Programming The Web 10CS73

Programming the WEB 10CS73
PROGRAMMING THE WEB
Subject Code: 10CS73 I.A. Marks : 25

Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours : 52 Exam Marks: 100
PART - A
UNIT – 1 6 Hours
Fundamentals of Web, XHTML – 1: Internet, WWW, Web Browsers and Web Servers,
URLs, MIME, HTTP, Security, The Web Programmers Toolbox.
XHTML: Basic syntax, Standard structure, Basic text markup, Images, Hypertext Links.
UNIT – 2 7 Hours
XHTML – 2, CSS: XHTML (continued): Lists, Tables, Forms, Frames CSS:
Introduction, Levels of style sheets, Style specification formats, Selector forms, Property
value forms, Font properties, List properties, Color, Alignment of text, The box model,
Background images, The <span> and <div> tags, Conflict resolution.
UNIT – 3 6 Hours
Javascript: Overview of Javascript, Object orientation and Javascript, Syntactic
characteristics, Primitives, operations, and expressions, Screen output and keyboard
input, Control statements, Object creation and modification, Arrays, Functions,
Constructors, Pattern matching using regular expressions, Errors in scripts, Examples.
UNIT – 4 7 Hours
Javascript and HTML Documents, Dynamic Documents with Javascript: The Javascript
execution environment, The Document Object Model, Element access in Javascript,
Events and event handling, Handling events from the Body elements, Button elements,
Text box and Password elements, The DOM 2 event model, The navigator object, DOM
tree traversal and modification. Introduction to dynamic documents, Positioning
elements, Moving elements, Element visibility, Changing colors and fonts, Dynamic
content, Stacking elements, Locating the mouse cursor, Reacting to a mouse click, Slow
movement of elements, Dragging and dropping elements.
PART - B
UNIT – 5 6 Hours
XML: Introduction, Syntax, Document structure, Document type definitions,
Namespaces, XML schemas, Displaying raw XML documents, Displaying XML
documents with CSS, XSLT style sheets, XML processors, Web services.
UNIT – 6 7 Hours
Perl, CGI Programming: Origins and uses of Perl, Scalars and their operations,
Assignment statements and simple input and output, Control statements, Fundamentals of
arrays, Hashes, References, Functions, Pattern matching, File input and output;
Examples.
The Common Gateway Interface; CGI linkage; Query string format; CGI.pm module; A
survey example; Cookies. Database access with Perl and MySQL
UNIT – 7 6 Hours
PHP: Origins and uses of PHP, Overview of PHP, General syntactic characteristics,
Primitives, operations and expressions, Output, Control statements, Arrays, Functions,
Pattern matching, Form handling, Files, Cookies, Session tracking, Database access with
PHP and MySQL.
UNIT – 8 7 Hours
Ruby, Rails: Origins and uses of Ruby, Scalar types and their operations, Simple input
and output, Control statements, Arrays, Hashes, Methods, Classes, Code blocks and
iterators, Pattern matching.
Overview of Rails, Document requests, Processing forms, Rails applications with
Databases, Layouts.
Text Books:
1. Robert W. Sebesta: Programming the World Wide Web, 4 Edition, Pearson
Education, 2008. (Listed topics only from Chapters 1 to 9, 11 to 15)
Reference Books:
1. M. Deitel, P.J. Deitel, A. B. Goldberg: Internet & World Wide Web How to Program,
4th Edition, Pearson Education, 2004.
2. Chris Bates: Web Programming Building Internet Applications, 3rd Edition, Wiley
India, 2007.
3. Xue Bai et al: The web Warrior Guide to Web Programming, Cengage Learning, 2003.
UNIT - 1
Syllabus: UNIT - 1 Fundamentals of Web, XHTML – 1
Internet, WWW, Web Browsers and Web Servers; URLs;
MIME;
HTTP; Security; The Web Programmers Toolbox.
XHTML: Origins and evolution of HTML and XHTML
Basic syntax
Standard XHTML document structure;
Basic text markup. Images, Hypertext Links.
Unit1 Fundamentals
1.1 A Brief Intro to the Internet
 Internet History
 Internet Protocols
Internet History
1.1.1 Origins
In the 1960s the U.S Department of Defense (DoD) became interested in
developing a new large-scale computer network.
The purposes of this network were communications, program
sharing and remote computer access. One fundamental requirement was
that the network be sufficiently Robust so that even if some network nodes
were lost due to damage or some more reason the network could continue
to function.
The DoD‘s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the
construction of the first such network, and the network the first such
network, and the network was named as ARPAnet in 1969.
The primary use of ARPAnet was simple text-based
communications through e-mail.
A number of other networks were developed during the late 1970‘s
and early 1980‘s with BITNET and CSNETT among them.
BITNET, which is an acronym for Because It‘s Time Network,
developed at City University of NewYork. It was built initially to provide
electronic mail and file transfers CSNET, which is an acronym for
Computer Science Network, connected the university of Delware, Purdue
University, RAND corporation and many more universities with initial

purpose was to provide Electronic mail.
For the variety of reasons, neither BITNET not CSNET became a
dominant national network.
A new national network, NSFnet was created in 1986. It was funded
by National Science Foundation (NSF). NSFnet initially connected NSF
supercomputer centers.
By 1990, NSFnet had replaced ARPAnet for most nonmilitary uses.
By 1992 NSFnet connected more than 1 million computers around the
world.
In 1995 a small part of NSFnet returned to being a research network.
The rest is known as the Internet.
As a Summary:
• ARPAnet - late 1960s and early 1970s
• Network reliability
• For ARPA-funded research organizations
• BITnet, CSnet - late 1970s & early 1980s
• email and file transfer for other institutions
• NSFnet - 1986
• Originally for non-DOD funded places
• Initially connected five supercomputer centers
• By 1990, it had replaced ARPAnet for non-military uses
• Soon became the network for all (by the early 1990s)
• NSFnet eventually became known as the Internet
1.1.2 What the Internet is:
• Internet is a huge collection of computers connected in a
communications network.
• It is a network of network rather than a network of computers.
• Using Internet many people can share resources and can communicate
with each other.
• To have Internet service your computer must be connected to the
Internet Service Providers (ISP) through cables modem, phone-line
modem or DSL.
• The Internet employs a set of standardized protocols which allow for the
sharing of resources. These standars are known by the Internet Protocol
Suite.
• At the lowest level, since 1982, all connections use TCP/IP
1.1.3 Internet Protocols (IP) Addresses
 Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses
 Every node has a unique numeric address

 Form: 32-bit binary number
 IP address is divided into 2 main part:
 Network number and
 Host number
 IP addresses usually are written as four 8-bit numbers separated by dots
NETWORK NUMBER HOST NUMBER
 Organizations are assigned groups of IPs for their computers

 The are 5 classes of IP address
Sl.no. IP address Class Format Pupose
1. Class A N.H.H.H Few large
organization use this
class addressing
2. Class B N.N.H.H Medium size
organizations use
this addressing
3. Class C N.N.N.H Relatively small
organizations use
this class
Here N stands for Network number and H stands for Host number. For example, a
small organization may be assigned 256 IP addresses, such as 191.28.121.0 to
191.28.121.255
 Problem: By the mid-1980s, several different protocols had been invented and
were being used on the Internet, all with different user interfaces (Telnet, FTP,
Usenet, mailto
1.1.4 Domain names
 Form: host-name.domain-names
 First domain is the smallest; last is the largest
 Last domain specifies the type of organization
 Fully qualified domain name - the host name and all of the domain names
 DNS servers - convert fully qualified domain names to IPs
 Few domains are:
o Edu –Extension for Educational institutions
o Com – Specifies a Company
o Gov – Specifies government
o Org – Other kind of organization
 Even Domain specifies the country name
o in – India
o pk – Pakistan
o au – Australia
o us – United states
Domain Name Conversion
Internet
Domain Name
Domain Name
Client System
Name Internet Web
Server Server
IP IP
Fig. Domain Name

