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Address correspondence to Philip Cushman, Ph.D., 17804 Thorsen Road SW, Vashon, WA
98070. E-mail: [email protected]
423
424 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
any popular theory, it fits well with the overall spirit of the times. We
live in a social world characterized by preoccupations with—and the
valorization of—communication, social interaction, and interpersonal re-
lationship: preoccupations linked ironically to their vicissitudes and ab-
sences. It is not a coincidence that these activities are at the center of
contemporary relational psychoanalytic theory and practice.
In this article, I argue that relational psychoanalysis is not only a psy-
chological healing practice; it is also a social phenomenon, a site in
the social terrain in which—strange though it may seem—an implicit
(and perhaps unintentional) political resistance shows up. I draw heavily
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1
This is a continuing dilemma for political activism in psychology: How to shift from what
Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch (1974, p. 10) called first-order change (from psychological
change located in the individual, the dyad, or the family) to second-order change (to larger
systemic, foundational change located in the political arrangements of a society)? Over the
last 100 years, several schools of psychology, such as Reichian body work, interactionism in
social psychology, radical psychiatry, and humanistic psychology have all failed to articulate
and live out real-life solutions to that enormous problem. And of course some forms of ego
psychology, object relations theory, and cognitive psychology were from their beginnings
uninterested or functioned to directly oppose the connection between therapy and political
activism (see Buss, 1979; Sampson, 1981). Could relational psychoanalysis, by drawing on
the interpretative turn’s emphasis on history, critique, and moral discourse, be able to find
a way?
426 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
the forces that oppose them will come from the political Left. But let us
remember that potential political resistance exists within a larger cultural
terrain that includes both problems and their alternatives. If political
resistance cannot speak the language of its time and place, it cannot be
persuasive. So it should not be surprising that problematic aspects of the
era (e.g., the flattened, multiple self) and social practices that sometimes
oppose these aspects (e.g., relational psychoanalysis) also have things in
common.2
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2
Relational analysts such as Bromberg (1993, 1996, 1998), Davies (1998), Davies and Fraw-
ley (1994), and Stern (2010) write about multiplicity and accord the concept of multiple self
states an important place in their work. However, these writers are not valorizing the kind
of flatness prevalent in contemporary pop culture. Psychoanalytic multiplicity reflects the
hermeneutic belief that there is more than one truth in a text or an issue, and in that way
it opposes fundamentalism and reinforces egalitarianism. Psychoanalytic multiplicity also
supports the idea that individuals are constituted by various desires, values, ideals, com-
mitments, cultural traditions, and emotional patterns. Thus, multiplicity opposes the belief
that humans can and should be reduced to one unified unproblematic self. In this way,
the concept opposes the unitary singular Victorian self; it valorizes conflict, variation, and
difference. Of course, relational theories, like all theories, have their good and problematic
aspects. Clinicians need to be mindful of the pitfalls as well as the advantages of multiplicity
and be vigilant in historically situating therapeutic theory and guarding against uncritically
accepting all aspects of any theory. See also “Is Multiplicity Reflection or Resistance?” in
this article.
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 429
3
See Levenson (2006) for his concerns that this strategy obscures their meaningful differ-
ences.
430 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
that followed (see e.g., Bernstein, 1983; Bordo, 1987; Flax, 1992; Stolorow
et al., 2002).
Second, the consequences of relational psychoanalysis’ non-Cartesian
foundation are beginning to bear more explicit forms of progressive polit-
ical fruit in therapeutic theory (e.g., Layton, Hollander, & Gutwill, 2006).
There are subtle signs that the connections among philosophical theory,
clinical practice, and progressive political activity are becoming more
visible. For instance, one can see the effects of postmodern thought and
Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics in Irwin Hoffman’s 2009 article
“Doublethinking Our Way to Scientific Legitimacy,” an article that force-
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fully opposes the industrialization of psychotherapy. One can also see the
influence of the interpretative turn in the defense of Hoffman found in ar-
ticles by Cushman (2013), Stern (2013), Walls (2012), and Warren (2010).
