} . (5b)
Vs Vs' Vr

P exch Q exch For implementation of a VRT (i.e., β = 0ο or 180ο), the

= Vd I = Vq I variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Voltage Regulator I Ps = Psn (6a)
with '-R' Line
Phase Angle Qs = Qsn ± As . (6b)
Regulator
Vs's Line
Pexch For implementation of a PAR (i.e., β = ± 90ο), the
Vs Vr variations of Ps and Qs are given by
β
VX Ps = Psn ± As (7a)
with '+R' Reactance δ Qs = Qsn . (7b)
Vs' Vs Compensator 2
Line
(V d = 0) Therefore, in the case of a VRT, only the reactive power
(Qs) and in the case of a PAR, only the active power (Ps) at
the sending end varies with the magnitude (Vs’s) of the
compensating voltage (Vs’s).
δ
P s @ V s's = 0.2 pu
(b) ψ δr δs δ s' (pu) As
1
P sn
Fig. 10. (a) Power transmission system with a series-connected compensating As
voltage (Vs’s). (b) Phasor diagram. (a)
0.5 Qs @ V s's = 0.2 pu As
Qsn
When a compensating voltage (Vs’s) is added in series with
the transmission line, the effective sending-end voltage ο ο
180 360
becomes Vs’ (i.e., Vs + Vs’s). Fig. 10b shows the phasor 0
diagram related to a series-connected compensating voltage β
Qs (pu)
with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu and its entire controllable
range of 0ο ≤ β ≤ 360o. The difference (Vs’ – Vr) provides the
1 Phase Angle β =0 ο
Regulator
compensated voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X). As Line (P sn , Qsn )
the angle (β) is varied over its full 360o range, the end of (b) 0.5
phasor (Vs’s) moves along a circle with its center located at the
Voltage As
end of phasor (Vs). The rotation of phasor (Vs’s) with an angle Regulator β
(β) modulates both the magnitude and the angle of phasor Line
(VX). The active and reactive powers (Ps and Qs) at the 0
1
sending end in a compensated line are calculated as * * P s (pu)
(Ps ,Qs )
Ps = Psn + As sin β (3a)
Qs = Qsn + As cos β (3b) Fig. 11. (a) Variation of the sending-end active and reactive power flows (Ps
and Qs) as a function of the relative phase angle (β) of the compensating
where As = VsVs 's / X .
voltage (Vs’s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu. (b) Sending-end Qs versus Ps.

The active and reactive powers (Ps and Qs) at the sending The active and reactive powers (Pr and Qr) at the receiving
end as functions of the angle (β) are plotted in Fig. 11a. The end in a compensated line are calculated as
relationship between Qs and Ps is described as Pr = Prn + Ar sin(δ + β ) (8a)
2
( Ps − Psn ) 2 + (Qs − Qsn ) 2 = As (4)
 179

Qr = Qrn + Ar cos(δ + β ) (8b) Therefore, in the case of a VRT or a PAR, both the active
where Ar = VrVs 's / X . and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end vary
with the magnitude (Vs’s) of the compensating voltage (Vs’s).
The active and reactive powers (Pr and Qr) at the receiving
The active and reactive powers (Ps’ and Qs’) at the modified
end as functions of the angle (β) are plotted in Fig. 12a. The sending end are calculated as
relationship between Qr and Pr is described as
2
Ps ' = Psn + Ar sin(δ + β ) (13a)
( Pr − Prn ) 2 + (Qr − Qrn ) 2 = Ar (9)
Qs ' = Qsn + Vs 's / X + 2 As cos β − Ar cos(δ + β ) .
2
(13b)
which is a circle centered at (Prn, Qrn) with a radius of Ar. The
active and reactive power flows at the receiving end of the
line can be regulated within the range defined by the P-Q plot The active and reactive powers (Ps’ and Qs’) at the modified
in Fig. 12b by controlling the magnitude (Vs’s) of the sending end as functions of the angle (β) are plotted in Fig.
compensating voltage (Vs’s) within its rated value and the 13a. The relationship between Qs’ and Ps’ is described as
2
angle (β) between 0ο and 360ο, respectively. For the desired ( Ps ' − Psn ) 2 + (Qs ' − Qsn − Vs 's / X ) 2 =
(14)
active and reactive power flows (Pr*, Qr*) at the receiving Ar + 4 As cos 2 β − 4 As Ar cos β cos(δ + β )
2 2

end, the required magnitude (Vs’s) and the relative phase angle
(β) of the compensating voltage are calculated from the which is an ellipse centered at (Psn, Qsn + Vs’s2 / X). The active
equations (8) and (9) as and reactive power flows at the modified sending end of the
line can be regulated within the range defined by the P-Q plot
Vs 's = ( X / Vr ) ( Pr * − Prn ) 2 + (Qr * −Qrn ) 2 (10a) in Fig. 13b by controlling the magnitude (Vs’s) of the
β = tan [( Pr * − Prn ) /(Qr * −Qrn )] − δ .
−1
(10b) compensating voltage (Vs’s) within its rated value and the
angle (β) between 0ο and 360ο, respectively. For desired
power flows (Ps’* and Qs’*) at the modified sending end, the
required magnitude (Vs’s) and the angle (β) of the
Ar P r @ V s's = 0.2 pu
(pu) compensating voltage can be calculated from the equations
1 (13) and (14) following the steps as shown before, which is
P rn however cumbersome. A simpler method is presented later in
Ar
this section.
(a) 0.5
β
0
ο Ar ο As P s' @ V s's = 0.2 pu
180 360 (pu)
1
Qrn
Ar Qr @ V s's = 0.2 pu P sn
-0.5
β =0 ο
2
(a) V s's
δ Qsn
Qr (pu) 0.5 X Qs' @ V s's = 0.2 pu Qsn
0
1 P r (pu)
Phase Angle Ar ο ο
Regulator 180 A s 360
0
Line β
(b) -0.5 Qs' (pu)
β =0 ο
Voltage Voltage Regulator
Regulator β
1 Line
Line * * V
2
(Pr ,Qr ) (P sn , Qsn s's )
-1.0 (P rn , Qrn ) X
(b) 0.5 (P sn , Qsn )
Fig. 12. (a) Variation of the receiving-end active and reactive power flows (Pr Phase Angle β
and Qr) as a function of the relative phase angle (β) of the compensating Regulator * *
voltage (Vs’s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu. (b) Receiving-end Qr versus Line (Ps ,Qs )
Pr. 0
1 P s' (pu)
ο ο
For implementation of a VRT (i.e., β = 0 or 180 ), the
variations of Pr and Qr are given by Fig. 13. (a) Variation of the modified sending-end active and reactive power
2 2 flows (Ps’ and Qs’) as a function of the relative phase angle (β) of the
Qr = (Qrn + Vr / X )( Pr / Prn ) − Vr / X (11)
compensating voltage (Vs’s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu. (b) Modified
sending-end Qs’ versus Ps’.
For implementation of a PAR (i.e., β = ± 90ο), the
variations of Pr and Qr are given by For implementation of a VRT (i.e., β = 0ο or 180ο), the
2 2
Qr = (− Prn Pr + Prn ) /(Qrn + Vr / X ) + Qrn . (12) variations of Ps’ and Qs’ are given by
2
Qs ' = (Qsn − Vs / X ) Ps ' / Psn + (Vs ± Vs 's ) 2 / X (15)
 180

Note that the + sign is applicable in the case when β = 0ο and calculated from the equations (19) and (20) as
the – sign is applicable in the case when β = 180ο. (V Xn
2
/ 2 − Qexch * X − )
Vs 's = (21a)
For implementation of a PAR (i.e., β = ± 90ο), the (V Xn
2
/ 2 − Qexch * X ) − (P * +Q
2
exch
2 2
exch * X
2
)
variations of Ps’ and Qs’ are given by
2 2 2
Qs ' = (− Psn Ps ' + Psn ) /(Qsn − Vs / X ) + Qsn + Vs 's / X . (16)
β = tan −1
{Psn / Qsn } − tan −1
{P * / (Q * +V
exch exch s 's
2
)}
/ X . (21b)

For implementation of a VRT (i.e., β = 0ο or 180ο), the

Therefore, in the case of a VRT or a PAR, both active and
variations of Pexch and Qexch are given by
reactive powers (Ps’ and Qs’) at the modified sending end vary 2
with the magnitude (Vs’s) of the compensating voltage (Vs’s). Qexch = (Qsn / Psn ) Pexch − Vs 's / X . (22)
In all of the above cases, if the magnitude (Vs’s) of the
compensating voltage is increased, the controllable range of For implementation of a PAR (i.e., β = ± 90ο), the
the power flow in the P-Q plane is also increased. When the variations of Pr and Qr are given by
controllable range extends to all four quadrants, a 2
Qexch = −( Psn / Qsn ) Pexch − Vs 's / X . (23)
bidirectional and independent control of active and reactive
power flows is achieved.
The compensating voltage (Vs’s) is at any phase angle with Therefore, in the case of a VRT or a PAR, the exchanged
active and reactive powers (Pexch and Qexch) vary with the
the prevailing line current (I) and therefore, it exchanges with
the line both active and reactive powers (Pexch and Qexch) magnitude (Vs’s) of the compensating voltage (Vs’s).
which are defined as
(pu) P exch C L C
Pexch = −Vs's • I = Vd I (17)
(a) 0.25 @ V s's = 0.2 pu
Qexch = − Vs's × I = Vq I (18) β
0
where Vd and Vq are the respective active or direct and ο ο
180 360
reactive or quadrature components of the compensating -0.25 Q exch @ V s's = 0.2 pu
voltage with load convention. -R +R -R
The exchanged active and reactive powers (Pexch and Qexch)
Q exch(pu)
by the compensating voltage with the transmission line can Phase Angle
also be derived as Regulator A exch P exch (pu)
{ }
Pexch = Ps − Ps ' = Aexch sin β − tan −1 ( Psn / Qsn ) (19a) Line 0
0.5
{ }
Qexch = Qs − Qs ' = −Vs 's / X − Aexch cos β − tan −1 ( Psn / Qsn )
2 Voltage
Regulator Line
(19b) (b) -0.5 β
* *
where Aexch = V XnVs 's / X . (Pexch , Qexch)

Fig. 14. (a) Variation of the exchanged active and reactive powers (Pexch and
Note that the natural voltage (VXn) across the transmission line
Qexch) as a function of the relative phase angle (β) of the compensating voltage
is V Xn = Vs + Vr − 2VsVr cos δ . The exchanged active and
2 2 (Vs’s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu. (b) Exchanged reactive power (Qexch)
versus active power (Pexch).
reactive powers (Pexch and Qexch) as functions of the relative
phase angle (β) are plotted in Fig. 14a. For a given magnitude In an alternate method to regulate the modified sending-end
of the compensating voltage, the exchanged capacitive power active and reactive powers independently, the active and the
(Qexch) is larger than its inductive counterpart due to the fact reactive powers (Ps and Qs) at the sending end are measured.
that the capacitive compensation produces a larger line Knowing the desired active and reactive powers (Ps’* and
current. The compensating voltage, being at any angle with Qs’*) at the modified sending end, the required exchanged
the prevailing line current, emulates in series with the line a active and reactive powers (Pexch* and Qexch*) are calculated as
capacitor (C) or an inductor (L) and a positive resistor (+R) or Pexch * = Ps − Ps ' * (24a)
a negative resistor (−R). The relationship between Qexch and
Qexch * = Qs − Qs ' * (24b)
Pexch is described as
2 2 2
Pexch + (Qexch + Vs 's / X ) 2 = Aexch (20)
Then, using equations [21a, 21b], the required magnitude
which is a circle centered at (0, – Vs’s2 / X) with a radius of (Vs’s) and the angle (β) of the compensating voltage (Vs’s) can
Aexch. The exchanged active and reactive power flows can be be calculated. This is an open-loop control scheme, which
controlled within the range defined by the P-Q plot in Fig. requires the knowledge of the line reactance (X). The active
14b by choosing the magnitude (Vs’s) of the compensating and the reactive power flow at any point in the transmission
voltage (Vs’s) within its rated value and the relative phase line can also be controlled independently by using a closed-
angle (β) between 0ο and 360ο, respectively. For desired loop control scheme. One such scheme is implemented at the
exchanged powers (Pexch* and Qexch*), the required magnitude world’s first UPFC installation. The automatic power flow
(Vs’s) and the angle (β) of the compensating voltage are control mode of operation of a UPFC for achieving
 181

independent control of active and reactive power flows at the Frequency dependent characteristics of the system
modified sending end has been simulated in a mathematical components might need to be considered.
model and the simulation results are compared with the field
results from the ±160 MVA-rated UPFC. This UPFC
B. Representation of a System Controls
demonstrated for the first time that the active and the reactive
power flows in a transmission line could be regulated The system control is one of the most important aspects of a
independently, while maintaining a fixed line voltage at the power electronics simulation. As illustrated in this chapter, a
point of coupling. switching device is greatly simplified. The proper switching
It is demonstrated that a series-connected compensating performance of a device is realized via appropriate gate
voltage of variable magnitude and variable phase angle controls. Modeling of power electronic controls consists of
modifies the magnitude and the phase angle of the three steps:
transmission line voltage and, in turn, provides an independent 1. Monitoring and sampling
control of active and reactive power flows in the line. For 2. Signal processing and control reference derivation
desired active and reactive power flows at various locations in 3. Device gating signal generation.
a transmission line, such as the sending end, the receiving end,
and the modified sending end, the magnitude and the phase Most simulation tools provide some means to implement
angle of the series-connected compensating voltage are given system controls. In some later developed programs, the
in equations (5), (10), and (21), respectively. control block diagram and flow-chart structures are supported
for modeling different levels of system controls. Using these
III. MODELING GUIDELINES tools, a user can define the specified controls in a simulated
system with great flexibility. Some key issues ensuring a
General guidelines for modeling power electronics in electrical correct control modeling is briefly mentioned below. These
power engineering applications have been presented in [4-50]. issues are more thoroughly treated in the guideline with
The common practices for a successful simulation are presented illustration examples.
in this section. • For a time domain simulation, the highest resolution
for a signal sampling is determined by a selected time
A. Representation of a Power Systems step. In general, this presents no problem for analog
A power supply system can easily extend to a large control. However, for digital control simulation, if the
electrical and geographic radius and become too complicated selected time step is too large and if the simulated
to model. Therefore, the power system needs to be kept sampling resolution is significantly different from the
simple. The proper level of system reduction depends on the real system sampling resolution, significant errors can
study objectives. be introduced and may even lead to instability.
If the purpose is to characterize the harmonics generated by • For a time domain simulation, the computation time
a particular type of power electronics application, the power does not reflect the simulated control logic response
system model can be significantly reduced. When a pre- time. User should always remember to introduce a
existing voltage distortion level at a power electronics reasonable time delay to match with the limitations of
interfacing bus is low, the rest of the power system can be the control hardware and software.
satisfactorily represented by one or a set of first order • When modeling a control response, it is important to
equivalents connected to the bus at a higher system voltage understand the program introduced time delay between
level. For an example, if the power electronics application the primary system and the control interface. For an
interfaces with the system at the low voltage bus of a step- example, the control model may introduce one or more
down transformer, the equivalent of the system can be placed time step delay because of structure and solution
on the high voltage bus of the transformer. When a pre- method of the program. This may not cause problems
existing voltage distortion level is greater than 2%, one needs in some simulations. However, if the modeled control
an adequate harmonic source to properly represent the logic makes this time delay caused error to accumulate
background distortion. over a period of time, it can eventually result in the
If the objective is to evaluate effects of the power solution divergence. The problem can be corrected in
electronics on a connected utility system, the model shall be most cases by reducing the size of the time step or
extended to cover all sensitive loads (i.e. rotating machines avoiding the possible accumulation mechanism in the
and all other major power electronics) within a concerned control model.
electrical radius. Special attention is needed if an unbalanced • Different methods may be used to synchronize power
system condition is involved. electronics gating signals with required system
Extensive power system model is required for a harmonic references. In many cases, a real phase-locked loop
propagation and resonant study. The main system components (PLL) can be greatly simplified to reduce the modeling
and dominant topology need to be kept in the power system system complexity. However, when the system
model. Filter banks, nonlinear passive circuit components, and contains significant waveform distortions, either
all other harmonic injection sources should be represented. harmonics or transient disturbances, a practical PLL
with all signal filters should be carefully implemented
in the control model in order to accurately predict
 182

control response. This is particularly important when

the objective of the simulation is to verify control v1a
v1ds
design and to evaluate the response of a power
SFT v v 1qs * cos θ PLLerr ω θ
electronic application to primary system dynamics. v1c 1qs
- Error 1
• All power electronic devices have their limit in v 1ds * sin θ Amplifier s
switching frequency. When a load commutation or a
standard pulse width modulation (PWM) type scheme
is simulated, the highest switching frequency in the SFT: Stationary Frame Transformer
simulation is controlled by the system frequency or by
Vector Phase-Locked Loop
a carrier frequency. Even considering a variable carrier
frequency, the number of switching per fundamental
Fig. 15. Block diagram of a vector PLL.
frequency cycle is known and the highest switching
frequency can be made under a physical limit of the
Fig. 16 shows that the VPLL is able to track the near
simulated device. However, if the device firing is
original phase in the case of a phase-a-to-ground fault. Note
determined by a simple comparison between the system
that during a fault, the current through the line inductor
control reference and the system output, a device
changes rapidly, causing numerical instability in the
switching may take place in simulation whenever a
simulation. To minimize this problem, a numerical snubber in
comparison difference is detected. Therefore, the
the form of a resistor across each line inductor is used. The
switching frequency becomes highly dependent on the
value of the snubber resistor should be high enough so that it
time step size, and the average switching frequency
does not cause spurious results in the simulation but facilitates
becomes unpredictable. When using this type of firing
the decaying of an oscillating current during a disturbance.
logic, user should always take extra measures, such as
introducing a hysteresis loop, to ensure that the
phase-to-ground fault
modeled device is working under its physical switching V1 θ θ v1a
capability. (with OPLL) (with VPLL)
1 2π

The PLL angle is referenced to a cosine wave, meaning that

during a complete cycle of a cosine wave, the phase angle (θ)
0
linearly increases from 0 to 2π. The three-phase a-b-c to two- 50 100 150
phase d-q transformation in stationary frame is written as time
(ms)
vds = va = V1 cos θ (25) -1

vqs = −
1 V
(
(va + 2vc ) = − 1 cosθ + 2 cos(θ + 120o ) ) Fig. 16. Phase a of line voltage (v1a) at BUS01, its magnitude (V1) and the
PLL angle (θ) with and without a phase-to-ground fault.
3 3
V
3
( )
= − 1 cos θ − cos θ − 3 sin θ = V1 sin θ . (26) Note that this example of PLL implementation is based on
the three-phase to d-q transformation on a three-phase
balanced system. The synchronously rotating reference
Therefore, variables appear as a dc component. In an unbalanced system,
these variables become a dc component superimposed with ac
⎛ sin θ −1 ⎛ qs ⎞
⎞ v
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (27) components that correspond to the unbalance amount. The
⎝ cosθ ⎠ ⎝ vds ⎠ gain parameters need to be adjusted in a PLL implementation
when the three-phase system is unbalanced.
The Ordinary PLL (OPLL) signal obtained from equation (27)
does not preserve the phase angle during a line fault as shown C. Representation of a Controlled Switch
in Fig. 16. This necessitates the use of a Vector PLL (VPLL).
Fig. 15 shows the commonly used block diagram of the The heart of a power electronics-based VSC is a controlled
VPLL. The stationary frame components (v1ds and v1qs) of the turn-off switch, such as a GTO, IGBT, IGCT, and so on. Fig. 17
line voltage (v1) at BUS01 are calculated and converted to shows the representation of a controlled turn-off device in
rotating frame components v1d and v1q. The quadrature EMTP. A device module is built with a controlled
component (v1q) is regulated to be zero with the use of an error bidirectional current flowing switch (type-13 switch) in series
amplifier, the output of which is the synchronously rotating with a built-in diode device (type-11 switch). Considering that
the module is often utilized in applications with a reactive
angular speed (ω) that produces the PLL angle (θ) after
power carrying capability, a reversal diode (free-wheeling
passing through an integrator. With this approach, the direct
diode) is included.
component (v1d) is maintained to be the amplitude (V1) of the
line voltage (v1) at BUS01 under steady-state condition.
 183

• Introduction of proper stray capacitances in the system

type-13 model
switch type-11 • Implementation of parallel damping for a lumped
switch system.

A model for a general, unidirectional conducting, three-

terminal, controllable power electronic device with snubber
Fig. 17. Representation of a controlled turn-off device in EMTP. connections is shown in Fig. 18. The actual snubber
configuration can be different from one application to another.
However, if the purpose of a simulation is not to design the
snubber, a sample snubber configuration shown in this figure
can often provide satisfactory results. The actual analysis of
an inverter pole, consisting of a DC capacitor, switches, and
snubber circuits is discussed later in the chapter.

D. Simulation Errors and Control

Errors in a Power Electronics simulation can come through
the following sources:
1. switching device approximation and system reduction
2. added circuit elements for numerical oscillation control
3. control system simplification
4. time step related truncation
5. program structure and solution method introduced
interfacing time delay
6. incorrect system initial conditions

For application simulations, some errors resulting from the

system simplification and measures of numerical oscillation
Fig. 18. Representation of a controlled turn-off device in EMTP with snubber
control are acceptable. The fourth and fifth items in the list
circuits. can be controlled by reducing the time step size. A
recommended time step size should not be greater than 1/5 to
Fig. 18 shows the actual implementation of the controlled 1/20 of the period of the highest concerned frequency cycle.
turn-off device module in EMTP. The switch and diode use an For an example, for an IGBT inverter simulation with 5000
R-C snubber circuit across it. Some small resistors are used to Hz PWM switching, a selected time step could be 10 μs.
introduce intermediate nodes between EMTP switches and However, if the objective of the simulation is to see the
snubber elements that are used in the controlled turn-off detailed transient at the terminal of the induction motor which
device module. The finite nature of the simulation time step is fed by the inverter through a section of the cable with an 1.0
that the EMTP type programs use poses a problem for power μs travel time, an adequate time step should be 0.2 μs or
electronic circuit simulation, which necessitates the use of smaller.
snubber circuits across fast acting power electronic switches. Errors caused by incorrect system initial conditions can be
Note that in some situations the snubber R and C values of the reduced by just letting the simulation run for a period of time
actual system may or may not work in simulations using some to reach a corrected initial condition. This may take more
programs. In this case, the R and C values of the snubbers computing time, but time is saved in model construction,
needed for stable simulation is primarily dependent on the especially if the program allows restarting. There are some
time step and secondarily on system configuration (capacitors methods developed which help to accelerate the system into
and inductors in the system) and the load current level. the correct initial condition quickly.
Programs using special features such as variable time steps The above-mentioned modeling techniques are successfully
(very short time steps during switching) or interpolate applied in modeling FACTS controllers as presented in the
switching (simulate the switching very close to the required next section.
instant using linear interpolation between time steps) do not
require fictitious snubber circuits. Therefore, one of the IV. MODELING OF A FACTS CONTROLLER
following measures or their combinations can be taken to Fig. 19 shows the block diagram of the modeling structure in
prevent numerical instability in the simulation: EMTP. First, some general constants are defined. Next, the
• Selection of smaller time step control or the transient analysis of control systems (TACS)
• Use of artificial snubber circuits section receives its input signals from the sensors or measuring
• Introduction of a small smoothing reactor for DC links switches. The TACS section generates the free-running PLL
 184

angle. The control operations and calculations are performed in compensating voltage exchanges active and reactive powers
this section. with the transmission line. In the case of the ST, both the
The compensating voltages that are created in the TACS active and reactive powers exchanged by the series
section are fed to a magnetic circuit, which is located in the compensating voltage appear at the transmission line through
branch section. The effects of a nonideal magnetic circuit, which the shunt-connected exciter unit. However, in the case of the
includes leakage reactance, magnetic saturation, and so on, can UPFC, only the exchanged active power passes through the
be studied. The source section contains some independent shunt unit. Both the shunt and series units exchange reactive
voltage sources, which establish the power flow in a power at their AC terminals independently.
transmission line. The controlled and the independent sources The controllable range of active and reactive power flows
are fed to the branch section, which contains the transmission with the operation of the ST and UPFC are presented in Fig.
line and the coupling transformer. The line voltage and the 21. The ST and UPFC offer controllable areas that are almost
current through the compensating voltage are measured by the identical. The radius of the controllable area increases with
measuring switches. Finally, the output section is defined. larger series compensating voltages. With proper series
compensating voltage, the controllable area covers all four
General Constants quadrants, resulting in a reversal of power flow from its
natural direction. Special operations of the ST with β = 0o and
β = 90o show the functionalities of the VRT and PAR.
Sensing Control / TACS Compensating
Voltages Voltages Whereas the ST offers a controllable area, the PAR and the
& Currents VRT offer linear control range.
Measuring
Switches 50

Qr (Mvar)
Pr (MW)
Branch 0
50 100 150 200
Transmission Line
Transformer UPFC
PAR
-50

Sources VRT

TAC Controlled -100 ST

Independent
Fig. 21. Comparison of active and reactive power flows at the receiving end
of the transmission line with the operation of the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST.

Outputs
Fig. 22 shows the active, reactive, and apparent powers
(Pexch, Qexch, and Sexch) exchanged by the series compensating
Fig. 19. EMTP modeling structure. voltages of the ST and UPFC with the line. The maximum
exchanged active, reactive, and apparent powers, in this
A simple two-bus power system network model, shown in example, are 21 MW, 29 Mvar, and 30 MVA, respectively. In
the single line diagram of Fig. 20, is used for verifying the the case of the ST, both the active and reactive powers flow
operation of various FACTS controllers. In the natural or bidirectionally through the exciting shunt unit. In the case of
uncompensated network, no PFC is connected. Later, the the UPFC, only the active power flows bidirectionally through
network is studied with various PFCs connected to it. The the STATCOM.
simplified two-bus network reveals most of the controller’s
performance under both dynamic and steady-state conditions. The summary of the study results is given below.
• The variation of phase-to-phase voltage at the point of
compensation is between 132.8 kV and 139.8 kV in the
BUS01

BUS02

Ps , Q s Ps' , Q s' Pr , Q r
SRSBRK case of the ST, and between 133.3 kV and 140.1 kV in
I
the case of the UPFC, whereas the uncompensated or
Vsrc
R src
Vs rc'
X src
Vs V1 V2 Vs'
R
Vr'
X
Vr natural voltage is 136.7 kV.
• Line active power flow changes from the natural flow
Fig. 20. Two-bus network model in EMTP.
of 132 MW by +57 and –58 MW in the case of the ST,
and by ±58 MW in the case of the UPFC.
• Line reactive power flow changes from the natural flow
A. Simulation of an Independent PFC in a Single Line of −41 Mvar by +60 and −63 Mvar in the case of the
Application ST, and by ±60 Mvar in the case of the UPFC.
An independent PFC regulates the active and reactive • Rating of the ST: 30 MVA.
power flows in the transmission line independently by • Rating of the UPFC: a series unit of 30 MVA and a
connecting a compensating voltage in series with the line. The shunt unit of 21 MVA.
 185

30 Fig. 24 shows that a compensating voltage of m 15% of the

Power (MW, Mvar, MVA)

Sexch voltage (Vs) at the sending end results in a voltage (Vs’) at the
20 modified sending end in the range of 0.87 to 1.09 pu. In the
process, the voltage (Vs) at the sending end varies in the range
10 Pexch of 1.02 to 0.95 pu. The reactive power flow at the receiving
β end changes from –1.02 pu to 0.09 pu during the range of
0 ο ο
180 360 compensating voltage from –0.15 pu to 0.15 pu. However, the
-10 active power flow at the receiving end changes in the range of
1.10 pu to 1.47 pu for the same range of variation in the
Qexch
-20 compensating voltage. Therefore, a m 0.15 pu change in line
voltage changes the reactive power flow by 1.11 pu and active
-30 power flow by 0.37 pu.
(a)
1.10

30 V s'

Voltage (pu)
1.05
Power (MW, Mvar, MVA)

Vs
Sexch V sn (0.99 p u)
1.00
20
0.95
10 Pexch
0.90
β V s's (p u)
0 ο ο 0.85
180 360 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
-10
Qexch Pr
-20
1.25 Prn (1.31 p u)
-30
1.00
(b) 0.75

Fig. 22. Variations of exchanged powers between the transmission line and 0.50
Power (pu)

the series unit of the (a) ST and (b) UPFC.

