Empathy Final Paper
Empathy Final Paper
Empathy Final Paper
Empathy in Psychology
Annie Small
Berry College
Author’s Note:
EMPATHY IN PSYCHOLOGY 2
Introduction
Seeing a close friend in pain often causes a small amount of emotional pain in an
individual. It is strange that witnessing this causes the individual pain, as they are not actually
experiencing the real pain. This pain that the individual does face comes from empathy. Empathy
is defined as “the action of understanding, being aware of, being sensitive to, and vicariously
experiencing the feelings, thoughts, and experience of another of either the past or present
objectively explicit manner” (Empathy, n.d.). Empathy has been of interest with psychology
research since the 20th century and many research studies focusing on different branches of
psychology, in particular social and evolutionary psychology, have been done. This paper will
discuss the develop of the study of empathy, the current research in social and evolutionary
see the historical develop of the study of empathy. Early philosophers and psychologists did not
mentioned empathy in their works. In fact, the term “empathy” was not discussed until the 20th
century. This does not mean that the history of empathy does not start until the 20thth century; in
fact, the history of this phenomenon began in the 1700s with the discussion of sympathy. Today,
sympathy and empathy are sometimes confused, as they are very similar. In the 18th century, the
idea of sympathy covered today’s definitions of sympathy and empathy. It is thus necessary,
In the 18th century, two philosophers, David Hume and Adam Smith, discussed sympathy
in their writings. David Hume (1739-40/2003) wrote A Treatise of Human Nature, in which he
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stated that sympathy starts as the communication of an idea. This idea is impersonal and factual;
however, the idea then turns into an impression. The difference between an idea and an
impression is the amount of passion and perception between these terms. An idea was a hint of
the passion and perceptions that impressions have. When humans have these impressions,
brought from the ideas, humans experience these perceptions as if they were their own. This
brings forth emotion in the audience, as the audience experiences the events as their own. Hume
continues, stating that the closer the relation between the persons, the easier an idea forms, the
impression comes, and sympathy is experienced (Hume, 1739-40/2003). Adam Smith (as cited in
Van der Weele, 2011) wrote The Theory of Moral Sentiments, in which he said that humans have
interests in the well-beings of others and thus experience sympathy for them. This is because
The next person to bring up the idea of sympathy was Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin’s
popularized the idea of natural selection. He believed that the environment poses certain threats;
in order to survive, the animals need to adapt to the environment, thus overcoming the threats. In
Darwin’s The Descent of Man, Darwin states that sympathy is part of the social structure; it is
instinctive (Darwin, 1874). Animals retain senses of their former pain and thus want to relieve
other’s pain (as cited in Van der Weele, 2011). Darwin says that “the mere sight of suffering,
(Darwin, 1874, p. 106). Sympathy leads to the inclusion of animals, which is necessary for
survival, as Darwin stated that “these sensations were first developed, in order that those animals
which would profit by living in a society, should be induced to live together” (Darwin, 1874, p.
105). Animals are social creatures and cannot survive on their own.
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It was not until the 20th century that the term “empathy” came to be. Psychologist Edward
Titchener (as cited in “Empathy and Sympathy in Ethics”) coined “empathy” in 1909 by
translating the German word “Einfühlung,” which means “in-feeling” or “feeling into.”
Titchener continued his interest in empathy; in one of his lectures, he said that empathy occurs
when a person is communicating with another and the other, or audience, has “kinesthetic
memories.” The audience is feeling and experiencing the person’s experience. The audience also
1909/2014).
After Titchener coined the term, the topic of empathy became a popular research and
discussion topic in psychology. The research on empathy is extremely prevalent in two branches
Maslow created the hierarchy of needs, which influenced much of social psychology and in
which empathy lies. Charles Darwin heavily influenced evolutionary psychology and its study of
empathy.
Social Psychology
History
In the early 1900s, social psychologist Abraham Maslow created the hierarchy of needs, a
motivational theory for humans. This hierarchy starts with physiological needs. Once these are
filled, safety needs must be met. Once safety needs are met, humans search for love, then for
self-esteem, and finally for self-actualization. In their life, a human seeks to be self-actualized.
The other needs, however, must be met first. The bottom two needs are more basic human needs
for survival. Once a human has to pleasure of surviving, they place more focus on the
that belongingness needs involve “giving and receiving affection (Maslow, 1954, p. 5). If these
needs are not met, the person “will hunger for relations with people” (Maslow, 1954, p. 5).