Conversion
IP addresses are the address used internally by the Internet, the fully qualified domain
name of the destination for a message, which is given browser, must be converted to an
IP address before the message can be transmitted on the internet to the destination. These
conversions are done by system software called Name Servers.
Name Servers server a collection of machines on the Internet and are operated by
organizations that are responsible for the part of the Internet to which those machines are
connected.
All documents requested from the browsers are routed to the nearest name server.
If the name server can convert the fully qualified domain name to an IP address. If it
cannot , the name server sends the fully qualified domain name to another name server
for conversion.
The figure 1 shows how fully qualified domain names requested by a browser are
translated into IPs before they are routed to the appropriate web server.
One way to determine the IP address of the website by using telnet.
If we want to know the IP address of www. Google.co.in, go to Dos prompt and
type telnet www.google.co.in
PROTOCOLS
By the mid – 198s, a collection of different protocols that run on top of TCP/IP had been
developed to support a variety of Internet users. Among those the most common were
telnet, ftp, usenet, mailto
Uses:
 telnet – which was developed to allow a user on one computer on the Internet to
log on to and use another computer on the Internet.[Remote Login]
 ftp[file transfer protocol] - which was developed to transfer file among computers
on the Internet.
 usenet – Which was developed to serve as an electronic bulletin board.
 mailto – which was developed to allow messages to be sent from the user of one
computer on the Internet to other users on other computer on the Internet.
Client and Server

 Clients and Servers are programs that communicate with each other over the
Internet
 A Server runs continuously, waiting to be contacted by a Client
 Each Server provides certain services
 Services include providing web pages
 A Client will send a message to a Server requesting the service provided by that
server
 The client will usually provide some information, parameters, with the
request
1.2 The World-Wide Web
 A possible solution to the proliferation of different protocols being used on the
Internet
1.2.1 Origins
 Tim Berners-Lee at CERN proposed the Web in 1989
 Purpose: to allow scientists to have access to many databases of
scientific work through their own computers
 Document form: hypertext
 Pages? Documents? Resources?
 We‘ll call them documents
 Hypermedia – more than just text – images, sound, etc.
1.2.2 Web or Internet?
 The Web uses one of the protocols, http, that runs on the Internet--there
are several others (telnet, mailto, etc.)
 The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It
connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any
computer can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both
connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the Internet does so via a
variety of languages known as protocols.
 The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the
medium of the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP protocol The Web also utilizes
browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Firefox, to access Web documents called
Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. Web documents also
contain graphics, sounds, text and video.
 The Internet is the large container, and the Web is a part within the container.
 But to be technically precise, the Net is the restaurant, and the Web is the most
popular dish on the menu.
 Browsers are used to connect to the www part of the internet.
Here is a conceptual diagram of the Internet and how it contains many forms of online
communications
The Internet and the Web work together, but they are not the same thing. The Internet
provides the underlying structure, and the Web utilizes that structure to offer content,
documents, multimedia, etc.
The Internet is at its most basic definition an electronic communications network. It is the
structure on which the World Wide Web is based.
1.3 Web Browsers
 Browsers are clients - always initiate, servers react (although sometimes servers
require responses)
 Mosaic - NCSA (Univ. of Illinois), in early 1993
 First to use a GUI, led to explosion of Web use
 Initially for X-Windows, under UNIX, but was ported to other platforms
by late 1993
 Most requests are for existing documents, using HyperText Transfer Protocol
(HTTP)
 But some requests are for program execution, with the output being
returned as a document
1.4 Web Servers

 Provide responses to browser requests, either existing documents or dynamically
built documents
 All communications between browsers and servers use Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP)
 Apache, Microsoft internet information server (IIS)
1.4.1 Web Server Operation
• Web servers run as background processes in the operating system
– Monitor a communications port on the host, accepting HTTP messages
when they appear
• All current Web servers came from either
1. The original from CERN
2. The second one, from NCSA
1.4.2 Web Server Operation Details
• Web servers have two main directories:
1. Document root (servable documents)
2. Server root (server system software)
• Document root is accessed indirectly by clients
– Its actual location is set by the server configuration file
– Requests are mapped to the actual location
– Path /admin/web/topdocs/xyz.html
• Server root – stores server and its support software
• Virtual document trees : many servers allow part of the servable document
collection to be stored outside the directory of document root. The secondary
areas from which document can be served are called virtual document trees.
• Proxy servers : Some servers can serve documents that are in the document root
of other machines on the web and those servers are called proxy servers.
Difference between apache and IIS
Apache Web Server IIS web Server
1. It is an open source 1. It is a vendorspecific product and
product. can be used on windows only.
2. Apache web server 2. IIS web server is used on
is useful on both windows platform.
UNIX based 3. The IIS server can be controlled
systems and on by modifying the window based
windows platform. management programs called IIS
3. The apache web span-in.
server can be We can access 115 span-in by
controlled by going to control panel 

editing the Administrative tools IIS
configuration file admin
http.conf
1.5 URLs (uniform resource locators)

1.5.1 General form:
scheme: object-address
 The scheme is often a communications protocol, such as telnet or ftp
 For the http protocol, the object-address is: fully qualified domain name/doc path
 For the file protocol, only the doc path is needed
 Host name may include a port number
 URLs cannot include spaces or any of a collection of other special characters
(semicolons, colons, ...)
 The doc path may be abbreviated as a partial path
 The rest is furnished by the server configuration
 If the doc path ends with a slash, it means it is a directory
1.6 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
 Originally developed for email
 Used to specify the form of a file returned by the server
 Type specifications
 Form:
type/subtype
 Examples: text/plain, text/html, image/gif, image/jpeg, video/mpeg,
video/rm, video/quicktime
Browser gets the type explicitly from the server
1.7 The HyperText Transfer Protocol
 The protocol used by ALL Web communications
 Current version of HTTP is 1.1
 Consists of 2 phases  request phase
 response phase
http communication[request or response] between a browser and a web server consists of
2 parts  header-consists information about communication and
 body – consists data of communication
1.7.1 Request Phase
 Form:
1. HTTP method domain part of URL HTTP ver.
2. Header fields
3. blank line semantics
4. Message body
1.7 The HyperText Transfer Protocol: Methods
 GET - Fetch a document
 POST - Execute the document, using the data in body
 HEAD - Fetch just the header of the document
 PUT - Store a new document on the server
 DELETE - Remove a document from the server
 An example of the first line of a request:
GET /degrees.html HTTP/1.1
 Format of second line header field (optional)
 Field name followed by a colon and the value of the field.
HTTP Headers
 Four categories of header fields:
General, request, response, & entity
 Common request fields:
Accept: text/plain
Accept: text/*
If-Modified_since: date
 Common response fields:
Content-length: 488
Content-type: text/html
- Can communicate with HTTP without a browser
 telnet blanca.uccs.edu http
 Creates connection to http port on …….. server
http command eg:
GET /respond.html HTTP/1.1
Host: blanca.uccs.edu
1.7.2 Response phase
 Form:
1. Status line
2. Response header fields
3. blank line
4. Response body
 Status line format:
HTTP version status code explanation
 Example: HTTP/1.1 200 OK
(Current version is 1.1)
 Status code is a three-digit number; first digit specifies the general status
1 => Informational
2 => Success
3 => Redirection
4 => Client error
5 => Server error
 The header field, Content-type, is required
HTTP Response Example
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Tues, 18 May 2004 16:45:13 GMT
Server: Apache (Red-Hat/Linux)
Last-modified: Tues, 18 May 2004 16:38:38 GMT
Etag: "841fb-4b-3d1a0179"
Accept-ranges: bytes
Content-length: 364
Connection: close
Content-type: text/html, charset=ISO-8859-1
• Both request headers and response headers must be followed by a blank line
1.8 Note on security?
1.9 The Web Programmer’s Toolbox
 Document languages and programming languages that are the building blocks of
the web and web programming
 XHTML
 Plug-ins
 Filters
 XML
 Javascript
 Java, Perl, Ruby, PHP
1.9.1 XHTML
 To describe the general form and layout of documents
 An XHTML document is a mix of content and controls
 Controls are tags and their attributes
 Tags often delimit content and specify something about how the
content should be arranged in the document
 Attributes provide additional information about the content of a tag
1.9.2 Creating XHTML documents
 XHTML editors - make document creation easier
 Shortcuts to typing tag names, spell-checker,
 WYSIWYG XHTML editors
 Need not know XHTML to create XHTML documents
1.9.3 Plugins and Filters
 Plug ins
 Integrated into tools like word processors, effectively converting them to
WYSIWYG XHTML editors
 Filters
 Convert documents in other formats to XHTML
Plugins and Filters: Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of both filters and plug-ins:
 Existing documents produced with other tools can be converted to
XHTML documents
 Use a tool you already know to produce XHTML
 Disadvantages of both filters and plug-ins:
 XHTML output of both is not perfect - must be fine tuned
 XHTML may be non-standard
 You have two versions of the document, which are difficult to synchronize
1.9.4 XML
 A meta-markup language
 Used to create a new markup language for a particular purpose or area
 Because the tags are designed for a specific area, they can be meaningful
 No presentation details
 A simple and universal way of representing data of any textual kind
1.9.5 JavaScript
 A client-side HTML-embedded scripting language
 Only related to Java through syntax
 Dynamically typed and not object-oriented
 Provides a way to access elements of HTML documents and dynamically change
them
1.9.6 Java
 General purpose object-oriented programming language
 Based on C++, but simpler and safer
 Our focus is on applets, servlets, and JSP
1.9.7 Perl
 Provides server-side computation for HTML documents, through CGI
 Perl is good for CGI programming because:
 Direct access to operating systems functions
 Powerful character string pattern-matching operations
 Access to database systems
 Perl is highly platform independent, and has been ported to all common platforms
 Perl is not just for CGI
1.9.8 PHP
 A server-side scripting language
 An alternative to CGI
 Similar to JavaScript
 Great for form processing and database access through the Web
1.10 Origins and Evolution of HTML
 HTML was defined with SGML
 Original intent of HTML: General layout of documents that could be displayed by
a wide variety of computers
 Recent versions:
HTML 3.2 – 1997
 Introduced many new features and deprecated many older features
 HTML 4.01 - 1999 - A cleanup of 4.0
XHTML 1.0 - 2000
 Just 4.01 defined using XML, instead of SGML
XHTML 1.1 – 2001
 Modularized 1.0, and drops frames
 We‘ll stick to 1.1, except for frames
 Reasons to use XHTML, rather than HTML:
1. HTML has lax syntax rules, leading to sloppy and sometime ambiguous
documents
– XHTML syntax is much more strict, leading to clean and clear
documents in a standard form
2. HTML processors do not even enforce the few syntax rule that do exist in
HTML
3. The syntactic correctness of XHTML documents can be validated
1.11 Basic Syntax
 Elements are defined by tags (markers)
 Tag format:
 Opening tag: <name>
 Closing tag: </name>
 The opening tag and its closing tag together specify a container for the
content they enclose
 Not all tags have content
 If a tag has no content, its form is <name />
 The container and its content together are called an element
 If a tag has attributes, they appear between its name and the right bracket of the
opening tag
 Comment form: <!- … ->
 Browsers ignore comments, unrecognizable tags, line breaks, multiple spaces, and
tabs
 Tags are suggestions to the browser, even if they are recognized by the browser
1.12 HTML Document Structure