0.25
V s's (p u)
0
B. Simulation of a Voltage Regulating Transformer -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
-0.25
The VRT model is shown in Fig. 23. The primary winding Qrn (-0.43 p u)
with n1 turns is excited from the input voltage and the -0.50
secondary winding with n2 turns is induced with a voltage. -0.75 Qr
The secondary voltage is usually a fraction of the input
voltage and the output voltage is the phasor sum of the -1.00
primary and secondary voltages. The compensating secondary
Fig. 24. Ranges of voltages at the sending and modified sending ends and
voltage is connected in series with the transmission line. There active and reactive power flows at the receiving end with a VRT.
is no electric isolation between the input and output voltages.
The active number of turns in the secondary winding is varied
with the use of load tap changers (LTCs) to vary the C. Simulation of a Phase Angle Regulator
compensating voltage. The one-transformer Phase Angle Regulator (PAR)
configuration and the corresponding phasor diagram are
shown in Fig. 25, parts a and b, respectively. The input
BUS01

BUS02

Ps', Q s' voltage (V1) at BUS01 is applied to a Δ-connected, three-

phase primary winding and a secondary voltage (V21) that is in
I
n2
quadrature with the primary voltage is connected in series
with the transmission line. With proper polarities of the series-
Vs V2 Vs' connected windings, the compensating secondary voltage is
V1 connected in series with the transmission line at 90o or –90o to
n1 the primary voltage. The resulting effect is that the phase
angle of the line voltage is regulated.

Fig. 23. Voltage Regulating Transformer.

 186

compensating voltage from –0.15 pu to 0.15 pu. However, the

BUS01

BUS02
V1C V1B Ps' ,Qs' active power flow at the receiving end changes in the range of
IA I 0.78 pu to 1.82 pu for the same range of variation in the
V1A V1C compensating voltage. Therefore, a m 15% compensating
Vs V1 V1A V21A V2A V2 Vs'
IB voltage in quadrature with line voltage changes the reactive
power flow by –0.55 pu and the active power flow by 1.04 pu.
V1B V1B V1A V2B
V21B
IC

V1C V21C V2C D. Simulation of a Unified Power Flow Controller

Fig. 27 shows the schematic diagram of the UPFC. The
UPFC consists of two harmonic neutralized (HN)-VSCs
(a) (VSC1 and VSC2), two magnetic circuits (MC1 and MC2), a
shunt coupling transformer (SHNTR), a series coupling
V21A transformer (SRSTR), a shunt breaker (SHNBRK), a series
disconnect switch (SRSDS), an electronic bypass switch (ES),
V1A V2A a DC link switch (DCLS), a series bypass breaker (SRSBRK),
ψ current and voltage sensors, and a control and protection unit.
V2C Each VSC is coupled with a transformer at its output. Both
ψ VSCs generate almost sinusoidal voltages.
V21C ψ V1B
V1C SRSBRK
Ps' , Q s'
V2B V21B Vdq
I
(b) SRSTR
Fig. 25. (a) Phase angle regulator. (b) Phasor diagram.
Vs SHNBRK ES V2 Vs'
V1
Voltage (pu)

1.01 I1
V s' I2
1.00

0.99 V sn (0.988 p u) SHNTR SRSDS

iDC1 iDC2
0.98
E1 DCLS E2
Vs
V s's (p u)
0.97 vDC
-0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
MC1 VSC1 VSC2 MC2
Pr
Control & Protection Unit

1.25 Prn (1.31 p u) UPFC

1.00 Fig. 27. Unified power flow controller.

0.75
When the DCLS is closed, the VSCs share the DC link. The
0.50
Power (pu)

series-connected, variable magnitude, compensating voltage

0.25 that is at any phase angle with respect to the line current
V s's (p u) exchanges an active power as well as a reactive power with
0
-0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 the line. This exchanged active power at the AC terminal of
-0.25 the series-connected VSC flows bidirectionally to the AC
Qr Qrn (-0.43 p u)
-0.50 terminal of the shunt-connected VSC through the shared DC
link. Both shunt- and series-connected VSCs can also provide
-0.75
independent reactive power compensation at their respective
Fig. 26. Ranges of voltages at the sending and modified sending ends and
AC terminals. When the DCLS is open, the two VSCs can be
active and reactive power flows at the receiving end with a phase angle operated as stand-alone, independent, reactive compensators,
regulator. such as a shunt-connected compensator (STATCOM) and a
series-connected compensator (SSSC) and, in turn, exchange
Fig. 26 shows that a compensating voltage of m 15% of the almost exclusively reactive power with the line at their
voltage (Vs) at the sending end results in a voltage (Vs’) at the respective terminals.
modified sending end in the range of 1.005 to 0.986 pu. In the The heart of a power electronics based FACTS controller is
process, the voltage (Vs) at the sending end varies in the range a VSC. Fig. 28 shows the block diagram of a DC-to-AC VSC
of 0.993 to 0.973 pu. The reactive power flow at the receiving that generates a three-phase AC voltage. A three-phase AC
end changes from –0.15 pu to –0.7 pu during the range of voltage set generated from an ideal VSC is also shown. In the
 187

TACS/control section, a free-running PLL angle (θ) is voltage can be varied by varying the amplitude of the
generated from the power system frequency. The free-running fundamental frequency reference signal.
phase angle (θ) is reset at every 2π radians to produce a saw-
tooth like angle (θ1) in the range of 0 to 2π radians. vDC
2 vtri
θ
2π (a) θ
0
ο ο
ea θI 180 360
θ vrefA
vDC KVSC eb
vDC
ec vA
2
DC/AC VSC ea eb ec
(a) (b)

Fig. 28. Generation of a three-phase ideal VSC voltage. i A (u p p er switch ) θ

ο ο
180 360
Although it is desirable to generate a fundamental
frequency AC voltage using a VSC, the quality of the AC iA
(b)
voltage, meaning the associated level of harmonic components i A (lo wer d io d e) θ
in it, depends on the topology of the VSC. The choice of the ο ο
180 360
topology is very much influenced by the guideline set by the
IEEE 519 standard that calls for limits on individual voltage iA
and current distortions and total voltage and current harmonic
distortions at the point of compensation for various line
voltage levels. i A (u p p er switch )
A VSC that produces voltages that are independent in each θ
phase is operated with the PWM technique. Fig. 29 shows one
180 ο 360 ο
such configuration. A DC capacitor is connected to one side
of the VSC that generates a three-phase AC voltage at its (c)
iA
output. The VSC is made up of a set of semiconductor i A (lo wer d io d e)
θ
switches, such as IGBTs. The semiconductor switches in the ο ο
VSC are grouped into three poles: Pole A, Pole B, and Pole C. 180 360
Each pole consists of an upper switch and a lower switch. iA
Each switch has an antiparallel diode across it. The operation
of the PWM-VSC is described below.

i A (u p p er switch ) θ
A+ B+ C+
180 ο 360 ο
iA
vA eA iA
iB (d)
vD C vB eB
iC i A (lo wer d io d e) θ
vC eC
ο ο
180 360
A- B- C- iA
Pole A P ole B Pole C
DC-to-AC VSC Fig. 30. (a) Carrier voltage, pole A reference voltage, and pole A output
voltage. (b) Currents through upper switch, lower diode, and pole A for unity
Fig. 29. DC-to-AC VSC operated with the PWM technique. power factor. (c) Currents through upper switch, lower diode, and pole A for
zero power factor lagging. (d) Currents through upper switch, lower diode,
and pole A for zero power factor leading.
As shown in Fig. 30, a fundamental frequency reference
signal is compared with a high-frequency triangular carrier
signal (vtri). When the reference signal is higher than the The frequency of the dominant harmonic component in the
carrier signal, the upper switch, A+, is turned on; otherwise, generated voltage can be varied by varying the carrier
the lower switch, A–, is turned on. The generated PWM frequency and, thereby, the switching frequency of the
square wave voltage contains a fundamental component, the semiconductor devices. It is desirable to increase the
amplitude of which is the same as that of the fundamental frequency of the dominant harmonic component in the PWM
frequency reference signal and harmonic components with the voltage. By increasing the switching frequency, the dominant
largest amplitude at the carrier frequency. Therefore, the harmonic component can be moved outside the range of
amplitude of the fundamental component in the generated concern. For example, if each switch is operated 25 times the
reference signal frequency, the output voltage contains a
 188

reference signal frequency and a first dominant harmonic A. Generation of a Square Wave Voltage with a Two-Level
component of 25th order. Increasing the switching frequency is Pole
not an attractive option because it increases the switching loss. The fundamental building block of a HN-VSC pole is a pair
The compromise is to use a combination of high switching of DC capacitors and a set of switches, which can be used to
frequency and a harmonic trapping filter as shown in Fig. 29. generate a square wave voltage. Fig. 31 shows a single-phase
If every individual power electronic switching device is VSC circuit, referred to as a pole, which consists of a positive
represented, a system model containing power electronic switch (A+) and a negative switch (A–). The pole is connected
applications can easily reach a complication level that is across a pair of capacitors that are charged with a total DC
difficult for implementation. A UPFC contains many tens of voltage of vDC. When the switch A+ is on, the midpoint of the
series-connected GTO devices in one converter leg of high pole is tied to the positive DC terminal; when the switch A– is
voltage and MVA ratings. Obviously, if one wants to on, the midpoint of the pole is tied to the negative DC
represent each individual GTO device in this UPFC system terminal. When the switches are closed and opened
model, one will have to build a very large model. alternately, the pole output voltage (vAO) at the midpoint of the
Fortunately, except for some failure mode analyses, for the pole A with respect to the midpoint (O) of the DC link
purposes of most application simulations, it is not necessary to capacitors is a square wave with two levels (+vDC/2 and –
represent all individual devices. Usually, what needs to be vDC/2). Therefore, this pole circuit is referred to as a two-level
simulated is the terminal characteristics of a power electronic pole. The time period, T (i.e., 1/f), is equally divided between
subsystem and how it interfaces with the connected system. the positive and the negative half cycles, where f is the
Thus, the following procedures can be used to reduce the fundamental frequency of the square wave voltage.
modeling complexity:
• Use of one or a few equivalent devices to represent VSC Pole A+ ON OFF
series and parallel combination of a group of devices A- OFF ON
• Representation of power electronics loads with similar vDC
A+ vDC
characteristics by an equivalent load 2 A
O 2 T
• Use of the simplest device model which is appropriate vDC vAO
A-
for the application 2 VAO vDC 0
• Representation of a power electronic subsystem by 2 T/2
equivalent source injection whenever it is acceptable
• Representation of only the front end of the drive
system when the major concern is utility interfacing Fig. 31. VSC pole and its output voltage.
• Inclusion of the system dynamic and controls only
when necessary A controller, as shown in Fig. 32, can be implemented in
• Use of modular approach for large scale model TACS in EMTP to generate a PLL angle and the gating
development. signals to operate the switches of a two-level pole. Fig. 33
shows the pole voltages and currents generated by the
With these general guidelines, a VSC model for a system operation of the pole.
dynamic evaluation can be built as shown in Fig. 31.
Irrespective of how many series and parallel GTO devices are
used in an actual application, only two GTO devices are used Phase-Locked θ Gate
v1 Pattern
in each phase of the model to form a converter leg. In this Loop
example, the just discussed GTO module is used as a building Logic
block to construct the converter module. Controller
The UPFCs were built with the most efficient VSC
topologies, namely HN-VSCs. A HN-VSC consists of a set of
poles (comprising of GTOs, diodes, and snubbers), a DC VSC Pole
capacitor, a magnetic circuit, and a control and protection unit. vDC
In order to produce a sine wave-like voltage using a HN-VSC, A+ IA
2 A
there are three required stages. First, the control unit must O
produce a set of gate pulses; second, the gate pulses operate a vDC
A- EA
set of poles, which produce a set of square wave voltages; and 2
third, the square wave voltages are combined with a magnetic
circuit to produce a sinusoidal voltage. A HN-VSC with a
finite pulse number produces a high quality sinusoidal voltage Fig. 32. Model of a VSC pole.
with acceptable harmonic content. If a VSC produces a pure
sine voltage of fundamental frequency, it can be thought of as
a VSC of infinite pulse number. These topologies can be
modeled step-by-step in the following ways.
 189

of the pole voltage gets a phase shift by an angle of +θ

ea ia and vice versa.
0
5 10 15 20 25 vDC vAO vAN
time vDC
2
(ms) vDC 0
2
O A B C 2
vDC vDC vBO vBN
2 2
Fig. 33. Voltages and currents from the simulation of a VSC pole. vDC 0
2
VNO
VAN VBN VCN vDC vCO vCN
B. Six-Pulse VSC with Two-Level Poles 2
N vDC
A six-pulse VSC requires the generation of three square 0
wave voltages using the three poles A, B, and C. Fig. 34 2 vNO T
shows the three square wave voltages (vAO, vBO, and vCO) and VCO,1 0
,3 T/2
the corresponding fundamental components (vAO,1, vBO,1, and V AO ,3 VBO,5 VCO,7
vCO,1). The fundamental pole voltage phasors (VAO,1, VBO,1, V BO ,3
VAO,1 V CO VAO,5 VAO,7
and VCO,1) are at 0o (reference), –120o, –240o, respectively. VCO,5 VBO,7
The A-B-C set of square wave voltages are said to be placed VBO,1
at 0o.

vDC Fig. 35. Six-pulse VSC and its output voltages.

2 vAO,1 vAO
θ
0 ο ο C. 12-Pulse HN-VSC with Two-Level Poles
vDC 180 360
A 12-pulse HN-VSC requires the generation of two three-
2 phase sets (A-B-C and D-E-F) of square wave voltage. The
vDC displacement angle between two consecutive six-pulse VSCs
2 vBO in a multipulse VSC configuration is 2π/6m (i.e., 30o), where
vBO,1 θ
0 m (i.e., 2) is the total number of six-pulse VSCs that are used.
ο ο
vDC 180 360 Fig. 36, parts a and b, show the two sets of three square
2 wave voltages (vAO, vBO, and vCO; and vDO, vEO, and vFO) and
vDC the corresponding fundamental components (vA,1, vB,1, and vC,1;
2 vCO and vD,1, vE,1, and vF,1). The fundamental pole voltage phasors
vCO,1 θ
0 (VA,1, VB,1, and VC,1) are at 0o (reference), –120o, –240o,
ο ο respectively. The A-B-C set of square wave voltages are said
vDC 180 360
to be placed at 0o. The fundamental pole voltage phasors
2 (VD,1, VE,1, and VF,1) are at –30o, –150o, 90o, respectively. The
D-E-F set of square wave voltages are said to be placed at –
Fig. 34. Pole voltages and three 120ο phase-shifted, fundamental voltage 30o.
phasors in a six-pulse VSC configuration.
Fig. 37 shows two six-pulse VSCs (A-B-C and D-E-F) that
are connected across a shared DC link with a pair of
Fig. 35 shows three poles A, B, and C that are connected
capacitors and the related fundamental voltage phasors. The
across a shared DC link with a pair of capacitors and the
pole voltages are combined by a magnetic circuit to form a
related voltages. Note that the pole outputs are connected to a
three-phase (a-b-c) voltage. The poles A, B, C, D, E, and F
three-phase load whose neutral point (N) is not connected to
are operated in such a way that the pole voltages (vAO, vBO, and
the midpoint of the DC link capacitor.
vCO) of the A-B-C VSC are time-shifted from one another by
one-third of the time period (T) of the pole voltage. The pole
The square wave voltages generated by the six-pulse VSCs
voltages (vDO, vEO, and vFO) of the D-E-F VSC are time-shifted
can be combined using HN techniques to generate a high-
with respect to the corresponding A, B, and C pole voltages
quality sinusoidal voltage with acceptable harmonic content.
by one-twelfth of the time period, equivalent to a fundamental
The two key points in the design of a multipulse VSC are the
angle of –30o. Therefore, the fundamental phasors in a group
following.
(VA,1, VB,1, and VC,1 of the A-B-C VSC; and VD,1, VE,1, and
• The displacement angle between two consecutive six-
VF,1 of the D-E-F VSC) are 120o apart and the fundamental
pulse VSCs in an m six-pulse VSC configuration is
voltage phasor set of the D-E-F VSC lags the fundamental
2π/6m.
voltage phasor set of the A-B-C VSC by 30o. Note that the
• The configuration of the magnetic circuit is such that if
fundamental components in the square wave voltages (VDO,1,
a VSC pole voltage is time-shifted by an equivalent
VEO,1, and VFO,1) of the D-E-F VSC with respect to the
fundamental angle of –θ, the fundamental component
 190

midpoint of the DC link capacitor are referred to as VD,1, VE,1, The presence of 12-pulse harmonic components in the VSC
and VF,1. output voltage may not be acceptable in many applications. As
a result, a VSC with a higher pulse output voltage is
vD C considered. A true p-pulse HN-VSC generates the first
2 vA O dominant harmonic in the spectrum as p–1. The magnetic
vA ,1 θ
0 circuit for a VSC with 24-pulse and higher is quite
180
ο 360
ο cumbersome. Its nonstandard features make it unattractive
vD C
because of its higher cost. Therefore, an alternate solution is to
2
vD C use a magnetic circuit for a quasiharmonic neutralized (QHN)
2 vB O VSC.
vB ,1 θ
0
ο ο
vD C 180 360 D. 24-Pulse QHN-VSC with Two-Level Poles
2 A 24-pulse QHN-VSC, shown in Fig. 38, requires the
vD C
2 vCO generation of four three-phase sets (A1-B1-C1, A2-B2-C2,
vC,1 θ D1-E1-F1, and D2-E2-F2) of square wave voltages. The
0
180
ο 360
ο displacement angle between two consecutive six-pulse VSCs
vD C in a multipulse VSC configuration is 2π/6m (i.e., 15o) where
2 m (i.e., 4) is the total number of six-pulse VSCs that are used.
(a) The two phasors in the A-B-C three-phase groups (A1-A2,
vD C B1-B2, and C1-C2) are centered on 0ο, –120ο, and –240ο,
2 vD ,1
vD O respectively with a displacement angle (θdisplacement) of ±7.5ο.
θ
0 The two phasors in the D-E-F three-phase groups (D1-D2, E1-
ο ο E2, and F1-F2) are centered on –30ο, –150ο, and +90ο,
vD C 180 360
2 respectively, with a displacement angle (θdisplacement) of ±7.5ο.
vD C The fundamental pole voltage phasors (VA1,1, VB1,1, and VC1,1;
2 vE ,1
vE O and VA2,1, VB2,1, and VC2,1), shown in Fig. 38, are at 7.5ο, 7.5ο–
θ
0 120ο (i.e., –112.5ο), and 7.5ο–240ο (i.e., –232.5ο); and –7.5ο, –
ο ο 7.5ο–120ο (i.e., –127.5ο), and –7.5ο–240ο (i.e., –247.5ο),
vD C 180 360
2 respectively. The fundamental pole voltage phasors (VD1,1,
vD C VE1,1, and VF1,1; and VD2,1, VE2,1, and VF2,1), shown in Fig. 38,
2 vF O
vF ,1 θ are at 7.5ο–30ο (i.e., –22.5ο), 7.5ο–30ο–120ο (i.e., –142.5ο), and
0 7.5ο–30ο–240ο (i.e., –262.5ο); and –7.5ο–30ο (i.e., –37.5ο), –
180
ο 360
ο 7.5ο–30ο–120ο (i.e., –157.5ο), and –7.5ο–30ο–240ο (i.e., –
vD C
2 277.5ο), respectively.
(b) When the pole voltages from the VSCs A1-B1-C1 and D1-
E1-F1 are magnetically combined, as shown in Fig. 38, the
Fig. 36. Pole voltages and fundamental voltage phasors in a 12-pulse HN- output voltage exhibits a 12-pulse HN waveform with
VSC configuration. (a) Three 120ο phase-shifted fundamental pole voltages harmonic components n = 12k ± 1 for k = 1, 2, 3, and so on. In
and the corresponding square wave voltages at 0ο. (b) Three 120ο phase- the 12-pulse HN-VSC of Fig. 37, there are two sets of square
shifted fundamental pole voltages and the corresponding square wave voltages
wave voltages: one set from the A-B-C VSC is at 0o and the
at –30ο.
other set from the D-E-F VSC is at –30o; the a-b-c 12-pulse
The configuration of the magnetic circuit is such that if a voltage set is at 0o. In the 24-pulse QHN-VSC of Fig. 38,
VSC pole voltage is time-shifted by an equivalent there are two sets of square wave voltages: one set from the
fundamental angle of –30o, the fundamental component of the A1-B1-C1 VSC is at 7.5o and the other set from the D1-E1-F1
pole voltage gets phase-shifted by an angle of +30o. The VSC is at –22.5o; therefore, the a1-b1-c1 12-pulse voltage set
simplest way to give the fundamental components in the D-E- is at 7.5o. There are additional two sets of square wave
F pole voltages a +30o phase shift is to apply these voltages to voltages: one set from the A2-B2-C2 VSC is at –7.5o and the
the terminals of a ∆ winding. The square wave voltages from other set from the D1-E1-F1 VSC is at –37.5o; therefore, the
the A-B-C VSC are fed to the primary windings of a Y-Y a2-b2-c2 12-pulse voltage set is at –7.5o. Each 12-pulse
transformer and those from the D-E-F VSC are fed to the waveform contains the same magnitudes of fundamental and
primary windings of a Δ-Y transformer. In order to keep the harmonic components (n = 12k ± 1 for k = 1, 2, 3, etc.). When
same volts per turn in both Y and ∆ windings, the ∆- all the output voltages from each six-pulse VSC are combined
by connecting the corresponding phases in series as shown in
connected primary windings have √3 times the turns (n1) of
Fig. 38, the resulting output voltages contain fundamental
the Y-connected primary windings. Both sets of secondary Y
windings are connected in series in the respective phases and components and harmonic components n = 12k ± 1 for k = 1,
the final output voltage is connected to a three-phase load (a- 2, 3, and so on, and exhibit a 24-pulse QHN waveform.
b-c).
 191

ea eb ec

VF,1
D a b c a
F
3 n1 n2
vDC
D E F
30 2
V E,1 n2
VD E c
,1
VSC D-E-F, -30 n2
b
O
A
V C,1

n1 n2
vDC
VA,1 A B C
2 n1 n2
N
C n2
n1
VSC A-B-C, 0 B
VB
,1

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Fig. 37. 12-pulse HN-VSC configuration (all angles are in degrees).

ea eb ec
VF2,1

D2 a b c a
F2
3 n1 n2
D2 E2 F2
V E2,1 30
n2
V E2 c
D2 n2
,1
VSC D2-E2-F2, -37.5
b
V C2,1

A2

n1 n2

A2 B2 C2
VA2,1 n1 n2
N2
C2 n2
n1
V
B2

VSC A2-B2-C2, -7.5 B2

VF1,1
,1

D1
F1
3 n1 n2
vD C
D1 E1 F1
30 2
VD n2
V E1
,1 1,1 E1
n2
VSC D1-E1-F1, -22.5
O
A1
,1
V C1

n1 n2

VA1,1 vD C A1 B1 C1
2 n1 n2
N1 N
C1 n2
n1
VSC A1B1C1, +7.5 B1
VB
1,1

M AGNET IC CIRCUIT

Fig. 38. 24-pulse QHN-VSC configuration (all angles are in degrees).

 192

Fig. 39 shows the output voltages from a 12- and 24-pulse 3-Level
HN/QHN-VSC. A 24-pulse or higher order VSC is more than VSC A+ ON OFF
adequate in most applications to meet the power quality Pole A- OFF ON
standard. vDC AACON OFF ON OFF ON
A+ vDC
The QHN-VSC circuits that are discussed so far are made 2 A
out of two-level poles, which produce a square wave voltage O 2 π+γ 2 π−γ 2 π
vDC AAC vAO
with two levels: a positive level and a negative level. The 2
A- VAO vDC 0 γ π−γ π
magnitude of the AC voltage is related to the magnitude of the 2
DC voltage by the gain of the VSC. In certain applications,
more than one VSC may operate from a shared DC link Fig. 40. Three-level VSC “pole” and its output voltage (all angles are in
capacitor and one VSC is required to produce a variable radians).
magnitude AC voltage from zero to the maximum value
within the design limit. One way to generate a variable AC Note that the output voltage of a 24-pulse QHN-VSC with
voltage from a fixed DC voltage is to use a three-level pole. A three-level poles is referred to as a 24-pulse QHN waveform
three-level pole produces a variable width square wave when the poles are operated with dead angle γ = 0ο. If a 24-
voltage. As a special case, a three-level pole produces a square pulse QHN-VSC with three-level poles is operated with γ =
wave voltage when used as a two-level pole. Next, a QHN- π/48, the resulting output voltage is the same as that is
VSC with three-level poles is described. obtained from a 48-pulse QHN-VSC. In conclusion, a QHN-
VSC produces, in addition to the first dominant harmonic in
100

the spectrum the same as the pulse number of the VSC, a

9.0909

7.6923

4.3478

residual harmonic content of 12k ± 1 components for k=1,2,3

2.8571
2.7027

2.1276
2.0408

1.695
4.0

(a) and so on, and, of course, a fundamental voltage.

4
2 Fig. 41, parts a and b, show the normalized harmonic
components of the output voltages from a 24-pulse QHN-VSC
100

and a 48-pulse QHN-VSC as a function of harmonic order (n).

4.311
3.966
1.187
1.004

0.373
0.353

2.109
2.023

0.221

(b) The variations of fundamental component, harmonic content,

4
2 and total harmonic distortion factor of a 24-pulse QHN-VSC
0 12 24 36 48 60 n with three-level poles as a function of γ is shown in Fig. 41c.
At γoptimum = 3.82ο, the fundamental amplitude decreases by
Fig. 39. Normalized harmonic components of output voltages from (a) a 12- 1.08% compared to what is obtained from a two-level
pulse HN-VSC and (b) a 24-pulse QHN-VSC as a function of harmonic order operation of the poles, but the harmonic content is reduced to
(n). 3.91% from 7.7%, obtained from a two-level operation of the
poles in a 24-pulse VSC, resulting in the smallest THDV.
E. Generation of a Quasisquare Wave Voltage with a Three-
100

Level Pole
4.311
3.966

Fig. 40 shows the single phase VSC circuit, referred to as a

1.187
1.004

0.373
0.353

2.109
2.023

0.221
(a)
three-level “pole,” which consists of a positive switch, A+, a 4
2 n
negative switch, A–, and an AC switch, AAC. Each switch may
γ= 0
100

be made out of several controllable semiconductor switches,

such as GTOs that are connected in a series or parallel
0.892
0.662

0.282
0.259

0.246
0.265

2.105
2.019

0.166
combination to achieve the desired voltage and current ratings (b)
4
of the switch. The pole is connected across a pair of capacitors 2 n
that are charged with a total DC voltage of vDC. When the 0 12 24 γ=π /48 36 48 60
switch A+ is on, the midpoint of the pole is tied to the positive 1
Va,1
DC terminal; when the switch AAC is on, the midpoint of the
1.08%
pole is tied to the midpoint of the DC link capacitor; and when
the switch A– is on, the midpoint of the pole is tied to the (c)
negative DC terminal. When the switches are closed and THDV Vah
0.0391
opened alternately, the pole output voltage (vAO) at the 0.077 γ
midpoint of the pole A with respect to the midpoint (O) of the 0
DC link capacitor is a quasisquare wave, which has three 3.82ο 30 ο 60 ο 90 ο
levels (+vDC/2, 0, and –vDC/2). Therefore, this pole circuit is
Fig. 41. Normalized harmonic components of output voltages from (a) a 24-
referred to as a three-level pole. The time period, T (i.e., 1/f), pulse QHN-VSC and (b) a 48-pulse QHN-VSC as a function of harmonic
is equally divided between the positive and the negative half order. (c) Variations of amplitude of fundamental component, harmonic
cycles where f is the fundamental frequency of the content, and THD as a function of γ, which is the dead angle of a three-level
quasisquare wave. pole.
 193

F. Analysis of a Two-Level Pole and lower) of the pole are symmetric. Each of the two
Each of the two switches in a pole (for example, A+ and A- switches (upper and lower) consists of a single GTO (G1 or
in pole A) can be composed of a GTO and an antiparallel G2) with an antiparallel diode (D1 or D2) across the GTO.
diode, as shown in Fig. 42. During the positive output voltage, The line stray inductances are LS1 and LS4. The turn-on
the positive current flows through the GTO (G1) and the snubber circuits include di/dt limiting inductors L1 and L2.
negative current flows through the diode (D1). During the These inductors have shunt loops, each consisting of a free-
negative output voltage, the positive current flows through the wheeling diode (DS1 or DS3), a stray inductance (LS2 or
diode (D2) and the negative current flows through the GTO LS5), and a series resistor (R1 or R4). The turn-off snubber
(G2). circuits include dv/dt limiting capacitors (C1 and C3), diodes
When the pole output voltage transitions from negative to (DS2 and DS4), and the snubber capacitor discharge resistors
positive, the positive current transitions from diode (D2) to (R2 and R5). The snubber capacitor leakage inductors are LS3
GTO (G1) and the negative current transitions from GTO and LS6. The snubber circuits of the snubber diodes (DS2 and
(G2) to diode (D1). When the pole output voltage transitions DS4) are R3-C2 and R6-C4, respectively. The pole circuit is
from positive to negative, the positive current transitions from analyzed by freezing the instantaneous DC link voltage (vDC)
GTO (G1) to diode (D2) and the negative current transitions to VDC and output current (iO) to IO that is equal to the peak
from diode (D1) to GTO (G2). current (Ip) at the output of the pole.

vDC
vDC iLS1
2 G1 D1 LS1 iLS2
iA v1
LS2
A DS1
L1 iL1
R1
vDC
G2 D2 vAN
2
vC2 C2 DS2 R2
Pole A vG1 R3
G1 D1 LS3 iLS3
N
iG1
Fig. 42. Realization of a two-level pole A with GTOs and antiparallel diodes. iD1 C1 vC1

Therefore, the current transitions from a diode to a GTO that vO

is turned on with a gate signal. Also, the current transitions iO
from a GTO to a diode and then to its antiparallel GTO, such LS4 iLS4
iLS5
as GTO (G1) to diode (D2) to GTO (G2). The question is
when the GTO (G2) should be turned on. If it is turned on at v2
LS5
the time the GTO (G1) is turned off, there may be a period of DS3
a time when the GTO (G1) is not quite turned off and the L2 iL2
GTO (G2) is on its way to be turned on. During this time R4
period, both GTOs may be in between on and off states that
may cause a short circuit at the DC link capacitor, resulting in vC4 C4 DS4 R5
a destructive shoot-through current in the capacitor and the
vG2 R6
GTOs. Therefore, it is necessary to delay the turn-on of GTO G2 D2 LS6 iLS6
(G2) following the turn-off of GTO (G1) by a delay time
(tdelay). The effect of this delay time is investigated. iG2
It is sufficient to study the transition processes from a GTO iD2 C3 vC3
to a diode and from a diode to a GTO at peak current. It is true
that a pole operating at other than zero power factor
REFERENCE
transitions at other than peak current. However, a designer
should study the worst operating point at zero power factor. Fig. 43. Details of a two-level pole circuit.
For the following analysis, two operating conditions -
commutating peak current from diode (D2) to GTO (G1) and The switching characteristics of the diodes (D1 and D2) in
from GTO (G1) to diode (D2) - are considered. this model are shown in Fig. 44. When the diode conducts a
The details of a pole circuit are shown in Fig. 43. The current (iD) in the forward direction, the voltage (vD) across
reference directions of currents and polarities of voltage for the diode is zero. When the diode current reverses at t = tx, the
computation purposes are also shown. The two halves (upper voltage continues to remain at zero value until the reverse
 194

recovery charge (Qa) is swept away during tx ≤ t ≤ ty. The the GTO (G1) to the GTO (G2) to the antiparallel diode (D2).
reverse current through the diode is determined by the The transient waveforms in this mode of operation are shown
dynamics of the circuit. For t > ty, the reverse current (iD) of in Fig. 48.
the diode rises to zero in a nonlinear fashion.
VDC

di LS1
D
dt y m I m = peak revers e current
y m = s lope of iD at ty + T v1
0 t
T = ( tz - ty )/2 L1
tx ty vD tz
0 t
Qa
0

Im iD G1
(a) Revers e recovery model of a diode
IO
vO vO
vG vD = forward blocking voltage IO
vB LS4
tO N = on time
v2

0 t L2
0 tO N
(b) Turn on model of a GTO

D2
iG IO = forward carrying current
IO Tfall = fall time
Ttail = tail time REFERENCE

KIO te Fig. 45. Commutation from D2 to G1.