Humans fear loneliness and ostracism. While Abraham Maslow does not use the word
“empathy,” the “giving and receiving affection” (Maslow, 1954, p. 5) seems to show a type of
caring for another. Maslow continues with his needs. When discussing the last need, self-
actualization, he states the “self-actualizing people have deep feeling of . . . sympathy and
affection for human beings in general. They feel kinship and connection” (Maslow, 1954, p. 18).
As discussed earlier, sympathy is and has been historically similar to empathy. Maslow also
states that self-actualized people have feelings of kinship and connection (Maslow, 1984). It can
thus be gathered that empathy is part of Maslow’s system. It would also seem that Maslow is
stating that once a person has discovered themselves, they can focus on others’ needs. Empathy
helps a person to understand another’s emotions, in order to show what support that person might
need.
After Abraham Maslow created his hierarchy, social psychology placed a focus on
operationally defining “empathy”. In the 1940s, Rosalind Cartwright created the first
experimental test and measure of empathy (Lanzoni, 2018). She did not agree with the
previously accepted measure. She also did not agree that empathy was an “imaginative
projection,” which is what early psychologists such as Titchener believed in. Empathy is now
Current Research
Current research studies moves past the question or whether or not empathy exists and
centers attention on how empathy impacts individuals, their choices, and the connection to
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society. Ultimately, social psychology currently has two major focuses – the multidimensionality
As mentioned earlier, social psychologists were interested in measuring empathy and thus
created a test for empathy, which they defined as “the accurate prediction of another’s opinion or
preference” (Lanzoni, 2018, A History of Empathy section, para. 10); more current research,
however, argues that empathy is multidimensional and different in every person. Mark Davis,
from the University of Texas at Austin, developed an individual difference measure of empathy
– the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) – and tested its relationship with measures of social
empathy measures (Davis, 1983). The IRI consists of Perspective-Taking (PT), which assesses
the ability to adopt the psychological point of view of the other, Fantasy (F), which assesses the
tendency to experience the feelings and actions of fictional characters, Empathetic Concern (EC),
which assesses “other-oriented” sympathetic feelings and concern for another, and Personal
Distress (PD), which assess “self-oriented” feelings of anxiety and unease. All of these measures
sensitivity to others, and previous empathy measures. This supports that argument that empathy
is multidimensional, as, for example, those who display high levels of PT exhibit better social
functioning, higher self-esteem , and low emotionality, while those who display high levels of
EC exhibit no association with social functioning or self-esteem, but high emotionality (Davis,
1983). People differ in their empathetic abilities as they have different psychological abilities.
Other recent research has been interested in the connection between empathy and
mainly on this topic. One of his more recent publications focuses on how empathetic feelings for
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a member in a stigmatized group motivation a person to help that stigmatized group. In this
study, the researchers examine three hypotheses: Firstly, individuals induced to have empathy
will want to donate more money to the stigmatized group. Secondly, helping by those induced to
have empathy will be mediated by “the effect of empathy on the attitudes towards the group as a
whole” (Batson, Chang, Orr, & Rowland, 2002, p. 1658). Finally, the target of empathy can be
fictional. Through having the participants watch an interview of a incarcerated drug addict and
filling out questionnaires, the researchers found that the individuals who were induced to have
empathy wanted to allocate more money towards the stigmatized group. They also found that the
helping was mediated by the effect of empathy on the attitudes towards the group as a whole.
Finally, the researchers found that the target of empathy can be fictional, as the individuals who
were informed the interview was fictional still wanted to allocate more money than those who
were not induced to have empathy and were not informed the interview was fictional. This article
is just one of the publications showing the connection between empathy and altruistic behavior
(Batson et. al., 2002). Empathy induces others to help those in need, which in turns helps to
better society.
Social psychologists have sought to have a deeper understanding of empathy. They have
discovered that empathy is multidimensional and people have different empathetic capabilities.
They have also shown a connection between empathy and altruistic behavior, as empathy pushes
people to help others. Overall, the social psychology approach to empathy focuses on joining
people together for the betterment of the society, as individuals understanding differences in
connection between empathy and altruistic behaviors provide opportunities to promote helping
others.
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Evolutionary Psychology
History
research interests and perspectives taken in evolutionary psychology are different from social
Charles Darwin and his theory of natural selection. As discussed earlier, Darwin believed that
sympathy comes from the need of survival. It relates animals to each other, joining animals into a
community. It also promotes altruistic behavior, which, for example, is helping others. This
would ensure that the other being would do the same (as cited in “Natural Morality”). Darwin
and researchers following thus argue that sympathy, and thus empathy is not about the care of
Current Research
In 2008, Frans de Waal wrote a review on empathy and altruism (de Waal, 2008). While
he was first interested in altruism, he had to first start with empathy, as empathy regulates
altruistic behavior in all animals. At empathy’s core is a “mechanism that provides an observer
with access to the subjective state of another” (de Waal, 2008, p. 286). De Waal addresses the
taking – which had already been established as part of empathy and relates the levels to altruism.