 <html>, <head>, <title>, and <body> are required in every document
 Every XHTML document must begin with:
<?xml version = ″1.0″?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC ″-//w3c//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN″
http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd>
 The whole document must have <html> as its root
 html must have the xmlns attribute:
<html xmlns = ″http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml″
 A document consists of a head and a body
 The <title> tag is used to give the document a title, which is normally displayed in
the browser‘s window title bar (at the top of the display)
 Prior to XHTML 1.1, a document could have either a body or a frameset
1.13 Basic Text Markup
 Text is normally placed in paragraph elements
 Paragraph Elements
 The <p> tag breaks the current line and inserts a blank line - the new line
gets the beginning of the content of the paragraph
 The browser puts as many words of the paragraph‘s content as will fit in
each line
<?xml version = ″1.0″?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC ″-//w3c//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN″
http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd>

<html xmlns = ″http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml″>
<head> <title> Our first document </title>
</head>
<body>
<p>
Greetings from your Webmaster!
</p>
</body>
</html>
 W3C HTML Validation Service
http://validator.w3.org/file-upload.html
 Line breaks
 The effect of the <br /> tag is the same as that of <p>, except for the blank
line
 No closing tag!
 Example of paragraphs and line breaks
On the plains of hesitation <p> bleach the
bones of countless millions </p> <br />
who, at the dawn of victory <br /> sat down
to wait, and waiting, died.
 Typical display of this text:

On the plains of hesitation
bleach the bones of countless millions

who, at the dawn of victory
sat down to wait, and waiting, died.
 Headings
 Six sizes, 1 - 6, specified with <h1> to <h6>
 1, 2, and 3 use font sizes that are larger than the default font size
 4 uses the default size
 5 and 6 use smaller font sizes

<head> <title> Headings </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Aidan‘s Airplanes (h1) </h1>
<h2> The best in used airplanes (h2) </h2>
<h3> "We‘ve got them by the hangarful" (h3)
</h3>
<h4> We‘re the guys to see for a good used
airplane (h4) </h4>
<h5> We offer great prices on great planes
(h5) </h5>
<h6> No returns, no guarantees, no refunds,
all sales are final (h6) </h6>
</body>
</html>
 Blockquotes
 Content of <blockquote>
 To set a block of text off from the normal flow and appearance of text
 Browsers often indent, and sometimes italicize
 Font Styles and Sizes (can be nested)
 Boldface - <b>
 Italics - <i>
 Larger - <big>
 Smaller - <small>
 Monospace - <tt>
The <big> sleet <big> in <big> <i> Crete
</i><br /> lies </big> completely </big>
in </big> the street
The sleet in Crete
lies completely in the street
 These tags are not affected if they appear in the content of a
<blockquote>, unless there is a conflict (e.g., italics)
 Superscripts and subscripts
 Subscripts with <sub>
 Superscripts with <sup>
Example: x<sub>2</sub><sup>3</sup>
Display: x23
 Inline versus block elements
 All of this font size and font style stuff can be done with style sheets, but these
tags are not yet deprecated
 Character Entities
Char. Entity Meaning
& & Ampersand
< < Less than

> > Greater than
” " Double quote
’ ' Single quote
¼ ¼ One quarter
½ ½ One half
¾ ¾ Three quarters
 ° Degree
(space) Non-breaking space
 Horizontal rules
 <hr /> draws a line across the display, after a line break
 The meta element (for search engines) Used to provide additional
information about a document, with attributes, not content
Images
 GIF (Graphic Interchange Format)
 8-bit color (256 different colors)
 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
 24-bit color (16 million different colors)
 Both use compression, but JPEG compression is better
 Images are inserted into a document with the <img /> tag with the src
attribute
 The alt attribute is required by XHTML
 Purposes:
1. Non-graphical browsers
2. Browsers with images turned off
<img src = "comets.jpg"
alt = "Picture of comets" />
 The <img> tag has 30 different attributes, including width and height (in
pixels)
 Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
 Relatively new
 Should eventually replace both gif and jpeg
Eg:

<head> <title> Images </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Aidan's Airplanes </h1>

<h2> The best in used airplanes </h2>
<h3> "We've got them by the hangarful"
</h3>
<h2> Special of the month </h2>
<p>
1960 Cessna 210 <br />
577 hours since major engine overhaul
<br />
1022 hours since prop overhaul
<br /><br />
<img src = "c210new.jpg"
alt = "Picture of a Cessna 210"/>
<br />
Buy this fine airplane today at a
remarkably low price <br />
Call 999-555-1111 today!
</p>
</body>
</html>
2.2 Hypertext Links

• Hypertext is the essence of the Web!

• A link is specified with the href (hypertext reference) attribute of <a> (the
anchor tag)
• The content of <a> is the visual link in the document
• If the target is a whole document (not the one in which the link
appears), the target need not be specified in the target document as
being the target
• Note: Relative addressing of targets is easier to maintain and more portable
than absolute addressing

<head> <title> Links </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Aidan's Airplanes </h1>
<h2> The best in used airplanes </h2>
<h3> "We've got them by the hangarful"
</h3>
<h2> Special of the month </h2>
<p>
1960 Cessna 210 <br />
<a href = "C210data.html">
Information on the Cessna 210 </a>
</p>
</body>
</html>
• If the target is not at the beginning of the document, the target spot must be
marked
• Target labels can be defined in many different tags with the id attribute, as in
<h1 id = "baskets"> Baskets </h1>
• The link to an id must be preceded by a pound sign (#); If the id is in the
same document, this target could be
<a href = "#baskets">
What about baskets? </a>
• If the target is in a different document, the document reference must be
included
<a href = "myAd.html#baskets”> Baskets </a>
• Style note: a link should blend in with the surrounding text, so reading it
without taking the link should not be made less pleasant
• Links can have images:
<a href = "c210data.html“>
<img src = "smallplane.jpg"
alt = "Small picture of an airplane " />
Info on C210 </a>
UNIT – 2: XHTML – 2: CSS: XHTML (continued..)