0 t
0 Ttail
Tfall
pu 1.75 pu pu
(c) Turn off model of a GTO iLS1
1 1
Fig. 44. Switching characteristics of a diode and a GTO. 1 iG1 1
vC1
The maximum slope (ym) of iD at ty + T is considered to be 0 0
four times the average slope of iD between tx and ty. The diode vG1
0 0
starts to develop the reverse voltage (vD) at time ty. During
turn-off, the GTO acts as a variable current source (iG) that
falls nonlinearly from the forward conducting current (IO) to a vC3
low value at the end of the fall time (Tfall); then the current 1.54 pu 1
tapers off at a much slower rate until the end of the tail time
(Ttail). vG2
vO 1
To analyze the pole circuit model, two modes of operation 1
need to be studied: commutating output current (IO) from the 0
antiparallel diode (D2) to the GTO (G1) and commutating 0.5
0
output current (IO) from the GTO (G1) to the GTO (G2) to the 0
antiparallel diode (D2). In the latter mode of operation, three
different conditions are studied when the GTO (G2) is turned 1
on after the GTO (G1) is turned off with various delay times iDS4
0 0
(tdelay), such as 2 μs, 0, and 20 μs, respectively. With a large 0 iLS2 0
delay time, such as tdelay = 20 μs, the output current (IO) at full iD2
0
load commutates naturally from the GTO (G1) to the
antiparallel diode (D2). t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
Fig. 45 shows the steady state operation of the circuit
before and after the commutation of output current (IO) from t (μ s )
the antiparallel diode (D2) to the GTO (G1). The transient 0 10 20 30 40 50
waveforms in this mode of operation are shown in Fig. 46.
Fig. 47 shows the steady state operation of the circuit Fig. 46. Transient waveforms from commutation from D2 to G1.
before and after the commutation of output current (IO) from
 195

VDC pu pu
1
LS1 iD2
1 1
v1 vC3
1 0.26 pu iG2
L1
0 0
0
0 iL S1 0
vG2
0
G1

1 vC1
1.88 pu
IO
vO vO
IO vG1 1
LS4 0
v2 vO 1
L2 0

0
1
D2
iL S2
0 0
iG1
0
iDS2
REFERENCE 0 0
Fig. 47. Commutation from G1 to G2 to D2.
t0 t 3 t4 t5 t6
To examine the situation when the worst voltage stress
t (μ s )
across and current stress through a GTO occur, both types of 0 5 10 15 20 25
commutation processes, from the diode (D2) to the GTO (G1) (b)
and from the GTO (G1) to the GTO (G2) to the diode (D2),
are studied with various delay times (tdelay). The results are pu pu
given in Table 1. 1
iD2
1 vC3 1
pu pu 1
iG2
1 0 0
iD2 0
1 1 iL S1
vC 3 0 0
1 0.15 pu vG2
iG2 0
0 0
0
0 iL S1 0
vG2 1 vC1
0
1.71 pu
1 vG1 1
vC 1 0
1.77 pu vO 1
vG1 1 0
0
vO 1 0
0 1
iL S2
0
1 0 0
iG1
0
iL S2 iDS2
0 0
0 0
iG1
0 t3 t4 t5 t6
iDS2
0 0
t2 t4 t (μ s )
t0 t1 t3 t5 t6 0 5 10 15 20 25
(c)
t (μ s )
0 5 10 15 20 25 Fig. 48. Transient waveforms from commutation from G1 to G2 to D2 with
(a) (a) tdelay = 2 μs, (b) with tdelay = 0, and (c) tdelay = 20 μs.
 196

TABLE 1: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT STRESSES WHEN A GTO TURNS ON AND OFF

Peak voltage Peak voltage Peak current Peak current

across the across the through the through the
GTO, G1 (pu) GTO, G2 (pu) GTO, G1 (pu) GTO, G2 (pu)
GTO (G1) Full load 1.54 1.75
turn-on No load 1.46 0.66
GTO (G1) turn-off and GTO (G2) Full load 1.77 0.15
turn-on with tdelay= 2 μs
GTO (G1) turn-off and GTO (G2) Full load 1.88 0.26
turn-on with tdelay= 0 No load 1.46 0.66
GTO (G1) turn-off and GTO (G2) Full load 1.71 0
turn-on with tdelay= 20 μs

The results are indicated in pu with one pu current as the nominal output current (IO = 4000 A) and the one pu voltage as the
nominal DC link voltage (VDC = 1900 V).

The worst overvoltage of 1.88 pu occurs across the GTO voltage across the transmission line reactance (X) is VX and I
(G1) when the output current (IO) commutates from the GTO is the current in the transmission line.
(G1) to the GTO (G2) to the diode (D2) under full load
condition with tdelay = 0. The worst overcurrent of 1.75 pu Vs's
Pr , Q r
VX
occurs through the GTO (G1) when the output current (IO) I
commutates from the diode (D2) to the GTO (G1) under full X VX
load condition. Therefore, in the pole circuit under
Vs Vr
consideration, the GTO must be derated at least by a factor of Vs Vs' Vr
I

two in terms of its voltage and current ratings. In real-world Vs's = 0 δ

applications, each switch consists of a number of GTOs that
(a) (b)
are connected in series. Considering the need for continuous
φ I
operation of the VSC with an allowable number of failed
Iφ
GTOs, each GTO is further derated in terms of its voltage Vs's
VX
Vs' Vr
rating. Pr = X sin δ ' VX
Vs Vr Vs Vr
Vs'
Since the voltage across and the current through each V V V
s' r r δ ' Vs's
element of the circuit is calculated in the simulation, the total Vs's > 0 δ' Qr = X (cos δ ' - ) Vs's > 0
Vs' Vs'
loss in the pole circuit can be calculated for trade-off analyses (c) (d)
of components selection, heat sink sizing, and determining the
overall efficiency of the pole circuit. The single GTO switch Fig. 49. UPFC operating with an open loop compensating voltage and the
model can serve as the basis to extend the simulation of the related phasor diagrams.
circuit, shown in Fig. 43, to represent a higher power switch
built with a stack of GTO modules that are connected in series The voltage (VX) across the transmission line can be
although there may be only one di/dt limiting inductor serving controlled by controlling the compensating voltage (Vs’s) in
all the GTO modules. Each GTO module has its own series with the transmission line; consequently, the line
antiparallel diode and turn-off snubber circuit, as shown in current and the power flow in the line are regulated. Consider
Fig. 43. Failure of any one GTO in the stack will make the the case where Vs’s = 0 as shown in Fig. 49b. The transmission
upper and lower halves of the VSC pole asymmetric. Circuit line’s sending-end voltage (Vs) leads the receiving-end
behaviour under this asymmetric condition can be examined voltage (Vr) by a phase angle (δ). The resulting current in the
as well as the variations caused by differences in the dynamic line is I and the active and reactive power flows at the
switching characteristics of the individual GTOs in the stack. receiving end are Pr and Qr, respectively. With a
The acceptable dynamic sharing of each GTO may be compensating voltage (Vs’s) in series with the transmission
obtained by proper selection of GTOs with similar line, the transmission line’s modified sending-end voltage
characteristics. Since the leakage resistance of each GTO is (Vs’) still leads the receiving-end voltage (Vr), but by a
different, static sharing is ensured by connecting a high different phase angle (δ’) as shown in Fig. 49c. The resulting
resistance (on the order of 100 KΩ) across each GTO. line current and the amount of power flow change. With a
larger amount of compensating voltage (Vs’s) in series with the
V. SIMULATION RESULTS OF A UPFC transmission line, the sending-end voltage (Vs’) now lags the
Fig. 49a shows a single-line diagram of a simple receiving-end voltage (Vr) by a different phase angle (δ’) as
transmission line with an inductive reactance (X) and a shown in Fig. 49d. The resulting line current and the power
flow now reverse.
compensating voltage (Vs’s) connecting a sending-end voltage
source (Vs) and a receiving-end voltage source (Vr). The
 197

The phase angle (φ) between the negative compensating thereby emulating an inductive or a capacitive reactance at the
voltage (i.e., -Vs’s = +Vdq) and the line current (I), as shown in point of compensation in series with the line, and the
Fig. 49, parts c and d, can be between 0 and 2π. The STATCOM injects a reactive current, thereby also emulating a
component of the negative compensating voltage that is in or reactance at the point of compensation in shunt with the line.
out of phase with the line current emulates a positive or a While operating both the VSCs together as the UPFC, the
negative resistance in series with the transmission line. The series-connected compensating voltage can be at any phase
remaining component that is in quadrature with the line angle with respect to the prevailing line current. Therefore, the
current emulates an inductive or a capacitive reactance in exchanged power at the terminal of each VSC can be reactive
series with the transmission line. as well as active. The exchanged active power at the terminal
The active power is absorbed from or delivered to the line of one VSC with the line flows to the terminal of the other
through the STATCOM, which injects a current at the point of VSC through the shared DC link. The exchanged reactive
compensation. The current injected by the STATCOM has an powers at both the AC terminals of the UPFC are independent
active or direct component (Id), which is in phase or in of each other.
opposite phase with the line voltage. The current injected by The SSSC can be operated in many different modes such as
the STATCOM also has a reactive or quadrature component (a) voltage injection, (b) phase angle regulation, (c) line
(Iq), which is in quadrature with the line voltage, thereby impedance emulation, (d) automatic power flow control, and
emulating an inductive or a capacitive reactance at the point of so on. In each mode of operation, the final outcome is such
compensation. This reactive current can be independently that the SSSC injects a voltage in series with the transmission
controlled, which, in turn, regulates the line voltage at the line. The control block diagram of the SSSC in an open loop
point of compensation. voltage injection mode is shown in Fig. 51.
The UPFC model in EMTP is shown Fig. 50. The UPFC The desired peak fundamental voltage (Vs’s*) at the output
consists of two VSCs that are connected through a shared DC of the VSC and its relative phase angle (β) with respect to the
link. The configurations of the two VSCs used are identical reference PLL angle (θ) are specified. The absolute phase angle
for practical reasons, such as storing spare parts, maintenance, (θ2) of the VSC output voltage is calculated by adding the
and so on. Each VSC is coupled with a transformer at its relative phase angle (β) of the VSC output voltage and the PLL
output. The first VSC, known as the STATCOM, injects an angle (θ). The dead angle (γ) of each pole is calculated.
almost sinusoidal current, of variable magnitude, at the point
of compensation in shunt with the line. The second VSC,
known as the SSSC, injects an almost sinusoidal voltage, of * "Dead" Angle
V s's
variable magnitude, at the point of compensation in series Calculator
with the line.
vDC
BUS01

BUS02

SRSBRK β γ
Ps' , Q s'
V12 Phase-Locked θ θ2 Gate
I v1 Pattern VSC
Loop
Logic
SRSTR
Vs CNV01 SHNBRK CNV02 V2 Vs' Controller
V1
I1 I2 Fig. 51. Control block diagram of the SSSC in an open loop voltage injection
GNDSW mode of operation of the UPFC.
E 11 E 22
SHNTR SRSDS
iDC1 iDC2 The controller of the STATCOM is used to operate the
E1 DCLS E2 VSC in such a way that the phase angle between the VSC
vDC output voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted, so
that the STATCOM generates or absorbs desired VARs at the
MC1 VSC1 VSC2 MC2 point of compensation. Fig. 52a shows the reactive current
Control & Protection Unit control block diagram of the STATCOM.
An instantaneous three-phase set of line voltages (v1) at
UPFC
BUS01 is used to calculate the PLL angle (θ), which is phase-
Fig. 50. UPFC model in EMTP.
locked to the phase a of the line voltage (v1a). An instantaneous
three-phase set of measured currents (i1) through the VSC is
The control of the UPFC can be divided into two parts: the decomposed into its active or direct component (I1d) and reactive
control of the STATCOM and the control of the SSSC. When or quadrature component (I1q). The quadrature component is
the STATCOM and the SSSC operate as stand-alone FACTS compared with the desired reference value (I1q*) and the error is
controllers, they exchange almost exclusively reactive power passed through an error amplifier, which produces a relative
at their terminals. During the stand-alone operations, the phase angle (α) of the compensating voltage (E1) with respect to
SSSC injects a voltage in quadrature with the line current, the line voltage (V1). The absolute phase angle (θ1) of the
compensating voltage is calculated by adding the relative phase
 198

angle of the compensating voltage with respect to the PLL angle Fig. 53 shows the digital simulation results from the open loop
(θ). voltage injection mode of operation of the SSSC while the
The reference quadrature component (I1q*) of the current STATCOM is operated to deliver no reactive current. At the
through the VSC is defined to be either positive if the beginning of the operation, the series bypass breaker (SRSBRK)
STATCOM is emulating a capacitive reactance or negative if it is and the series disconnect switch (SRSDS) are open and the
emulating an inductive reactance. The DC link capacitor voltage ground switch (GNDSW) is closed. The HN-VSC (VSC2)
(vDC) is dynamically adjusted in relationship with the generates no compensating voltage. The voltage (v12a) at the
compensating voltage. The control scheme described above terminal of the series coupling transformer (SRSTR) is the
shows the implementation of the inner current control loop, voltage across its leakage reactance. The active and reactive
which regulates the reactive current flow through the VSC compensating powers (Pc-se and Qc-se) exchanged at the terminal
regardless of the line voltage. However, if it is desired to regulate of the series coupling transformer (SRSTR) are mostly reactive
the line voltage, an outer voltage control loop must be due to the high quality factor of the leakage reactance. The shunt
implemented. The outer voltage control loop automatically breaker (SHNBRK) is open. The DC link capacitor is
determines the reference reactive current for the inner current precharged.
control loop, which, in turn, regulates the line voltage. At 50 ms, the SHNBRK closes and the quadrature current
Fig. 52b shows the voltage control block diagram of the demand (I1q*) of the VSC1 is set to zero. At 100 ms, a series
STATCOM. Using the reference PLL angle (θ), the compensating voltage at the VSC2 side is set at 0.2 pu with a
instantaneous three-phase set of measured line voltage (v1) at relative phase angle β = 300ο leading the reference PLL angle
BUS01 is decomposed into its active or direct component (V1d) (θ). The series VSC2 output voltage (e2a) of phase a leads the
and reactive or quadrature component (V1q). The magnitude of line current (ia) by a phase angle (φ). Since φ > 90ο, the SSSC
the BUS01 voltage (V1dq) is calculated, which is compared with emulates a negative resistance in addition to an inductive
the desired reference value, V1* (adjusted by the droop factor, reactance in series with the transmission line. The active power
Kdroop), and the error is passed through an error amplifier that that is delivered to the line by the series VSC2 flows from
produces the reference current (I1q*) for the inner current control BUS01 through the STATCOM. The shunt VSC1 output voltage
loop. The droop factor (Kdroop) is defined as the allowable voltage (e1a) of phase a is almost in phase with the current (i1a) flowing
error at the rated reactive current flow through the STATCOM. through it. The voltage (v2a) of phase a at BUS02 leads the
voltage (vra) of phase a at the receiving end. The active power
*
I1q Error (Pr) delivered at the receiving end decreases. The reactive power
Amplifier (Qr) delivered at the receiving end becomes inductive. At 200
I1d I1q ms, the series-connected compensating voltage is maintained at
Rotating 0.2 pu while the relative phase angle (β) is changed to 240ο. The
Frame active power that is absorbed from the line by the series VSC2
i1 Transformer α
θ1 Gate flows to BUS01 through the STATCOM. The shunt VSC1
θ
Pattern VSC output voltage (e1a) of phase a is almost 180ο out of phase with
Logic the current (i1a) flowing through it. The reactive power (Qr)
v1 Phase-Locked
Loop delivered at the receiving end becomes capacitive. At 300 ms, the
Inner Loop Current Controller
series-connected compensating voltage is increased to 0.4 pu
(a) while the relative phase angle (β) stays at 240ο. The voltage (v2a)
of phase a at BUS 2 lags the voltage (vra) of phase a and the
active power flow (Pr) at the receiving end reverses. The series
Kdroop VSC2 output voltage (e2a) of phase a lags the line current (ia) by
*
V1 a phase angle (φ). The reactive compensating power (Qc-se)
*
exchanged at the terminal of the series coupling transformer
V1dq Error I1q
Amplifier (SRSTR) becomes capacitive.
Magnitude Fig. 54 shows the expanded view of two sections of Fig. 53.
Calculator The VSC2 voltage and current show the presence of only
V1d V1q fundamental components.
Rotating
v1 Frame
Transformer

θ
Outer Loop Voltage Controller
(b)

Fig. 52. (a) Reactive current control block diagram of the STATCOM. (b)
Voltage control block diagram of the STATCOM.
 199

V, I, P, Q remaining current carrying capability of the STATCOM can

(p u) vD C be utilized to inject reactive current to the line at the point of
compensation and, in the process, the line voltage can be
V1 regulated. Fig. 57 shows the previous test case with the
1
Pr voltage control mode of operation of the STATCOM. The
I1 q time STATCOM carries additional reactive current and regulates
Qr (ms) the line voltage at the point of compensation (BUS01).
0
150 300 450
0.25 Qc-s e Pc-s e V, I, P, Q
0 (p u) vD C
-0.25 e1 a
v1 a
i1 a
1 V1
1
Pr
I1 q time
Qr (ms)
0
0
150 300 450
0.25 Qc-s e Pc-s e
-1 0
-0.25 e1 a v1 a
1 ia i1 a
1

0
0
φ
v1 2 a e2 a
-1
-1
Fig. 53. Performance of the UPFC with an infinite pulse VSC2 operating in
1 ia
an open loop voltage injection mode while regulating a zero reactive current
through an infinite pulse VSC1.

0.5 ia 0
e2a 290
0 φ
280 300 v1 2 a e2 a
-0.5 time -1
v12a φ (ms)
V, I (pu) Fig. 55. Performance of the UPFC with a 24-pulse QHN-VSC2 with three-
level poles operating in an open loop voltage injection mode while regulating
0.5 ia a zero reactive current through a 24-pulse QHN-VSC1 with three-level poles
440 operating at a fixed dead angle to act as a 48-pulse QHN.
0
430 φ 450
-0.5 time 0.5 ia
e2a v12a e2a 290
(ms)
0
280 300
Fig. 54. Waveforms from the UPFC with an infinite pulse VSC2 operating in -0.5 time
an open loop voltage injection mode. v12a φ (ms)
V, I (pu)
The previous test case was rerun for the UPFC with two 24-
0.5 ia
pulse QHN-VSCs with three-level poles: one operating as the 440
STATCOM with a fixed dead angle (γ) to produce a 48-pulse 0
waveform and the other operating as the SSSC to produce a 430 450
-0.5 φ
variable output voltage. The results are shown in Figs. 55 and v12a time
e2a (ms)
56, respectively. The VSC2 voltage and current show the
presence of harmonic components. Fig. 56. Waveforms from the UPFC with a 24-pulse QHN-VSC2 with three-
In the above test cases, the STATCOM was operated in a level poles operating in an open loop voltage injection mode.
reactive current control mode with the reactive current
through the STATCOM set to zero. The only current that
passed through the STATCOM was either in phase or out of
phase with the BUS01 voltage, depending on whether the
SSSC was delivering or absorbing active power to or from the
line. The BUS01 voltage was not regulated. However, the
 200

V, I, P, Q number of turns from each of the three windings and,

(p u) vD C therefore, the magnitudes of the components of the three 120ο
phase-shifted induced voltages, the compensating voltage
V1 (Vs’s) in any phase is derived from the phasor sum of the
1
Pr voltages induced in a three-phase winding set (a1, b1, and c1
for compensation in the A phase; a2, b2, and c2 for
compensation in the B phase; and a3, b3, and c3 for
0
compensation in the C phase). The compensating voltage is
0.25 Qc-s e Qr Pc-s e also at any phase angle with respect to the prevailing line
0 current. The active or direct component of the compensating
-0.25 I1 q voltage provides the series resistance emulation, which can be
time
(ms) a positive resistor that absorbs active power from the line or a
0 negative resistor that delivers active power to the line. The
150 300 450 reactive or quadrature component of the compensating voltage
provides the series reactance emulation, which can be a
Fig. 57. Performance of the UPFC with a 24-pulse QHN-VSC2 with three- capacitor that delivers reactive power to the line and, in the
level poles operating in an open loop voltage injection mode while regulating process, increases the power flow of the line or an inductor
the BUS01 voltage with a 24-pulse QHN-VSC1 with three-level poles that absorbs reactive power from the line and decreases the
operating at a fixed dead angle to act as a 48-pulse QHN. power flow of the line. Therefore, the desired compensating
voltage is actually an impedance emulator. The effect of
VI. SIMULATION RESULTS OF AN ST impedance emulation is such that the active and reactive
The ST, shown in Fig. 58a, has two main units: exciter unit power flows in a transmission line can be regulated
and compensating voltage unit. The exciter unit consists of Y- independently. The power circuit is identical for both the
connected shunt primary windings (A, B, and C) and the voltage regulator and the impedance regulator. Both functions
compensating voltage unit consists of nine secondary of voltage regulation and independent control of active and
windings, three of which are placed on each limb of the core reactive power flows can be implemented in just one unit by
e.g., a1, a2, and a3 on the first limb, b1, b2, and b3 on the second proper programming of the tap control unit. Fig. 58b shows
limb, and c1, c2, and c3 on the third limb. The three-phase the related phasor diagram.
transmission line voltages (Vsa, Vsb, and Vsc) at the sending
end are applied in shunt to the exciter unit. By choosing the

Vs'sA IA
VsA
0
a1 Vs'A
IB
VsB 4
4

b1
0

Vs'B
4

IC
VsC c1
0

Vs'C

Vs'sB
Va1
0 Vs
a2 'sA β
A 4
4

b2
0

Vb
4

V c1 1
c2
0

VsA
Va3 Vs Va2
V sC B B
Vs'sC V s's
C B 0 β
a3
V c3 β Vb V c2 Vb
4
4

3 2
b3
Vs'sC
0

c3
0

EXCITER UNIT (a) COMPENSATING VOLTAGE UNIT (b)

Fig. 58. (a) ST for voltage compensation in the entire control range of 0ο through 360ο. (b) Phasor diagram.
 201

It should be noted that each of a1, b2, and c3 is tapped at ST is used as a voltage regulator to decrease the modified
the same number of turns; each of b1, c2, and a3 is tapped at sending-end voltage, there are same number of turns in two
the same number of turns; and each of c1, a2, and b3 is windings that are connected to each phase in the case when
tapped at the same number of turns. However, the number the relative phase angle (β) is 180ο.
of turns in the a1-b2-c3 set, b1-c2-a3 set, and c1-a2-b3 set can
be different from each other with one exception - when the
β =0 ο
Qr β =0ο
δ
0
β =240 ο

-0.5
β =120 ο β =240 ο
β =120 ο
VsA
-1.0 (P rn, Q rn)
β =240 ο β =120 ο
Vs 1.4 P r
V sC B
-1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

β =120 ο β =240 ο β =0 ο
β =0ο

(a) (b)

β =0 ο
Qr β =0ο
δ
0
β =240 ο

-0.5
β =120 ο β =240 ο
β =120 ο
VsA (P rn, Q rn)
-1.0
β =240 ο β =120 ο
Vs 1.35 P r
V sC B
-1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

β =120 ο β =240 ο β =0ο

β =0ο

(c) (d)

Fig. 59. Compensating points with the use of the Sen transformer within the entire control range of 0ο and 360ο. Theoretically possible (a) modified sending-end
voltage and (b) active and reactive power flows at the receiving end. Practically possible (c) modified sending-end voltage and (d) active and reactive power
flows at the receiving end.
 202

Since the LTCs that are used in the ST change their

0.20
positions in steps, the compensating points in the ST are

Compensating Voltage (pu)

discrete in the allowable control range. If the allowable
0.15
magnitude (Vs’s) of the compensating voltage (Vs’s) is assumed Vs's=0.05
to be 0.2 pu and the change of voltage in each step of a LTC is Vs's=0.10
0.05 pu, there are N = 4 steps associated with each secondary 0.10
Vs's=0.15
winding. A comprehensive study of the power system network Vs's=0.20
integrated with the PFC can only show how many steps is the 0.05
right number of steps. Fig. 59 shows that the theoretical
circular control area is actually a hexagon. Shorter steps in the 0.00
LTCs make the compensating points closer to each other and 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
vice versa. Fig. 59a shows the theoretically possible Phase Angle, β (degree)
compensating points of the modified sending-end voltage with
the use of the ST and Fig. 59b the corresponding active and
Fig. 61. Magnitude of the series-connected compensating voltage (Vs’s) in pu
reactive power flows at the receiving end within the control during the entire control range of its relative phase angle (β) from 0ο and 360ο.
range of 0ο and 360ο. Fig. 59, parts c and d, show the practical
control range of the ST. The filled dots, within the allowable
voltage range in Fig. 59c, show a total of 36 compensating 325
points of the ST lie within the 10% range of the nominal
275
voltage. Fig. 59d shows that the maximum active power flow
Vs's=0
enhancement at the receiving end, within the allowable Vs's=0.05
225

Pr (MW)
voltage range, is actually 0.35 pu instead of the theoretically Vs's=0.10
possible 0.40 pu, as shown in Fig. 59b. 175 Vs's=0.15
The controllable range of the active and reactive power flows Vs's=0.20
can easily be determined with an open loop control by specifying 125
to the tap control unit the rated compensating voltage (Vs’s*) and
75
varying the relative phase angle (β) within its entire 360ο range,
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
as shown in Fig. 60.
Phase Angle, β (degree)

Vs's* (a)
Tap
β Control Taps
Unit 50
Vs
vs Magnitude
0
Calculator
Vs's=0
Q r (Mvar)

-50 Vs's=0.05
Controller
Vs's=0.10
-100 Vs's=0.15
Fig. 60. Open loop compensating voltage unit control block diagram of the
ST. Vs's=0.20
-150