The explicit use of Gadamer in contemporary relational theory was first
initiated by Stern in his groundbreaking work in 1989, 1990, and 1991. In
a recent article, Stern (2012) applied Gadamer’s philosophy by discussing
the implicit moral understandings that frame current psychotherapy theo-
ries. By doing so, he demonstrated his long-held awareness that therapy
is a moral discourse—not a technical, procedural practice, but a moral
practice with political consequences.
Also, a cultural history approach to psychoanalysis, used by Harry Stack
Sullivan (e.g., 1964) and Erich Fromm (e.g., 1955), has been drawn upon
by clinicians such as Neil Altman (2005), Rachel Peltz (2005), Susie Or-
bach (2008), Lynne Layton (e.g., 2009, 2010), Orna Guralnik and Daphne
Simeon (2010), Steven Botticelli (2012), and Roger Frie (2014). It is just
such a cultural history approach, I argued in 1994, that if properly de-
veloped can lead to a more explicit, philosophically sound, self-aware
political consciousness (Cushman, 1994). In fact, the earlier philosophi-
cal foundation has made possible the relational leap from a one-person
to a two-person psychology (Levenson, 1991a), and still more so from
a two-person to a more explicit cultural and political (i.e., three-person)
psychology (Altman, 1995; Benjamin, 2009; Cushman, 1995).
Third, the last two decades have witnessed relationalists engaged in
more explicit ventures in political analysis and activity. For instance,
feminists, multiculturalists, queer theorists, hermeneuticists, and post-
modernists such as Altman (1995a, 2000, 2006), Aronson (2007), Bot-
ticelli (2004, 2006, 2012), Cheuvront (2010, 2013), Cushman (2000, 2002,
2014), Dimen (1991, 2011), Goldner (1991), Gump (2000, 2010), Guralnik
(2011), Haaken (1998), Harris (1991, 2000), Harris and Botticelli (2010),
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 433
Hartman (2005), Hollander (1997), Layton (1998, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2014),
Leary (1995, 2000, 2007, 2012), Orbach (2006, 2008), and Scholom (2013)
are addressing issues related to gender, militarism, class, race, ethnic-
ity, and sexual orientation; Levenasian therapists such as Goodman (in
press), Goodman and Freeman (2015), Huett and Goodman (2012), and
Rozmarin (2007, 2011) have critiqued the consequences of war, scientism,
and managed care in the treatment of the poor and dispossessed; Gerber
(1990) has described attending to explicit political issues in clinical work;
and Division 39 political activists (e.g., Altman, Hollander, Reisner, Soldz)
continue to play a role in the fight to oppose the role of psychologists in
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4
I do not mean to suggest that relational theory either naturally leads to a left-oriented
politics, or that a left-oriented politics inevitably leads to a relational orientation. Certainly
there are relational psychoanalysts whose politics are not oriented to the left. Likewise,
there have been writers who have attempted an integration of psychoanalysis and Marxism
but would not be considered relationalists (e.g., Erich Fromm, Norman O. Brown, Russell
Jacoby, Joel Kovel, Herbert Marcuse). These writers have generated a number of ideas such
as the importance of psychological freedom; a rejection of normalizing therapies through
a privileging of the id; and the description of and opposition to consumer capitalism’s
creation of a “repressive desublimation,” but none of these concepts were understood as
being expressed through relational practices.
434 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
understand and live out the kind of relational practice in the detailed po-
litical terms that embrace and extend generalized political resistance into
a more overt activism without violating their therapeutic commitments.
But I believe that extension is possible, in fact plausible, if therapists
could draw more robustly and intentionally from the interpretative turn.
There are many disturbing events and institutions in our current social
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5
That is, the belief that others exist to be used in order to achieve one’s personal ends and
that technical advancements are the best means to that end.
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 435
themselves. Bill Moyers and Michael Winship (2013) have written that
self-deceit and intellectual laziness are destroying the ability to participate
meaningfully in a democratic society. “Ideology and self-interest trump
the facts or even caring about the facts . . . . The ground is all too fertile
for those who will only believe whatever best fits their resentment or
particular brand of paranoia . . . . [The greatest danger] is . . . ‘the self-
deception that believes the lie.”’
