Literature

Literature, in its broadest sense, is any written work. Etymologically, the term
derives from Latin litaritura/litteratura “writing formed with letters,” although some
definitions include spoken or sung texts. More restrictively, it is writing that possesses
literary merit.

Definition:
For the creation of a masterwork of literature two powers must concur, the power of
the man and the power of the moment, and the man is not enough without the moment

(ATTHEW ARNOLD, The Functions of Criticism at the present)

Literature is as old as speech. It grew out of human need for it, and it has not changed
except to become more needed.

(JOHN STEINBECK, Nobel Prize acceptance speech)

Classification
Poetry-drama-prose
Poetry:
A poet is, before anything else, a person who is passionately in love with language.
(W. H. Auden)

A poem begins as a lump in the throat, a sense of wrong, a homesickness, a

lovesickness.

(Robert Frost)

Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from
emotion recollected in tranquillity.

(William Wordsworth)

Immature poets imitate; mature poets steal.

(T.S. Eliot)

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I wish our clever young poets would remember my homely definitions of prose and
poetry; that is prose; words in their best order; – poetry; the best words in the best
order.

(Samuel Taylor Coleridge)

Types:
Subjective-Objective
Subjective Poetry:
It is supplied by the poet’s own thoughts and feelings. A poet brings it from within,
giving expression, that is to say, to the thoughts and feelings it arouses in his mind, his
treatment is subjective.

Objective Poetry:
In objective poetry subject matter is supplied by external objects, such as deeds, events
and the things we see around us. In Objective Poetry the poet acts as a detached
observer, describing what he has seen or heard.

Subjective Poetry Types

The lyric
It is a short poem, characterised by simplicity in language and treatment. It
deals with a single emotion which is generally stated in the first few lines. It is musical.
Verbal-music is an important element in its appeal and charm. Various devices are
used by poets to enhance the music of their lyrics.

THE ELEGY
The elegy is an expression of the emotion of sorrow, woe, or despair. In short,
the elegy is a lament, a lyric of mourning, or an utterance of personal bereavement and
sorrow and, therefore, it should be characterised by absolute sincerity of emotion and
expression. In common use, it is often restricted to a lament over the dead, but that is
an improper narrowing of its meaning. There are laments over places, over lost love,
over the past (which is never “dead”), over an individual’s misery or failure; there are
laments over departed pet animals, and so forth.

The Pastoral Elegy

The pastoral elegy is a special kind of elegy. The words ‘pastoral’ comes from the Greek
word “pastor”, which means “to graze”. Hence pastoral elegy is an elegy in which the

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poet represents himself as a shepherd mourning the death of a fellow shepherd. The
form arose among the ancient Greeks, and Theocritus, Bions and Moschus were its
most noted practitioners. In ancient Rome it was used by the Latin
poet Virgil. In England, countless pastoral elegies have been written down from the
Renaissance (16th century) to the present day.
Spenser’s Astrophel, Milton’s Lycidas, Shelley’s Adonais and
Arnold’s Thyrsis and Scholar Gipsy, are the most notable examples of pastoral elegy in
the English language.

THE ODE
The Ode is a special kind of lyric, more dignified, stately and elaborate than the
simple lyric. Like the lyric, it also originated in ancient Greece. The Greek poet Pindar
was the first to write Odes, and later on the form was practiced with certain
modification by the Roman poet, Horace.

The word ‘ode’ is simply the Greek word for ‘song’. It was used by the Greeks
for any kind of lyric verse, i.e. for any song sung with the lyre or to the accompaniment
of some dance. However, as far as English literature is concerned, the term is now
applied to only one particular kind of lyric verse. An English Ode may be defined as, ‘a
lyric poem of elaborate metrical structure, solemn in tone, and usually taking the form
of address” very often to some abstraction or quality

It is in the form of an address, often to some abstraction. It is not

written about but written to.

Two Kinds

There are two important forms of the ode

(1) The Pindaric Ode; and

(2) The Horation Ode.

(1) The Pindaric Ode

Pindar the greatest lyric poet of ancient Greece (6th to 5th century B.C.) was the
father of the Pindaric or Choric’ Ode. Pindaric Odes were written generally in honour
of the gods or to sing the triumphs or victories of rulers or athletes. Hence they are
also known as “triumphal” odes. A Pindaric Ode has a fixed stanza-structure or
pattern. The number of stanzas may vary, but they are invariably arranged in groups
of three, each group being called a triad. The first stanza in each triad is called
a ‘strophe’ – it was chanted by the dancing chorus as it proceeded in one direction. The
second stanza in each triad is called an ante-strophe’ – it was chanted by the chorus as
it returned. The third stanza in each triad is called an ‘epode’, and it was sung when
the chorus was stationary. Just as the total number of stanzas in a Pindaric Ode may

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vary (Pindar’s odes range from one triad to thirteen in length) so also there could be
variations in the metrical length of individual lines. Thus the Pindaric Ode has a fixed
stanza-pattern but enjoys great rhythmical and metrical freedom.