Consider the power system network of Fig. 18. The PFC -200
was replaced with the ST, as shown in Fig. 58. The ST 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
consists of three primary windings and nine secondary Phase Angle, β (degree)
windings (three for series connection in each of the three
phases). Each primary and secondary winding are considered (b)
to have one pu and 0.2 pu voltage ratings, respectively. Fig. 62. (a) Active power (Pr) and (b) reactive power (Qr) flows at the
Considering a LTC contact located at every 5% mark, each receiving end during the entire control range of the relative phase angle (β)
from 0ο and 360ο.
secondary winding consists of four LTC taps. The leakage
reactance of the ST was set to zero to eliminate its secondary
Fig. 62 shows the active and reactive power flows (Pr and
effect. The natural active and reactive powers (Prn and Qrn) at
Qr) at the receiving end during the entire stepped control
the receiving end are 209.12 MW (1.31 pu) and −68.54 Mvar
range of the relative phase angle (β) from 0ο and 360ο. Fig. 63
(−0.43 pu), respectively.
shows the active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) flow at
The control was implemented in an open loop voltage
the receiving end during the entire control range of the relative
injection mode traveling from one operating point to the next
phase angle (β) from 0ο and 360ο. The P-Q plot is somewhat
in one particular hexagon in the entire control range of 0ο to
different from an ideal hexagon due to the fact that the
360ο. The actual magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs’s)
primary voltage (Vs) keeps moving from its original
in pu (considering the primary voltage to be one pu) and its
(uncompensated) location because of the change of load in the
relative phase angle (β) are shown in Fig. 61.
line during compensation and the amount of Thèvenin
impedance at the point of compensation and the shunt loading
 203

due to exciter unit of the ST. A more ideal hexagon-like [4] K. K. Sen, L. Tang (Chairmen), H. W. Dommel, K. G. Fehrle, A. M.
characteristic results if the point of compensation is closer to a Gole, E. W. Gunther, I. Hassan, R. Iravani, A. J. F. Keri, R. Lasseter, J.
R. Marti, J. A. Martinez, M. F. McGranaghan, O. B. Nayak, C.
stiff bus. Nwankpa, and P. F. Ribeiro, Guidelines for Modeling Power Electronics
in Electric Power Engineering Applications, Chapter 2 of Modeling and
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Martinez-Velasco and A. Keri (eds.), IEEE Special Publication TP-133-
0, IEEE Catalog No. 99TP133-0, 1999.
0
[5] ATP Rule Book, Leuven EMTP Center (Ed.), 1990.
Vs's=0
[6] EMTP Rule Book, EPRI/DCG Version 1.0.
Q r (Mvar)

-50 Vs's=0.05
[7] H.W. Dommel, EMTP Reference-Manual (EMTP Theory Book), BPA,
Vs's=0.10 1986.
-100 Vs's=0.15 [8] CIGRE Working Group 02 (SC 33), "Guidelines for Representation of
Vs's=0.20 Network Elements when Calculating Transients", 1990.
-150 [9] P. F. Ribeiro, "Distribution system and other elements modeling",
Chapter 3 of Tutorial on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation, IEEE TP-
-200 125-0, 1998.
75 125 175 225 275 325 [10] "Symposium on Synchronous Machines Modelling for Power System
P r (MW) Studies", IEEE Power Engineering Society, Publication 83THO101-6-
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Fig. 63. Active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) flows at the receiving [11] "IEEE Guide: Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines", IEEE Std.
end during the entire control range of the relative phase angle (β) from 0ο and 115, 1983.
360ο. [12] I. M. Canay, "Modelling of alternating-current machines having multiple
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[13] G. J. Rogers and D. Shirmohammadi, "Induction machine modelling for
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[16] L. X. Bui, S. Casoria, G. Morin, “Modeling of digital controls with
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[18] K. G. Fehrle, R. H. Lasseter, “Simulation of control systems and
compensator, HVDC transmission system, and so on.
application to HVDC converters”, IEEE Tutorial Course 81 EHO173-
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[23] L. Dube and I. Bonfanti, “MODELS: A new simulation tool in the
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT EMTP”, European Transactions on Electrical Power Engineering, Vol.
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[24] J. A. Martinez, “Simulation of power electronics using the EMTP, Part I:
Power converters, A survey”, UPEC’94, September 14-16, 1994,
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 204

[27] J. A. Martinez, G. A. Capolino, “TACS and MODELS: Drive simulation [50] M. O. Faruque, V. Dinavahi, S. Santoso, R. Adapa, “Review of
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EMTP Summer Course, July 5-8, 1993, Leuven. BIOGRAPHY
[29] Z. Daboussi, N. Mohan, “Digital simulation of field-oriented control of
induction motor drives using EMTP”, IEEE Trans. on Energy Kalyan K. Sen (S’83−M’87−SM’01)
Conversion, Vol. 3, pp. 667-673, September 1988. received B.E.E, M.S.E.E, and Ph.D
[30] X. Z. Meng, J. G. J. Sloot, H. Rijanto, “Modelling of semiconductor degrees, all in Electrical Engineering,
fuses in EMTP”, Proceedings of First International Conference on Power from Jadavpur University, India,
Tuskegee University, USA, and
Systems Transients (IPST’95), Lisbon (Portugal), pp. 481-486.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA,
[31] J. A. Martinez-Velasco, R. Abdo, G.A. Capolino,” Advanced
respectively. He has spent 23 years in
representation of power semiconductors using the EMTP”, Proceedings
academia and industry. He was a key
of First International Conference on Power Systems Transients member of the FACTS development
(IPST’95), Lisbon (Portugal), pp. 505-510. team at Westinghouse Science &
[32] S. Lefebvre, R. D. Rangel, “Modeling of power electronics devices in Technology Center in Pittsburgh,
EMTP-TACS”, Proceedings of First International Conference on Power USA. He contributed in all aspects
Systems Transients (IPST’95), Lisbon (Portugal), pp. 511-516. (conception, simulation, design, and
[33] J. A. Martinez and G. A. Capolino, “EMTP simulation of power commissioning) of FACTS projects at
electronics and drives using data modularization”, Proceedings First Westinghouse. Dr. Sen conceived
International Aegean Conference on Electrical Machines and Power some of the basic concepts in FACTS
Electronics, Kucadasi (Turkey), May 27-29, 1992. technology. He has 25 patents and publications in the areas of FACTS and
[34] M. Szechtman, T. Wess, C. V. Thio, “First benchmark model for HVDC power electronics. He is the coauthor of the book titled, Introduction to
control studies”, Electra, No. 135, April 1991. FACTS Controller: Theory, Modeling, and Applications, New York: IEEE
[35] W. S. Meyer, “EMTP data modularization and sorting by class: a Press and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2009. He is the co-inventor of the “Sen”
foundation upon which EMTP data bases can be built,” EMTP Transformer for FACTS applications. He is also the cofounder of SEN
Newsletter, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 28-40, Nov. 1983. Engineering Solutions, where he pursues his interests in affordable power
[36] A. M. Gole, A. Keri, C. Kwankpa, E. W. Gunther, H. W. Dommel, I. flow controllers. His interests are in Power Converters, Control, Electrical
Hassan, J. R. Marti, J. A. Martinez, K. G. Fehrle, L. Tang, M. F. Machines, and Power System Simulations and Studies. He is a licensed
McGranaghan, O. B. Nayak, P. F. Ribeiro, R. Iravani, and R. Lasseter, Professional Engineer in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
“Guidelines for modeling power electronics in electric power
engineering applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 12, no. 1, Dr. Sen, a Senior Member of IEEE, has served the organization in many
pp. 505-514, Jan. 1997. positions. In 2003, he reestablished the Pittsburgh Chapters of the Power &
[37] A. M. Gole and V. K. Sood, “A static compensator model for use with Energy Society and the Industry Applications Society. Both Chapters received
electromagnetic transients simulation programs,” IEEE Trans. Power the “Outstanding Large Chapter” awards for their activities in 2004. Under his
Delivery, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 1398-1407, Jul. 1990. Chairmanship, the Pittsburgh Section received the “Outstanding Large
[38] J. A. Martinez and N. Mohan, “ATP simulation of power electronics Section” award for its activities in 2005. He served as an Editor of the IEEE
systems using a data-module approach,” Proc. 32nd Universities Power Transactions on Power Delivery from 2002 to 2007. He served as the
Technical Program Chair of the 2008 Power & Energy Society General
Engineering Conf., UPEC, vol. 1, pp. 495-498, Manchester, U.K., 1997.
Meeting in Pittsburgh, and the Chapters and Sections Activities Track Chair at
[39] P. W. Lehn, “Exact modeling of the voltage source converter,” IEEE the 2008 IEEE Sections Congress in Quebec City, Canada. He has been
Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 217-222, Jan. 2002. serving as an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer since 2002. He also serves the
[40] M. B. Brennen and B. Banerjee, “Low cost, high performance Active Power & Energy Society Governing Board as the Region 2 Representative.
Power Line Conditioners,” in Third Int. Conf. on Power Quality:
End−Use Applications and Perspectives, EPRI, Amsterdam, Oct. 1994.
[41] K. K. Sen, “STATCOM-STATic synchronous COMpensator: Theory,
Modeling, and Applications,” Proc. IEEE PES Winter Meeting, vol. 2,
pp. 1177-1183, 1999.
[42] K. K. Sen, , “SSSC-static synchronous series compensator: theory,
modeling, and application,” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 13, no.
1, pp. 241 -246, Jan. 1998.
[43] K. K. Sen, E. J. Stacey, “UPFC-unified power flow controller: theory,
modeling, and applications,” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 13,
no. 4, pp. 1453-1460, Oct. 1998.
[44] K. Sen, “Simulation of UPFC,” Proc. IEEE PES Winter Meeting, vol. 2,
pp. 641-642, 2001.
[45] K. K. Sen, A. J. F. Keri, “Comparison of field results and digital
simulation results of voltage-sourced converter-based FACTS
controllers,” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 300-
306, Jan 2003.
[46] B. K. Johnson, “Benchmark system for the simulation of TCSC and
SVC,” Proc. IEEE PES Winter Meeting, pp. 484-487, New York, 2002.
[47] K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Introducing the family of Sen transformers: a
set of power flow controlling transformers,” IEEE Trans. Power
Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 149-157, Jan. 2003.
[48] K. K. Sen, M. L. Sen, “Comparison of the Sen transformer with the
unified power flow controller,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 18,
no. 3, pp. 1523-1533, Oct. 2003.
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 205

Protection Systems
Lj. A. Kojovic, Senior Member, IEEE

ip Rp Lp Rs Ls
Abstract— This tutorial paper presents computer modeling is
techniques that include instrument transformers (iron-core
ie
current transformers, Rogowski Coils, and coupling-capacitor
voltage transformers), power fuses, recloser overcurrent
protection, and relay protection. Rm Lm Rb

Index Terms— Modeling, Computer Simulation, Current

Transformer, Rogowski Coil, Coupling-Capacitor Voltage
Transformer, Relay Protection. ip Primary current (referred to the secondary)
is Secondary current
I. INTRODUCTION ie Exciting current
Rp, Lp Primary winding resistance and leakage
T HE first relay models were developed by manufacturers in
an attempt to optimize relay designs. The models were
tested and designs modified based on the knowledge gained
Rs, Ls
inductance (referred to the secondary)
Secondary winding resistance and leakage
inductance
from testing. Today, relays are microprocessor-based — Lm Magnetizing inductance
which changed the modeling methodology. Detailed relay Rm Iron loss equivalent resistance
Rb CT burden including lead resistance
modeling is complex since it may include instrument
Fig. 1 Current Transformer Equivalent Circuit.
transformers, signal conditioning filters, analog-to-digital
converters, and relay algorithms. In addition, all relays have a
immediately upon the fault inception. The time that takes to
number of functions that are implemented to achieve high
begin the CT saturation is called time-to-saturation. Remanent
relay security and dependability. However, in most cases,
flux in the CT core can also cause relay misoperation. To
users do not need to have a detailed relay model to obtain
reduce or avoid saturation and/or remanent flux, different
useful information about protection system performance.
current-sensing devices have been developed. Fig. 2 compares
Vendors may provide models as part of the relay’s
V-I characteristics for non-gapped CTs, gapped CTs, and
engineering / interface software package. Digital models may
Rogowski coils. As shown in Fig. 2, the CT knee-point voltage
be developed using various development and simulation tools
is differently specified by IEEE and IEC standards. However,
such as PSCAD/EMTDC™ electromagnetic time domain the definition of the saturation voltage at which the CT
transient simulation environment and study tool, MATLAB™, maintains required accuracy is specified in a similar way as
Alternative Transient Program (ATP), and ElectroMagnetic shown in Fig. 2. Introduction of an air gap in the CT core
Transient Program (EMTP). In this tutorial, models based on reduces the CT V-I characteristic slope. This results in
electromagnetic transient programs ATP and MATLAB are reduced remanent flux but increases the phase error. Rogowski
presented. coils have linear V-I characteristic; however, they require
This tutorial provides guidelines to model instrument specially designed relays that accept these type of signals.
transformers (conventional iron-core current transformers, CT saturation can be caused by any one or combined events
Rogowski Coils, and coupling-capacitor voltage transformers), listed below:
power fuses, and recloser control and relay protection Symmetric short circuit currents can cause CT saturation
functions. if the CT secondary voltage exceeds the saturation level.
Asymmetric short circuit currents can cause CT
II. IRON-CORE CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
saturation at smaller current magnitudes compared to
A conventional iron-core current transformer equivalent symmetric short-circuit currents due to the DC component
circuit is shown in Fig. 1. (DC offset).
The CT iron-core is a non-linear element that saturates Remanent flux (remanence) in the CT core reduces the
whenever flux inside the CT core exceeds the saturation level, margin for flux increase in one direction and leads to earlier
resulting in distorted and reduced secondary current that may saturation (reduces time-to-saturation) if the fault current
cause relay misoperation. However, CTs cannot saturate creates flux in the same direction as the remanent flux
(positive remanence). However, if the fault current creates flux
in the opposite direction of the remanent flux (negative
Lj. A. Kojovic is with Cooper Power Systems, Franksville, WI 53126,
USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
remanence) this will extend the time-to-saturation. Once a
 206

Saturation voltage
ANSI C-Class (remanence) of +80%, 0%, and -80% of the saturation flux.
(10% error at 20 times rated current)
Fig. 3 shows +80% positive remanence reduces time-to-

Voltage
Knee point
IEC 10P20
voltage
IEC 50% No Air-Gap saturation to about 2 ms, while time-to-saturation for 0%
10%
remanence is about 5 ms. For -80% remanence nearly no
Knee point voltage
ANSI (45° slope)
saturation occurs in the first half-cycle.
Increasing Air-Gap Modern microprocessor-based protection devices have very

1
2

ap
ap
low impedances and may be neglected when considering
-G
Non-Gapped Iron-Cored
r -G
Ai
Air
Current Transformer
current transformer (CT) saturation. The CT wire impedance
and impedance of the leads that interconnect CTs and
Operating point protection devices should be represented when studying the
CT saturation.
Rogowski Coil In some applications, it is expected that CTs will saturate
during asymmetrical faults – even though their V-I
Current
Fig. 2 Comparison of Current Transformer and Rogowski Coil characteristics may satisfy Standards. Most protection devices
V-I Characteristics. make operating decisions based on the RMS value of the fault
current. If the CT secondary signal is distorted because of
remanent flux is established in a high remanence-type CT, saturation, the RMS values derived by the protection device
very little of it dissipates under service conditions and it will will be lower than the RMS values of the actual fault current.
stay in the core until the core is demagnetized. In practice, the This can cause protection device trip delay. Whenever a
remanence can vary from 0 to 80% of the saturation flux. A protective device is exposed to extreme fault conditions that
remanent flux will only be marginally reduced by a load may cause CT saturation, it is important to verify the trip delay
current. The load current will only require a flux that is a small will not cause mis-coordination with other protection devices.
fraction of the saturation flux. Therefore, the remanent flux To study the impact of CT saturation on overcurrent
may remain practically unchanged for years. To remove the protection the CT-equivalent circuit can be represented as
remanent flux, one method is to saturate the CT core by shown in Fig. 4.
applying the voltage at the CT secondary winding while IP IST RS IS
having the primary winding open. The voltage is increased
until the CT saturates and then is slowly reduced to zero. The IE
CT data are specified without remanent flux.
Ideal VS Lm
Fig. 3 shows the impact of remanence on a CT without an VB RB
CT
air gap for symmetric and asymmetric 60 Hz fault current 20-
times the CT-rated current and at rated resistive load.

150 2 Fig. 4 Current Transformer Model for Relay Protection

Applications.
100 3
Secondary Current [A]

1
The CT primary wire resistance and inductance can be
50 neglected. The CT secondary wire inductance may also be
neglected, although in some cases it may be taken into
0 consideration. Inter-winding capacitance can be neglected at
the frequencies of interest to protection studies. The
-50 magnetizing branch is a non-linear element and can be
determined from the CT V-I characteristic. The RB value is
-100
also usually provided. The V-I characteristic and RB data are
CT Ratio x/5 A sufficient to develop CT models.
An important transient condition to be simulated is the
-1500 0.01 0.02 0.03 asymmetric short-circuit current fault since, due to the DC
Time [s] component, the CT will saturate at lower currents than for
symmetrical short circuit currents.
1-
Remanence in direction of the flux in the CT The magnetizing branch can be modeled on the CT primary
core (+80% remanence)
or secondary. Modeling on the secondary is preferred because
2- No remanence in the CT core
3- Remanence in the opposite direction of the flux V-I curve measurements are regularly performed from the CT
in the CT core (-80% remanence) secondary.
Fig. 3 Impact of Remanence for Symmetric Fault Currents. ATP CT models are based on the CT equivalent circuit and
can be built using elements available in the program. The
The secondary current is shown for a remanent flux magnetizing branch Lm is represented by non-linear inductor
 207

elements whose non-linear characteristics are specified in is properly modeled, measured, and simulated, curves will
piecewise linear form by the user. Since the flux-current data overlap each other.
points are not readily available, this program provides a
A. Modeling of an 1200/5 A CT
routine to convert the VRMS-IRMS characteristics into an
equivalent flux-current set. This section compares modeling techniques for a 1200/5 A
If a non-linear inductance is added to a transformer model, CT. The CT V-I curve was represented with 16, 4, 8, and 2
the transformer model may be simplified by eliminating linear flux-current sections. Influence of the V-I curve slope in
whatever magnetizing branches are included in it. When using the non-linear region was also investigated.
branches external to the transformer model to represent Lm, To obtain a reference waveform of saturated CT, one
the CT secondary winding resistance must be connected on the 1200/5 A CT was tested in a high power laboratory. Primary
burden side of Lm. This means that it is necessary to set the and secondary CT currents, referred to the primary, are shown
winding resistance in the transformer model to near zero (e.g., in Fig. 6. The CT saturation was considerable in the first three
1µΩ), and include the correct winding resistance in the cycles.
connected burden. 30
Some models may not include the ability to model the Primar y Curren t 1200/5 A CT
25
effects of hysteresis. This hysteresis effect may or may not be Secondary Cur rent (re ferred to the primary)
important in particular studies. However, hysteresis 20
representation is important if the study is intended to include
15
the effects of remanence on CT performance since remanence

Current [kA]
effects are easily studied when the model represents hysteresis. 10
If the model cannot represent the hysteresis, it still may allow
5
the specification of a steady-state flux level at the beginning of
a study. Specification of an initial value of flux will simulate 0
the presence of remanent flux as if the model had included -5
hysteresis. Models that do not allow specification of initial
value of flux and do not represent hysteresis are valid and -10
Labo ratory Test #3 46
produce satisfactory results for studies where remanent flux is
-15
not a concern. 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time [s ]
Validation of the V-I Curve Model. After the flux-current
curve data has been included in the CT model, the model can Fig. 6. 1200/5 A CT Primary and Secondary Currents
be verified. This can be done by simulating the conditions (laboratory test).
under which the actual V-I curve was measured. A circuit
diagram that can be used for simulation of the V-I curve Comparison with the laboratory tests. Computer
measurement is given in Fig. 5. simulations did not produce accurate results when V-I curve
modeling was based on published V-I curves, since this is a
region where CTs do not saturate. The number of V-I curve
segments used for modeling was not relevant. Fig. 7 shows a
Primary flux-current curve modeled using eight segments. Fig. 8
Winding confirms that modeling did not accurately replicate the
V laboratory test results. The same conclusion applies when a
open
flux-current curve was modeled using two segments (see Fig.
9 and Fig. 10).
Secondary For proper CT-modeling it is important to extend the last
Winding segment of the V-I curve to deep CT saturation region by
extending the V-I curve with the same slope. Fig. 11 shows a
flux-current curve modeled using two segments. The second
Fig. 5. The CT V-I Curve Measurement. segment was extended with the same slope by multiplying
current 10 times. The simulation results shown in Fig. 12
Voltage V has been selected to correspond to the V-I curve demonstrate that the extension of the non-linear region of the
voltage. Steady-state simulations should be run for each CT V-I curve is more important than the number of flux-
voltage point selected and current and voltage waveforms current segments.
recorded. Simulations must be performed several times – once As a conclusion, to obtain realistic results, it is enough to
for each selected voltage. The duration of each simulation can represent the CT V-I characteristic with only two slopes. Fig.
be several cycles. RMS values for current and voltage are then 13 shows a 1200/5 A, C200 CT model.
calculated for the whole simulation period. In this way, pairs
of voltage and current points are obtained. If the CT V-I curve
 208

10 30
1 200/5 A CT 1200/5 A CT
25 Laboratory Test
Simulated Flux-Curr ent Curve
(with 8 linear sections) Simulated with 2 linear sections
20

(referred to the primary)

Secondary Current [kA]
15
Flux [Vs]

10

5
0 .1
0

-5

-10
0 .01
0 .01 0.1 1 10 1 00 -15
Current [A] 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Time [s]

Fig. 7. Flux-Current Curve. Fig. 10. Simulated CT Response with Two Linear Segments.
30
1200/5 A CT 10
25 Laboratory Test 1200/5 A CT
Simulated Flux-Current Curve
Simulated with 8 linear sections (with 2 linear sections, section #2 extended
20 with the same slope)
(referred to the primary)
Secondary Current [kA]

15 1
Flux [Vs]

#2
10
Extended section #2
5
#1
0 0.1

-5

-10

-15 0.01
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Time [s ] Current [A]

Fig. 8. Simulated CT Response with Eight Linear Segments. Fig. 11. Flux-Current Curve Simulated with Two Linear
Segments (second segment extended).

10 30
1200/5 A CT Laboratory Test 1200/5 A CT
25
Simulated Flux-Current Curve Simulated with 2 linear sections, second
(with 2 linear sections) 20 section extended with the same slope

1
(referred to the primary)
Secondary Current [kA]

15
Flux [Vs]

#2

10

#1 5
0.1
0

-5

-10
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Current [A] -15
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Time [s]

Fig. 9. Flux-Current Curve Simulated with Two Linear Fig. 12. Simulated CT Response with Two Linear Segments
Segments. (second segment extended).
 209

Rogowski coil signal is shifted 90° vs. the primary current as

shown in Fig. 16.

i(t)
Winding
n Air-Core

Return wire loop

Fig. 13. ATP Model of a 1200/5 A, C200 CT.

v(t)

III. ROGOWSKI COILS Fig. 14. Principle of the Rogowski Coil Design.
Rogowski coils consist of a wire wound on a non-magnetic M
core. The coil is placed around the conductor whose current is IP LS RS

measured as shown in Fig. 14. If the core has a constant cross-

section S and the wire is wound perpendicular on the core VS RB>50 kO
VB
center line with constant density n, then the coil output voltage
is defined by the following equation:
di (t ) di (t )
v (t ) = − µ 0nS = −M VS
dt dt
ZS IS
For an ideal Rogowski coil, mutual inductance M is ωLS IS
independent of the conductor location inside the coil loop. The δ VB 90°

Rogowski coil equivalent circuit and vector diagram are 90° IS RSIS
shown in Fig. 15.
IP’
A Rogowski coil signal is a scaled-time derivative di/dt of
the primary current. To use such signals with phasor-based Fig. 15. Rogowski Coil Equivalent Circuit and Vector Diagram.
protective relays, signal processing is required to extract the
power frequency signal. This may be achieved using one of
the following methods: (a) integrate the Rogowski coil output
signal, or (b) use the non-integrated Rogowski coil output
signal and then perform signal processing to adjust magnitudes
and phase shift signal 90°.
To prevent the influence of nearby conductors carrying
high currents, Rogowski coils are designed with two wire
loops connected in electrically opposite direction. This cancels Fig. 16. Rogowski Coil ATP Model.
electromagnetic fields coming from outside the coil loop. This
other loop can be formed by returning the wire through the Fig. 17 shows a Rogowski Coil signal for a symmetric fault
winding or near the winding. Another solution is to add an current. Fig. 18 shows a Rogowski Coil signal for an
additional winding wound in the opposite direction over the asymmetric fault current.
existing one or placing the second winding near the first
winding. High-precision Rogowski coils may be designed IV. COUPLING-CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
using printed circuit boards (PCB) which contain imprinted
A. Introduction
windings. Rogowski coils can be designed with different
shapes (circular, oval, or rectangular) to accommodate the Coupling-capacitor voltage transformers (CCVT) are
application. Rogowski coils can also be designed in a split- widely used in high-voltage power systems to obtain standard
core style for installation without the need to disconnect a low-voltage signals for protective relaying and measuring
primary or secondary conductor. Connections to relays can be instruments. They are usually designed as stand-alone single-
by wires or through fiber-optic cables. phase units. A typical circuit connection is shown in Fig. 19.
Rogowski coils are linear, but V-I characteristic is shifted To obtain high accuracy, components C1, C2, Lc and Lp are
almost 90° compared to CT. ATP model of a Rogowski coil of tuned to the fundamental frequency, making a parallel
100 µV/A @ 60 Hz is given in Fig. 16. The non-integrated resonant circuit. An additional circuit, designed to suppress
 210

Ferroresonance suppression circuits affect the transient

response of the CCVT. They can be designed in two
operational modes: active and passive.
HV Bus Bar

C1 Lc
SDT
C2 Lp FSC Zb
PLC
Ld

C1, C2 Capacitor Stack

PLC Power Line Carrier Interface
Lc Compensating Inductor
Ld Drain Coil
Fig. 17. Rogowski Coil Signal for Symmetric Fault Currents. SDT Step Down Transformer
Lp SDT Primary Winding Leakage Inductance
FSC Ferroresonance Suppression Circuit
Zb Burden
Fig. 19. A CCVT Circuit Connection.
HV CCVT Equivalent Circuit
CC FSC Equivalent Circuit
C1
LC RC Lp Rp

C2 Cf Lf
Cp
Lm R R
m b
Rf

FSC – Ferroresonance Suppression Circuit

SDT – Step-Down Transformer

Fig. 20. CCVT Equivalent Circuit.

Cp
higher
Fig. 18. Rogowski Coil Signal for Asymmetric Fault Currents. Ce
higher smaller
Cp
ferroresonance, is added at the secondary side. All these smaller
components make circuitry quite complex and influence its
Gain [db]

transient response.
B. Model Development Cc & Cp
neglected
A general CCVT-equivalent circuit can be represented as
shown in Fig. 20. The main components are coupling Cc
Cc
capacitor (C1 and C2), compensating inductor (Rc, Lc, Cc), higher
smaller
step-down transformer (Rp, Lp, Cp, Cps, Rs, Ls, Cs, Lm, Rm), and
ferroresonance suppression circuit (Rf, Lf, Cf). 1
10 10
2
10
3 4
10
The impact of some CCVT components on the CCVT Frequency [Hz]
frequency response is shown in Fig. 21.
Fig. 21. Impact of Coupling Capacitor (Ce), Compensating
C. Ferroresonance Suppression Circuit Inductor Stray Capacitance (Cc), and Step-down Transformer
Primary Winding Stray Capacitance (Cp) on the Frequency
Ferroresonance may occur in a circuit containing capacitors Response.
and iron-core inductors. It is usually characterized by
overvoltages and distorted waveforms of currents and FSCs in an active operational mode consist of capacitors
voltages. Ferroresonance suppression circuits (FSCs) are and iron-core inductors connected in parallel and tuned to the
designed to attenuate ferroresonance quickly after it occurs. fundamental frequency. They are permanently connected on
 211

the secondary side and affect the CCVTs transient behavior. 20

FSCs in a passive operational mode consist of a resistor
connected on the secondary side. This resistor can be 0 M easurem e n t
permanently connected. Another option is to have a gap or an
electronic circuit connected in-series with the resistor, which -20

Gain [db]
are activated whenever an overvoltage occurs. These FSCs do
not affect transient response unless an overvoltage occurs. -40
ATP
An active operational mode FSC design is shown in Fig. Sim u lation
22. Capacitor Cf is connected in parallel with an iron-core -60
inductor Lf tuned to the fundamental frequency. Resistor Rf is
a damping resistor designed to damp ferroresonance -80
10 100 1000 10000
oscillations within one cycle. The circuit is tuned with a high
Frequency [Hz]
Q factor in order to attenuate ferroresonance oscillations at
any harmonic – except the fundamental. The FSC can be Fig. 24. PCA-5 CCVT Frequency Response (Measured vs.
modeled using the non-saturable transformer. The calculated Computer Simulation).
Lf value must be incorporated in the transformer model as a
self-inductance.
Primary and secondary windings are connected in such a
way that parallel resonance occurs only at the fundamental
frequency. At other frequencies, only the leakage inductance is
involved, so the damping resistor is the one which attenuates
ferroresonance oscillations. Simulation results are shown in
Fig. 23.
Comparison between the FSC frequency response obtained
by measurement and performing ATP simulation of a PCA-5
CCVT is shown in Fig. 24. A 115 kV CCVT model is shown
in Fig. 25.
HV CCVT Model
CC FSC Model
C1
LC RC Lp Rp

C Cf
2 Cp
L R R
m m Lf b
Rf

Fig. 22. CCVT Model with FSC Model.