Emotional contagion can result in empathetic reactions, such as screaming for help, which also
warns against danger, that benefit both the parties involved. Sympathetic concern leads to
behavior to help another, such as defending another against an attack. Little research has been
done on the altruistic purpose of empathetic perspective taking. From previous research, then, de
EMPATHY IN PSYCHOLOGY 9
Waal concluded the “brain is hardwired for social connection” (de Waal, 2008, p. 292) and that
Research on the topic of empathy follows the idea that empathy serves a purpose for an
individual and continues to exist; it is thus possible that the lack of empathy also serves a
purpose for the individual. Several studies explore emotional deficits and lack on empathy on the
basis of evolution. These studies focus on the differences between people, especially in empathy
with the Dark Triad. The first study concluded that those with Dark Triad personality traits are
low in empathy and communication of empathy because they are too focused on themselves to
give an effort to being concerned about others (Jonason and Krause, 2013). The inward focus
does not allow any outward focus – emotional contagion, sympathetic concern, or empathetic
perspective taking – discussed by de Waal. The researchers found that different Dark Triad traits
were worse than others in terms of empathy, and this difference occurred between different
gender. The researchers hypothesized that this different might have been related to evolutionary
pressures previously faced. This would account for differences between sex, as males and
females had slightly different focuses for survival and continuing their line. This conclusion led
Jonason and other researchers to explore differences of lack of empathy in gender and the Dark
Because of this conclusion, Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, and Ross (2013) expanded on the
hypothesis – differences in lack of empathy could also differ between gender – reached at the
end of the previously mentioned study. Their next study focused on evolution and sex
differences of Dark Triad traits and empathy (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013). The
results showed that men tend to show more traits of psychopathy and women show more traits of
narcissism. The researchers once again hypothesize that this could be related to mating
EMPATHY IN PSYCHOLOGY 10
strategies. Not caring or having empathy, which are traits of psychopathy, might make it easier
for men to pursue competitive relationships for their benefit. Women might lean towards
narcissistic traits to pursue a “parasitic” lifestyle – living off the male (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell,
& Ross, 2013). Over years, empathetic qualities have evolved in different ways to promote
survival. The lack of empathy might be one of the survival evolutions, as lack of empathetic led
Research in the evolutionary perspective focuses on the survival purposes that empathy
serves. Charles Darwin believed that empathy induces altruistic behaviors that help another,
joining people together for survival needs. Frans de Waal wrote that the levels of empathy,
which are emotional contagion, sympathetic concern, and empathetic perspective taking, result in
altruistic behavior to help another (de Waal, 2008), furthering Darwin’s belief. Studies by
Jonason and other researchers discuss the purpose a lack of empathy could also serve in
benefiting an individual (Jonason and Krause, 2013; Jonason, Lysons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013).
Theological Perspective
Basis of Empathy
Another field that also focuses on others, as well as a relationship with God, is theology.
Theology is the study of the nature of God and religious belief. This covers many aspects, but
one significant aspect is building a relationship with God to be joined with him in heaven.
Focusing on others may not seem related, but theology argues that it is through others and with
others that we can connect with God (Lombardo, 2011). It is at the point that empathy appears in
the conversations.
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The discussion of empathy begins with a very popular source – the Bible. St. Paul made
references to relationships and empathy several times in his writings. In Philippians, Paul
instructs the disciples to “be of the same mind, having the same love, being in full accord and of
one mind” (Philippians 2:1-2). He continues, saying “look to the interests of others” (Philippians
2:4). Also in Philippians, Paul talks about pouring into others and taking their interests into
account, just as Jesus did with all of humanity (Philippians 2). Paul does not directly use the
word “empathy;” however, being “of one mind” and “looking to the interests of others” is
extremely similar to the levels of empathy discussed by de Waal – empathetic perspective taking
and sympathetic concern. In Romans 12:15, St. Paul mentions that the disciples should be
“rejoicing with those who rejoice, weeping with those who weep.” Again, this instruction is very
similar to the concepts of empathy established today and empathy is therefore a piece of
theology.