The Poet Cowley (1618-67) was the first poet of England to imitate consciously the
Pindaric odes. However, he did not understand the regular structure of the Pindaric
and introduced a verse form with long irregular stanzas without any fixed system of
metre or rhyme. The true Pindaric in triadic form was written with success by Dryden
(Ode to St. Cecilia and Alexander’s Feast) and then by Gray (The Bard and the
Progress of Poesy). After Gray, Pindaric of the triadic form fell out of fashion.

(2) The Horatian Ode

This kind of Ode has been named after the Latin poet, Horace, who imitated
Pindar but with far reaching modifications. The Horation Ode consists of a number of
stanzas with a more or less regular metrical structure but without any division into
triads of the Pindaric. It may be rhymed or unrhymed. This kind of Ode is light and
personal (not choric) without the elaboration and complexity of the Pindaric. Many of
the Finest English Odes are of this lighter sort. Some notable examples are:
Wind Wordsworth’s Ode to Duty; Shelley’s Ode of the West Wind; and Keats’ Ode to
Nightingale.

THE SONNET
The Petrarchan Sonnet

The sonnet also is a form of the lyric, and of all its forms it is most carefully ordered
and bound by definite, rigid rules.

The word “Sonnet” is derived from the Greek word “Sonneto”, meaning, “a sound”. It
is a short lyric of fourteen lines and the Italian poet Petrarch was the first to use this
form of the lyric to express his love for his beloved Laura, and its use “became the mark
of Petrarchan love-poetry all over Europe in the 16th century.” Petrarch had divided
his sonnets into two parts, the octave of eight lines and the sestet of six lines, with a
pause or ceasura after the eighth line. Its rhyme-scheme was a b, b a, a b , b a, c d e,
c d e.

The Sonnet in England – Early Sonnetteers

Sir Thomas Wyatt was the first to write sonnets in England. It is the Petrarchan
form of the sonnet that Wyatt follows. His use of this measure is often rigid and
awkward, and he entirely fails to capture the warm, sensuous colour and delicate
music of the Italian poet.

His great contemporary Earl of Surrey also wrote sonnets in which he expressed his
entirely imaginative love for Geraldine or Lady Elizabeth Fitzgerald.

Objective Poetry and its different forms

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THE BALLAD

The Ballad may be defined as a short-story in verse. The word Ballad is derived from
the word “Ballare” which means “to dance”. Originally a ballad was a song with a
strong narrative substance sung to the accompaniment of dancing. The minstrel or
the bard would sing the main parts, and the dancers would sing the refrain or certain
lines which were frequently repeated. Often it was in the form of a dialogue.

Thus the popular ballad had a strong dramatic element.

In this way it is possible to divide ballads into two kinds or categories: (a) The “Popular
ballad” or the Ballad of growth with its simplicity, its apparent ease and artlessness,
and its primitive feeling, and (b) the “literary ballad”, the conscious imitation of a later
date of the original popular ballad.

THE EPIC

Just as a Ballad is a short story in verse, the epic is a long story in verse.

It is a long narrative poem, generally divided into twelve books. Homer’s epics
are divided into twelve books each, and Milton also divided his Paradise Lost into
twelve books.

It deals with the military exploits, deeds of valour, of some national hero or of
same person of national, even international importance. The epic hero is a man of
heroic bulk and dimensions. He is giant among men and has extra-ordinary physical
prowess. Because an epic is a story of heroic deeds it is also called a heroic poem. Thus
Homer’s Iliad narrates the heroic deeds of the Greeks during the war of Troy,
and Odyssey those of King Odysessus or Ulysses. Milton’s Paradise Lost has a cosmic
sweep and range and deals with events of interest to all mankind. In this respect, it
stands unique among the epics of the world.

The supernatural plays an important part, and frequently intervenes in the action.
Thus in Homer’s Iliad, the Gods intervence in the war of Troy, and in Spenser’s Fairy
Queen also a number of supernatural agencies are seen at work.

THE MOCK-EPIC

A Mock-epic is a small narrative poem in which the machinery and conventions

of epic proper are employed in the treatment of trivial themes, and in this way it
becomes a parody or burlesque of the epic. A mocking, ridiculous effect is created when
the grandiloquent epic-style and epic-conventions are used for a theme which is
essentially trivial and insignificant. The ancient Mock-epic The Battle of the Frog and
Mice, a parody of Homer’s Iliad, Swift’s Tale of a Tub and Battle of the Books and
Pope’s Dunciad and The Rape of the Lock are the finest examples of the Mock-epic.

THE IDYLL

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 By the word “Idyll” is meant a description in prose or verse of some scene or
event which is striking, picturesque, and complete in itself. Such an idyll may stand
alone, or it may form a kind of interlude in a longer composition. In our literature
idyllic passages are commoner than isolated-idylls. Indeed, the actual name is best
known to us by Tennyson’s Idylls of the King, and Browning’s Dramatic Idylls.

An Idyll is neither a lyric nor a narrative but partakes of the qualities of both. It derives
its name from the Greek word meaning, “a little picture”, and so two of its essential
characteristics are (a) its brevity, and (b) pictorial effect.