1000
FSC Impedance [Ω]

Computer
Simulation
100 Fig. 25. A 115 kV CCVT Model.

V. POWER FUSES
Expulsion fuses typically interrupt fault currents at the first
Measurement current zero (Fig. 26). In some cases, expulsion fuses may not
be successful in interrupting current at the first current zero,
10 but succeed in interrupting current at the second current zero.
1 10 100 If a fuse fails to interrupt current at the second current zero,
Frequency [Hz] usually it will be destroyed and current will be interrupted by a
backup device. Expulsion fuses may be modeled as circuit
Fig. 23. FSC Frequency Response. breakers.
Current-limiting fuses (CLF) have many advantages over
expulsion fuses. CLF improve safety and power quality by
 212

clearing high current faults much faster than expulsion fuses

and by supporting the system voltage during operation. CLF
are typically applied to pole- and pad-mounted transformers to
prevent disruptive equipment failures and to reduce fault let-
through I2t levels. CLF are also commonly used at locations
where fault levels exceed the interrupting ratings of expulsion
fuse-links and fuse-cutouts, or in confined-space applications.
Fig. 27 shows high-power test results for an 8.3 kV, 12 A CLF
operation and compares with computer simulations.
CLF interrupt current by forcing a current zero and
therefore, require a special modeling technique. CLF may be
modeled as non-linear resistances (Fig. 28). The two main
parameters in the CLF operations are the fuse's melt I2t and the
fuse's non-linear resistance characteristic after melting open.
Current-limiting fuse let-thru current waveforms for different Fig. 28. An 8.3 kV, 20 A Current-Limiting Fuse R-t
fault current levels are shown in Fig. 29. Characteristic.
A principle of modeling CLF using ATP program is shown 4500
in Fig. 30. This modeling technique was successfully used to 31kA
4000
model CLF operation in actual distribution systems. Fig. 31 18 A Fuse

Let-Thru Current [A]

3500 20 kA
compares field tests and computer simulations for an 8.3 kV,
3000 10 kA
20 A CLF.
2500
4 kA
2000 2 kA
1500 1 kA

1000

500

00

0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018

Time [s]

Fig. 29. Current-Limiting Fuse Let-Thru Current Waveforms

for Different Fault Current Levels.

Fig. 26. Expulsion Fuse Operation (Interrupts Current at the

First Current Zero).

Fig. 30. ATP Model of a 8.3 kV, 20 A CLF.

VI. RECLOSERS
Modern microprocessor-based protection devices have very
low impedances as seen by the CTs and can be neglected when
considering CT saturation. The CT wire impedance and
impedance of the leads that interconnect CTs and protection
Fig. 27. 8.3 kV, 12 A CLF Operation (Test and Simulation devices are the major causes for CT saturation.
Results).
 213

Simulation A. Recloser Control Protection Algorithm

This section describes a protection algorithm for recloser
controls that sample 5 times (every 3.3 ms) during a cycle and
Test
calculate current magnitude A.
Voltage [3 kV/div]
2 4 2
A= ∑ Si
5 i =0
Time [5 ms/div]
where Si is the instantaneous current at position i.
If calculated value for current magnitude A is greater than
Simulation the minimum pickup value (Ipickup), recloser control calculates
Index:
Current [400 A/div] 256 Irms
Index = log 2( )
5 Ipickup
Test
where Index is rounded to the neared integer.
Using the calculated Index, selects the assigned time-
Time [1 ms/div]
current characteristic (TCC)value and stores it in the memory:
Fig. 31. 8.3 kV, 20 A CLF Voltage and Current during a Field
TCCValue = TCC(Index)
Test.
TCCacc = TCCacc+ TCCValue
One method of avoiding CT saturation is to increase the CT if (TCCacc > Trip Constant)
core size. In designs where it is desirable to incorporate CTs Trips recloser
as an integral part of reclosers and circuit breakers, CT If the next consecutive calculated A values are below
dimensions are typically the limiting factor. In some minimum trip, memory will not be updated until A value
applications, it is expected that CTs will saturate during becomes greater than the set minimum pickup. After 30
asymmetric faults. Most protection devices make operating samples, memory will be reset to zero if all the consecutive
decisions based on the RMS value of fault current. If the signal calculated A values are below minimum trip.
supplied by the CT is distorted by saturation, the RMS values
calculated by the protection device will be lower than the RMS B. CT Modeling
values of the actual fault current. This can cause protection Measured and simulated V-I curves of an 1000/1 A CT are
device trip delay. Fig. 32 shows test results with delayed plotted in Fig. 33. To test CT modeling for high current faults,
overcurrent protection operation due to CT saturation. When the model was verified for currents higher than 20-times rated
CTs do not saturate, secondary currents accurately replicate current. Measured and simulated V-I curves overlap each
primary currents (Fig. 32a). When CTs saturate, secondary other verifying the model.
currents are distorted. Fig. 32b shows delayed protection
140
operation due to CT saturation testing the same protection
device under identical test conditions. Measured and Simulated V-I Curves
120
20
15
Current [kA]

10
Voltage [V]

5 100
0
-5
-10 Relay trip
80

a)
15
60
Current [kA]

10
5
40
0
-5
-10 Trip delay 20
Relay trip
0 5 10 15 20
0 50 100 150 Current [A]
b) Time [ms]
Fig. 33. V-I Curve of an 1000/1 A CT.
Fig. 32. Comparison of a Protection Device Operation (a)
without and (b) with Current Transformer Saturation. C. Impact of CT Saturation on Overcurrent Protection
In this example, distribution system parameters were as
follows: symmetric short-circuit currents 12 kA and X/R ratio
 214

15. Simulations included symmetric and full asymmetric fault 12

currents. A fast time-current characteristic (TCC) curve shown

10
in Fig. 34 was selected to study the impact of CT saturation on

RMS Current [kA]

microprocessor-based overcurrent protection device operation.
8
Time [s]

4
0.1 12 kA Symmetric, X/R=15
2

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time [s]

Fig. 36. RMS Values of Primary and Secondary Currents for a

12 kA Symmetric Fault with X/R=15.
0.01
1 10 100 1000 12 kA Symmetric, X/R=15

Current [multiplier of the rated current] 20

1 2
10
Fig. 34. A Fast Time-Current Characteristic Curve.
0

12 kA Symmetric Fault Currents. Fig. 35 shows -10

Current [kA]
Ideal CT
waveforms and Fig. 36 RMS values for primary and secondary -20
currents. CT secondary currents are referred to the primary. 20
1
The CT saturation is pronounced only in the first half-cycle. 10
2
Fig. 37 shows CT secondary currents and RMS values 0
calculated by the protection device for non-saturated and
-10
saturated CT. The RMS value of the saturated CT is reduced Actual CT
-20
only during the CT saturation when compared to the non- 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

saturated CT. The fault current was maintained at 12 kARMS Time [s]
1 - Secondary current
while the device minimum pickup/trip setting was changed 2 - Calculated RMS current by the protection device
from 500 A to 1200 A. Since the CT only slightly saturated,
Fig. 37. Protection Device Response for Non-saturated and
simulated overcurrent protection device response times were
Saturated CTs (12 kA Symmetric Fault with X/R=15, No
the same for both saturated and non-saturated CTs (see Fig. Remanence).
38).
12kA, Symmetric, No Remanence
12 kA Symmetric, X/R=15 0.1
20
0.08
15 Min Trip [A]
0.06
10 0.04
Response Time [s]

500 800 1000 1200

0.02
Current [kA]

5
0
0 Ideal CT

-5 0.1

-10 0.08
0.06
-15
0.04
-20 0.02
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time [s]
0
Actual CT
Fig. 35. Simulated Primary and Secondary Currents for a 12 kA
Symmetric Fault with X/R=15. Fig. 38. Protection Device Response for Non-saturated and
Saturated CTs (12 kA Symmetric Fault with X/R=15, No
Remanence).

12 kA Asymmetric Fault Currents without CT

Remanence. Fig. 39 shows waveforms for primary and
 215

secondary currents. CT secondary currents are referred to the secondary currents and RMS values calculated by the
primary. CT saturation was considerable in the first five protection device for non-saturated and saturated CT.
cycles, resulting in significant reduction of the current RMS The protection device response times are shown in Fig. 43.
value. Fig. 40 shows CT secondary currents and RMS values In this case, the fault current was again maintained at the same
calculated by the protection device for non-saturated and level while the minimum trip setting changed from 500 A
saturated CT. The fault current was again maintained at the though 10,000 A. The overcurrent protection device response
same level while the minimum pickup/trip setting changed times were not impacted for minimum trip settings up to 1200
from 500 A through 1200 A. The device response times were A. The response time delay was noticeable for settings
again the same for both saturated and non-saturated CTs. The between 2000 A and 7000 A. The device did not respond to
reason that the device response time for saturated CT was not the fault when minimum trip was set at 10,000 A. In practice,
increased was due to the fast TCC curve where protection the load current has been used to determine minimum
operating point remained on the horizontal part of the TCC pickup/trip for phase and ground time overcurrent elements
curve. for relays and reclosers. Normally, when calculating the phase
30
minimum pickup/trip, a factor of 2.0 to 2.5 times normal load
12 kA Fully Offset, X/R=15 current is included to account for load growth, contingency
operating conditions, and cold-load inrush currents. This
20
supports that in most cases there is no need to set minimum
pickup over 2000 A.
Current [kA]

10
30
12 kA Fully Offset, X/R=15
with 80% Remanence
0
20

-10
Current [kA]

10

-20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0
Time [s]

Fig. 39. Simulated Primary and Secondary Currents for a 12 kA -10

Asymmetric Fault with X/R=15, No Remanence.
12kA, Fully Offset, No Remanence -20
40 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
2 Time [s]

20 1
Fig. 41. Simulated Primary and Secondary Currents for a 12 kA
Asymmetric Fault with X/R=15, 80 % Remanence.
0
Current [kA]

Ideal CT 12kA, Fully Offset, 80% Remanence

-20 40
2
30
2 20 1
20 1
10
0
Current [kA]

0
Ideal CT
-10 -20
Actual CT
-20 20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
1 - Secondary current 10 2
2 - Calculated RMS current by the protection device
0 1
Fig. 40. Simulated Secondary Currents and Protection Device
Response for Ideal and Actual CTs (12 kA Asymmetric Fault -10
with X/R=15, No Remanence. Actual CT
-20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time [s]
12 kA Asymmetric Fault Currents with CT Remanence. 1 - Secondary current
To study the extreme case, simulations were performed 2 - Calculated RMS current by the protection device
representing 80% remanence in the CT core. The CT
Fig. 42. Simulated Secondary Currents and Protection Device
saturation was considerable in the first five cycles and the
Current Calculation for Ideal and Actual CTs (12 kA
current RMS value significantly reduced. Fig. 41 shows Asymmetric Fault with X/R=15, 80 % Remanence).
waveforms for primary and secondary currents. CT secondary
currents are referred to the primary. Fig. 42 shows the CT
 216

12kA, Fully Offset, 80% Remanence

0.1
0.08
Min Trip [A]
0.06
0.04
Response Time [s]

0.02 500 800 1000 2000 5000 7000 10000

0
Ideal CT

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02 No
Trip
0
Actual CT Fig. 44. Fault Current with DC Offset.
Fig. 43. Simulated Secondary Currents and Protection Device
Current Calculation for Ideal and Actual CTs (12 kA
Asymmetric Fault with X/R=15, 80 % Remanence).

VII. PROTECTION RELAYS

A. Introduction
Relays operate based on low voltage and current signals
from the VT and CT secondary. These signals are input for a
low-pass filter that removes frequency content above about 1/3
of the sampling frequency. A relay analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter samples faster than 2 times per-cycle of the highest
frequency that is measured. The signal is then sampled by the
relay’s A/D converter at a rate from about 4 to 64 (varies by
relay) samples per power system cycle. Depending on the
relay design, the entire sampled data may be kept for Fig. 45. RMS value of fault Current.
oscillographic records, but in the relay, only the fundamental B. Distance Protection
component is required for phasor-based protection algorithms.
The sampled data is then passed through a low-pass filter that Distance relays compare the voltage and current on a
numerically removes the frequency content that is above the transmission line and operate when the ratio (i.e., the apparent
fundamental frequency. Most digital relays estimate impedance) is less than a preset value. These relays are
amplitudes and phase angles of phasors using digital filters. applied almost universally on lines at 60 kV and above. The
The full-cycle Fourier filter and the so-called Cosine filter are terms “impedance relay” and “distance relay” are often used
the most commonly used. These data are then used by interchangeably. “Distance” is actually the more general term;
protection algorithms to determine abnormal conditions and the impedance-type relay is merely one of many distance
declare a fault. When a fault condition is detected, output relays. Advantages of distance relays are that they display a
contacts operate to trip the associated circuit breaker. fixed reach based on protected line impedance and are
Fig. 44 shows a waveform for an asymmetric fault current independent of system fault levels (and direction) over a wide
when CTs do not saturate. Fig. 45 compares RMS values for range. Disadvantages are greater cost, higher complexity, and
the filtered and non-filtered waveform from Fig. 44. The DC requirements for both current and voltage transformers.
component is filtered out and only the fundamental component The distance element’s operation characteristic is often
is applied to the relay algorithm. plotted on the impedance plane. Fig. 46 shows the Mho
Modern digital relays include frequency tracking characteristic that can be used for phase and ground fault
algorithms to make relays insensitive to frequency excursions. protection.
Relays may include additional protection functions such as The Mho characteristic is considered the classic distance
directional elements, detection of power-swing, computation characteristic. It exhibits several desirable qualities: (i)
of sequence quantities, synch check closing supervision, and familiarity within the industry, (ii) excellent directional
phase selection logic. Complexity of relay modeling depends discrimination, (iii) good balance between sensitivity to
on the application. resistance-laden faults and immunity to load, (iv)
computational efficiency.
 217

substation. To account for errors in line data and measurement

+jX errors in the instrument transformers and relay, the Zone 1
reach can be set to 85% of the line. Zone 2, with
communications assist, protects the remaining 15%.
Zone 2. These elements are set to protect the remainder of
the line plus a safety margin, typically greater than 20%. Zone
Line Impedance 2 delay time is coordinated with instantaneous fault clearing at
the remote bus, typically 15-30 cycles.
Zones 3, 4. These elements are set with progressively
Trip Region longer time delays and provide extended back-up protection.
Zone 5. These may be set as reverse-looking elements with
the reach to exceed the remote end Zone 2 reach, plus a safety
margin.
+R Simplified algorithm for phase faults can be represented by
equation:
Vab
Z=
Fig. 46. Mho Characteristic. Ia − Ib
Simplified algorithm for ground faults can be represented
As an example, this tutorial includes a 60 kV system by equation:
consisting of two parallel lines interconnecting two
Va ( Ph − G )
substations. Distance protection is based on the Mho Z=
characteristic. Z − Z1
Ia + IR 0
Distance relays can have multiple protection zones that may 3Z1
include up to five phase and ground zones (four forward and
This section demonstrates that a simplified modeling
one reverse). Zones may be enabled or disabled. Here, three
technique that represents distance relays having Mho
forward and one reverse zone will be included in simulations
characteristics can effectively be used to study the relay
as shown in Fig. 47.
performance and to determine proper relay setting and
coordination. The test system is a 60 kV power system
+jX consisting of parallel lines connected to a bus with a 30 MW
distributed generation and loads, see Fig. 48. The line
parameters are shown in Table I. Computer model of the test
power system was developed using MATLAB, see Fig. 49.
The protection setting and operation performance for Lines 1
Zone 3 Line Impedance and 2 are shown in Figs. 50 through 54.
Table I - Line Parameters
Zone 2 Length R1 X1 R0 X0
Line End Miles [? ] [? ] [? ] [? ]
Zone 1
Line 1 25 6.81 16.98 13.96 71.67
Line 2 25 4.92 16.80 12.07 72.20
+R
Line 3 22 2.22 14.85 8.51 60.44
Line 4 18 20.94 14.67 26.09 51.40

Zone 5 C. Simulation Tools Implemented in Relays

The Virtual Test Set models programmed in the relay
Fig. 47. Mho Characteristic Zones. software can simulate simplified power systems such as shown
in Fig. 55 that includes two voltage sources, source
General aspects of phase and ground distance settings are impedance, and line impedance. Various faults, system
as follows: parameters, and fault incidence angles can be modeled. Fig. 56
Zone 1. These elements provide hi-speed protection for shows some simulation results.
three-phase, phase-phase (-ground), and phase-ground faults Virtual testing is useful for functional characterization of
within most of the line segment. Experience prohibits setting digital relays, whose protection functions derive primarily
Zone 1 to reach 100% of the line. To do so would risk over- from the choice, configuration, and settings of software – not
reaching for close-in faults just beyond the remote end hardware – components. A “virtual test” tests the relay
 218

Substation 1

60 kV
Normal Feed CB11 CB12 Alternate Feed

CB13 CB14

Line 1 Line 2

25 mi 25 mi

CB21 CB22

60 kV
Substation 2

CB23 CB24 CB25

60/12 kV

Line 3 Line 4
22 mi 18 mi

60/34.5 kV

DG

30 MW
Fig. 48. Test Power System.
 219

Fig. 50. MATLAB Model of the 60 kV Test Power System.

 220

Substation 1

Normal Feed 60 kV Alternate Feed

CB11 CB12

CB13 CB14

Line 1 Line 2

Protection of Line
1 and Line 2

CB21 CB22

60 kV
Substation 2

CB23 CB24 CB25

60/12 kV

Line 3 Line 4

60/34.5 kV

DG

30 MW

Fig. 49. Protection Zone Areas (shown for Line 1 and Line 2).
 221

Substation 1

60 kV
Normal Feed CB11 CB12 Alternate Feed

CB13 CB14

Distance Relays
Line 1
Zone 1, 85%
Line 2 Zone 2, 150%
Zone 1
Zone 3, 300%

Zone 2
CB21 CB22

60 kV
Substation 2

CB23 CB24 CB25

Line 3 Line 4

Zone 3

DG

30 MW
Fig. 51. Protection of Line 1 and Line 2 (Protection Setting in Substation 1 for Forward Faults).
 222

Zone 3 Substation 1

Normal Feed 60 kV Alternate Feed

CB11 CB12

CB13 CB14

Zone 2
Line 1
Line 2

Zone 1

CB21 CB22

60 kV
Substation 2

CB23 CB24 CB25

Line 3 Line 4

DG

30 MW
Fig. 52. Protection of Line 1 and Line 2 (Protection Setting in Substation 2 for Forward Faults).
 223

80
80

60
Protection of Line
60
1 and Line 2
CB13
CB14
40 40

20 20

Fault in Zone 1
0 0

- 20 - 20
Reverse Fault
- 40 - 40
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 - 80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80

Substation 1

CB11 CB12

CB13 CB14
For relay at CB13 this is a
reverse fault out of the Zone Fault at 10% Line Length

Before CB14 Opens

CB21 CB22

Substation 2

CB23 CB24 CB25

80 80

60
60 CB22
CB21
40
Fault in Zone40 3
20
20

0
0
Fault in Zone 2

- 20
-20

- 40
-40
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-80 -60 - 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80

For relay at CB23 this is a reverse fault out of the Zone

Fig. 53. Distance Protection Response for a Fault on Line 2 (before CB14 opens).
 224

80
Protection of Line 1 and Line 2
60 CB13

40 Fault in Zone 3

20

- 20

- 40
-80 -60 -40 -2 0 0 20 40 60 80

Substation 1

CB11 CB12

CB13 OPEN After CB14 Opens

For relay at CB13 this is now
forward fault in Zone 3
For relay at CB21 this is now For relay at CB22 this is also
reverse fault out of the Zone CB21 CB22 forward fault in Zone 2
Substation 2

CB23 CB24 CB25

80
80

60 CB22
60
CB21

40
40

20
20

0
Fault in Zone 2
0

-20
- 20
Reverse Fault
-40
- 40
-80 -60 - 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-80 -60 -40 -2 0 0 20 40 60 80

For relay at CB23 this is a reverse fault out of the Zone

Fig. 54. Distance Protection Response for a Fault on Line 2 (after CB14 opens).
 225

software which embodies the protection design. In this [16] Lj. Kojovic and T.E. Wiedman, “Current Transformer Application
Considerations for Protection in Grounded and Ungrounded Systems”,
fashion, a virtual test may be considered a form of design test. American Power Conference, 57th Annual Meeting, Chicago, 1995
It provides the ability to conveniently verify that the software [17] J. R. Lucas and P. G. McLaren, “B-H Loop Representation for
design has the intended functional characteristics. Design tests Transient Studies”, Int. J. Elect. Eng. Educ., Vol. 28, pp. 261-270,
are most useful whenever the functional characteristics of a Manchester U. P., 1991.
[18] J. R. Lucas, P. G. McLaren, W. W. L. Keerthipala, and R. P.
digital relay are first established, or whenever they are Jayasinghe, “Improved Simulation Models for Current and Voltage
modified. Transformers in Relay Studies”', IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.
No significant time is required between the completion of 7, No. 1, January 1992.
[19] J. R. Lucas, P.G. McLaren, W.W.L. Keerthipala, and R.P. Jayasinghe,
the design and the commencement of testing, since both tasks “Improved Simulation Models for Current and Voltage Transformers
are now accomplished in the same environment. Virtual test in Relay Studies”, IEEE PES 1991 Summer Meeting, Paper no. 91SM
capabilities are encapsulated within each and every input 317-8 PWRD, San Diego, California, July 1991.
[20] Lj. A. Kojovic and S. Hassler, “Application of Current Limiting Fuses
module. Thus, these relays automatically have built-in test in Distribution Systems for Improved Power Quality and Protection”,
capabilities with as many independent and matched signal IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, pp. 791-800, April 1997.
sources as there are relay inputs. A virtual test signal does not [21] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, “Understanding
Microprocessor-based Technology Applied to Relaying”, Report of
pass through the various output components of a conventional
WG I-01, 2009.
test set. Digital-to-analog converters, transducers, filters, [22] J. A. Martinez-Velasco and Lj. A. Kojovic, “Modeling Of
transformers, and amplifiers can all contribute to signal Electromechanical Distance Relays using the ATP”, 32nd Universities
inaccuracy at the relay input terminals. These potential sources Power Engineering Conference, UPEC ’97, Manchester, UK,
September 1997.
of error are entirely eliminated in a virtual test. [23] J. A. Martinez-Velasco and Lj. A. Kojovic, “ATP Modeling Of
Electromechanical Distance Relays”, IPST’97, Seattle, Washington,
REFERENCES June 1997.
[24] J. A. Martinez-Velasco and Lj. A. Kojovic, ”ATP Modeling of
[1] IEEE std. C57.13-1993, “IEEE Standard Requirements for Instrument Electromechanical Distance Relays, Test Cases”, European EMTP-
Transformers”. ATP User Group Meeting’96, Budapest, Hungary, November 1996.
[2] IEC 60044-1, “Instrument transformers – Part 1: Current [25] P.G. McLaren, R. Kuffel, R. Wierckx, J. Giesbrecht, and L. Arendt, “A
transformers”. Real-Time Digital Power System Simulator for Testing Relays”, IEEE
[3] IEC 60044-6, “Instrument transformers – Part 6: Requirements for T&D Conference, Dallas, Texas, September 1991.
protective current transformers for transient performance”. [26] A. Sweetana, “Transient Response Characteristics of Capacitive
[4] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, “Transient Response of Potential Devices”, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Current Transformers”, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Vol. 90, pp. 1989-2001, Sept./Oct. 1971.
Systems, Vol. 96, No. 6, 1977. [27] Trench Electric, “Instruction Manual for Capacitor Voltage
[5] W. L. A. Neves, H. W. Dommel, “On Modeling Iron Core Transformers and Coupling Capacitors”, Capacitor Voltage
Nonlinearities”, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 8, No. 2, May Transformers Bulletin IM 300-05, Trench Electric, Ontario, Canada,
1993, pp. 417-425. November 1988.
[6] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, “Mathematical Models for [28] Westinghouse Electric Corporation, “Instructions for Coupling
Current, Voltage and Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers”, Capacitor Potential Device Type PCA-5”, Distribution Apparatus
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 62-72, January Division, Bloomington, Indiana, May 1967.
2000. [29] S.E. Zocholl and W.C. Kotheimer, “CT Performance in Critical Relay
[7] Alternative Transients Program - ATP Rule Book, Bonneville Power Application”, 17th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Administration, Portland, OR, 1987. Spokane, Washington, October 1990.
[8] Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) Rule Book, Bonneville [30] S.E. Zocholl, W.C. Kotheimer, and F.Y. Tajaddodi, “An Analytic
Power Administration, Portland, OR, Rev. June 1984. Approach to the Application of Current Transformers for Protective
[9] Power System Relaying Committee “Transient Response of Current Relaying,” 15th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Transformers”, Report 76-Ch1130-4 PWR, IEEE Special Publication. Spokane, Washington, October 1988.
[10] H. W. Dommel, “Digital computer solution of electromagnetic
transients in single- and multiphase networks”, IEEE Trans. on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 88, No. 4, pp. 388-399, April 1969. BIOGRAPHY
[11] General Electric, “Carrier Current Coupling Capacitor Potential Ljubomir A. Kojovic is a chief power systems engineer for Cooper Power
Devices Type CD-31B”, Communication Products Department, Systems at the Thomas A. Edison Technical Center. He has a Ph.D. in power
Lynchburg, Virginia. systems with specialties that include protective relaying, distributed
[12] M. Kezunovic, Lj. Kojovic, A. Abur, C.W. Fromen, D.R. Sevcik, and generation, testing, digital modeling, and systems analysis. He is an adjunct
F. Phillips,: “Experimental Evaluation of EMTP-Based Current assistant professor at Michigan Technological University, Senior Member of
Transformer Models for Protective Relay Transient Study”, IEEE/PES the IEEE Power Engineering Society, member of the IEEE Power System
Winter Meeting, Paper 93WM 041-4 PWRD, New York, 1993. Protection Committee, and member of the International Council on Large
[13] M. Kezunovic, Lj. Kojovic, V. Skendzic, C. W. Fromen, D. R. Sevcik, Electric Systems – CIGRE. Dr Kojovic is a Technical Advisor for the US
and S. L. Nilsson, “Digital Models of Coupling Capacitor Voltage National Committee at the Technical Committee TC-38 Instrument
Transformers for Transients Protective Relaying Studies”, IEEE/PES Transformers of the International Electrotechnical Commission – IEC. He is a
Winter Meeting, Paper 92 WM 204-8 PWRD, New York, 1992. registered professional engineer in Wisconsin. He has earned eleven U.S.
[14] Lj. Kojovic, M. Kezunovic, and S.L. Nilsson, “Computer Simulation patents and authored more than 150 technical publications.
of a Ferroresonance Suppression Circuit for Digital Modeling of
Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers”, ISMM International
Conference, Orlando, Florida, 1992.
[15] Lj. Kojovic, M. Kezunovic, V. Skendzic, C.W. Fromen, and D.R.
Sevcik, “A New Method for the Performance Analysis using Field
Measurements, Signal Processing and ATP Modeling”, IEEE/PES
Winter Meeting, Paper 94 WM 003-4 PWRD, New York, 1994.
 226

Fig. 55. Virtual Test Set Power System Model.

Fig. 56. Example of Virtual Test Set Results.

