Running head: EMPATHY IN PSYCHOLOGY 1

Empathy in Psychology

Annie Small

Berry College

Author’s Note:
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Introduction

Seeing a close friend in pain often causes a small amount of emotional pain in an

individual. It is strange that witnessing this causes the individual pain, as they are not actually

experiencing the real pain. This pain that the individual does face comes from empathy. Empathy

is defined as “the action of understanding, being aware of, being sensitive to, and vicariously

experiencing the feelings, thoughts, and experience of another of either the past or present

without having the feelings, thoughts, and experience fully communicated in an

objectively explicit manner” (Empathy, n.d.). Empathy has been of interest with psychology

research since the 20th century and many research studies focusing on different branches of

psychology, in particular social and evolutionary psychology, have been done. This paper will

discuss the develop of the study of empathy, the current research in social and evolutionary

psychology, and an outside perspective of theology.

The History of Empathy

Before discussing the research in social and evolutionary psychology, it is important to

see the historical develop of the study of empathy. Early philosophers and psychologists did not

mentioned empathy in their works. In fact, the term “empathy” was not discussed until the 20th

century. This does not mean that the history of empathy does not start until the 20thth century; in

fact, the history of this phenomenon began in the 1700s with the discussion of sympathy. Today,

sympathy and empathy are sometimes confused, as they are very similar. In the 18th century, the

idea of sympathy covered today’s definitions of sympathy and empathy. It is thus necessary,

then, to start the history of empathy with the history of sympathy.

In the 18th century, two philosophers, David Hume and Adam Smith, discussed sympathy

in their writings. David Hume (1739-40/2003) wrote A Treatise of Human Nature, in which he
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stated that sympathy starts as the communication of an idea. This idea is impersonal and factual;

however, the idea then turns into an impression. The difference between an idea and an

impression is the amount of passion and perception between these terms. An idea was a hint of

the passion and perceptions that impressions have. When humans have these impressions,

brought from the ideas, humans experience these perceptions as if they were their own. This

brings forth emotion in the audience, as the audience experiences the events as their own. Hume

continues, stating that the closer the relation between the persons, the easier an idea forms, the

impression comes, and sympathy is experienced (Hume, 1739-40/2003). Adam Smith (as cited in

Van der Weele, 2011) wrote The Theory of Moral Sentiments, in which he said that humans have

interests in the well-beings of others and thus experience sympathy for them. This is because

humans put themselves in others’ situations.

The next person to bring up the idea of sympathy was Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin’s

popularized the idea of natural selection. He believed that the environment poses certain threats;

in order to survive, the animals need to adapt to the environment, thus overcoming the threats. In

Darwin’s The Descent of Man, Darwin states that sympathy is part of the social structure; it is

instinctive (Darwin, 1874). Animals retain senses of their former pain and thus want to relieve

other’s pain (as cited in Van der Weele, 2011). Darwin says that “the mere sight of suffering,

independently of love, would suffice to call up in us vivid recollections and associations”

(Darwin, 1874, p. 106). Sympathy leads to the inclusion of animals, which is necessary for

survival, as Darwin stated that “these sensations were first developed, in order that those animals

which would profit by living in a society, should be induced to live together” (Darwin, 1874, p.

105). Animals are social creatures and cannot survive on their own.
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It was not until the 20th century that the term “empathy” came to be. Psychologist Edward

Titchener (as cited in “Empathy and Sympathy in Ethics”) coined “empathy” in 1909 by

translating the German word “Einfühlung,” which means “in-feeling” or “feeling into.”

Titchener continued his interest in empathy; in one of his lectures, he said that empathy occurs

when a person is communicating with another and the other, or audience, has “kinesthetic

memories.” The audience is feeling and experiencing the person’s experience. The audience also

receives images accompanied by feelings, which are elements of consciousness (Titchener,

1909/2014).

After Titchener coined the term, the topic of empathy became a popular research and

discussion topic in psychology. The research on empathy is extremely prevalent in two branches

of psychology – social psychology and evolutionary psychology. Social psychology Abraham

Maslow created the hierarchy of needs, which influenced much of social psychology and in

which empathy lies. Charles Darwin heavily influenced evolutionary psychology and its study of

empathy.