THE DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE

The Dramatic Monologue is the most important kind of that sub-division of

objective poetry which we have called dramatic, which is dramatic not because it is to
be acted on the stage, but because it gives the thoughts and emotions not of the poet
but of some imagined character. The poet’s identity is merged with that of the dramatic
personage, and the poet speaks through his mouth, so to say. Robert Browning is the
most important writer of dramatic monologues in the English language.

The dramatic monologues are dramatic because they do not express the thoughts and
feelings of the poet but of some imaginary character; they are monologues because in
them only one character speaks throughout (Mono means ‘one’).

Drama
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance.
It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a
type of a play written for theater, television, radio, and film.

In simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a story

in pantomime or dialogue. It contains conflict of characters, particularly the ones who
perform in front of audience on the stage. The person who writes drama for stage
directions is known as a “dramatist” or “playwright.”

Types of Drama
Let us consider a few popular types of drama:

Comedy

Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a

happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their audience
laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters, and witty remarks.

Tragedy

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 Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and death.
Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to their
downfall.

Farce

Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or

engages slapstick humour.

Melodrama

Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and appeals directly

to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of a single
dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.

Musical Drama

In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories through acting and
dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the story may be comedic, though
it may also involve serious subjects.

Prose
Prose is a form or technique of language that exhibits a natural flow of speech and
grammatical structure.

Novel
A Novel is a long narrative work of fiction with some realism. It is often
in prose form and is published as a single book. The word ‘novel’ has been derived
from the Italian word ‘novella’ which means “new”. Similar to a short story, a novel
has some features like a representation of characters,
dialogues, setting, plot, climax, conflict, and resolution. However, it does not require
all the elements to be a good novel.

Types:
Realistic Novel:

A fictional attempt to give the effect of realism. This sort of novel is

sometimes called a novel of manner. A realistic novel can be characterized by its
complex characters with mixed motives that are rooted in social class and operate
according to highly developed social structure. The characters in realistic novel
interact with other characters and undergo plausible and everyday experiences.

Examples: Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher, Looking for Alaska by John
Green.

Picaresque Novel:

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 A picaresque novel relates the adventures of an eccentric or
disreputable hero in episodic form. The genre gets its name from the
Spanish word picaro, or "rogue."

Examples: Rudyard Kipling's Kim (1901), Henry Fielding’s The History of

Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749),

Historical Novel:

A Historical novel is a novel set in a period earlier than that of the writing.

Examples: Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities,

Epistolary Novel:

Epistolary fiction is a popular genre where the narrative is told via a

series of documents. The word epistolary comes from Latin where ‘epistola’ means a
letter. Letters are the most common basis for epistolary novels but diary entries are
also popular

Examples: Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa, Bram Stoker’s Dracula,

Bildungsroman:

German terms that indicates a growth. This fictional autobiography concerned with
the development of the protagonist’s mind, spirit, and characters from childhood to
adulthood.

Examples: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, David Copperfield by Charles

Dickens, The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann etc.

Gothic Novel:

Gothic novel includes terror, mystery, horror, thriller, supernatural, doom,

death, decay, old haunted buildings with ghosts and so on.

Examples: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Bram Stoker’s Dracula,

Autobiographical Novel:

An autobiographical novel is a novel based on the life of the author.

Examples: Charles Dickens’ David Coppefield, Great Expectations, D. H.

Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers, Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar, Ralph Ellison
‘s Invisible Man, Maya Angelou’ s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Virginia
Wolfe’s The Light House etc.

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Novella

A novella is a short, narrative, prose fiction. As a literary genre, the novella’s

origin lay in the early Renaissance literary work of the Italians and the French. As the
etymology suggests, novellas originally were news of town and country life worth
repeating for amusement and edification.

Examples: Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness,

Stream of Consciousness Novel or Psychological Novel:

Psychological novels are works of fiction that treat the internal life of
the protagonist (or several or all characters) as much as (if not more than) the external
forces that make up the plot. The phrase “Stream of Consciousness” was coined by
William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890), to describe the flow of thought
of the waking mind.

Examples: Virginia Wolfe’s To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dolloway, James

Joyce’s Ulysses, D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow.

Social Fiction/ Political Novel:

The genre focussed on possible development of societies, very often

dominated by totalitarian governments. This type of novels must have social and
political message. The term generally refers to fiction in Europe and the Soviet Union
reacting to Communist rule.

Examples: George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, Huxley’s Brave New

World etc.

Dystopian Novel:

A dystopia is an unpleasant (typically repressive) society, often

propagandized as being utopian.

Examples: Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury.

Short Story:

A short story is fictional work of prose that is shorter in length than a novel.
Edgar Allan Poe, in his essay "The Philosophy of Composition," said that a short story
should be read in one sitting, anywhere from a half hour to two hours. In contemporary
fiction, a short story can range from 1,000 to 20,000 words.

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Because of the shorter length, a short story usually focuses on one plot, one main
character (with a few additional minor characters), and one central theme, whereas a
novel can tackle multiple plots and themes, with a variety of prominent characters.

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