Lists; Tables;
Forms; Frames;
CSS: Introduction; Levels of style sheets; Property value forms;
Style specification formats; Selector forms;
Font properties; List properties;
Color; Alignment of text;

The Box model; Background images; The and tags; Conflict resolution.
2.1 Lists
• Unordered lists
• The list is the content of the <ul> tag
• List elements are the content of the <li> tag
<h3> Some Common Single-Engine Aircraft </h3>
<ul>
<li> Cessna Skyhawk </li>
<li> Beechcraft Bonanza </li>
<li> Piper Cherokee </li>
</ul>
• Ordered lists
• The list is the content of the <ol> tag
• Each item in the display is preceded by a sequence value
<h3> Cessna 210 Engine Starting Instructions
</h3>
<ol>
<li> Set mixture to rich </li>
<li> Set propeller to high RPM </li>

<li> Set ignition switch to "BOTH" </li>
<li> Set auxiliary fuel pump switch to
"LOW PRIME" </li>
<li> When fuel pressure reaches 2 to 2.5
PSI, push starter button </li>
</ol>
 Definition lists (for glossaries, etc.)

 List is the content of the <dl> tag
 Terms being defined are the content of the <dt> tag
 The definitions themselves are the content of the <dd> tag
<h3> Single-Engine Cessna Airplanes </h3>
<dl >
<dt> 152 </dt>
<dd> Two-place trainer </dd>
<dt> 172 </dt>
<dd> Smaller four-place airplane </dd>
<dt> 182 </dt>
<dd> Larger four-place airplane </dd>
<dt> 210 </dt>
<dd> Six-place airplane - high performance
</dd>
</dl>
2.2 Tables
• A table is a matrix of cells, each possibly having content
• The cells can include almost any element
• Some cells have row or column labels and some have data
• A table is specified as the content of a <table> tag
• A border attribute in the <table> tag specifies a border between the cells
• If border is set to "border", the browser‘s default width border is used
• The border attribute can be set to a number, which will be the border width
• Without the border attribute, the table will have no lines!
• Tables are given titles with the <caption> tag, which can immediately follow
<table>
• Each row of a table is specified as the content of a <tr> tag
• The row headings are specified as the content of a <th> tag
• The contents of a data cell is specified as the content of a <td> tag
<table border = "border">

<caption> Fruit Juice Drinks </caption>
<tr>
<th> </th>
<th> Apple </th>
<th> Orange </th>
<th> Screwdriver </th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> Breakfast </th>
<td> 0 </td>
<td> 1 </td>
<td> 0 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> Lunch </th>
<td> 1 </td>
<td> 0 </td>
<td> 0 </td>
</tr>
</table>
 A table can have two levels of column labels

 If so, the colspan attribute must be set in the <th> tag to specify that the
label must span some number of columns
<tr>
<th colspan = "3"> Fruit Juice Drinks </th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> Orange </th>
<th> Apple </th>
</tr>
• If the rows have labels and there is a spanning column label, the upper left corner
must be made larger, using rowspan
<table border = "border">

<tr>
<td rowspan = "2"> </td>

<th colspan = "3"> Fruit Juice Drinks
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> Apple </th>
<th> Orange </th>
</tr>
…
</table>
 The align attribute controls the horizontal placement of the contents in a table cell
 Values are left, right, and center (default)
 align is an attribute of <tr>, <th>, and <td> elements
 The valign attribute controls the vertical placement of the contents of a table cell
 Values are top, bottom, and center (default)
 valign is an attribute of <th> and <td> elements
 SHOW cell_align.html and display it
• The cellspacing attribute of <table> is used to specify the distance between cells
in a table
 The cellpadding attribute of <table> is used to specify the spacing between the
content of a cell and the inner walls of the cell
<table cellspacing = "50">
<tr>
<td> Colorado is a state of …
</td>
<td> South Dakota is somewhat…
</td>
</tr>
</table>
- Table Sections
- Header, body, and footer, which are the elements: thead, tbody, and tfoot
- If a document has multiple tbody elements, they are separated by thicker
horizontal lines
2.3 Forms
 A form is the usual way information is gotten from a browser to a server
 HTML has tags to create a collection of objects that implement this information
gathering
 The objects are called widgets (e.g., radio buttons and checkboxes)
 When the Submit button of a form is clicked, the form‘s values are sent to the
server
 All of the widgets, or components of a form are defined in the content of a
<form> tag
 The only required attribute of <form> is action, which specifies the URL
of the application that is to be called when the Submit button is clicked
action =
"http://www.cs.ucp.edu/cgi-bin/survey.pl"
 If the form has no action, the value of action is the empty string
 The method attribute of <form> specifies one of the two possible techniques of
transferring the form data to the server, get and post
 get and post are discussed in Chapter 10
 Widgets
 Many are created with the <input> tag
 The type attribute of <input> specifies the kind of widget being
created
 Text
 Creates a horizontal box for text input

 Default size is 20; it can be changed with the size attribute
 If more characters are entered than will fit, the box is
scrolled (shifted) left
 If you don‘t want to allow the user to type more characters than will fit, set
maxlength, which causes excess input to be ignored
<input type = "text" name = "Phone"
size = "12" >
2. Checkboxes - to collect multiple choice input
 Every checkbox requires a value attribute, which is the widget‘s value in
the form data when the checkbox is ‗checked‘
 A checkbox that is not ‗checked‘ contributes no value to the form
data
 By default, no checkbox is initially ‗checked‘
 To initialize a checkbox to ‗checked‘, the checked attribute must be set to
"checked"
 Widgets (continued)
Grocery Checklist
<form action = "">
<p>
<input type = "checkbox" name ="groceries"
value = "milk" checked = "checked">
Milk
<input type = "checkbox" name ="groceries"
value = "bread">
Bread
<input type = "checkbox" name = "groceries"
value= "eggs">
Eggs
</p>
</form>
3. Radio Buttons - collections of checkboxes in which only one button can be ‗checked‘
at a time
 Every button in a radio button group MUST have the same name
 Widgets (continued)
3. Radio Buttons (continued)
 If no button in a radio button group is ‗pressed‘, the browser often
‗presses‘ the first one
Age Category
<form action = "">
<p>
<input type = "radio" name = "age"
value = "under20" checked = "checked"> 0-19
value = "20-35"> 20-35
value = "36-50"> 36-50
value = "over50"> Over 50
</p>
</form>
4. Menus - created with <select> tags

 There are two kinds of menus, those that behave like checkboxes and those that
behave like radio buttons (the default)
 Menus that behave like checkboxes are specified by including the multiple
attribute, which must be set to "multiple"
 The name attribute of <select> is required
 The size attribute of <select> can be included to specify the number of menu
items to be displayed (the default is 1)
 If size is set to > 1 or if multiple is specified, the menu is displayed as a
pop-up menu
Menus (continued)
 Each item of a menu is specified with an <option> tag, whose pure text
content (no tags) is the value of the item
 An <option> tag can include the selected attribute, which when assigned
"selected‖ specifies that the item is preselected
Grocery Menu - milk, bread, eggs, cheese
<form action = "">
<p>
With size = 1 (the default)

<select name = "groceries">
<option> milk </option>
<option> bread </option>
<option> eggs </option>
<option> cheese </option>
</select>
</p>
</form>
- Widgets (continued)
 After clicking the menu:
 After changing size to 2:
- Widgets (continued)
5. Text areas - created with <textarea>
 Usually include the rows and cols attributes to specify the size of the text
area
 Default text can be included as the content of <textarea>
 Scrolling is implicit if the area is overfilled
Please provide your employment aspirations
<form action = "">
<p>
<textarea name = "aspirations" rows = "3‖
cols = "40">
(Be brief and concise)
</textarea>
</p>
</form>
 Widgets (continued)
6. Reset and Submit buttons
 Both are created with <input>
<input type = "reset" value = "Reset Form">
<input type = "submit‖ value = "Submit Form">
 Submit has two actions:
1. Encode the data of the form
2. Request that the server execute the server-resident program specified as
the value of the action attribute of <form>
3. A Submit button is required in every form
--> SHOW popcorn.html and display it
2.4 Frames
• Frames are rectangular sections of the display window, each of which can display
a different document
• Because frames are no longer part of XHTML, you cannot validate a document
that includes frames
• The <frameset> tag specifies the number of frames and their layout in the window
• <frameset> takes the place of <body>
• Cannot have both!
• <frameset> must have either a rows attribute or a cols attribute, or both
(usually the case)
• Default is 1
• The possible values for rows and cols are numbers, percentages, and
asterisks
• A number value specifies the row height in pixels - Not terribly
useful!
• A percentage specifies the percentage of total window height for

the row - Very useful!
 An asterisk after some other specification gives the remainder of the
height of the window
 Examples:
<frameset rows = "150, 200, 300">
<frameset rows = "25%, 50%, 25%">
<frameset rows = "50%, 20%, *" >
<frameset rows = "50%, 25%, 25%"

cols = "40%, *">
 The <frame> tag specifies the content of a frame
 The first <frame> tag in a <frameset> specifies the content of the first frame, etc.
 Row-major order is used
 Frame content is specified with the src attribute
 Without a src attribute, the frame will be empty (such a frame CANNOT
be filled later)
 If <frameset> has fewer <frame> tags than frames, the extra frames are empty
 Scrollbars are implicitly included if needed (they are needed if the specified
document will not fit)
 If a name attribute is included, the content of the frame can be changed later (by
selection of a link in some other frame)
SHOW frames.html
 Note: the Frameset standard must be specified in the DOCTYPE declaration
Eg:

<head> <title> Table of Contents Frame
</title>
</head>
<body>
<h4> Fruits </h4>
<ul>
<li> <a href = "apples.html"
target = "descriptions">
apples </a>
<li> <a href = "bananas.html"
bananas </a>
<li> <a href = "oranges.html"
oranges </a>
</ul>
</body>
</html>
 Nested frames - to divide the screen in more interesting ways
 SHOW nested_frames.html
2.5 Introduction
 The CSS1 specification was developed in 1996
 CSS2 was released in 1998
 CSS3 is on its way
 CSSs provide the means to control and change presentation of HTML documents
 CSS is not technically HTML, but can be embedded in HTML documents
 Style sheets allow you to impose a standard style on a whole document, or even a
whole collection of documents
 Style is specified for a tag by the values of its properties
2.6 Levels of Style Sheets
 There are three levels of style sheets
• Inline - specified for a specific occurrence of a tag and apply only to that
tag
– This is fine-grain style, which defeats the purpose of style sheets -
uniform style
• Document-level style sheets - apply to the whole document in which they
appear
• External style sheets - can be applied to any number of documents
 When more than one style sheet applies to a specific tag in a document, the lowest
level style sheet has precedence
• In a sense, the browser searches for a style property spec, starting with
inline, until it finds one (or there isn‘t one)
 Inline style sheets appear in the tag itself

 Document-level style sheets appear in the head of the document

 External style sheets are in separate files, potentially on any server on the Internet
 Written as text files with the MIME type text/css
2.7 Linking an External Stylesheet
 A <link> tag is used to specify that the browser is to fetch and use an external
style sheet file
<link rel = "stylesheet" type = "text/css"
href = "http://www.wherever.org/termpaper.css">
</link>
- External style sheets can be validated
http://jigsaw.w3.org/css-validator/
validator-upload.html
2.8 Style Specification Formats
 Format depends on the level of the style sheet
 Inline:
 Style sheet appears as the value of the style attribute
 General form:
style = "property_1: value_1;
property_2: value_2;
…
property_n: value_n"
2.9 Format for Document-level
 Style sheet appears as a list of rules that are the content of a <style> tag
 The <style> tag must include the type attribute, set to "text/css"
 The list of rules must be placed in an HTML comment, because it is not HTML
 Comments in the rule list must have a different form - use C comments (/*…*/)
2.10 General Form, Document Level
 General form:
<style type = "text/css">

</style>
 Form of the rules:
selector {list of property/values}
 Each property/value pair has the form:
property: value
 Pairs are separated by semicolons, just as in the value of a <style> tag
General Form, External style sheets
 Form is a list of style rules, as in the content of a <style> tag for document-level
style sheets
Selector Forms: Simple
• The selector is a tag name or a list of tag names, separated by commas
• h1, h3
• p
• Contextual selectors
• ol ol li
Class Selectors
• Used to allow different occurrences of the same tag to use different style
specifications
• A style class has a name, which is attached to a tag name
 p.narrow {property/value list}
 p.wide {property/value list}
• The class you want on a particular occurrence of a tag is specified with the class
attribute of the tag
• For example,
<p class = "narrow">
...
</p>
...
<p class = "wide">
...
</p>
Generic Selectors
• A generic class can be defined if you want a style to apply to more than one kind
of tag
• A generic class must be named, and the name must begin with a period
 Example,
.really-big { … }
 Use it as if it were a normal style class
<h1 class = "really-big"> … </h1>
...
<p class = "really-big"> … </p>
id Selectors
 An id selector allow the application of a style to one specific element
 General form:
#specific-id {property-value list}
 Example:
#section14 {font-size: 20}
Pseudo Classes
 Pseudo classes are styles that apply when something happens, rather than because
the target element simply exists
 Names begin with colons
 hover classes apply when the mouse cursor is over the element
 focus classes apply when an element has focus
Pseudo Class Example


<html xmlns = "http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head> <title> Checkboxes </title>
<style type = "text/css">
input:hover {color: red;}
input:focus {color: green;}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<form action = "">
<p>
Your name:
<input type = "text" />
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>
Properties
 There are 60 different properties in 7 categories:
 Fonts
 Lists
 Alignment of text
 Margins
 Colors
 Backgrounds
 Borders
Property Values
 Keywords - left, small, …
 Not case sensitive
 Length - numbers, maybe with decimal points
 Units:
 px - pixels
 in - inches
 cm - centimeters
 mm - millimeters
 pt - points
 pc - picas (12 points)
 em - height of the letter ‗m‘
 ex-height - height of the letter ‗x‘
 No space is allowed between the number and the unit specification e.g.,
1.5 in is illegal!
 Percentage - just a number followed immediately by a percent sign
 URL values
 url(protocol://server/pathname)
 Colors
 Color name
rgb(n1, n2, n3)
 Numbers can be decimal or percentages
 Hex form: #XXXXXX
 Property values are inherited by all nested tags, unless overridden
Font Properties
 font-family
 Value is a list of font names - browser uses the first in the list it has
 font-family: Arial, Helvetica, Courier
 Generic fonts: serif, sans-serif, cursive, fantasy, and monospace (defined
in CSS)
 Browser has a specific font for each
 If a font name has more than one word, it should be single-quoted
 font-size
 Possible values: a length number or a name, such as smaller, xx-large, etc.
 font-style
 italic, oblique (useless), normal
 font-weight - degrees of boldness
 bolder, lighter, bold, normal
 Could specify as a multiple of 100 (100 – 900)
 font
 For specifying a list of font properties
font: bolder 14pt Arial Helvetica
 Order must be: style, weight, size, name(s)
 > SHOW fonts.html and display
 > SHOW fonts2.html and display

 The text-decoration property
 line-through, overline, underline, none
 letter-spacing – value is any length property value
List properties
 list-style-type
 Unordered lists
 Bullet can be a disc (default), a square, or a circle
 Set it on either the <ul> or <li> tag
 On <ul>, it applies to list items
<ul style = "list-style-type: square">
<li> Cessna Skyhawk </li>
<li> Beechcraft Bonanza </li>
<li> Piper Cherokee </li>
</ul>
 On <li>, list-style-type applies to just that item

<ul>
<li style = "list-style-type: disc">
Cessna Skyhawk </li>
<li style = "list-style-type: square">
Beechcraft Bonanza </li>
<li style = "list-style-type: circle">
Piper Cherokee </li>
</ul>
 Could use an image for the bullets in an unordered list