Along with the increasing violence, anti-intellectualism, and militarism
in popular culture, and the continuing erosion of historical traditions and
community involvement, has come an increased suspicion and fear of
others. Judging from the introduction of various rigid and self-righteous
ethical codes in business and education, it appears that there is a growing
consensus that the only protection against the aggression, greed, and
violence of others is the installation of detailed, step-wise procedural
practices such as the installation of an overwhelming number of HIPAA
regulations in health-care settings. Procedures are commonly thought
of as the only means of controlling the otherwise unpredictable and
dangerous other.
Above all, there is little organized disagreement with, let alone rebel-
lion against, this state of affairs. The vast majority of citizens go about
their lives either struggling to survive and gain a small amount of secu-
rity for themselves and their families, or so immersed in the electronic
consumer and entertainment culture that they do not seem to care about
much beyond their next purchase, incoming tweet, or participation in a
multiple online role-playing game such as Second Life, Farmville, Siege
Online, Stormfall: Age of War, or Criminal Syndicate. In these games,
participants electronically join a team of other users and invent, design,
name, and direct an avatar. Games continue on indefinitely even though
individual participants sign off. Virtual money is earned and spent, virtual
436 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
crops are grown, sold, and consumed, and battles are waged. In the pro-
cess, avatars can even contract PTSD and attend virtual trauma therapy
sessions, which must be completed before returning to battle.
Until we can intelligently and self-reflectively think, study, and coop-
erate with others in order to organize against the forces that have created
our current political arrangements, it is difficult to imagine how any ef-
fective resistance will be able to succeed. The absence of the ability to
effectively engage in those activities, alongside the great political neces-
sity of doing so, is of course not a random coincidence. Research such
as that conducted by Carr (2010), Turkle (2011), and Watkins (2009) in-
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dicates that the effectiveness of the strategy that the Roman poet Juvenal
(1918) long ago (late first century, C.E.) called “bread and circuses” is to-
day exacerbated many fold by advances in electronic computational and
communications technology. All eyes are on the screen. The intellectual,
political, and interpersonal characteristics of the flattened, multiple self
will need to be shifted if we as a people can become capable of making
the important changes that are needed. The current practices of relational
psychoanalysis seem to be one of the practices that could be well suited
to shifting the limitations of that self.
their software—they are procedural all the way down. Our social world
is increasingly characterizing humans in the same way.
Think about all the digitized procedural forms one must fill out or
procedural rules with which one must comply during an average day.
From medical forms to insurance forms to tax forms to the procedural
menu provided by an outgoing recorded phone message, an increas-
ing amount of our daily lives is given over to the restricted choices of
procedural living. In higher education, the concept of academic compe-
tencies (defined by hyperconcrete behavioral results) determines what
teachers teach and students learn. In psychotherapy, therapists are being
pressured to follow manualized treatments and encouraged to administer
postsession consumer satisfaction surveys to patients in order to ascertain
how well the therapist is complying with what quantitative research has
determined to be proper therapeutic procedures. It seems humans are
becoming thought of as poorly functioning electronic machines that sim-
ply need to become more robot-like, i.e., better at following the orders
of manuals, procedures, and decision trees.
A young man is in a business meeting, populated by several well-
dressed people, all sitting around a large conference table. He takes out
his new smart phone called, it is important to note, a “Droid,” which
technically is a human-like mechanical robot (e.g., R2D2 from the Star
Wars movies). He begins to search for information or calculate some
problem or key-in some data. The calculation gets increasingly detailed,
and his fingers move at an ever-faster rate, almost as if the phone itself
has taken over his actions. And then, as his fingers work faster still, they
begin turning into a robot’s fingers, and his hands and then his wrists and
arms all turn into metal parts of a machine. The voice-over states that the
Droid, in order to hook “you up to everything you need to do,” will turn
“you into an instrument of efficiency.” The man’s fingers are now almost
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 439
a blur, racing at superhuman speed. His Droid has turned him into an
android.