 227

Dynamic Average Modeling of AC-DC

Converters for Power Systems Applications
IEEE Task Force on Dynamic Average Modeling
S. Chiniforoosh, J. Jatskevich (Chair), V. Dinavahi, R. Iravani, J. A. Martinez, A. Ramirez, A.
Yazdani
within a prototypical switching interval. The AVMs described
Abstract— Detailed switch-level models of ac-dc and high- in this tutorial are based on averaging the ac currents and
pulse-count converters are relatively straightforward to voltages in synchronously rotating qd coordinates. This
implement using commonly available simulation packages used implies that the switching harmonics are not represented on
for digital time-domain simulations and studying of power
either ac side or the dc link side. In other words, the ac
systems transients. However, such models are computationally
intensive due to switching, and could become the bottle-neck for variables in qd coordinates and the dc link variables all appear
system-level studies with large number of components and constant in steady state.
controllers. This tutorial chapter describes approaches for The resulting models are computationally efficient and
developing dynamic average-value models, i.e., the analytical could run orders of magnitudes faster than the original
derivations and parametric modeling. The resulting approximate switching models. Such AVMs can therefore be used for
models do not represent switching but still capture the transient
behavior of the original converter circuit. The tutorial presents
simulations of system transients where the switching
the results for 3- and 6-phase rectifiers implemented in harmonics (i.e. the harmonics due to converter switching
PSCAD/EMTDC and Matlab/Simulink and shows that dynamic injected into the ac grid or the dc link) are neglected.
average models can be very effective. The tutorial also shows that Additionally, since AVMs are time-invariant, they can be
as the number of pulses/phases increases, so does the complexity linearized about any desired operating point for small-signal
of switching pattern that defines the operating modes. analysis, i.e., obtaining local transfer functions.
Construction of AVMs for the VSCs that utilize
Index Terms-- Average-value modeling, digital simulation,
line-commutated converters, operational modes, rectifiers. conventional pulse-width-modulation (PWM) is relatively
straightforward and requires relating the averaged ac variables
I. INTRODUCTION (expressed in qd coordinates) to the corresponding dc
variables. The algebraic-parametric functions can be readily
D ETAILED models of ac-dc converters where switching
of all semiconductor devices is represented can be readily
carried out using available digital time-domain simulation
established knowing the converter switching and modulation
strategy. For the case of line-commutated converters,
derivation of AVM requires averaging of current/voltage
packages [1]–[4]. The resulting models have been investigated
waveforms over a prototypical switching interval, and may be
in the literature quite extensively and are shown to be
carried out using several approaches. For example, in
sufficiently accurate for many practical cases including the
simplified cases where only certain operating modes are
conventional two-level voltage-source converters (VSC) as
considered, such averaging may be done analytically [5]–[6].
well as the 3-and 6-phase rectifiers. However, due to the
However, as the number of pulses increases (which is the case
inherent repeated switching, these models are computationally
when one considers 3- and 6-phase configurations) the
intensive and could be the bottle-neck for the system-level
complexity of switching pattern and the number of possible
studies that consider a large number of components and
operational modes increase as well. The possibility of multiple
controllers. Moreover, detailed switching models are
operating modes makes the analytical derivations quite
discontinuous and cannot be linearized and used effectively for
challenging [7]–[11]. The AVMs of the line-commutated
the small-signal analysis. These challenges have lead to the
converters can also be constructed using the parametric
development of the so-called average-value models (AVMs) in
approach in which the final AVM is assumed to have a well-
which the effect of fast switching is neglected (or averaged)
defined structure and the key model parameters are
numerically extracted using the detailed simulations.
S. Chiniforoosh and J. Jatskevich are with the Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Regardless of the approach used to develop the AVM, once
BC V6T1Z4 CANADA (e-mail: {sinach,jurij}@ece.ubc.ca). the AVM is constructed, it should be capable of predicting the
Task Force on Dynamic Average Modeling is with the Working Group on average behavior of the detailed switching converter circuit.
Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Using Digital Programs, General
Systems Subcommittee, T&D Committee, IEEE Power and Energy Society. The AVM is also computationally efficient as there are no
Task Force members: S. A. Abdulsalam, U. Annakkage, S. Chiniforoosh, switching events that would typically require smaller time
V. Dinavahi, S. Filizadeh, A. Gole, R. Iravani, J. Jatskevich (Chair), H. steps and/or interpolation (or iterations) for accurately locating
Karimi, J. Mahseredjian, J. A. Martinez, N. Nair, L. Naredo, T. Noda, J. N.
Paquih, J. Peralta, A. Ramirez, A. Rezaei-Zare, M. Rioual, K. Schoder, V.
the opening or closing of the diodes in the circuit.
Sood, A. St. Leger, A. Yazdani.
 228

II. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF AC-DC CONVERTERS

For conversion between dc and ac, a three phase converter
may be realized using a conventional full-bridge topology
depicted in Figs. 1 and 3. Depending on whether the upper or
the lower switches are conducting, each phase terminal can be
connected to either the upper or the lower rail (or left floating
if none of the switches are conducting). Hence, the topology of
Figs. 1 and 3 is often referred to as two-level converter.
A. PWM Voltage-Source Converters
A full bridge converter depicted in Fig. 1 requires active
switches (transistors) that can be switched at a much higher
frequency than the ac side line frequency. The energy may be
converted from a dc source to supply a load such as an ac
motor. Alternatively, the converter can also operate as a Fig. 2. Typical voltage and current waveforms corresponding to the two-level
VSI feeding an inductive load.
rectifier taking the energy from ac side (which may be an ac
generator) and feeding the dc bus to supply other loads. In
B. 6-Pulse Line-Commutated Converters
general, such converter systems may provide bi-directional
energy flow during steady state and/or transients and are very The controllable switches (transistors) in Fig. 1 can be
common in motor-drives as well as rectifiers in generator-sets. replaced with GTOs or thyristors, in which case the converter
These converters are often used for medium power level and can still be used for bi-directional energy conversion.
applications requiring grid interfacing. However, the converter will operate at the switching frequency
To keep the switching losses low, the switching frequency that is directly determined by the line frequency of the ac side.
of such converters in power applications is typically not very Such converters are often referred to as line-commutated
high. For a 50/60Hz fundamental frequency, the switching converters and are particularly useful and cost effective in high
frequency f sw may be in the range from several kHz to tens of power industrial applications, e.g., HVDC transmission drives
of large industrial motors, etc. One of the simplest
kHz. This allows modulating the voltages and/or currents on configurations is an uncontrollable rectifier that uses the
the ac side with the desired quality that can approach ideal diodes for converting the ac to dc.
sinusoidal waveforms. For example, the typical waveforms of To facilitate the discussion in this tutorial, it is convenient
the PWM VSI supplying an inductive load are shown in Fig. 2. to start with a brief review of the well-established 3-phase (6-
As can be observed in Fig. 2, the phase current essentially pulse) bridge rectifier shown in Fig. 3. The system is
consists of the fundamental sinusoidal component with the
composed of a balanced 3-phase source e abcs , commutating
superimposed high-frequency switching ripples (relatively low
content of low-frequency harmonics). The amount of low inductance Lc , six diodes S1 − S6 , a dc-link filter rdc , Ldc ,
frequency harmonics in the phase current depends on many C , and a load RL . The voltage across the load is defined as
factors including the PWM strategy and the switching ed . Assuming balanced operation, the input phase voltages are
frequency. Various PWM voltage or current control strategies
can be used here as well [5]. Typical modulation strategies eas = 2 E cos(θ e ) , (1)
include the Sine-Triangle PWM (with 3rd harmonic injection),  2π 
ebs = 2 E cosθ e − , (2)
Space Vector Modulation, etc. However, for any switching  3 
strategy, in a typical operation each phase terminal is always
 2π 
connected to either the upper or the lower rail, which ensures ecs = 2 E cosθ e + , (3)
that the current always stays continuous.  3 
where θ e is the electrical angle of the source, and E is the
rms value of the phase voltage.

Fig. 1. Typical two-level three-phase converter topology.

Fig. 3. Conventional 3-phase 6-pulse rectifier system.
 229

As the load on the dc bus may change in a wide range, from

a light load to a short circuit, three different switching patterns
are observed for this system resulting in three operational
modes [12]. The typical waveforms of the phase currents,
corresponding to the three operational modes, are shown in
Fig. 4. The corresponding waveforms of the dc bus voltage
vdc are sketched in Fig. 5.
As shown in Figs. 4 and 5, there exist six equal switching
intervals within a single electrical cycle defined by θ e . Within
Mode 1, each switching interval is divided into two
subintervals referred to as commutation and conduction [5].
During the conduction subinterval ( t cond ) only two diodes
conduct. During the commutation subinterval ( tcom )
Fig. 5. Typical waveforms of dc bus voltage in different operating modes.
corresponding to the commutation angle µ = tcom ⋅ ωe , three
diodes conduct and the current is switched from one phase to
another. Therefore, in Mode 1, a conduction pattern of 2-3 The operational modes depicted in Figs. 4 and 5 are
diodes is observed within each 60 electrical degrees, and summarized in Table I together with the corresponding
0o < µ < 60o . Mode 2 may be achieved by increasing the load commutation angle and the conduction pattern. To span these
modes, one can vary the load from open circuit to short circuit,
current. In this mode, the commutation angle µ increases and
which is also depicted in the regulation characteristic in Fig. 6.
reaches 60 degrees. This results in disappearance of the Here, the dc output voltage Vd along the vertical axis is scaled
conduction subinterval whereupon three diodes carry current
by the open-circuit voltage Vd 0,3 and the dc output current I d
throughout the switching intervals. This mode can be clearly
observed in Fig. 5 (middle plot), wherein all intervals become along the horizontal axis is scaled by the short-circuit current
uniform. If the load current is further increased, after a certain I dsc,3 . These quantities are calculated respectively as
point the commutation angle µ starts to increase as well, and
3 6E
results in Mode 3. This changes the sequence of topologies Vd 0,3 = , (4)
π
and the switching pattern contains 3-4 conducting diodes. Note
2E
that this mode contains a topology with 4 simultaneously I dsc,3 = , (5)
conducting diodes which momentarily short-circuit the output ωe Lc
dc voltage vdc as depicted in Fig. 5 (bottom plot). where ωe is the electrical angular velocity of the source.

Fig. 4. Typical waveforms of phase currents in different operating modes. Fig. 6. Steady state regulation characteristic for the 3-phase 6-pulse bridge
converter.
 230

TABLE I
OPERATIONAL MODES OF THE CONVENTIONAL 3-PHASE 6-PULSE RECTIFIER
Operational Conduction Commutation
Modes Pattern Angle
1 2-3 0o < µ < 60o
2 3 µ = 60o
3 3-4 60o < µ < 120o

C. High-Pulse-Count Line-Commutated Converters

Commonly used line-commutated converters include 6-, 12-
pulse configurations. Converters with higher pulse-count
include 18- and 24-pulse configurations, which are generally
considered to improve the quality of dc voltage and current at
the output terminals as well as the input ac current. For the
purpose of this tutorial, a 6-phase 12-pulse rectifier shown in
Fig. 7 is considered. A similar configuration may be achieved
by utilizing two sets of wye/delta windings of a conventional Fig. 7. Typical 6-phase 12-pulse bridge rectifier system.
3-phase system (transformer and/or synchronous generator).
Without the loss of generality, the two six-pulse bridges form a
parallel connection. The displacement angle between the two
3-phase sets is commonly chosen to be 30 electrical degrees,
however in certain applications the displacement angle may be
60 electrical degrees [13]. The configuration of the 12-pulse
rectifier may also be varied by either including or excluding
the Inter-Phase Transformer (IPT) and by
connecting/disconnecting the neutral points of the two sets of
3-phase voltage sources. These configurations result in a more
complicated switching pattern and a large number of
operational modes which are more difficult to establish
analytically [13], [14].
Modes of operation for the case of 30-degree displacement
angle, disconnected neutrals, and without the inter-phase
transformer, have been analytically established in [10] wherein
a simplified case of constant dc bus current is assumed. These
modes are summarized in Table II and the regulation
characteristic for this case is shown in Fig. 8. Reference [10] Fig. 8. Steady state regulation characteristic for the 6-phase 12-pulse bridge
also assumes a case with an ideal inter-phase transformer, i.e., converter with the neutral points disconnected.
the magnetizing reactance of the IPT is assumed to be infinite. TABLE II
Thus the load current will be equally shared between the two OPERATIONAL MODES OF THE 12-PULSE RECTIFIER
bridges which operate independently. Under these Operational Conduction
assumptions, the operational modes may be derived by Modes Pattern
analyzing one of the bridges with one-half of the load current 1 4-2
[10]. Three modes of operation are then recognized which are 2 5-4-2-4
summarized in Table III. It should be noted that in a case of 3 5-4
non-ideal inter-phase transformer, the regulation characteristic 4 6-5-4-5
will lie between these two extreme cases [10]. 5 6-5
6 6
7 7-6

TABLE III
OPERATIONAL MODES OF THE 12-PULSE RECTIFIER WITH IDEAL IPT
Operational Conduction
Modes Pattern
1 4-2
2 5-4-2-4
3 5-4
 231

If the neutral points of the two sets of 3-phase voltage efficiency of converters is quite high and therefore the
sources in Fig. 7 are connected, a new set of line-to-line conduction losses are often neglected in analysis of transients.
voltages is established between the phases. This will allow the Moreover, since direct averaging of ac variable in abc -phase
phase current waveforms to become asymmetric resulting in coordinates does not yield useful result, the ac variables must
more complicated operational modes. The regulation be expressed in a synchronously rotating reference frame.
characteristic for this case is shown in Fig. 9 with the modes of Typically, the so-called converter reference frame [5], in
operation summarized in Table IV. which the d-axis component of the voltage is identically zero,
is chosen to facilitate the analysis. After that, the averaging
over a prototypical switching interval Ts = 1 f sw is carried out
on the transformed ac variables as well as on the dc variables.
The relationship between the converter and arbitrary reference
frames may be deduced according to Fig. 10 as:
vqs
c   cos(φ ) sin(φ )  vqs a 
 = c c
  . (6)
v c = 0 − sin(φc ) cos(φc ) v a 
 ds   ds 
Based on Fig. 10, the angle between the respective
components of the voltage in converter and arbitrary reference
frame may be calculated as
 va 
φc = tan −1 ds . (7)
 va 
 qs 

Fig. 9. Steady state regulation characteristic for the 6-phase 12-pulse bridge
converter with connected neutral points.

TABLE IV
OPERATIONAL MODES OF THE 12-PULSE RECTIFIER
WITH CONNECTED NEUTRAL POINTS
Operational Conduction
Modes Pattern
1 3-4-3-2
2 5-4-3-2-3-4
3 5-4-3-3-2-3-4
4 5-4-3-4-3-3-2-3-4
5 5-4-3-4-3-3-4
6 5-4-3-4-3-4-3-4
7 5-4-3-4-4-3-4
8 5-4-3-4-4
Fig. 10. Relationship between the ac variables expressed in the converter and
9 5-4-5-4-3-4
the arbitrary reference frames.
10 5-4-5-4-4
11 5-4 Since the converter topology of Fig. 1 does not contain any
12 6-5-4-5-4-5 energy storage components, the averaged voltages and currents
13 6-5-4-5 on the ac side can be related to the dc side averaged variables
14 6-5-5
through functions that are purely algebraic [8]. This approach
15 6-5-6-5
lands itself on implementation depicted in Fig. 11. In
16 6-6-5
17 6
particular, the voltages on the ac side and dc link are related as
18 7-6 follows:
v qds = α (⋅) vdc (8)

III. DYNAMIC AVERAGE-VALUE MODELING where α (⋅) is an algebraic function, and the bar symbol is
used to denoted the averaged quantities. The dc bus current
A. PWM Voltage-Source Converters may also be expressed in the following form:
To demonstrate dynamic average modeling of ac-dc
idc = β (⋅) i qds (9)
converters, let us first consider the PWM VSC based on the
topology depicted in Fig. 1. In many power applications, the where β (⋅) is another algebraic function. Both α (⋅) and β (⋅)
 232

depend on the type of inverter and its operating/loading variables for interfacing with the external inductive network
conditions. [5]. The ac side currents i qds are calculated by the external
Functions (8) and (9) can be established by applying the
network and become the input for the converter AVM. Finally,
energy conservation principle to the converter cell. In
particular, looking at the ac side, the three phase power can be the current idc that is injected into the dc bus is calculated
written as using (9) and the function β (⋅) .
3
P = v qds i qds cos φ . (10)
2 TABLE V
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS FOR COMMON VOLTAGE-SOURCE INVERTERS
where φ is the power factor angle. Assuming an ideal Six Step Six-Step Sine-Triangle/ Space-
Function
(lossless) converter, the power calculated using (10) is equal to Inverter PWM Vector Modulation
the power on the dc link. Therefore, the dc bus current can be 2 2 1
α d d
written as follows: π π 2
P 3  3 3 3
idc = =  α (⋅) cos φ  i qds (11) β cos φ d cos φ d cos φ
vdc  2  π π 4
Finally, comparing (10) and (11), β (⋅) is obtained as
3
β (⋅) = α (⋅) cos φ . (12)
2 B. AVM of Line-Commutated Converters
Since the angle φ depends on the load, the value of β (⋅) also The methodology to develop an average model for the line-
depends on loading conditions. Based on Fig. 10, the angle φ commutated converter of Fig. 3 has similar foundation. In
may be expressed in terms of the qd components of the general, obtaining the above-mentioned algebraic functions is
more challenging in this case due to the complicated switching
voltage and current as pattern and the existence of several operational modes as
ia  va  explained in Section II, parts B and C. In particular, the
φ (⋅) = tan −1  ds  − tan −1  ds . (13)
ia  va  discontinuity of stator currents and the dependency of
 qs   qs  conduction/commutation times on the dynamic state of the
network require special considerations. The available models
for this class of converters can be broadly categorized into
analytically-derived and parametric models. Although
analytically-derived and parametric models have their own
benefits, disadvantages, and challenges, both methodologies (if
applied correctly) should lead to very similar results in
predicting the averaged dynamic behavior of the detailed
switching converter circuit.

1) Analytical derivation
Deriving the AVM for line-commutated converters requires
averaging of state variables over a switching interval
Fig. 11. Dynamic average-value model for the voltage source inverter using
algebraic-parametric functions relating the ac and dc variables. Ts = 1 f sw . This in turn requires knowledge of the operating
mode and its boundary conditions for which the respective
The values of parametric functions α (⋅) and β (⋅) for averages will be valid. Therefore, there will be an AVM for
each operating mode that is in the range of interest. Such
several commonly-used modulation strategies (i.e., basic six- models can then be “switched” as the system changes the
step, PWM, sine-triangle, and space-vector) [5] are modes, which makes this approach additionally challenging.
summarized in Table V. The corresponding average-value In most literature sources, the AVM is typically derived for
model is shown in Fig. 11, which assumes that the dc-link one operating mode only [5], [6], [11]. For the 3-phase 6-pulse
voltage is available (which is typically the case due to a large configuration of Fig. 3 the AVM is typically considered for
capacitor in dc-link) and that the ac-side is connected to an Mode 1. The approach also makes use of the qd converter
inductive network (e.g. electric machine). If the state-variable
approach is used, the inductive network typically requires reference frame defined by (6) and depicted in Fig. 10, where
the d-axis component of voltage is zero. The next step is to
input voltages v qds . Therefore, the ac-side voltages become
derive the equations describing the dynamics of the dc bus.
the output of the converter AVM and are calculated in terms of The dc bus voltage equation is expressed and averaged over
the dc bus voltage using (8) and the function α (⋅) . A the switching interval. Considering the KVL on the dc side, the
coordinate transformation may be used to re-calculate these state equation for the dc bus current is then obtained as
voltages from the converter reference frame to the physical
 233

3 3  3  2 3 3  π
2 E −  rdc + Lcωe idc − ed
c
iqs = idc 0 cos µ + k  sin µ − 
didc π  π  π π  3
= . (14) (23)
dt Ldc + 2 Lc 3 2E  cos(2 µ ) 3 
−  cos µ − − ,
To establish the average q- and d-axes components of the π ωe Lc  4 4
phase currents on the ac side, the dc current is typically
2 3 3  3π 
assumed constant throughout the switching interval. The c
ids = idc0 sin µ − k 1 + cos µ −
π π   3 
currents are then expressed during each subinterval (i.e., (24)
conduction and commutation) and averaged over the 3 2E  µ sin (2 µ ) 
respective subintervals. The commutation and conduction +  − sin µ + + .
π ωe Lc  2 4 
components of the averaged ac currents are then obtained. The
result of this procedure yields the following equations [5]: Finally, the first model is defined by (14)–(20) and is
referred to as AVM#1, and the second model is defined by
2 3   5π   5π 
, com = idc sin  µ −  + sin  +
c (21)–(24) and is referred to as AVM#2. Both analytically-
iqs
π   6   6  derived AVMs utilize the same commutation angle given by:
(15)
 2 Lcωe 
3 2E
(cos µ − 1) + 3 2 E ( 1 − cos (2µ )), µ = cos −1 1 − idc0  . (25)
π Lcωe 4π Lcωe  
 3E 
2 3   5π   5π  Although an improvement has been reported in the dynamics
, com = idc − cos µ −  + cos  +
c
ids
π   6   6  of the AVM#2, the new model is still valid for Mode 1 only as
(16) it has been obtained considering two subintervals.
3 2E
sin µ −
3 2E
(sin (2µ ) + 2µ ),
π Lcωe 4π Lcωe 2) Parametric method
2 3   7π 5π  Herein, instead of deriving analytical equations for the
 
, cond =  − sin µ +
c
idc sin   ,
6 
iqs (17) system, the AVM parametric functions are obtained
π   6  
numerically based on detailed time-domain simulation. Similar
2 3   7π
  5π  to the previous method, the three phase voltages are taken to
, cond = idc − cos
 + cos µ +
c
 .
6 
ids (18)
π   6
  the converter reference frame, using appropriate
The final currents are obtained by adding the contributions transformation (6). Since the rectifier switching cell does not
from both commutation and conduction subintervals as contain energy-storing elements, its average-value model may
be considered as an algebraic block depicted in Fig. 11, which
c
iqs = iqs
c
, com + iqs , cond ,
c
(19)
relates the averaged dc-link variables on one side and the
c
ids = ids
c
, com + ids , cond .
c
(20) averaged ac variables transferred to the converter reference
frame at the other side.
A similar model has been derived in [11] where the
Deriving closed-form analytical expressions for α (.) ,
dynamics are reported to be improved. There, instead of
assuming a constant value for the dc current throughout the β (.) , and φ (.) is impractical. Instead, these functions may be
switching interval, it has been assumed that the current extracted using the simulation results. It is convenient to
changes linearly. In particular, using the first order Taylor express these functions in terms of dynamic impedance of the
series expansion, the dc current is written as [11] converter switching cell as
 µ
idc (θ ) = idc0 + k ⋅ θ −  ,
v
(21) z = dc . (26)
 2 i qds
where idc 0 is the average value of idc during the commutation
Using (8)–(9) and (13), functions α (.) , β (.) , and φ (.) are
di
period and k is the derivative of dc during this period
dωe t extracted for a wide range of operating points. A transient
of time. The remaining steps taken to derive the AVM are study may be carried out in which the load resistance is slowly
similar to those discussed above, and the resulting model is changed in a wide range. The numerical functions α (z ) ,
expressed as follows: β (z ) , and φ (z ) together with the impedance z , are then
3 3  3  calculated for each point using (8)–(9) and (13). These
2 E −  rdc + Lcωe idc 0 − ed functions are stored in a look-up table and used in the average-
didc π  π 
= , (22) value model implementation according to Fig. 11.
dt  3µ  dc  π
r 
Ldc + Lc  2 − +  − µ
 2π  2ω  3  IV. COMPUTER STUDIES
Since developing AVMs for the line-commutated
converters is more challenging than for the PWM VSC, in this
section we present the models of the line-commutated
 234

converters discussed previously in Section II (Parts B and C) B. Twelve-Pulse Converter

and Section III (Part B). The AVMs together with the detailed Simulation studies of the twelve-pulse rectifier have been
switch-level models have been implemented in the conducted using the detailed model and the parametric AVM
MATLAB/Simulink and the PSCAD/EMTDC as these only since the analytically-derived models do not capture the
simulation packages are commonly considered for detailed inter-mode transitions. A similar study has been carried out in
modeling of power systems with power electronic converters which the load resistance is stepped from 1 Ω to 0.1 Ω at
[15]. The results obtained by both simulation packages were
t = 0.5 s . The corresponding responses, for the case of
virtually identical with some adjustments in time step to
achieve similar accuracy. As an example, Fig. 12 shows the connected neutral points, are superimposed in Fig. 15. In this
parametric average-value model implemented in the case, the operational mode is changing from Mode 13 (i.e., 6-
PSCAD/EMTDC environment. As seen in this figure, the 5-4-5 conduction pattern) to Mode 17 (6-valve conduction
voltage source is modeled in the converter reference frame pattern), and as Fig. 15 shows the AVM predicts the transient
(top block) with the qd currents as outputs and qd voltages response very accurately.
as inputs. The inputs to the rectifier AVM are the qd currents, V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
at the ac side, and the dc bus voltage, whereas the outputs are
To evaluate the effectiveness of the AVMs relative to the
the qd voltages and the dc bus current.
switching models, one can compare the time-step size and the
A. Six-Pulse Converter total number of time steps that were required by each of the
models to complete the entire transient response. For the
Here, the 3-phase rectifier system is assumed to operate
purpose of comparison in this Section, transient study duration
initially in a steady state condition with a 10 Ω load resistor.
of 1 sec was assumed. For example, in case of 6-pulse rectifier
Then, at t = 0.5 s , the load resistance is stepped to 1 Ω . The the time steps taken by each of the models implemented in
corresponding transient responses predicted by detailed and Simulink are summarized in Table VI. All Simulink models
average-value models are shown in Fig. 13. During the were executed using variable time-step solver that can
transient, the converter operation remains within Mode 1. As automatically adjust the step size during the transient. As can
can be seen in Fig. 13, since the operational mode is not be seen in Table VI, the switching model required the largest
changed, the average-value models can predict the response of number of time steps (22,659), which was needed in order to
the system with reasonable accuracy, i.e., the responses accurately handle all the switching events (discontinuities).
predicted by the AVMs go through the ripple of the waveforms The AVMs could utilize a much larger time step since these
predicted the detailed model. models are continuous, taking much fewer steps (281, 271, and
Next, the load resistance is stepped from 1 Ω to 0.1 Ω , 309, respectively).
which results in a change of the operational mode from Mode The studies with 12-pulse rectifier were carried out using
1 to Mode 2. The corresponding transient responses predicted both PSCAD and Simulink. The summary of the time steps is
by detailed and average-value models are shown in Fig. 14. As given in Table VII. For the considered time interval/study of 1
expected, the responses predicted by the analytically-derived sec, the detailed model again took the largest number of steps
AVMs all fail to correctly predict the transition to Mode 2 as (20,001 and 15,366). There is some difference between the
these models have been derived with the assumption of PSCAD and Simulink detailed models, which is attributed to
conduction-commutation pattern of Mode 1. However, the the fact that PSCAD uses fixed time-step to solve the entire
parametric AVM remains valid and predicts the response close transient, whereas Simulink can vary the time-step to
to that of the detailed switching model. accommodate the switching and other transients. The detailed-
PSCAD model was run with a typical EMTP time-step of 50
micro-seconds required to properly handle the switching of
diodes. However, the AVM-PSCAD and AVM-Simulink
could use appreciable larger time steps, which altogether
demonstrates the benefits of the AVM approach where each
model took significantly fewer time steps (5586 and 194). The
AVM-PSCAD could not run at very large time steps because
the time-step was still limited by the relatively fast transient
observed during the rapid change in the load.
As shown in this tutorial, such dynamic average models can
be very effective for simulations of systems transients where
the switching harmonics injected into the ac grid or the dc link
are neglected. Including the effect of switching harmonics
Fig. 12. Parametric average-value model implemented in the would require a special consideration and may be pursued in
PSCAD/EMTDC. combination with other approaches e.g. multiple reference
frames, harmonic-domain modeling, etc.
 235

Fig. 13. Six-pulse converter transient response within Mode 1 as predicted by Fig. 14. Six-pulse converter transient response from Mode 1 to Mode 2 as
detailed and averaged models. predicted by detailed and averaged models.

TABLE VI TABLE VII

COMPARISON OF SIMULATIONS FOR THE 6-PULSE RECTIFIER COMPARISON OF SIMULATIONS FOR THE 12-PULSE RECTIFIER
Model Time Steps Model Time Steps
Detailed Model 22,659 Detailed - PSCAD 20,001
AVM #1 281 Detailed - Simulink 15,366
AVM #2 271 AVM - PSCAD 5586
Parametric AVM 309 AVM - Simulink 194
 236

VI. APPENDIX
Parameters for the rectifier circuits used in this tutorial:
2 E = 13.2 V , ωe = 2π 100 , Lc = 0.37 mH , C = 1 mF .