 Example:
<li style = "list-style-image:
url(bird.jpg)">
 On ordered lists - list-style-type can be used to change the sequence
values
Property valueSequence type First four
Decimal Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3, 4
upper-alpha Uc letters A, B, C, D
lower-alpha Lc letters a, b, c, d
upper-roman Uc Roman I, II, III, IV
lower-roman Lc Roman i, ii, iii, iv
 SHOW sequence_types.html and display
 CSS2 has more, like lower-greek and hebrew
Colors
 Color is a problem for the Web for two reasons:
1. Monitors vary widely
2. Browsers vary widely
- There are three color collections
1. There is a set of 16 colors that are guaranteed to be displayable by all
graphical browsers on all color monitors
black 000000 green 008000
silver C0C0C0 lime 00FF00
gray 808080 olive 808000
white FFFFFF yellow FFFF00
maroon 800000 navy 000080
red FF0000 blue 0000FF
purple 800080 teal 008080
fuchia FF00FF aqua 00FFFF
2. There is a much larger set, the Web Palette
 216 colors
 Use hex color values of 00, 33, 66, 99, CC, and FF
 Inside back cover of this book has them!
3. Any one of 16 million different colors
 The color property specifies the foreground color of elements
<style type = ―text/css‖>

th.red {color: red}
th.orange {color: orange}
</style>
…
<table border = "5">
<tr>
<th class = "red"> Apple </th>
<th class = "orange"> Orange </th>
<th class = "orange"> Screwdriver </th>
</tr>
</table>
 The background-color property specifies the background color of elements
 SHOW back_color.html and display
Alignment of Text
 The text-indent property allows indentation
 Takes either a length or a % value
 The text-align property has the possible values, left (the default), center, right, or
justify
 Sometimes we want text to flow around another element - the float property
 The float property has the possible values, left, right, and none (the
default)
 If we have an element we want on the right, with text flowing on its left,
we use the default text-align value (left) for the text and the right value for
float on the element we want on the right
<img src = "c210.jpg"
style = "float: right" />
 Some text with the default alignment - left
The Box Model

 Borders – every element has a border-style property
 Controls whether the element has a border and if so, the style of the border
 border-style values: none, dotted, dashed, and double
 border-width – thin, medium (default), thick, or a length value in pixels
 Border width can be specified for any of the four borders (e.g., border-top-
width)
 border-color – any color
 Border color can be specified for any of the four borders (e.g., border-top-
color)
SHOW borders.html and display
 Margin – the space between the border of an element and its neighbor element
 The margins around an element can be set with margin-left, etc. - just assign them
a length value
<img src = "c210.jpg " style = "float: right;
margin-left: 0.35in;
margin-bottom: 0.35in" />
 Padding – the distance between the content of an element and its border
 Controlled by padding, padding-left, etc.
SHOW marpads.html and display
Background Images
 The background-image property

SHOW back_image.html and display
 Repetition can be controlled
 background-repeat property
 Possible values: repeat (default), no-repeat, repeat-x, or repeat-y
 background-position property
 Possible values: top, center, bottom, left, or right
The <span> and <div> tags
 One problem with the font properties is that they apply to whole elements, which
are often too large
 Solution: a new tag to define an element in the content of a larger element
- <span>
 The default meaning of <span> is to leave the content as it is
<p>
Now is the <span> best time </span> ever!
</p>
 Use <span> to apply a document style sheet to its content
<style type = "text/css">?
bigred {font-size: 24pt;
font-family: Ariel; color: red}
</style>
<p>
Now is the
<span class = "bigred">
best time </span> ever!
</p>
 The <span> tag is similar to other HTML tags, they can be nested and
 they have id and class attributes
 Another tag that is useful for style specifications: <div>
 Used to create document sections (or divisions) for which style can be
specified
 e.g., A section of five paragraphs for which you want some
particular style
Conflict Resolution
 When two or more rules apply to the same tag there are rules for deciding which
rule applies
 Document level
 In-line style sheets have precedence over document style sheets
 Document style sheets have precedence over external style sheets
 Within the same level there can be conflicts
 A tag may be used twice as a selector
 A tag may inherit a property and also be used as a selector
 Style sheets can have different sources
 The author of a document may specify styles
 The user, through browser settings, may specify styles
 Individual properties can be specified as important
Precedence Rules
 From highest to lowest
1. Important declarations with user origin
2. Important declarations with author origin
3. Normal declarations with author origin
4. Normal declarations with user origin
5. Any declarations with browser (or other user agent) origin
Tie-Breakers
 Specificity
1. id selectors
2. Class and pseudo-class selectors
3. Contextual selectors
4. General selectors
 Position
1. Essentially, later has precedence over earlier
UNIT 3: JAVASCRIPT:
Syllabus:
Overview of Javascript; Object orientation and Javascript
General syntactic characteristics; Primitives,
operations, and expressions; Screen output and keyboard input;
Control statements; Object creation and modification; Arrays;
Functions; Constructor;
Pattern matching using regular expressions; Errors in scripts;
Examples.
Basics of JavaScript
4.1 Overview of JavaScript: Origins
 Livescript
 Originally developed by Netscape
 Joint Development with Sun Microsystems in 1995
 Supported by Netscape, Mozilla, Internet Exploer
4.1 JavaScript Components
 Core
 The heart of the language
 Client-side
 Library of objects supporting browser control and user interaction EG:
mouse clicks
 Server-side
 Library of objects that support use in web servers
 Eg: commun. With database management system
4.1 Java and JavaScript
 Differences
 JavaScript has a different object model from Java
 JavaScript is not strongly typed
 Java 1.6 has support for scripting
 http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/technotes/guides/scripting/index.html
 Mozilla Rhino is an implementation of JavaScript in Java
 http://www.mozilla.org/rhino/
4.1 Uses of JavaScript
 Provide alternative to server-side programming
 Servers are often overloaded
 Client processing has quicker reaction time
JavaScript can work with forms
 JavaScript can interact with the internal model of the web page (Document Object
Model)
 JavaScript is used to provide more complex user interface than plain forms with
HTML/CSS can provide
 http://www.protopage.com/ is an interesting example
 A number of toolkits are available. Dojo, found at http://dojotoolkit.org/,
is one example
4.1 Event-Driven Computation
 Users actions, such as mouse clicks and key presses, are referred to as events
 The main task of most JavaScript programs is to respond to events
 For example, a JavaScript program could validate data in a form before it is
submitted to a server
 Caution: It is important that crucial validation be done by the server. It is
relatively easy to bypass client-side controls
 For example, a user might create a copy of a web page but remove all the
validation code.
4.1 XHTML/JavaScript Documents
 When JavaScript is embedded in an XHTML document, the browser must
interpret it
 Two locations for JavaScript server different purposes
 JavaScript in the head element will react to user input and be called from
other locations
 JavaScript in the body element will be executed once as the page is loaded
 Various strategies must be used to ‗protect‘ the JavaScript from the browser
 For example, comparisons present a problem since < and > are used to
mark tags in XHTML
 JavaScript code can be enclosed in XHTML comments
 JavaScript code can be enclosed in a CDATA section
4.2 Object Orientation and JavaScript
 JavaScript is object-based
 JavaScript defines objects that encapsulate both data and processing
 However, JavaScript does not have true inheritance nor subtyping
 JavaScript provides prototype-based inheritance
 See, for example this Wikipedia article for a discussion:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype-based_languages
4.2 JavaScript Objects
 Objects are collections of properties
 Properties are either data properties or method properties
 Data properties are either primitive values or references to other objects
 Primitive values are often implemented directly in hardware
 The Object object is the ancestor of all objects in a JavaScript program
 Object has no data properties, but several method properties

4.3 JavaScript in XHTML
 Directly embedded
<script type=“text/javascript”>

</script>
 However, note that a-- will not be allowed here!
 Indirect reference
<script type=“text/javascript” src=“tst_number.js”/>
 This is the preferred approach
4.3 JavaScript in XHTML: CDATA
 The <![CDATA[ … ]]> block is intended to hold data that should not be
interpreted as XHTML
 Using this should allow any data (including special symbols and --) to be included
in the script
 This, however does not work, at least in Firefox:
<![CDATA[
…JavaScript here…
]]>
</script>
 The problem seems to be that the CDATA tag causes an internal JavaScript error
 This does work in Firefox
/*<![CDATA[ */
…JavaScript here…
/*]]> */
</script>
 The comment symbols do not bother the XML parser (only /* and */ are ‗visible‘
to it)
 The comment symbols protect the CDATA markers from the JavaScript parser
4.3 General Syntactic Characteristics
 Identifiers
 Start with $, _, letter
 Continue with $, _, letter or digit
 Case sensitive
 Reserved words
 Comments
//
/* … */
4.3 Statement Syntax
 Statements can be terminated with a semicolon
 However, the interpreter will insert the semicolon if missing at the end of a line
and the statement seems to be complete
 Can be a problem:
return
x;
 If a statement must be continued to a new line, make sure that the first line does
not make a complete statement by itself
 Example hello.html
4.4 Primitive Types
 Five primitive types
 Number
 String
 Boolean
 Undefined
 Null
 There are five classes corresponding to the five primitive types
 Wrapper objects for primitive values
 Place for methods and properties relevant to the primitive types
 Primitive values are coerced to the wrapper class as necessary, and vice-
versa
4.4 Primitive and Object Storage
4.4 Numeric
and String Literals
 Number values are represented internally as double-precision floating-point
values
 Number literals can be either integer or float
 Float values may have a decimal and/or and exponent
 A String literal is delimited by either single or double quotes