The Bible does, however, fail to address the basis and reason of empathy. Where did
empathy come from and what purpose does it serve? St. Thomas Aquinas wrote a very deep
encyclical called the Summa Theologiae, sometimes also known as Summa Theologica, that
covers God, creation, man, man's purpose, Christ, and the sacraments. In the Summa Aquinas
states that humanity’s ultimate purpose is to be connected to God. Humanity is connected to God
through grace, which is achieved through virtues. Aquinas continues, discussing the individual
virtues, and in particular charity. Charity is directed towards God, but it is also directed towards
others, “the habit of charity extends not only to the love of God, but also to the love of our
neighbor” (ST II-II 25.1.). Charity leads towards friendship, love of others, and, as St. Thomas
Aquinas says, loving “someone as to wish good to him (ST II-II 23.1.). As empathy is a more
modern word, St. Thomas Aquinas does not use it; however, as established easier, empathy and
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sympathy involve wanting good for another. Empathy then comes as a result of humanity’s
Theologians today extend further on St. Aquinas’s belief that empathy comes from
humanity’s purpose of being connected to God. Humans are made in the image of God, also
called Imago Dei. According to the structural/substantial view of the Imago Dei, humanity is
images as far as rational capabilities. God developed a relationship with us. Because of the
rational capabilities in the image of God, humanity also develops relationships with others, as
humanity is capable of it (Crisp and Sanders, 2018). The Catechism of the Catholic Church
states that “the human individual . . . is capable . . of freely giving himself and entering into
communion with others” (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1997, para. 357). From these
sources, it can be concluded that individuals have empathy because of Imago Dei. God had
empathy when He created humanity and when Jesus came to earth. Empathy helps join us
together to bring others closer to God, as humanity’s overall purpose is to be one with God.
Cross-Cutting Theme
Both of these branches researching empathy, as well as the theological perspective, focus
on the variations of human functioning. Within social psychology, Abraham Maslow stated that
“self-actualized people have deep feeling of . . . sympathy and affection for human beings in
general” (Maslow, 1954, p. 18). Not everyone is self-actualized, and thus the amount of
sympathy and empathy a person holds can vary. Other social psychologists created measures for
empathy for future research, implying differences in empathetic levels (Lanzoni, 2018) and
differences in dimensions of empathy (Davis, 1983). Current research explores not only the
dimensions of empathy, but the connection between empathy and altruistic behaviors. These two
current issues in social psychology can be put together for the ultimate goal of improving society
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while acknowledging individual differences and capabilities . The evolutionary psychology takes
helps the individual. De Waal argued that empathy leads to altruistic behavior, which leads to
inclusion in a group (de Waal, 2008). The two studies showed that even a lack of empathy helps
the individual, as these aspects of the Dark Triad traits might have developed to promote the
survival of the individual and lineage; variations of empathy might be related to survival.
Theologians argue that variations of human functioning with empathy come from the
level of closeness with God. Humans are made after the image of God, who has empathy; thus,
humans have the capability to follow God’s example of empathy. The purpose of human life is to
follow God. Variations in empathy come from the amount that a person is following their
purpose (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1997). The theological perspective then could be
said to align with Abraham Maslow’s theory on self-actualized people, as self-actualized people
human functioning with empathy, they vary on the purpose of empathy. Evolutionary
psychology focuses on fulfilling our needs through having or not having empathy for others.
This is seen through Darwin’s writings in Natural Morality and through the research studies on
an evolved lack of empathy in the Dark Triad Traits (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell, & Ross, 2013)
(Jonason and Krause, 2013). Evolutionary psychology thus places an emphasis on inward needs
and desires. Social psychology places emphasis on others’ needs and desires. It focuses on how
empathy and altruistic behavior can be used to better the society, as seen in Batson’s study on
empathy inducing others to support a stigmatized group (Batson, 2002). Similar to the social
EMPATHY IN PSYCHOLOGY 14
others for a greater purpose. Empathy serves to bring individuals to God and to help the
individuals bring others closer to God (Crips and Sanders, 2018; Aquinas, 2005). Overall these
Conclusion/Inclusion
Social psychology, evolutionary psychology, and theology all focus on different aspects
of the empathetic experience. Social psychology examines the dimensions of empathy in each
person, seeking to understand differences in individuals. This branch also explores the intensity
of the relationship between empathy and altruistic behavior. Social psychology is looking at the
unique daily display of empathy in each person. Evolutionary psychology is looking at how
humans have survived and will survive with the use of empathy. Theology is looking at the basis
and purpose that empathy serves – to be connected to God. Both social and evolutionary
psychology can work for the overall benefit of human kind, as both of these branches
acknowledge individual differences and social psychology’s research on the relationship between
empathy and altruistic behavior could be used to induce society to help others. The theological
perspective can be important to add, especially to the religious, as it shows that human kind
needs to be empathetic to serve their purpose. An understanding of all the topics discussed can
result in an understanding that allows a person to be the best that they can be.
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