VII. REFERENCES
[1] PSCAD/EMTDC V4.0 On-Line Help, Manitoba HVDC Research Centre
and RTDS Technologies Inc., 2005.
[2] “SimPowerSystems: Model and simulate electrical power systems,”
User’s Guide, The MathWorks Inc., 2006 (www.mathworks.com).
[3] “Piecewise Linear Electrical Circuit Simulation (PLECS),” User Manual
Ver. 1.4, Plexim GmbH (www.plexim.com).
[4] “Automated State Model Generator (ASMG),” Reference Manual
Version 2, P C Krause & Associates, Inc. 2003 (www.pcka.com).
[5] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, and S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric
Machinery and Drive Systems, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 2002.
[6] S. D. Sudhoff, K. A. Corzine, H. J. Hegner, and D. E. Delisle,
“Transient and dynamic average-value modeling of synchronous
machine fed load-commutated converters,” IEEE Trans. Energy Conv.,
vol. 11, pp. 508–514, Sept. 1996.
[7] I. Jadric, D. Borojevic, and M. Jadric, “Modeling and control of a
synchronous generator with an active DC load,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 15, pp. 303–311, March 2000.
[8] J. Jatskevich, S. D. Pekarek, and A. Davoudi, “Parametric average-value
model of synchronous machine-rectifier systems,” IEEE Trans. Energy
Conversion, vol. 21, no. 1, Mar. 2006.
[9] B. Zhang, and S. D. Pekarek, “ Analysis and average value model of a
source-commutated 5-phase rectifier”, IEEE PESC 2004, Aachen
Germany, 2004.
[10] Y. Tzeng, N. Chen, and R. Wu, “Modes of operation in parallel-
connected 12-pulse uncontrolled bridge rectifiers without an interphase
transformer”, IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics, vol. 44, no. 3, Jun.
1997.
[11] H. Zhu, R. P. Burgos, F. Lacaux, A.Uan-Zo-li, D.K. Lindner, F. Wang,
and D. Boroyevich, “Average modeling of three-phase and nine-phase
diode rectifiers with improved ac current and dc voltage dynamics”,
IECON 2005, Nov. 2005.
[12] R. M. Davis, Power Diode and Thyristor Circuits, Cambridge at the
University Press, 1971.
[13] J. Jatskevich, and S. D. Pekarek, “ Six-phase synchronous generator-
rectifier parametric average value modeling considering operational
modes”, HAIT Journal of Science and Engineering B, vol. 2, no. 3-4,
pp. 365-385, 2005.
[14] J. Jatskevich, O. Wasynczuk, E. A. Walters, C. E. Lucas, S. D. Pekarek,
and P. T. Lamm, “Automated identification of the operational modes of
switched electric circuits”, SAE Transactions, Journal of Aerospace,
Fig. 15. Twelve-pulse converter transient response from Mode 13 to Mode 17 Sect. 1, Set 3, pp. 955–961, 2000.
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378–387, Jan. 2006.
 237

Interfacing Techniques for Simulation Tools

IEEE Task Force on Interfacing Techniques for Simulation Tools
V. Dinavahi, J. Chavez, A. Ramirez, J. Jatskevich, M. Steurer, K. Strunz, J. A. Martinez

Abstract— This tutorial paper presents an overview of tech- II. I NTERFACING OF EMT AND TS SIMULATORS
niques to address: (a) the interfacing of an electromagnetic
transient simulation program with a transient stability simu- A. Competing modeling requirements of TS and EMT simula-
lation program, (b) interfacing of an electromagnetic transient tors
simulation program with an electromagnetic field simulation
program, (c) interfacing techniques for time and frequency The power system model for transient stability analysis
domain program, (d) interfacing rotating machine models in can be described by a set of differential algebraic equations.
transient simulation programs, and (e) interfacing issues of a The differential equations model dynamics of the rotating ma-
real-time digital simulator. The salient features of each type of chines while the algebraic equations represent the transmission
simulation program are discussed with the highlights on technical
system, loads, and the connecting network. These equations
challenges for interfacing, and the classification of the various
interfacing methods available in the literature is presented. are nonlinear, and the typical solution approach is to use a
discretization method such as the Trapezoidal rule followed
Index Terms— Electromagnetic transient analysis, Electromag- by an iterative solver such as Newton-Raphson. A time-step
netic fields, Interfacing, Transient stability, Real-time systems.
in the range of milliseconds is chosen for the TS simulation.
It is assumed that voltage and current waveforms more or
less remain at power frequency (60 or 50 Hz). Thus, phasor
I. I NTRODUCTION modeling is used for various power system components. More-
over, transient stability study is a positive-sequence single-
Power system studies are numerous such as load flow, phase type of analysis [3], [5]. A large integration time-step
short-circuit, harmonic, transient stability, and electromagnetic of the transient stability programs is the main restriction for the
transient studies. Each of these types of studies has its own detailed representation of nonlinear elements (such as power
modeling requirement and solution technique. Over the years electronic apparatus) and dynamically fast events (such as line
several computer simulation programs were developed to energization).
satisfy the individual modeling needs of different studies. A Electromagnetic transient study requires detailed modeling
need was, however, quickly recognized to interface various and therefore a much smaller time-step than in the transient
programs to exploit their complementary strengths for model stability study. Depending on the type of transient and the
validation and to exchange data between different simulation highest frequency involved, the required step-size can vary in
tools [1], [2]. Recent advances in commercial math software the range of a few nanoseconds for very fast transients, to
has also encouraged the need to interface them with power a few hundred microseconds [4], [6] for slower transients.
system software to exploit the advanced toolboxes for power Electromagnetic transients are fast phenomena for which
system applications. Several papers have been published on in- power-frequency phasor modeling is not valid. In contrast with
terfacing techniques, but there is no systematic collection of all transient stability analysis, instantaneous values need to be
the available information. The mandate of the IEEE Task Force used. In addition, electromagnetic transient phenomenon is not
on Interfacing Techniques for Simulation Tools is to collect a symmetric event that could be studied on the single-phase
the published literature on interfacing techniques to help fuel basis, but requires a full three-phase simulation.
further research in developing better tools and techniques. This Practically it is inefficient to perform electromagnetic tran-
panel paper gives a summary of techniques used to address: (a) sient analysis for a large network where all of the components
the interfacing of electromagnetic transient simulation (EMT) are represented using detailed models. Usually some form
programs with transient stability (TS) simulation program, (b) of network partitioning and model reduction are required to
interfacing of circuit simulation program with an electromag- reduce computational burden.
netic field simulation program, (c) interfacing techniques for Both the TS and EMT simulators have merits and draw-
time and frequency domain program, (d) interfacing rotating backs. Developing a simulator with TS-type speed and EMT-
machine models in transient simulation programs, and (e) type accuracy is essential for power system studies, and this
interfacing issues of a real-time digital simulator. necessity led researchers to generate a hybrid simulation tool.
The main objective of hybrid simulation is to split the original
network into two parts, and based on the required modeling
Task Force on Interfacing Techniques for Simulation Tools is with the
Working Group on Modeling & Analysis of System Transients Using Digital accuracy the TS or the EMT simulator is used for each zone.
Programs, IEEE Power & Energy Society T&D Committee. EMT is used for the smaller part in which more detailed and
Task Force Chair: V. Dinavahi, Task Force members: U. Annakkage, G. accurate results are needed. This part may comprise HVDC
W. Chang, J. Chavez, S. Filizadeh, A. M. Gole, R. Iravani, J. Jatskevich, A.
J. Keri, P. Lehn, J. Mahseredjian, J. A. Martinez, B. A. Mork, A. Monti, L. links, FACTS devices, closed-loop controlled devices for real-
Naredo, T. Noda, A. Ramirez, M. Rioual, M. Steurer, K. Strunz. time simulations such as relays or controllers, parts of the
 238

two separate zones. Thus, each program requires a true

Interface Bus 1 picture of the other zone which adequately reflects the
characteristics of that zone. This picture is referred to as
Detailed
the equivalent model. The validity of the hybrid simulator
System 1
directly depends on the accuracy of equivalent models.
Interface Bus 2 • Identifying domains of study and locations of interface
buses: Earlier approaches for determining domains of
Detailed study were to simply consider the elements where an
System 2 External accurate result was desired as the detailed system, and
System their terminals as the location of interface buses. A
single power-frequency Norton equivalent was used for
Interface Bus n modeling the external system in the EMT simulator. The
merit of this form of regionalization is that the size of the
Detailed detailed system which is computationally burdensome is
System n reduced to a minimum. However, the major drawback of
this method is that if there exists waveform distortion
or phase imbalance at the interface buses then a simple
Norton equivalent would not be valid. One solution is to
Fig. 1. Interface between detailed and external systems keep the detailed system to a minimum, while exploiting
a full frequency dependent Norton equivalent to model
the external system.
network vulnerable to a disturbance, or any other elements • Exchanging data between TS and EMT simulators: There
that need small time-steps for representation. In contrast, the are two important considerations for data exchange in a
other part that embraces extensive portions of the network hybrid simulator. First, which variables need to be trans-
is simulated by the TS simulator. Detailed modeling is not ferred between the simulators, and second how two types
required for elements existing in this part, but the capability of data must be interpreted for TS and EMT simulators.
of the simulator for fast computation is essential here. The interaction of the detailed and external systems is
maintained via data interface buses. Parameters that are
B. Hybrid TS-EMT simulator generally available for measurement include active and
reactive power, voltage, current through interface bus, and
A hybrid simulator [7]–[13] has the following 4 main
also phase angle information in the case of using different
features:
reference frames. Another major concern in a hybrid
1) Detailed System: It corresponds to one or more portions simulator is how to pass the interface variables properly
of the power system having components that need to be between the TS and the EMT programs. As mentioned
modeled at a detailed device level. The detailed system earlier the TS program is based on the fundamental
is the area for operation of EMT simulator. frequency, positive sequence, phasor-type data, while the
2) External System: The other part of the power system EMT program is based on the three-phase instantaneous
that includes the remaining elements of the network waveform data which includes several frequency compo-
that need to be modeled on a system wide functional nents. Thus, to connect these two types of programs two
basis. System-level modeling supposes that devices work data converter blocks are needed: phasor-to-waveform
as designed; any malfunctions in the elements cannot and waveform-to-phasor. Fig. 2 depicts these conversion
be adequately represented. The external system is the blocks.
domain of the TS simulator. • Organizing interaction protocol between TS and EMT
3) Interface buses: Buses through which the detailed and simulators: Since the EMT and the TS programs have
external systems interact and exchange data. Fig. 1 a different time-step (microsecond vs. millisecond), an
shows the schematic position of the detailed and external interaction protocol is required to coordinate the infor-
systems and the interface buses. mation exchange and update the equivalent circuits in
4) Interaction protocol: Predefined sequential actions the simulators. The step-size of the TS simulator is made
which coordinate the data exchange between TS and an integer multiple of that of the EMT simulator, and
EMT simulators. Two main categories of interaction exchanging of information occurs at common points in
protocols exist: serial and parallel. In a serial protocol at time, which conventionally are the TS simulator time
each time instant only one of the TS or EMT simulators steps. Several serial and parallel protocols have been
runs while the other one is idle. In a parallel protocol proposed in the literature.
both simulators run simultaneously.
The main issues in interfacing TS and EMT simulators are as
follows: C. Integrated TS-EMT simulation
• Equivalent models of external and detailed systems: In Recent research has focused on the integrative modeling
a hybrid simulator, EMT and TS programs are run on of EMT and TS as an alternative interfacing method. Rather
 239

currents, nor voltages at the output terminals of the apparatus

are known a priori.
EMT Simulator The main applications of these techniques include simula-
tion of electrical drives, transformers, actuators and individual
conductors connected to circuit elements, and the interaction
phenomena between rotating machines and the network (e.g.
Waveform-to-Phasor SSR and fault studies). The main techniques for coupling 2D
FEM equations with circuit equations at low frequencies (up
Phasor-to-Waveform to a few kHz) can be classified into two broad categories of
Direct or Indirect methods. In direct methods, FEM equations
and circuit equations of a system are combined and solved
simultaneously. In indirect methods, the FEM-based part is
TS Simulator handled as a separate subsystem which communicates with
the circuit model through coupling coefficients.

Fig. 2. Interfacing the EMT and TS programs

A. Direct Methods
The direct method of coupling field and circuit simulation
programs can be classified [2], [16]–[26] into 4 categories
than coupling two existing programs, the underlying models based on (a) simple circuit equations, (b) the loop (mesh)
are represented based on the concept of frequency adaptive current method, (c) the nodal or modified nodal approach
simulation of transients (FAST) [14] to cover the application (MNA), and (d) the state-space (SS) approach. All the these
spectrum of typical TS and EMT programs. The method relies circuit analysis methods have been used successfully in cou-
on the introduction of the shift frequency as a novel simulation pled field-circuit problems. However, implementing the loop
parameter in addition to the time-step size. current method in the existing finite element codes is rather
difficult as compared to the MNA. Furthermore, in a circuit
III. I NTERFACING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND with a large number of branches and complicated topology, the
CIRCUIT SIMULATORS MNA provides a more systematic process to build the circuit
equations. For example, transient analysis of coupled systems
Over the years, circuit simulation of electrical systems has
based on the nodal approach is described in [21] where a
evolved to a mature and well-established field. Several tech-
symmetrical matrix equation is obtained and solved by a step-
niques such as Loop Current Method, Nodal Analysis, Modi-
by-step integration technique.
fied Nodal Analysis (MNA), and State-Variable Approach [15]
The SS approach has also proved to be effective in handling
are widely used in different circuit simulators including EMT-
all types of connections between electromagnetic apparatus
type programs such as ATP, PSCAD/EMTDC, EMTP-RV, the
and circuit elements. However, choosing the type of circuit
SPICE family programs, and the MATLAB/SIMULINK [36].
analysis in a direct coupling method is still a matter of
All of these simulators are able to solve circuit equations
preference.
for lumped and distributed elements in both steady-state and
transient regimes, handle the nonlinear behavior of circuit
elements and employ different techniques to discretize the B. Indirect Methods
temporal derivatives during the transient simulation. In indirect methods, circuit and field equations of the
The field analysis of electromagnetic apparatus, with the aid coupled system are maintained as different subsystems and
of numerical techniques, has been used as the most accurate solved separately. To do this, the coupling coefficients should
and detailed method of predicting the electromagnetic behavior be exchanged back and forth between the two subsystems.
of such systems under various operating conditions. Several The indirect methods can be divided into two subcategories
effects such as space harmonics, slotting, and saturation which [2], [27]–[33] according to the type of the coupling coeffi-
are usually present in different types of electric machines, cients: the current output approach, and the circuit parameter
transformers and other magnetic apparatus could be readily approach. A major step in the coupling method based on
included in the field equations. The Finite Element Method the circuit parameter approach is to obtain the coupling
(FEM) is usually the method of choice for modeling low coefficients (inductances and/or back EMFs) from the finite
frequency phenomena of power apparatus because of its flex- element solution. This is usually achieved by calculating
ibility and accuracy. the flux linkage of windings from the nodal values of the
While one of the main source terms in the FEM equations magnetic vector potential. The coupling based on the current
are the winding currents, electromagnetic apparatus are usually output approach is straightforward because the FEM-based
connected to linear and nonlinear voltage sources [2]. Thus to subsystem is represented by voltage-controlled current sources
have a precise simulation of the system, one needs to solve to the external circuit. Furthermore, since voltages and currents
the FEM equations in conjunction with the circuit equations are passed directly between the two subsystems, the time
relating the voltages and currents. The coupling between field consuming procedure of extracting circuit parameters, e.g.
and circuit equations becomes more prominent when neither inductances and back EMFs calculations, are bypassed during
 240

network models as an alternative to the FEM-based models

for coupled problems due to their relatively fast solution albeit
Ph ase 1
FEM
P h a se2
FEM
Phase3
FEM
at reduced accuracy. Also, compatibility and synchronization
vd c + Cdc of different field and circuit simulators are important issues
- Lend which have to be fully examined before successful interfacing
Rend if1 if 2 if 3 of the programs.
Quarter of
SRM Modeled IV. I NTERFACING TECHNIQUES FOR TIME AND
by FEM
FREQUENCY DOMAIN PROGRAMS

Fig. 3. Electric circuit and finite element mesh of a switched reluctance An electrical network can be mathematically modeled by
motor analyzed in [21], based on the nodal approach for coupling. two main methodologies widely used by the Power Systems
people, i.e., the time domain (TD) and the frequency domain
(FD). The former is preferred in cases where switching de-
the simulation. Thus, the computation time is shorter than that vices, nonlinear elements, or/and sequential maneuvers are
of the circuit parameter approach. simulated, due to its intrinsic sequential scheme of solution.
The latter, based on a parallel scheme of solution, has been
adopted as benchmark in cases where the frequency depen-
C. Comparison of direct and indirect methods
dence of the electrical elements is important or when only
Direct methods are usually more reliable and effective in (frequency) data measurements are available.
handling nonlinearities of both the field and the circuit equa- The majority of power system elements, including nonlinear
tions by applying multidimensional Newton-Raphson iteration and time varying elements, can be modeled in TD with a very
[32]. However, substitution of the dense and usually negative- conservative CPU-time and processing memory. Furthermore,
definite circuit equations in the finite element equations, results TD-based software, such as PSCAD/EMTDC, ATP, EMTP-
in the loss of sparsity, symmetry and positive-definiteness of RV, MATLAB/SIMULINK and PSPICE, are universal and
the final system of coupled equations. These properties are mature tools.
important to solve the large number of finite element equations On the other hand, FD, intrinsically a linear methodology,
efficiently using sparse solvers. Thus, an extra step in formu- is mainly useful to model elements with distributed and fre-
lating the direct coupled equations is to modify the equations quency dependent parameters; nevertheless, it can be extended
by multiplying the circuit equations with a coefficient [26], to analyze many nonlinear problems found in power systems.
or introducing additional unknowns into the equations [22] to The most used FD techniques in power systems are: the
retrieve some of these properties, or to use conventional dense Fourier transform, the Hartley transform, the Walsh transform,
solvers for relatively sparse coupled equations [25], which the numerical Laplace transform, and the z-transform.
reduce the efficiency. The techniques in the literature for interfacing TD and FD
An advantage of using the indirect coupling method, as de- can be roughly classified [34] into three groups: a) full solution
scribed in [31], is that the number of iterations needed for the of the network in FD, conversion of the solution variables to
nonlinear field solution are relatively small compared to that of TD, b) iterative methods, going back and forth from TD to
nonlinear circuit equations. Since the number of field equations FD, and c) solution in TD and FD simultaneously, accounting
are usually much larger than that of circuit equations, this that variables depend on both frequency and time.
feature results in a considerable time saving. Finally, indirect Based on the type of power system analysis, the hybrid TD-
coupling allows multirate simulation of a coupled system in FD methods are classified into three regimes: a) steady-state
which the circuit simulation can be performed with a much analysis, b) transient stability analysis, and c) electromagnetic
smaller time-step than that of the FEM-based simulation, as transient analysis.
described in [33].
A. Steady-state analysis
D. Technical challenges of coupled field-circuit simulation In the harmonic power flow method the whole system is
The growing complexity of electromagnetic apparatus and modeled by its harmonic representation and solved in an
the circuit elements connected to them, as well as the appli- iterative scheme of solution. This methodology consists in a
cation of advanced control algorithms, is prompting the use superposition of the steady-state phasor solutions at the funda-
of a multi-domain simulation to avoid the costly failure of mental frequency and at the dominant harmonic frequencies.
the whole system after implementation. The main difficulty It can either be used by itself, or as an initialization procedure
associated with the use of a coupled field-circuit simulation for electromagnetic transient studies.
is the large computational time of the simulation due to the The harmonic balance method has been used for many
complexity of the field solution. Typical execution time for a years as a means of analyzing the behavior of harmonics in
few seconds of simulation of a coupled system is in the order ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The technique consists
of several hours. This is especially troublesome during the on assuming an initial solution in the form of a truncated
design stage when repetitive solutions of the coupled system Fourier series with a predetermined number of harmonics.
are necessary. Research is currently ongoing on permeance Then, the linear network is solved for obtaining the entering
 241

current. A subsequent step is to approximate the admittance A. Interfacing machine models in EMTP
corresponding to the nonlinear network and perform a voltage In the EMTP formulation, the rotating machines are rep-
correction until the current mismatch is close to a predeter- resented outside of the network, thus requiring a special
mined tolerance. Finally, the voltage is updated following an interface. The interfacing method could be indirect or direct.
iterative scheme of solution. 1) Indirect approaches: As the machine equations are
usually represented in the coordinates/variables whilst the
B. Transient stability analysis power system networks are expressed in physical variables
and phase coordinates, the several methods have been utilized.
Linear elements are represented in the FD and generators
The four prevalent indirect approaches used in various EMTP-
are modeled in the TD with their corresponding nonlinearities.
type programs include: (1) Thevenin prediction based method,
The variables (usually voltages) of the latter are numerically
(2) Norton current source method, (3) Compensation-based
transformed into the FD, for instance via an FFT operation,
method, and (4) Network iterative method.
and coupled to the linear network. An iterative scheme of
2) Direct approaches: The direct interface with the ex-
solution follows the coupling.
ternal network can be readily achieved if the stator circuit
is represented in the coordinates. The coupled-circuit phase-
C. Electromagnetic transient analysis analysis domain (PD) models and voltage-behind-reactance (VBR)
In general, for transient analysis there are three main models have been proposed to improve the simulation accuracy
methodologies that used FD and TD within the same al- and numerical stability. The machines are interfaced with the
gorithm. They are classified as: (1) Full frequency domain external network as three-phase Thevenin equivalent circuits.
solution, (2) Two-zone hybrid solution, and (3) Hybrid method No electrical variables are predicted, and the slow mechanical
for steady and dynamic states. variables (rotor speed and/or position) are predicted similar to
In the first method, the network solution is found entirely the other EMTP interfacing methods. This achieves simulta-
in the FD and for the complete observation time. The solution neous solution of machine and network electrical equations
variables are then converted into the TD by a numerical (variables).
transform. In this method one has to be careful of matching
FD/TD quantities, such as maximum frequency, time step, B. Interfacing machine models in state-variable based pro-
number of samples, and so on. This technique is appropriate grams
for handling linear networks and no iterations are needed. Internally, the state-variable (SV) program engine assembles
In the two-zone TD/FD solution, the complete network the system of differential and/or differential algebraic equa-
is divided in two subsystems. The first subsystem is called tions (DAEs) that constitute the state-variable-based model
the external zone and fully represented in FD through an of the overall system. The time-domain transient responses
equivalent. The second subsystem is called the study zone are then calculated numerically by integrating the state-space
where elements are modeled in detail. The link between both equations using either fixed- or variable-step ODE solvers
subsystems consists on a transmission line, thus restricting the embedded in the SV program. The machine models in SV
simulation to be tight to traveling times. programs may also be interfaced with the external circuit-
In the hybrid method, initially a common FD input (usually system using either direct or indirect approaches as explained
voltage) is assumed for both the linear and the nonlinear (or below.
time-varying) parts of the network. The current entering the 1) Indirect approaches: To interface the models with the
linear part is obtained entirely in the FD. The current entering external circuits, which are typically modeled in physical
the nonlinear part is calculated in the TD and converted back variables and phase coordinates, it is usually assumed that
into the FD. the machines are represented by voltage-controlled current
sources. Therefore, the machine model is assumed to have
D. DHD and Wavelets voltage-input and current-output. This input-output require-
Dynamic harmonic domain (DHD) and wavelets are, among ment results in compatible and incompatible interconnection
other methodologies, able to handle time and frequency with the external circuit-system.
domain variables at once for the representation of power When the external circuit-system has current-input voltage-
networks in dynamic state. output characteristic at the interfacing terminals, it matches
the machine model input and output. For example, such
interface is possible whenever the external circuit-system has
V. I NTERFACING ROTATING MACHINE MODELS IN capacitors and/or defined voltage sources that are connecting
TRANSIENT SIMULATION PROGRAMS
to the machine’s terminals. In this case, the combined state
Rotating electrical machines are used as generators and equation for the entire system is readily formed by simply
motors in numerous applications in power systems in a wide routing the respective input and output variables among the
range of voltage and power levels. The objective of this section coupled subsystems models. However, such an interface is not
is to present to the reader the various interfacing techniques always available due to constraints of the external circuits-
used to integrate the general purpose machine models with the system which itself may have voltage-input current-output
power system network in different simulation programs [35] characteristic (similar to the machine model). In the case
 242

of incompatible input-output interface, the combined state be made up of analog components or digital computers. For
equations cannot be directly formulated as the needed input over seventy years real-time analog simulators have been used
variables (voltages) are unknown. for various applications, but over the last ten years significant
a) Indirect interfacing using snubbers: To enable the advances have been made in real-time digital simulators.
connection and create a compatible interface, an artificial Traditionally real-time simulators have been classified as:
snubber circuit may be used to calculate the required input the transient network analyzers (TNA), real-time playback
variable - the terminal voltage. For example, a snubber may systems, the real-time digital simulators.
be realized using a very large resistor connected in parallel to There are industrial grade real-time digital simulators such
the terminals with unknown voltage. The snubber current is as RTDS [37], and RT-LAB [38]. These simulators are based
calculated as the difference between the currents from machine on DSPs, and general-purpose processor based PC-Clusters.
and external system. This, in turn, enables the formulation of Originally the main applications of real-time digital simulators
the proper state-space model of the combined system. Alter- are three-fold: closed-loop testing of digital controllers for
natively, one may also use a very small capacitor. However, power electronic based FACTS and HVDC systems, closed-
such artificial snubbers may affect the simulation accuracy and loop testing of protective relays and simulation of transients
efficiency and therefore should be used with care. Examples of specifically for analyzing a large number of operating sce-
interfacing the machine models using snubber circuits include narios and fault conditions. The applications of real-time
SimPowerSystems and PLECS . simulators are widening to include virtually every power
b) Indirect interfacing using time-step relaxation: The system study from steady-state studies such as harmonics and
indirect interfacing may also be a powerful tool even when the power quality evaluation, and low-frequency dynamics, to high
machine model and the external circuit-system are formulated frequency electromagnetic studies [39]–[41]
to have input-output compatible interface. The numerical re- Although earlier efforts at real-time simulation [42], were
laxation can be achieved if the interfacing variables are simply more or less an extension of the off-line simulators such as
exchanged (updated) at each time step allowing for decoupled EMTP, the latest developments in real-time simulation have
and parallel solution of each subsystem. For example, the a distinct flavor of their own in terms of newer models and
SimPowerSystems also uses such interfacing approach when algorithms. This is especially true when performing hardware-
the external circuit-system is discretized with the trapezoidal in-the loop (HIL) simulations. Two kinds of HIL simulations
rule separately from the remaining Simulink blocks, while can be performed: (a) controller hardware-in-the-loop (CHIL),
the machine models are discretized with the Forward Euler (b) power hardware-in-the-loop (PHIL). There are several im-
method. Such interface is similar to the sample-hold that is portant issues that need to be addressed is both these types of
attained in hardware-in-the-loop simulations or the multi-rate simulations. For example, in CHIL simulation, the interfacing
simulations (with or without iterations). of a digital controller with a power electronic system modeled
2) Direct approaches: Whenever the external circuit- in the real-time simulator has attracted a lot of attention [43]. A
system can be formulated to have input-output compatible real-time digital simulator simulating power electronic systems
interface with the machine model the respective models can takes discrete switching signals as external inputs from the
be directly connected and solved together by the same ODE digital controller. Digital simulation being itself discrete in
solver. This achieves a simultaneous solution of machine and nature is unable to cope effectively with switching signals
network subsystems, which is desirable for numerical stability that arrive between two calculation steps of the simulator.
and good accuracy. The conventional off-line approach of using small step-sizes
The PD and VBR models can also be used in SV programs for simulation to overcome the problem is not a favorable
with the same goal of achieving direct interface. The PD model option under real-time conditions. Several algorithms have
can be implemented as a coupled-circuit that is simply either a been proposed for correcting firing errors and extra delays
part of the overall circuit-system or a subsystem with voltage- for power electronics in real-time digital simulators [44], [45].
input and current-output. This requires stator and rotor RL There are also several commercially available packages such as
branches with all the respective self and mutual inductances ARTEMIS [46] that address this issue. There are also several
that appropriately change with the rotor position. The full- issues related to the accuracy and stability of PHIL simulation
order models of either synchronous or induction machines which is an ongoing research topic [48]–[51].
can be formulated in the VBR form. In this formulation, An upcoming trend in real-time simulator design for HIL
the stator circuit is expressed in terms of subtransient resis- simulations is the use of field programmable gate arrays
tances/inductances in abc coordinates using phase currents as (FPGAs) as the core computational engines. The parallel
the independent variables. As a result, the equivalent stator processing hardwired architecture and large resource count
RL branches can be readily included into the external circuit, of these devices is enabling this development. Time steps of
thus achieving a direct interface. the order of a few nanoseconds is now possible for highly
accurate device-level real-time simulation of power electronics
and variable-speed motor drives [47].
VI. I NTERFACING ISSUES IN REAL - TIME SIMULATORS
Another new development is the interfacing of geograph-
In contrast to off-line transient simulation tools, real-time ically remote simulation facilities to share computational re-
simulators are useful for testing hardware equipment by in- sources in solving multi-domain problems. Such a study is
terfacing them to the simulator [36]. Real-time simulators can reported in [52] using the virtual test bed (VTB) for fuel cell
 243

applications, and in [53] for a thermo-electric co-simulation It is apparent that there have been significant improvements
using RTDS and OPAL-RT real-time simulators. in the modeling accuracy and efficiency of real-time digital
simulators. However, there is still a lot of room for developing
VII. C ONCLUSION of better solutions especially in HIL simulation. Increasing
Interfacing of various simulation tools is increasingly be- use of parallel reconfigurable hardware in real-time simulators
coming a necessity for the simulation of complex systems provides newer challenges for HIL simulation.
whose modeling requirements cannot be met by a single
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 245