This commercial illustrates a self that is machine-like and controlled
through obedience to various official behavioral procedures that demand
strict compliance. But of course Americans, who pride themselves on
being highly individualistic and autonomous, would never tolerate being
described as robots. So the description is disguised with pseudo-scientific
technical terms and the inflated claims of a physical-science method ap-
plied to human problems (i.e., scientism). This disguise is made especially
effective by the ethic of consumerism, enacted today through a multitude
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of social practices that help us live out the embodied understanding that
persons are consumers. Consumers live in a social terrain that resembles
a giant supermarket: everything is available to them as long as they have
the money (or the credit). Autonomy and intelligence are important to
consumers primarily because they need to make micro-decisions about
what to buy, supposedly unencumbered by moral or political constraints
and the opinions of others. Autonomy is valuable primarily because it
allows for unencumbered purchasing, intelligence because it enables the
correct choice of competing consumer items. When efficiency becomes
the most prominent element of success, and success the most prominent
producer of purchasing power, we don’t notice that humans are thought
of as robotic, because efficient performance facilitates consumption.
In the world of the supermarket, consumer items are thought to
be important to the degree that they match the momentary wishes of
the consumer. Items such as clothing, breakfast cereals, computer ac-
cessories, home furnishings, and automotive accessories are available
in any number of combinations—what matters is that they are suffi-
ciently compatible so that they can be mixed and matched at the con-
sumer’s whim. Things increasingly come to light in this world as discrete,
simple, individual components readily available to be combined and
used.
In the realm of psychotherapy, this way of being comes to light in the
more recent DSMs through Axis I diagnostic categories, in which persons
are thought to be composed of simple hyperconcrete behaviors that can
be mixed and matched according to specific symptom descriptions—
a kind of Lego-like picture of human being. This view is reflected in
various advertising and marketing practices, such as the recent television
commercial for a computer notepad called The Surface. It is a sunny
day, and there are many good-looking young people of many shapes,
440 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
genders, and colors in the picture, but they do not seem to be interacting.
One young man takes out his notepad, turns it around, and attaches a flat
keypad to it with a loud, satisfying “click.” Others immediately notice, and
one by one they begin clicking their notepads in unison, and then in time
to a rhythm, then in time to a loud upbeat song. They sing and dance,
handing off their notepads, exchanging keypads and screens of different
colors, and the clicking is intoxicating. The notepads and keypads fly
from one person to another, exciting, engaging, uniting everyone in a
joyous dance. The equipment seems to have a life of its own, flying
and spinning through the air in time to the music, unifying and inspiring
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everyone.
The commercial is like a dance celebrating interchangeability, compat-
ibility, and plasticity—all different colors and shapes and functions coop-
erating and enjoying one another’s easily accessible (i.e., “surface”) parts.
Consumer items—and by implication, humans—are therefore thought to
be composed of simple components that can be cobbled together in
various shapes and designs, limited only by the desires of the individual
consumer, the effectiveness of the latest technology, or in psychology the
putative accuracy of the most recent assessment tool. The revolutionary
change that DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association, 1980) introduced
was the shift from large complex configurations of personality to the
conceptual simples of the behavioristic Axis I. Gone is the concept of the
DSM-II (American Psychiatric Association, 1968) neurosis, for instance,
and in its place are various combinations of behavioral signs of anxiety
and depression.
If consumer desire is too extreme or unrealistic for everyday fantasies,
which more and more appears to be the case, there is a consumer solution
for that as well. Electronic games can transport us to a world in which
one’s avatars are famous, possess superhuman qualities, or live a life
free from the restrictions of ordinary laws or rules. This relation with
alternative selves is graphically portrayed in the film Avatar. Jake Sully’s
life as a career soldier at the beginning of the movie was crass, superficial,
cruel. He had been marked, in fact disabled, by it: he could no longer
walk. But then, through futuristic science, his avatar was transported to
a radically different physical and social world, one that was beautiful,
spiritual, proud, authentic. He comes to be influenced by these new
values and tries to convince those in control of his old world that the
destructive and cruel path they were on was wrong, but to no avail. By
the end of the film (no surprise here), he chooses to remain permanently
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 441
in his avatar and live forever after in this new world. It is a kind of
sci-fi version of the previously described television commercial about
the young man, the sports car, and the old, sour-faced motorcycle cop.