 There is no difference between single and double quotes
 Certain characters may be escaped in strings
 \‘ or \‖ to use a quote in a string delimited by the same quotes
 \\ to use a literal backspace
 The empty string ‗‘ or ―‖ has no characters
4.4 Other Primitive Types
 Null
 A single value, null
 null is a reserved word
 A variable that is used but has not been declared nor been assigned a value
has a null value
 Using a null value usually causes an error
 Undefined
 A single value, undefined
 However, undefined is not, itself, a reserved word
 The value of a variable that is declared but not assigned a value
 Boolean
 Two values: true and false
4.4 Declaring Variables
 JavaScript is dynamically typed, that is, variables do not have declared types
 A variable can hold different types of values at different times during
program execution
 A variable is declared using the keyword var
var counter,
index,
pi = 3.14159265,
quarterback = "Elway",
stop_flag = true;
4.4 Numeric Operators
 Standard arithmetic
+ * - / %
 Increment and decrement
-- ++
 Increment and decrement differ in effect when used before and after a
variable
 Assume that a has the value 3, initially
 (++a) * 3 has the value 24
 (a++) * 3 has the value 27
a has the final value 8 in either case
4.4 Precedence of Operators
Operators Associativity
++, --, unary - Right
*, /, % Left
+, - Left
>, <, >= ,<= Left

4.4 Example of Precedence
==, != Left var a = 2,
b = 4,
c,
===,!== Left
d;
c = 3 + a * b;
&& Left
// * is first, so c is now 11 (not
24)
|| Left d = b / a / 2;
// / associates left, so d is now
=, +=, -=, *=, Right 1 (not 4)
/=, &&=, ||=, 4.4 The Math Object
%=  Provides a collection
of properties and
methods useful for Number values
 This includes the trigonometric functions such as sin and cos
 When used, the methods must be qualified, as in Math.sin(x)
4.4 The Number Object
 Properties
 MAX_VALUE
 MIN_VALUE
 NaN
 POSITIVE_INFINITY
 NEGATIVE_INFINITY
 PI
 Operations resulting in errors return NaN
 Use isNaN(a) to test if a is NaN
 toString method converts a number to string
4.4 String Catenation
 The operation + is the string catenation operation
//sampleDTD.xml
<?xml version = "1.0" encoding = "utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE vtu_stud_info SYSTEM "vtu.dtd">
<VTU>
<students>
<USN> 1RN10CS090 </USN>
<name> Santhosh B S</name>
<college> RNSIT </college>
<branch> CSE </branch>
<year> 2010 </year>
<email> [email protected] </email>
</students>
<students>
<USN> 1RN0IS016 </USN>
<name> Divya K </name>
<branch> ISE </branch>
<year> 2009 </year>
</students>
</VTU>
NAMESPACES
• One problem with using different markup vocabularies in the same document is that
collisions between names that are defined in two or more of those tag sets could result.
• An example of this situation is having a <table> tag for a category of furniture and a
<table> tag from XHTML for information tables.
• Clearly, software systems that process XML documents must be capable of
unambiguously recognizing the element names in those documents.
• To deal with this problem, the W3C has developed a standard for XML namespaces (at
http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names).
• An XML namespace is a collection of element and attribute names used in XML
documents. The name of a namespace usually has the form of a uniform resource
identifier (URI).
• A namespace for the elements and attributes of the hierarchy rooted at a particular
element is declared as the value of the attribute xmlns.
The form of a namespace declaration for an element is
<element_name xmlns[:prefix] = URI>
• The square brackets indicate that what is within them is optional. The prefix, if
included, is the name that must be attached to the names in the declared namespace.
• If the prefix is not included, the namespace is the default for the document.
• A prefix is used for two reasons. First, most URIs are too long to be typed on every
occurrence of every name from the namespace. Second, a URI includes characters that
are invalid in XML.
• Note that the element for which a namespace is declared is usually the root of a
document.
• For ex: all XHTML documents in this notes declare the xmlns namespace on the root
element, html:
<html xmlns = “http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml”>
• This declaration defines the default namespace for XHTML documents, which is
http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml.
• The next example declares two namespaces. The first is declared to be the default
namespace; the
second defines the prefix, cap:
XML SCHEMAS
XML schemas is similar to DTD i.e. schemas are used to define the structure of
the document
o They are used to specify the structure of its instance of XML document, including
which elements and attributes may appear in instance document. It also specifies where
and how often the elements may appear
o The schema specifies the datatype of every element and attributes of XML
namespace-centric
The above is an alternative to the preceding opening tag would be to make the
XMLSchema names the default so that they do not need to be prefixed in the
schema. Then the names in the target namespace would need to be prefixed.
DEFINING A SCHEMA INSTANCE
The above is an alternative to the preceding opening tag would be to make the
XMLSchema names the default so that they do not need to be prefixed in the
schema. Then the names in the target namespace would need to be prefixed.
its schema.
For example, if the root element is planes, we could have
<planes
xmlns = “http://cs.uccs.edu/planeSchema”
... >
he root element of an instance
document is for the schemaLocation attribute. This attribute is used to name the
standard namespace for instances, which includes the name XMLSchema-
instance.
xmlns:xsi = ―http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance‖
the instance document must specify the filename of the schema in which the
default namespace is defined. This is accomplished with the schema Location attribute,
which takes two values: the namespace of the schema and the filename of the schema.
ng everything, we get,
AN OVERVIEW OF DATA TYPES

There are two categories of user-defined schema data types: simple and complex.
Data declarations in an XML schema can be either local or global. schema element.
Global elements
are visible in the whole schema in which they are declared.lement tag.
<xsd:element name = “engine” type = “xsd:string” />
following element:
<engine> inline six cylinder fuel injected </engine>
value with the default attribute:
COMPLEX TYPES
Complex types are defined with the complexType tag. The elements that are the
content of an element-only element must be contained in an ordered group, an
unordered group, a choice, or a named group. The sequence element is used to
contain an ordered group of elements. Example:
A complex type whose elements are an unordered group is defined in an all

element.
Elements in all and
sequence groups can include the minOccurs and maxOccurs attributes to specify
the numbers of occurrences. Example:
<?xml version = “1.0” encoding = “utf-8”?>
An XML instance that conforms to the planes.xsd schema is as follows:

VALIDATING INSTANCES OF SCHEMAS
XSV is an abbreviation for XML Schema Validator. If the schema and the
instance document are available on the Web, xsv can be used online, like the
XHTML validation tool at the W3C Web site. This tool can also be
downloaded and run on any computer. The Web site for xsv is
http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema#XSV.
The output of xsv is an XML document. When the tool is run from the command
line, the output document appears on the screen with no formatting, so it is a
bit difficult to read. The following is the output of xsv run on planes.xml:
DISPLAYING RAW XML DOCUMENTS

If an XML document is displayed without a style sheet that defines presentation styles
for the document‘s tags, the displayed document will not have formatted content.
DISPLAYING XML DOCUMENTS WITH CSS
//6a.xml
<?xml version = "1.0" encoding = "utf-8"?>
<?xml-stylesheet type = "text/css" href = "6a.css"?>

<VTU>
<students>
<name> Santhosh B S</name>
<YOJ> 2010 </YOJ>
</students>
<students>
<name> Akash Bangera </name>
<YOJ> 2010 </YOJ>
</students>
<students>
<name> Manoj Kumar</name>

<branch>CSE </branch>
<YOJ> 2010</YOJ>
</students>
</VTU>
//6a.css
students
{ clear: both; float : left;}
USN
{color: green; }
name
{background: yellow;}
college
{ display: none;}
branch
{color : #cd00dc; text-align:
right;} YOJ
{background : red; color : white;}
email
{ color: blue;}
XSLT STYLE SHEETS
defining the presentation and transformations of XML
documents. o XSL Transformations (XSLT),

o XML Path Language (XPath), and
o XSL Formatting Objects (XSL-FO).
formats, perhaps using different DTDs.
primarily for display. In the transformation of an XML document, the content of

elements can be moved, modified, sorted, and converted to attribute values,
among other things.
formed with the use of other XSLT style sheets.
documents, such as specific elements that are in specific positions in the document
or elements that have particular attribute values.
new XML document structures with XPointer. The XPath standard is given
at http://www.w3.org/TR/xpath.
OVERVIEW OF XSLT
-style programming language.
selection constructs, and conditional expressions for multiple selection.
The XSLT document is the program to be executed; the XML document is the input
data to the program.
possibly modified, and merged with parts of
the XSLT
document to form a new document, which is sometimes called an XSL document.
An XSLT document consists primarily of one or more templates.