Interfacing Methods for

Electromagnetic Transient Simulation:
New Possibilities for Analysis and Design
S. Filizadeh, Member, IEEE

algorithms is a viable approach to extending their existing

Abstract—This tutorial paper describes methods for capabilities not only for enhanced analysis but also for design
interfacing electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation of emerging power systems.
programs with other mathematical algorithms to extend their Interfacing allows the constituent components, i.e., the
application both for the analysis and design of complex power
EMT simulator and the external algorithms/tools, to
systems. Interfacing options, mechanisms for interfacing and an
overview of the possibilities offered by suitably-interfaced EMTP communicate in a specified manner in order to carry out the
simulators are presented. overall simulation cooperatively and more efficiently. The
level of cooperation between the interfaced tools can range
Index Terms-- Electromagnetic transient simulation, from mere post-processing and visualization of simulation
interfacing, multiple simulations, optimization, uncertainty results [9] to relegating an integral part of the simulation to an
analysis, surrogate models. external tool where specific analyses can be done more
effectively than in the original simulation tool [10], [11], [12].
I. INTRODUCTION Interfacing opens up unprecedented possibilities as the new

U NPRECEDENTED growth in power demand combined

with the advancements made in new technologies such as
high-power electronics has greatly affected the size and
multi-agent simulation platform will benefit from specific
strengths of the individual algorithms and equips the user with
an enhanced set of tools and procedures for detailed scrutiny
complexity of modern power systems. The advent of power of the problem at hand.
electronics and its dramatic progress in the past few decades, Interfacing is also an enabling approach to the development
which has led to the realization of concepts such as HVDC of the next generation of EMT simulators with extended
and more recently FACTS, has contributed to hitherto unseen capabilities for design. The conventional procedure for design
complexities. This trend will continue to dominate as new of power systems using an EMT simulation program often
technologies such as distributed generation and plug-in hybrid requires a human expert to conduct several simulation runs
vehicles gain further popularity and become more prevalent. before finalizing the design. These simulation runs are
Development of tools and techniques used for the analysis conducted for example to select suitable parameter values for
and design of today’s sophisticated power systems needs to a control system or to study the response of the designed
stay abreast with this rapid pace of change. Advanced system under different operating conditions. This trial and
computer simulation is a widely accepted approach for error approach tends to become overwhelmingly lengthy when
analysis and design of power systems. Power flow [1], large systems involving several parameters and various modes
transient stability [2], small signal stability [3], and of operation are concerned. A growing trend exists towards
electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation [4] are well- developing design-support methods and algorithms to aid the
known examples of typical simulation tools for various kinds designer when using EMT simulation programs. The
of power system studies. Among these, the electromagnetic conventional multiple-run simulation, which is a feature
transient simulation offers the highest level of detail in offered by many EMT simulation programs, is one of such
modeling individual systems elements. An EMT simulation methods [13]-[14]. Here a number of simulation runs are
model is typically valid for frequencies of up to a few mega- conducted automatically with pre-selected sequential or
hertz [4], which allows for representing nonlinear and random parameter sets. Although multiple-run simulations
switching elements [4] – [8]. relieve the search process to an extent by automating the
While EMT simulators remain standard tools for the parameter selection task, they are often excessively time-
analysis of fast, short-term transients, it has recently been consuming as the selection of parameters for use in the
shown that interfacing these simulators to other mathematical sequence of simulations is done without taking advantage of
the experience accumulated in the previous simulations.
This work was supported in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Interfacing EMT simulation programs with other
Research Council (NSERC) of Canada.
S. Filizadeh is with the Department of Electrical and Computer
mathematical algorithms, which has been proposed recently,
Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 5V6, Canada (e- can significantly improve the design procedure not only by
mail: [email protected]).
 246

offering an extended set of design-support facilities, but also optimization algorithms.

by enabling effective studies with a limited number of
computationally expensive EMT simulations [15] – [17]. III. INTERFACING TEMPLATES
In the following sections, the paper provides an overview The method used for interfacing EMTP-type tools with
of various interfacing methods and procedures for connecting other algorithms and the level of complexity involved in doing
an EMT simulator with an external algorithm. It will be so depend on the problem it targets to solve. In the following
followed by a review of the particular possibilities to use subsections, a number of interfacing methods will be
interfacing to create design-ready EMT simulator. A glance at addressed.
future developments and directions concludes the paper.
A. Static Interfacing
II. NEED FOR INTERFACING Consider for example interfacing a transient simulator with
Commercially available EMT simulation tools include a an external agent in order to plot traces of simulated variables.
fairly comprehensive library of components that allow the user Ordinarily, one needs to establish a channel between the
to conveniently assemble a circuit for the purpose of simulator and the plotting agent to send (in a unidirectional
simulation. These so-called library components may represent manner) data for the intended variables as they are obtained at
sources, electric machines, cables and transmission lines, each time step. Note that no buffer is necessary to store past
semiconductor and power electronic devices, and control and values, as data is sent to the plotting agent as it becomes
processing functions (e.g., comparators, transfer functions, and available. Moreover, one may note that plotting every point on
integrators). the simulated trace is not necessary and plotting the waveform
Despite the availability of standard library components, sampled at regular intervals (other than every time step) still
users often find that components for performing specialized produces graphs of acceptable accuracy. Therefore, it is
computations are not readily available. Therefore, there is possible to lower the communication burden by calling the
need for extending the capabilities of EMT simulation plotting algorithm at regular intervals with a width of N
programs by incorporating facilities for performing samples, thus expediting the task. The time-line shown in Fig.
specialized computations. In commercial EMTP-type 1 depicts the procedure graphically for intermittent
programs, such facilities are provided through enabling user- communication with an external algorithm. Static interfacing
defined components and/or interfacing to other simulation may be used for such purposes as plotting or computation of
software or programming languages [18], [23]. complex functions.
Interfacing has been used for simulation of complex When a simulation case is assembled, the code sections
protection systems [24], development of advanced digital pertaining to the components used are gathered along with
control systems [25], and simulation of power electronic their control rules. Thus at every time step the code for each
converters using EMTP-TACS [26]. An interface that uses component is run only if its control rule so allows.
synchronizing clocks for connecting a simulation program Static interfaces have been further categorized as on-line or
with a real controller hardware is proposed in [27]. Attempts off-line [9]. In an on-line interface, the transient simulation
have also been made towards development of simulation tool communicates with the external algorithm throughout the
platforms in which multiple tools interact. Examples of simulation, e.g., in the visualization of simulated waveforms.
interfaces between PSCAD/EMTDC and In an off-line interface, an external tool is called following the
MATLAB/SIMULINK are presented in [9], [28], [29]. A completion of the simulation, which does further processing
different interfacing method, in which an entire simulation is on the simulated data. An external agent that performs
broken into smaller pieces is reported in [30] and is statistical analysis of the simulation results falls under the
demonstrated using the CIGRE HVDC benchmark model [31] category of off-line static interfacing.
In [32] a transient simulator is interfaced with nonlinear External External External
simplex optimization algorithm written in FORTRAN to add algorithm algorithm algorithm
optimization features to the simulator. A comprehensive
example of interfacing between a transient simulator and Ν(Δt) Ν(Δt)
MATLAB/SIMULINK and a comparison between EMTDC
and MATLAB/SIMULINK-PSB is presented in [33], in which
t
CIGRE HVDC benchmark model [31] is considered as the
base network. Δt
Besides EMT simulation tools, interfacing [34] has also Fig. 1. Static interface to an external algorithm.
been used for interconnecting electronic circuit simulators.
Reference [35] presents DELIGHT.SPICE, which is an B. Dynamic Interfacing and Memory Management
integration of DELIGHT interactive optimization-based CAD Dynamic interfaces are more involved than static ones, as
system and SPICE for circuit optimization. Reference [36] memory management becomes an integral part of the
interfaces optimization routines written in MATLAB with interface. Processes that simulate dynamic elements such as
SABER circuit simulator. References [37], [38] show other controllers or filters, fall in this category. Unlike static
examples of interfacing circuit simulation programs with interfaces, in which data only from the current time step is
 247

communicated between the transient simulator and the implement the algorithm. Options for implementation are
interfaced algorithm, dynamic interfaces exchange current as discussed below.
well as past data.
A. External Interfaces
As an example of a dynamic interface, consider a peak-
detection component. The component is supposed to track a For algorithms that are available externally through stand-
given signal x(t) and find its peak value and update its output alone software, external interfacing is normally the most
whenever a higher peak is detected. The peak-detector logical option. Depending on the input/output configuration of
algorithm is shown below. the algorithm, external interfacing can potentially eliminate
the need for rewriting the external code in the indigenous
ALGORITHM 1 - PEAK DETECTION language of the simulation tool. Physical establishment of the
1 if current simulation time (t)=0
interface requires access to the memory management routines
2 PeakValue=x(0) of the transient simulator. An example of an external interface
3 Output=PeakValue is interfacing an EMTP-type program to MATLAB [23],
4 Else
5 if x(t)>PeakValue
which allows the user to store required variables in pre-
6 PeakValue=x(t) defined locations, call MATLAB to execute a standard or
7 End user-developed code, and retrieve data back to the simulation
8 Output=PeakValue
9 End program for further processing. The interface may allow
execution of the external algorithm in each time step or
The algorithm uses a storage variable (PeakValue) to store intermittently; therefore, both dynamic and static interfaces
the last peak detected. Although the algorithm is quite simple, described earlier can be implemented externally.
its implementation requires access to memory location(s) that An important observation about external interfacing is the
are kept intact from one time step to the next. These memory speed implications involved. Transient simulation tools often
segments are used for storing variables by components that use optimized methods for enhancing simulation speed.
need such storage, and transient simulation tools often provide External programs, however, are not necessarily designed with
access to this kind of storage for use in user-defined such provisions. Therefore, a simulation tool that uses an
components. interface with an external program can be drastically slower
An important issue when dealing with memory segments is than the same procedure implemented entirely internally in the
to note that the pointers to memory locations should be EMTP-type tool. Apart from the intrinsic speed differences
updated and maintained in a unified manner. Since in each between the two agents, the overhead of communication
time step, the simulation executes the code of individual between the programs can also significantly affect the overall
elements in the order they are placed within the code, it is simulation performance. Unless high-speed, efficient
important to ensure that the stored variables can be retrieved communication methods are deployed, exchange of large
properly. By properly incrementing the pointers, it is amounts of data between the interfaced tools normally results
guaranteed that they always point to the correct memory in marked reductions in the speed. The problem will be
locations for all components. exacerbated if the interface is used as part of a multi-run
simulation.
C. Wrapper Interfaces Depending on the facilities present in the externally-
A wrapper interface is one that does not communicate with interfaced tool, this type of interfacing can serve as a powerful
the transient simulator on a regular basis throughout the means for rapid algorithm development, verification, and
simulation as static and dynamic interfaces do. Instead, it has debugging. It is sometimes easier to make changes to an
limited communication at specific points in time, normally at algorithm developed in a dedicated external agent such as
the beginning and end of a simulation. This kind of interface is MATLAB than one implemented in the rigidity of an EMTP-
created when external code actually controls and steers the type program. Modifications can be easily done and tested
sequence of simulations. An example of this interface is given through the combined interface. If the speed reduction due to
later, where optimization and run-control algorithms are external interfacing is severe, one can consider converting the
discussed. external interface to an internal one (described below).
Note that a wrapper interface is different from an off-line Another important aspect of external interfacing is the
one in that the wrapper interface is often a supervisory ability of interfacing to multiple platforms. For example, when
algorithm that controls the simulation program and normally an EMTP-type tool is interfaced with MATLAB, other
performs multiple simulations, whereas an off-line interface is simulation tools (e.g., SIMULINK) or mathematical and
usually meant to perform post-processing of simulation programming tools (e.g., coding in multiple languages) may
results. become available as well.

IV. INTERFACING IMPLEMENTATION OPTIONS: B. Internal Interfaces

EXTERNAL VS. INTERNAL INTERFACES A method to alleviate drawbacks associated with external
Once an algorithm is developed or selected for interfacing interfaces is to use internal interfacing, where a user-supplied
with a simulation tool, one needs to decide where to algorithm (unavailable in the transient simulation tool) is
implemented within the transient simulator. Internal
 248

interfacing is possible when the user has access to the code of B. Chain-Type Interfacing
the algorithm and is knowledgeable about its inner workings. Unlike a core-type interface where the core program is used
Internal interfaces have been used for interfacing nonlinear as a common node for all other programs, in chain-type
optimization algorithms with transient simulators (described interfacing the simulation programs are connected to each
later). Dynamical models of electric vehicles [39], advanced other in a row. There are two common templates for chain-
switching schemes for power converters [40], and specialized type interfacing, as shown in Fig. 3.
motor drives and mechanical models for vehicular power In the first scheme (see Fig. 3(a)), chain-type interfacing is
systems [39], [41] have also been interfaced using internal used for pre-processing and post-processing of the data. As an
interfacing mechanisms. example, consider simulation of a network with transmission
Note that internal interfaces are faster than external ones lines. Prior to simulating the network, an algorithm is often
due to the elimination of the communication overhead. used to calculate the line constants to be used in the actual
However, their implementation is normally more involved. simulator (pre-processing); visualization of the simulated data
using a graphing program constitutes post-processing and the
V. MULTIPLE INTERFACING entire scheme takes on the form of a chain-type interface.
In addition to the main high-power electric circuitry, A second variation of a chain-type interface (see Fig. 3(b))
modern power equipment often contain advanced control may be used when simulation programs cannot be interfaced
blocks, digital processors, nonlinear elements, etc. Proper directly and readily. An intermediate agent, such as
simulation of these systems must allow uncompromised MATLAB, can be used to bridge the gap between originally
analysis, and as such it is sometimes necessary to interface incompatible simulators.
more than two simulation programs, each with special features
for detailed modeling of a certain portion of a complex circuit.
In this section, some of the schemes for multiple interfacing of
a transient simulation programs with other simulation (a) Chain-type interfacing for pre- and post-processing.
programs or mathematical tools are explained. Variations to
these schemes are obviously possible, although they are not
discussed here.
(b) Chain-type interfacing for linking non-compatible simulators.
A. Core-Type Interfacing
Fig. 3. Variations of chain-type interfacing.
In core-type interfacing of simulation programs, one
program serves as the core and all the other (auxiliary) C. Loop Interfacing
programs are connected to the core. Fig. 2 shows a block If in a chain of simulation programs or external hardware,
diagram of such a structure. The auxiliary programs in this the last program is also connected to the first one, the result
structure can be implemented externally or internally, and may will be a loop interfacing scheme, as shown in Fig. 4. Such
manifest static, dynamic, or wrapper properties as discussed combinations occur frequently when real-time EMT
earlier. simulators are connected to several interacting external pieces
The core-type interfacing structure usually happens when a of equipment, e.g., relays, controllers, amplifiers and digital
major portion of the system under study can be modeled in a signal processors [42]. Since interfacing of real-time
single simulation program (the core), and the auxiliary simulators is not the focus of this paper, loop interfacing is not
programs are assigned minor tasks such as data visualization discussed in any further detail.
or other calculations. The firing pulse generation and
visualization example shown later in the paper is a core-type
interface, in which generation of firing pulses and
visualization tasks are assigned to auxiliary algorithms that
communicate with the core simulator in which the main power
circuit is simulated.

Fig. 4. Loop interfacing scheme.

VI. EXAMPLES OF INTERFACING

A. Interfacing to MATLAB/SIMULINK
This section explains an interface made between a transient
simulator (PSCAD/EMTDC) and MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Similar interfaces have also been made between EMTP and
Fig. 2. Core-type interfacing.
 249

MATLAB [23]. These interfaces can be used in a variety of then the MATLAB interface subroutine is called, which reads
ways, allowing full exploitation of the computational facilities the data from the memory locations and communicates them
in MATLAB and modeling capabilities of SIMULNK. with the respective MATLAB function.
The interface between the EMTP-type simulation engine Upon completion of the tasks in MATLAB (this can
and MATLAB is essentially an external interface. The include some SIMULINK models as well), the MLAB_INT
transient simulation engine can communicate with MATLAB returns the outputs to the remaining memory locations
either in each time step or intermittently, depending on the assigned for output storage. At this point, the transient
nature and requirements of the externally-sourced task. simulator is able to access and read the outputs.
To interface with MATLAB, the user needs to perform the Note that the respective MATLAB function may (i) contain
tasks of (i) declaring memory requirements, (ii) storing input user-developed algorithms, (ii) call built-in MATLAB
variables to MATLAB (transient simulator outputs), (iii) functions, or (iii) setup and call SIMULINK. Examples of
calling MATLAB, and (iv) receiving MATLAB outputs and such possibilities are presented in Section VIII where some
feeding them back to the simulator. In EMTDC, the subroutine interfacing cases are discussed.
MLAB_INT, which is accessible by user-defined components,
B. Wrapper Interfacing: Run-Controllers and Multiple-Runs
establishes the connection between the two agents. Exchange
of data between the simulator and MATLAB is administered Transient simulation tools are sometimes used in studies
through use of data storage queues for storing floating-point, where multiple simulations are conducted. A number of
integer, and other data types. Fig. 5 shows a schematic parameters in the simulated network are varied sequentially or
diagram of the sequence of events that occur within the randomly (with a given distribution) and simulations are done
EMTDC/MATLAB interface. in order to assess the impact of such parameter variations on
the simulation results. Simulation results for a given set of
parameter values are often distilled into a small number of
indices that represent a figure-of-merit for the parameters
used. For example, severity of a lightning-strike fault as a
function of its location can be examined by conducting
multiple simulations in which the fault location is varied along
a given transmission line and the magnitude of the resulting
voltage surge is recorded. EMTP-type tools often provide
built-in engines for conducting multiple simulations using
specified parameter variations [18].
The so-called multiple-run simulation can be described as
in the following algorithm (Algorithm 2). As shown, the
multiple-run algorithm is responsible for (i) selecting suitable
parameter values according to the specified parameter
variation rule, (ii) feeding the simulation with the parameters,
and (iii) recording the respective figure of merit for further
processing.

ALGORITHM 2 - MULTIPLE-RUN SIMULATIONS

1 create a set of parameters Pi (a total of N
points representing parameter combinations)
2 i=1
3 if i<=N
4 run the simulator with parameter set
P(i)
5 record the figure-of-merit for P(i)
6 i=i+1
7 End

Note that pre-selection of parameter combinations in a

sequential multiple-run, or random selection with a given
distribution resembles a passive approach to the true potential
of the multiple-run algorithm. Through proper interfacing,
however, one can design more advanced run-control
Fig. 5. Sequence of events in the EMTDC/MATLAB interface. algorithms to conduct multiple simulations in ways other than
the conventional approach, where it is possible to steer future
As shown, a number of memory storage locations equal to simulations based on the outcome of current and past
the total number of inputs and outputs communicated to and simulations.
from MATLAB is first declared. Inputs to the MATLAB A wide range of opportunities is opened when wrapper
environment are placed in the respective storage locations and interfaces are designed with the capability to steer the
 250

sequence of multiple simulations based on the cumulative measurable using the simulated results and is measured for
history of previous simulations. These opportunities are each set of parameter combinations. Following the completion
particularly important in the design process using EMT of the entire simulations, the designer examines results and
simulators. In the following sections, use of EMT simulators may use the parameter set that yields the closest match to the
for design of complex networks and the role of interfacing in desired objectives. Development of the so-called objective
enabling design-ready EMT simulators is described. function (see Fig. 7) in terms of the desired and simulated
behavior is a creative task that relies on the designer’s
VII. DESIGN PROCESS USING EMT SIMULATION TOOLS expertise and may require a few iterations before one that truly
In a broad sense, one can identify parameter selection and encapsulates the desired goals is formed.
uncertainty analysis as the major steps involved in a generic It is apparent that the conventional MR method enhances
power system design problem. Parameter selection is the the parameter selection by eliminating the need for designer
process in which suitable parameter values or other intervention at every simulation run. However, it is noted that
specifications are obtained for the designed component. The pre-selection of parameter values for use in actual simulations
selection chiefly aims to meet some desired objectives is still inefficient as it will involve a large number of
regarding the performance of the system; however, it may also simulations in order to ensure that the search space is
take into account other considerations such as robustness or adequately covered and that the final results are of acceptable
varying operating conditions. accuracy. In other words the MR method may imply an
Having found suitable parameter values, it is often unnecessarily long search process.
necessary to perform a thorough uncertainty analysis to Pre-selected parameters
determine potential deviations in the system performance in (sequential or random) x
the face of perceived tolerances and other sources of Multiple-run Electromagnetic
uncertainty that have not been directly considered in the initial controller transient simulator
parameter selection phase. A common source of uncertainty Objective function f(x)
for example is the manufacturing tolerance of system
components that may cause deviations from their nominal Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of the multiple-run simulations.
values. Inevitable changes in the operating conditions of the
system may also lead to some loss of performance particularly Intelligent algorithms have been proposed for conducting
for nonlinear systems. multiple simulations in a more efficient manner by avoiding
search in areas that are not likely to yield any improvement.
A. Parameter Selection Techniques This is done by taking advantage of the cumulative experience
Since EMT simulation programs enable the designer to of the past simulations in generating parameter sets for use in
simulate the system in great detail, they are extensively used future simulations. In other words, parameters will not be
in the initial phase of design where suitable parameters are to blindly pre-selected and will rather be selected taking into
be selected. The methods commonly used for parameter consideration the closeness of previous simulated results to the
selection using EMT simulations are described below with a desired objectives.
view to highlight the interfacing aspects in their architecture. 3) Simulation-Based Optimal Design
1) Trial and Error Nonlinear optimization algorithms can be interfaced with
Trial-and-error is the most basic, yet highly creative, an EMT simulation program to take over the steering of
approach to the parameter selection problem. Although it is multiple simulations. Schematically shown in Fig. 7, the
repetitive and clearly not scientifically elegant, it is an algorithm feeds the simulator with parameter values that are
approach that relies heavily on the designer’s experience and selected based on the objective function values calculated by
intuition to start and steer the search properly and in a creative the EMT simulator for the previously selected parameters.
manner by scrutinizing the simulated results to assess the
parameters
degree to which the design objectives are met. x
One may note that the trial-and-error method could easily
Computer model of
require a large amount of experiments (i.e. EMT simulation the circuit
runs) before a design can be finalized. It is therefore highly Select new
parameter values ( x)
prone to be wasteful in terms of simulation time and it also
Assessment of the results
requires constant interventions by the designer. There is no Nonlinear optimization
and evaluation of the
algorithm
need to interface the EMT simulator with any run-control objective function f(x)
algorithm in a trail-and-error design process.
EMT simulator
2) Multiple-Run Simulation
Multiple-run (MR) EMT simulations, discussed previously objective function
evaluation f(x)
and shown in Fig. 6, can improve this process by reducing the
human supervision. In each simulation run, system parameters Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of a simulation-based optimization tool.
are adjusted to values pre-selected randomly or sequentially.
Desired system performance is defined in terms of quantities Some aspects of uncertainty, such as robustness, can also
 251

be incorporated into the optimization-based parameter impact should be studied following the parameter selection
selection. Here the optimization is carried out with a view to stage.
minimize an aggregate objective function that includes system
Initialization
performance for a wide range of operating conditions, as
shown in Fig. 8. This ensures a robust design, but does not
constitute a formal and comprehensive approach to the
sensitivity and uncertainly analysis, as robustness is only a Simulation Simulation Simulation
operating operating operating
small sub-class of uncertainty issues. condition 1 condition 2 condition N

4) Additional Considerations Select a new

parameter
f1 (x) f 2 ( x) f N (x)
When dealing with optimization in the EMT simulation set x
N
loop for tuning of system parameters, questions arise as to F ( x) = ∑ w j ⋅ f j ( x)
j =1
whether the optimal parameters represent a local or the global
optimum. Since the simulation of the network is used for
evaluation of the objective function, this falls within a
No
category of optimization problems commonly referred to as Convergerd?

black-box optimization. In general there is no universal rule to Nonlinear Optimization

Yes
determine whether the underlying optimization problem is
unimodal, i.e. there is only one global optimum, or multimodal End
where multiple local minima exist. As long as desired
objectives are met by the parameter set obtained by the Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of a robust optimization interface.
optimization algorithm it should not matter whether the set is a
local minimum or the global one. However in cases where Component manufacturing tolerances and aging are two
objectives such as lowest cost are sought, it is essential that common sources of uncertainty that affect the performance of
the global minimum be found, which may require specialized a design whether or not it is optimized. Digital implementation
optimization algorithms. Regardless of the objectives, of control systems improves the accuracy and robustness of
however, it seems that the majority of conventional optimized control system parameters; it however introduces
optimization algorithms can be interfaced with an EMT concerns about the resolution of signals converted between
simulator. analog to digital. Independent from the control system
A significant benefit of the parameter selection through parameters, component values still remain vulnerable to
interfacing with a nonlinear optimization algorithm is the manufacturing tolerances.
reduction of the number of simulation runs. It is often EMT simulation programs interfaced with suitable
observed that the design cycle using optimization is orders of mathematical algorithms provide effective tools for the
magnitude faster than one relying only on primitive multiple- analysis of uncertainties. Given the fact that complex systems
run simulations. cannot be readily expressed in terms of mathematical
It is sometimes observed that simulation-based equations in enough detail, a simulation-based approach is
optimization for design does not provide an entirely often the only viable option for uncertainty analysis. In the
acceptable result merely after the first round of optimization. following sub-sections, a few types of studies that fall under
There are often unforeseen details that arise when optimized the umbrella of uncertainty analysis and can be done through
results are assessed. This usually leads to subsequent cycles of interfaced EMT simulators are addressed. Note that there are
optimization where the objective function is refined to limited standard definitions for the following studies and they
fittingly capture designer’s objective. This is due to the simple are sometimes treated slightly differently or interchangeably
fact that the optimization algorithm gives what the designer by different researchers.
asks for. It is the designer’s responsibility to formulate his/her 1) Tolerance Analysis
objectives correctly and precisely in a mathematical objective Tolerance analysis aims to determine the expected range of
function. the variations of a given performance index given tolerance
bands of parameters. It is apparent that one cannot truly
B. Uncertainty Analysis remove the statistical information of how parameters change
Uncertainty analysis is the second stage of a design within their tolerance bands from the tolerance analysis.
problem following the initial stage of parameter selection. The However in lieu of a formal and normally time-taking
purpose of uncertainty analysis is to study the impact of statistical analysis, one may choose to conduct a relatively
tolerances and uncertainties that have been ignored in the crude tolerance analysis by removing the statistical variations
parameter selection phase. Note that parameter selection may of the parameters and by considering the extremities of
itself be done with a view to eliminate or reduce the effects of parameter boundaries only.
some certain types of uncertainties. As noted earlier, varying Consider a performance index function f(x), where
operating conditions are a source of uncertainty that can be x=(x1,x2,…, xn). If xi is allowed to vary within [xi-min,xi-max],
taken into account during the parameter selection phase by the there are n2 different combinations of extreme values;
process of robust optimization. Addressing other sources of evaluation of the function for these combinations can be used
uncertainty, however, may not be as straightforward and their to find an interval [fmin,fmax], which specifies the expected
 252

range of variation for the performance index when individual network and allows the designer to assess the tolerance effects
parameters are allowed to vary within their tolerance intervals. without recourse to time-consuming simulations. Fig. 9 shows
Note that this is only valid when the performance index a schematic diagram of the interfaced tool that calculates first
function has a quadratic (or generally unimodal) behavior and second-order derivatives of the performance index using
around its nominal value. While in general there is no EMT simulations.
guarantee that a given performance index has such behavior, it
holds true for optimized functions, for which a quadratic
approximation is often attainable around the optimum and for
a small range of parameter variations. Find
∂f
and
∂2 f
2) Statistical Analysis ∂xi ∂xi
2

Statistical analysis is the formal approach to investigating

the variations of a given performance index including the
statistical variations of the parameters for both optimized and
non-optimized systems.
Monte-Carlo methods are widely-used for conducting such
analyses. A mathematical algorithm selects random samples of
individual parameters within their specified tolerance intervals ∂2 f
Find
∂xi ∂x j
and according to their probability density function, and
combines the samples into an input vector x, which is then fed
into the EMT simulator. A large number of EMT simulations
are often required to obtain an acceptable representation of the
statistical behavior for the performance index. Note that since
statistical properties are included and samples are taken from
the entire interval, restrictions on unimodality of the function
and small variation intervals are removed. The results obtained Fig. 9. Surrogate model formation tool.
are highly accurate; however, the computational intensity of
the algorithm is commensurately high. VIII. CONCLUSIONS
3) Tolerance Determination
An important design question is to determine how much The paper described the principles of and methods for the
analysis and design of complex power systems using
tolerance in parameter values is allowed if the designer is
willing to accept a certain amount of deviation in the electromagnetic transient simulation tools that are interfaced
performance index. This is the reverse problem to the with external mathematical algorithms. A suitably designed
tolerance analysis, and its outcome can be used to select algorithm can be employed to intelligently conduct multiple
simulations of a system using an EMT tool. The intelligence
components that have a certain amount of tolerance.
4) Additional Considerations of the algorithm often reduces the number of simulations
While the use of an EMT simulation tool is inevitable in required and provides the designer with pre-processed
the design of complex systems, it is desirable to develop information that will assist in making decisions.
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