Social Psychology

History

In the early 1900s, social psychologist Abraham Maslow created the hierarchy of needs, a

motivational theory for humans. This hierarchy starts with physiological needs. Once these are

filled, safety needs must be met. Once safety needs are met, humans search for love, then for

self-esteem, and finally for self-actualization. In their life, a human seeks to be self-actualized.

The other needs, however, must be met first. The bottom two needs are more basic human needs

for survival. Once a human has to pleasure of surviving, they place more focus on the

internal/mental needs – belongingness/love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow states

that belongingness needs involve “giving and receiving affection (Maslow, 1954, p. 5). If these

needs are not met, the person “will hunger for relations with people” (Maslow, 1954, p. 5).

Humans fear loneliness and ostracism. While Abraham Maslow does not use the word

“empathy,” the “giving and receiving affection” (Maslow, 1954, p. 5) seems to show a type of

caring for another. Maslow continues with his needs. When discussing the last need, self-

actualization, he states the “self-actualizing people have deep feeling of . . . sympathy and

affection for human beings in general. They feel kinship and connection” (Maslow, 1954, p. 18).

As discussed earlier, sympathy is and has been historically similar to empathy. Maslow also

states that self-actualized people have feelings of kinship and connection (Maslow, 1984). It can

thus be gathered that empathy is part of Maslow’s system. It would also seem that Maslow is

stating that once a person has discovered themselves, they can focus on others’ needs. Empathy

helps a person to understand another’s emotions, in order to show what support that person might

need.

After Abraham Maslow created his hierarchy, social psychology placed a focus on

operationally defining “empathy”. In the 1940s, Rosalind Cartwright created the first

experimental test and measure of empathy (Lanzoni, 2018). She did not agree with the

previously accepted measure. She also did not agree that empathy was an “imaginative

projection,” which is what early psychologists such as Titchener believed in. Empathy is now

defined as “the accurate prediction of another’s opinion or preference” (Lanzoni, 2018, A

History of Empathy section, para. 10).

Current Research

Current research studies moves past the question or whether or not empathy exists and

centers attention on how empathy impacts individuals, their choices, and the connection to
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society. Ultimately, social psychology currently has two major focuses – the multidimensionality

of empathy and the connection between empathy and altruistic behavior.

As mentioned earlier, social psychologists were interested in measuring empathy and thus

created a test for empathy, which they defined as “the accurate prediction of another’s opinion or

preference” (Lanzoni, 2018, A History of Empathy section, para. 10); more current research,

however, argues that empathy is multidimensional and different in every person. Mark Davis,

from the University of Texas at Austin, developed an individual difference measure of empathy

– the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) – and tested its relationship with measures of social

functioning, self-esteem, emotionality, sensitivity to others, and previous unidimensional

empathy measures (Davis, 1983). The IRI consists of Perspective-Taking (PT), which assesses

the ability to adopt the psychological point of view of the other, Fantasy (F), which assesses the

tendency to experience the feelings and actions of fictional characters, Empathetic Concern (EC),

which assesses “other-oriented” sympathetic feelings and concern for another, and Personal

Distress (PD), which assess “self-oriented” feelings of anxiety and unease. All of these measures

correlated differently with the measures of social functioning, self-esteem, emotionality,

sensitivity to others, and previous empathy measures. This supports that argument that empathy

is multidimensional, as, for example, those who display high levels of PT exhibit better social

functioning, higher self-esteem , and low emotionality, while those who display high levels of

EC exhibit no association with social functioning or self-esteem, but high emotionality (Davis,

1983). People differ in their empathetic abilities as they have different psychological abilities.