Escape, by shifting into a new identity, was the only option.6
We might say that this film portrays a new kind of a healing technology:
a virtual, behavioral therapeutic for a flattened, multiple, self. Purchase
the proper product, such as an expensive pair of basketball shoes, an
ultra-stylish purse, a luxury car, an exciting video game or DVD, and
you will be delivered into a new world—and a reconfigured self—that
previously you could only imagine. Multiplicity, and the morphing it
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A Relational Alternative
6
The story line is reminiscent of the 1990 film Dances With Wolves (Costner, 1990), also
drawn from the genre of the American frontier and the European encounter with the
Plains Indian tribes. But in that encounter, we see a transformation in the deep self of a
Victorian man. In Avatar, the hero’s deep self does not seem to exist and therefore cannot
be transformed. Instead, the change is accomplished primarily by transporting him into
another identity: an avatar.
442 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
literature and the infant research conducted by Beatrice Beebe and col-
leagues. Of course, humanistic psychology (e.g., Grogan, 2013) was also
influenced by this orientation. It is not difficult to see how an emphasis
on the political arrangements of gender, race, class, and sexual orienta-
tion led to a more focused clinical awareness of lived experience and
its effect on psychological patterning. Practices such as women’s con-
sciousness raising groups and self-help groups for mental patients and
Vietnam veterans were at that time thought to reflect what Eichenbaum
and Orbach referred to as “social object relations theory” or “feminist
object relations.” Orbach (2008) eventually accepted Mitchell’s term, “re-
lational,” and added to it an emphasis on the democratic nature of the
movement’s practices.
Meanwhile, in 1983, Donnel Stern published a treatment of the un-
conscious from a non-Cartesian perspective. Stern reenvisioned the un-
conscious as dissociative experiences that remain “unformulated,” not
repressed and fully formed artifacts buried in a Freudian-style Cartesian
archeological warehouse. This opened up a new approach to memory,
awareness, and psychological change. Change, therefore, is built first of
all on experiencing that which has been unformulated. This requires a
different kind of therapeutic process that looks for gaps, absences, and
puzzles; it calls forth interpretations that rely not simply on the past but
also on present experiences, not on the unquestioned authority of the
therapist who discovers an already existing singular truth and delivers
it unilaterally, but on the collaborative interpretive relationship between
therapist and patient. Mutual interpretative processes, Stern wrote, de-
velop emergent and contingent truths.
Also in 1983, Irwin Hoffman, drawing on his research with collab-
orator Merton Gill, made an important addition to early theory with
the article, “The Patient as the Interpreter of the Analyst’s Experience.”
444 PHILIP CUSHMAN, Ph.D.
This was a radical attack on the blank-screen concept and those writ-
ers who claimed to agree with the attack but still held to the Cartesian
frame—what Hoffman called the conservative critic. Hoffman showed
how this was a major philosophical contradiction and encouraged the
more robust radical critic who could reconceptualize (and thereby
depathologize) transference–countertransference dynamics and directly
challenge the Cartesianism of the one-person approach.
Jessica Benjamin published The Bonds of Love in 1988. This was a com-
plex feminist study of human development, attachment, and Western ar-
rangements of gender. Her work and the work of other feminists such as
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Muriel Dimen, Virginia Goldner, and Adrienne Harris have added a great
deal to the meanings of gender and oppression. Over the years, Benjamin
elaborated on her initial research, developing it into a sophisticated and
nuanced (and implicit) project of moral development. Her discussion
of the instrumentalism present in everyday forms of sadomasochism—
what she refers to as the “doer–done to” relation—and her subsequent
application of that concept from interpersonal to political venues (Ben-
jamin, 2004), has been an important contribution to relational theory and
practice. Recently her concept of “mutual recognition”—the opposite of
“doer–done to” dynamics—has contributed to relational psychoanalysis’s
(partially disguised) vision of the good, and has been applied to both
interpersonal and international politics. Drawing on that concept, Judith
Butler (2009, p. 20) wrote that “loss makes a tenuous ‘we’ of us all,” to
explain the ongoing global difficulty with living through collaborative,
respectful, peace-loving ways of being.
Stern’s work—and by extension relational psychoanalytic theory—
were greatly enhanced when he found Gadamer’s philosophical work
in the late 1980s. With Gadamer’s help, Stern came to describe psycho-
analysis as an emergent process. Its material is the moral understandings
and cultural meanings that have been embodied by the patient and can-
not be forced by some sort of scientistic proceduralism or simplistic
manualized script into a previously designed mold. “Courting Surprise,”
published in 1990, is a poetic clinical application of Gadamer’s insights
into the mysteries of the creative unbidden, processes at the heart of
art, literature, and psychotherapy. In 1991, Stern wrote the more theo-
retical “A Philosophy for the Embedded Analyst,” a description of how
hermeneutics could be applied to therapy. Stern drew on Gadamer in
order to broaden psychotherapy by extending theory into a fuller appre-
ciation of the mysteries of a non-Cartesian world, one in which a human
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 445
being is both constituted and yet not fully determined by the historical
era. Relationship is the water humans swim in and self-contained indi-
vidualism is a wrong-headed ideology. Interpretation is not something
specific, universal, and certain that the therapist has privileged access to,
but rather something contingent, local, and questionable. The therapist,
as well as the patient, brings his or her own limitations, foibles, and strug-
gles to the therapy hour, and both are affected by the mutual influence
of the dyad. In Stern’s hands, Gadamer’s concept of dialogue therefore
becomes a way of describing the moments in which, through respectful
listening and care, the therapeutic partners come to understand, educate,
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A confusing aspect of the current social terrain is that at the same time
relational psychoanalysis can be interpreted as a form of resistance to the
flattened, multiple self, an important theme in current relational theory
is the concept of multiplicity and especially multiple self states. Is this a
contradiction, and if not, how can we understand the similarity between
terms? First, there are important differences between the two concepts,
as discussed briefly in footnote 2. Second, it seems obvious that a pre-
occupation with change—especially psychological change—is in the air.
Do persons in therapy change because of electrical events in the brain,
or insight and the resolution of conflict, or empathic resonance and the
internalization of a good object, or a shift in perspective? Or, is it the very
nature of the self that it is composed of multiple self states that alternate
in prominence, thereby giving the appearance of change? And what does
all this have to do with one’s identity or identities? Throughout the his-
tory of psychoanalysis, and certainly today, how psychological change is
theorized is the subject of intense interest.
RATIONAL PSYCHOANALYSIS AS POLITICAL RESISTANCE 447
Conclusion
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at what Stern (1990) called “courting surprise” (i.e., developing the fa-
cility for experiencing psychological change), which could well lead to
getting better at courting political surprise (i.e., developing the facility
for creating political change, finding political allies, and entering into
collaborative political ventures with them; see, e.g., Layton, 2005).
Participating in relational psychoanalysis either as a therapist or a pa-
tient might mean that one has begun preparing oneself for, or has en-
rolled in, a subtle school for political resistance. If, how, or to what
degree all this gets extended by relational psychoanalysis into explicit
political activity remains an open question. But perhaps, in some small
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Acknowledgment
An earlier version of this article was presented at the symposium “Psy-
choanalysis and Social Theory,” Simon Fraser University, Institute for the
Humanities, November 16, 2013.
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Philip Cushman, Ph.D., teaches in the Psy.D. program, Antioch University Seattle,
Seattle, Washington, and is in private practice on Vashon Island, Washington. He
is the author of Constructing the Self, Constructing America: A Cultural History
of Psychotherapy (Addison-Wesley, 1995) and various articles on psychotherapy
and history.