Other recent research has been interested in the connection between empathy and

altruistic behavior of individuals. C. Daniel Batson is a well-known psychologist who focuses

mainly on this topic. One of his more recent publications focuses on how empathetic feelings for
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a member in a stigmatized group motivation a person to help that stigmatized group. In this

study, the researchers examine three hypotheses: Firstly, individuals induced to have empathy

will want to donate more money to the stigmatized group. Secondly, helping by those induced to

have empathy will be mediated by “the effect of empathy on the attitudes towards the group as a

whole” (Batson, Chang, Orr, & Rowland, 2002, p. 1658). Finally, the target of empathy can be

fictional. Through having the participants watch an interview of a incarcerated drug addict and

filling out questionnaires, the researchers found that the individuals who were induced to have

empathy wanted to allocate more money towards the stigmatized group. They also found that the

helping was mediated by the effect of empathy on the attitudes towards the group as a whole.

Finally, the researchers found that the target of empathy can be fictional, as the individuals who

were informed the interview was fictional still wanted to allocate more money than those who

were not induced to have empathy and were not informed the interview was fictional. This article

is just one of the publications showing the connection between empathy and altruistic behavior

(Batson et. al., 2002). Empathy induces others to help those in need, which in turns helps to

better society.

Social psychologists have sought to have a deeper understanding of empathy. They have

discovered that empathy is multidimensional and people have different empathetic capabilities.

They have also shown a connection between empathy and altruistic behavior, as empathy pushes

people to help others. Overall, the social psychology approach to empathy focuses on joining

people together for the betterment of the society, as individuals understanding differences in

empathy provides an understanding of neighbors and understanding the strength of the

connection between empathy and altruistic behaviors provide opportunities to promote helping

others.
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Evolutionary Psychology

History

Like social psychology, evolutionary psychology discusses empathy; however, the

research interests and perspectives taken in evolutionary psychology are different from social

psychology’s interests and perspectives. Evolutionary psychology is largely influenced by

Charles Darwin and his theory of natural selection. As discussed earlier, Darwin believed that

sympathy comes from the need of survival. It relates animals to each other, joining animals into a

community. It also promotes altruistic behavior, which, for example, is helping others. This

would ensure that the other being would do the same (as cited in “Natural Morality”). Darwin

and researchers following thus argue that sympathy, and thus empathy is not about the care of

another but about the care of oneself.

Current Research

In 2008, Frans de Waal wrote a review on empathy and altruism (de Waal, 2008). While

he was first interested in altruism, he had to first start with empathy, as empathy regulates

altruistic behavior in all animals. At empathy’s core is a “mechanism that provides an observer

with access to the subjective state of another” (de Waal, 2008, p. 286). De Waal addresses the

levels of empathy - emotional contagion, sympathetic concern, and empathetic perspective

taking – which had already been established as part of empathy and relates the levels to altruism.

Emotional contagion can result in empathetic reactions, such as screaming for help, which also

warns against danger, that benefit both the parties involved. Sympathetic concern leads to

behavior to help another, such as defending another against an attack. Little research has been

done on the altruistic purpose of empathetic perspective taking. From previous research, then, de
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Waal concluded the “brain is hardwired for social connection” (de Waal, 2008, p. 292) and that

empathy provides motivation to continue helping others (de Waal, 2008).

Research on the topic of empathy follows the idea that empathy serves a purpose for an

individual and continues to exist; it is thus possible that the lack of empathy also serves a

purpose for the individual. Several studies explore emotional deficits and lack on empathy on the

basis of evolution. These studies focus on the differences between people, especially in empathy

with the Dark Triad. The first study concluded that those with Dark Triad personality traits are

low in empathy and communication of empathy because they are too focused on themselves to

give an effort to being concerned about others (Jonason and Krause, 2013). The inward focus

does not allow any outward focus – emotional contagion, sympathetic concern, or empathetic

perspective taking – discussed by de Waal. The researchers found that different Dark Triad traits

were worse than others in terms of empathy, and this difference occurred between different

gender. The researchers hypothesized that this different might have been related to evolutionary

pressures previously faced. This would account for differences between sex, as males and

females had slightly different focuses for survival and continuing their line. This conclusion led

Jonason and other researchers to explore differences of lack of empathy in gender and the Dark

Triad traits. (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013).

Because of this conclusion, Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, and Ross (2013) expanded on the

hypothesis – differences in lack of empathy could also differ between gender – reached at the

end of the previously mentioned study. Their next study focused on evolution and sex

differences of Dark Triad traits and empathy (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013). The

results showed that men tend to show more traits of psychopathy and women show more traits of

narcissism. The researchers once again hypothesize that this could be related to mating
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strategies. Not caring or having empathy, which are traits of psychopathy, might make it easier

for men to pursue competitive relationships for their benefit. Women might lean towards

narcissistic traits to pursue a “parasitic” lifestyle – living off the male (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell,

& Ross, 2013). Over years, empathetic qualities have evolved in different ways to promote

survival. The lack of empathy might be one of the survival evolutions, as lack of empathetic led

to survival of the being in women and survival of the lineage in men.

Research in the evolutionary perspective focuses on the survival purposes that empathy

serves. Charles Darwin believed that empathy induces altruistic behaviors that help another,

joining people together for survival needs. Frans de Waal wrote that the levels of empathy,

which are emotional contagion, sympathetic concern, and empathetic perspective taking, result in

altruistic behavior to help another (de Waal, 2008), furthering Darwin’s belief. Studies by

Jonason and other researchers discuss the purpose a lack of empathy could also serve in

benefiting an individual (Jonason and Krause, 2013; Jonason, Lysons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013).

Overall, this perspective focuses on the betterment of individuals.

Theological Perspective

Basis of Empathy

Psychology is a field focused on others, which is why empathy is a common topic.

Another field that also focuses on others, as well as a relationship with God, is theology.

Theology is the study of the nature of God and religious belief. This covers many aspects, but

one significant aspect is building a relationship with God to be joined with him in heaven.

Focusing on others may not seem related, but theology argues that it is through others and with

others that we can connect with God (Lombardo, 2011). It is at the point that empathy appears in

the conversations.
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The discussion of empathy begins with a very popular source – the Bible. St. Paul made

references to relationships and empathy several times in his writings. In Philippians, Paul

instructs the disciples to “be of the same mind, having the same love, being in full accord and of

one mind” (Philippians 2:1-2). He continues, saying “look to the interests of others” (Philippians

2:4). Also in Philippians, Paul talks about pouring into others and taking their interests into

account, just as Jesus did with all of humanity (Philippians 2). Paul does not directly use the

word “empathy;” however, being “of one mind” and “looking to the interests of others” is

extremely similar to the levels of empathy discussed by de Waal – empathetic perspective taking

and sympathetic concern. In Romans 12:15, St. Paul mentions that the disciples should be

“rejoicing with those who rejoice, weeping with those who weep.” Again, this instruction is very

similar to the concepts of empathy established today and empathy is therefore a piece of

theology.

The Bible does, however, fail to address the basis and reason of empathy. Where did

empathy come from and what purpose does it serve? St. Thomas Aquinas wrote a very deep

encyclical called the Summa Theologiae, sometimes also known as Summa Theologica, that

covers God, creation, man, man's purpose, Christ, and the sacraments. In the Summa Aquinas

states that humanity’s ultimate purpose is to be connected to God. Humanity is connected to God

through grace, which is achieved through virtues. Aquinas continues, discussing the individual

virtues, and in particular charity. Charity is directed towards God, but it is also directed towards

others, “the habit of charity extends not only to the love of God, but also to the love of our

neighbor” (ST II-II 25.1.). Charity leads towards friendship, love of others, and, as St. Thomas

Aquinas says, loving “someone as to wish good to him (ST II-II 23.1.). As empathy is a more

modern word, St. Thomas Aquinas does not use it; however, as established easier, empathy and
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sympathy involve wanting good for another. Empathy then comes as a result of humanity’s

purpose – to be connected to God.

Theologians today extend further on St. Aquinas’s belief that empathy comes from

humanity’s purpose of being connected to God. Humans are made in the image of God, also

called Imago Dei. According to the structural/substantial view of the Imago Dei, humanity is

images as far as rational capabilities. God developed a relationship with us. Because of the

rational capabilities in the image of God, humanity also develops relationships with others, as

humanity is capable of it (Crisp and Sanders, 2018). The Catechism of the Catholic Church

states that “the human individual . . . is capable . . of freely giving himself and entering into

communion with others” (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1997, para. 357). From these

sources, it can be concluded that individuals have empathy because of Imago Dei. God had

empathy when He created humanity and when Jesus came to earth. Empathy helps join us

together to bring others closer to God, as humanity’s overall purpose is to be one with God.

Cross-Cutting Theme

Both of these branches researching empathy, as well as the theological perspective, focus

on the variations of human functioning. Within social psychology, Abraham Maslow stated that

“self-actualized people have deep feeling of . . . sympathy and affection for human beings in

general” (Maslow, 1954, p. 18). Not everyone is self-actualized, and thus the amount of

sympathy and empathy a person holds can vary. Other social psychologists created measures for

empathy for future research, implying differences in empathetic levels (Lanzoni, 2018) and

differences in dimensions of empathy (Davis, 1983). Current research explores not only the

dimensions of empathy, but the connection between empathy and altruistic behaviors. These two

current issues in social psychology can be put together for the ultimate goal of improving society
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while acknowledging individual differences and capabilities . The evolutionary psychology takes

a slightly different approach to empathy. Evolutionary psychology focuses on how empathy

helps the individual. De Waal argued that empathy leads to altruistic behavior, which leads to

inclusion in a group (de Waal, 2008). The two studies showed that even a lack of empathy helps

the individual, as these aspects of the Dark Triad traits might have developed to promote the

survival of the individual and lineage; variations of empathy might be related to survival.

Theologians argue that variations of human functioning with empathy come from the

level of closeness with God. Humans are made after the image of God, who has empathy; thus,

humans have the capability to follow God’s example of empathy. The purpose of human life is to

follow God. Variations in empathy come from the amount that a person is following their

purpose (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1997). The theological perspective then could be

said to align with Abraham Maslow’s theory on self-actualized people, as self-actualized people

are essentially fulfilling their life purposes.

Closer Comparison of Social Psychology, Evolutionary Psychology. and Theology

While social psychology, evolutionary psychology, and theology focus on variation in

human functioning with empathy, they vary on the purpose of empathy. Evolutionary

psychology focuses on fulfilling our needs through having or not having empathy for others.

This is seen through Darwin’s writings in Natural Morality and through the research studies on

an evolved lack of empathy in the Dark Triad Traits (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013)

(Jonason and Krause, 2013). Evolutionary psychology thus places an emphasis on inward needs

and desires. Social psychology places emphasis on others’ needs and desires. It focuses on how

empathy and altruistic behavior can be used to better the society, as seen in Batson’s study on

empathy inducing others to support a stigmatized group (Batson, 2002). Similar to the social
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psychology perspective, the theological perspective places an emphasis on outward care of

others for a greater purpose. Empathy serves to bring individuals to God and to help the

individuals bring others closer to God (Crips and Sanders, 2018; Aquinas, 2005). Overall these

perspectives focus on two different aspects and purposes of life.

Conclusion/Inclusion

Social psychology, evolutionary psychology, and theology all focus on different aspects

of the empathetic experience. Social psychology examines the dimensions of empathy in each

person, seeking to understand differences in individuals. This branch also explores the intensity

of the relationship between empathy and altruistic behavior. Social psychology is looking at the

unique daily display of empathy in each person. Evolutionary psychology is looking at how

humans have survived and will survive with the use of empathy. Theology is looking at the basis

and purpose that empathy serves – to be connected to God. Both social and evolutionary

psychology research is important to understanding humanity. Together, these two branches of

psychology can work for the overall benefit of human kind, as both of these branches

acknowledge individual differences and social psychology’s research on the relationship between

empathy and altruistic behavior could be used to induce society to help others. The theological

perspective can be important to add, especially to the religious, as it shows that human kind

needs to be empathetic to serve their purpose. An understanding of all the topics discussed can

result in an understanding that allows a person to be the best that they can be.
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