Each template describes a function that is executed whenever the XSLT processor
finds a match to thetemplate‘s pattern.
One XSLT model of processing XML data is called the template-driven model,
which works well when the data consists of multiple instances of highly regular
data collections, as with files containingrecords.
XSLT can also deal with irregular and recursive data, using template fragments in
what is called thedata-driven model.
A single XSLT style sheet can include the mechanisms for both the template- and
data- driven models.
XSL TRANSFORMATIONS FOR PRESENTATION
Consider a sample program:
//6b.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/xsl" href="6b.xsl"?>
<vtu>
<student>
<name>Santhosh B S</name>
<usn>1RN10CS090</usn>
<collegeName>RNSIT</collegeName>
<branch>CSE</branch>
<year>2010</year>
</student>
<student>
<name>Akash Bangera</name>
<year>2010</year>
<email>[email protected]</email>
</student>
<student>
<name>Manoj Kumar</name>
<year>2010</year>
<email>[email protected]</email>
</student>
</vtu>
An XML document that is to be used as data to an XSLT style sheet must

include a processing instruction to inform the XSLT processor that the style
sheet is to be used. The form of this instruction is as follows:
//6b.xsl
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">
<xsl:template match="/">
<html>
<body>
<h2>VTU Student Information</h2>
<table border="1">
<tr bgcolor="#99cd32">
<th>name</th>
<th>usn</th>
<th>collegeName</th>
<th>branch</th>
<th>year</th>
<th>email</th>
</tr>
<xsl:for-each select="vtu/student">
<xsl:choose>
<xsl:when test="name = 'Santhosh B S'">
<tr bgcolor="yellow">
<td><xsl:value-of select="name"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="usn"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="collegeName"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="branch"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="year"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="email"/></td>
</tr>
</xsl:when>
<xsl:otherwise>
<tr >
<td><xsl:value-of select="name"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="usn"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="collegeName"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="branch"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="year"/></td>
<td><xsl:value-of select="email"/></td>
</tr>
</xsl:otherwise>
</xsl:choose>
</xsl:for-each>
</table>
<h2>selected student is highlighted</h2>
</body>
</html>
</xsl:template>
</xsl:stylesheet>
An XSLT style sheet is an XML document whose root element is the special-
purpose element stylesheet. The stylesheet tag defines namespaces as its
attributes and encloses
the collection of elements that defines its transformations. It also identifies the
document as an XSLT document.
<xsl:stylesheet
version="1.
0"
xmlns:xsl=”http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform”>
In many XSLT documents, a template is included to match the root node of the
XML document.
<xsl:template match="/">
In many cases, the content of an element of the XML document is to be copied to

the output document. This is done with the value-of element, which uses a select
attribute to specify the element of the XML
document whose contents are to be copied.
<xsl:value-of select="name"/>
The select attribute can specify any node of the XML document. This is an advantage
of XSLT formatting over CSS, in which the order of data as stored is the only
possible order of display.
XML PROCESSORS
The XML processor takes the XML document and DTD and processes the information
so that it may then be used by applications requesting the information. The
processor is a software module that reads the XML document to find out the
structure and content of the XML document. The structure and content can be
derived by the processor because XML documents contain self-explanatory data.
THE PURPOSES OF XML PROCESSORS
-formedness.
their definitions.
specify that their values
in an XML document have default values, which must be copied into the XML
document during processing.
validating parser, the structure of the XML document must be checked to ensure that
it is legitimate.
THE SAX APPROACH
of the document is recognized, the processor

signals an event to the application by calling an event handler for the particular
structure that was found.
closing tags.
THE DOM APPROACH

for HTML and XML
the way a document is accessed
documents. manipulated and
o Programmers can build documents, navigate their structure, and add, modify, or delete
elements and content.
o Provides a standard programming interface that can be used in a wide variety of
environments and applications.
o structural isomorphism.
sequential listing provided by SAX

be accessed
parsers. than once by the more
application.
document, that can most easily be done if the whole document is accessible at the
same time.
ts of the document are possible.
this approach avoids any processing of a document that is later found to be invalid.
WEB SERVICES
A Web service is a method that resides and is executed on a Web server, but that
can be called from any computer on the Web. The standard technologies to
support Web services are WSDL, UDDI, SOAP, and XML.
WSDL - It is used to describe the specific operations provided by the Web service, as
well as the protocols for the messages the Web service can send and receive.
UDDI - also provides ways to query a Web services registry to determine what specific
services are available.
SOAP - was originally an acronym for Standard Object Access Protocol, designed to
describe data objects.
XML - provides a standard way for a group of users to define the structure of their data
documents, using a subject-specific mark-up language.
UNIT - 6: PERL, CGI PROGRAMMING
Origins and uses of Perl; Scalars and their operations

Assignment statements and simple input and output; Control statements;
Fundamentals of arrays; Hashes; References;
Pattern matching; File input and output;
Functions; Examples. The Common Gateway Interface;
CGI linkage; Query string format; CGI.pm module;
A survey example; Cookies. Database access with Perl and MySQL
Origins and uses of Perl

Began in the late 1980s as a more powerful replacement for the capabilities of awk (text
file processing) and sh (UNIX system administration)
- Now includes sockets for communications and modules for OOP, among other things
- Now the most commonly used language for CGI, in part because of its pattern
matching capabilities
- Perl programs are usually processed the same way as many Java programs,
compilation to an intermediate form, followed by interpretation
Scalars and their operations

- Scalars are variables that can store either numbers, strings, or references
(discussed later)
- Numbers are stored in double format; integers are rarely used
- Numeric literals have the same form as in other common languages
Perl has two kinds of string literals, those delimited by double quotes and those delimited
by single quotes
- Single-quoted literals cannot include escape sequences
- Double-quoted literals can include them
- In both cases, the delimiting quote can be embedded by preceding it with a backslash
- If you want a string literal with single-quote characteristics, but don‘t want delimit
it with single quotes, use qx, where x is a new delimiter
- For double quotes, use qq
- If the new delimiter is a parenthesis, a brace, a bracket, or a pointed bracket, the
right delimiter must be the other member of the pair
- A null string can be '' or ""
Scalar type is specified by preceding the name with a $

- Name must begin with a letter; any number of letters, digits, or underscore characters
can follow
- Names are case sensitive
- By convention, names of variables use only lowercase letters
- Names embedded in double-quoted string literals are interpolated
e.g., If the value of $salary is 47500, the value of
"Jack makes $salary dollars per year" is "Jack makes 47500 dollars per year"
- Variables are implicitly declared
- A scalar variable that has not been assigned a value has the value undef (numeric value
is 0; string value is the null string)
- Perl has many implicit variables, the most common
- of which is $_ (Look at perldoc perlvar)
- Numeric Operators
- Like those of C, Java, etc.
Operator Associativity
++, -- nonassociative unary
- right
** right
*, /, % left binary +,
- left
- String Operators
- Catenation - denoted by a period e.g., If the value of $dessert is "apple", the value of
$dessert . " pie" is "apple pie"
- Repetition - denoted by x e.g., If the value of $greeting is "hello ", the value of
- $greeting x 3 is "hello hello hello "
- String Functions
- Functions and operators are closely related in Perl
- e.g., if cube is a predefined function, it can be called with either cube(x) or cube x Name
Parameters Result chomp a string the string w/terminating newline characters removed
length a string the number of characters in the string lc a string the string with uppercase
letters converted to lower uc a string the string with lowercase letters converted to upper
hex a string the decimal value of the hexadecimal number in the
string join a character and the strings catenated a list of strings together with the
character inserted between them
Control statements
In the last chapter you learned how to decode form data, and mail it to yourself.
However, one problem with the guestbook program is that it didn't do any error-
checking or specialized processing. You might not want to get blank forms, or
you may want to
require certain fields to be filled out. You might also want to write a quiz or
questionnaire, and have your program take different actions depending on the
answers. All of these things require some more advanced processing of the form
data, and that will usually involve using control structures in your Perl code.
Control structures include conditional statements, such as if/elsif/else blocks, as well

as loops like foreach, for and while.
If Conditions
You've already seen if/elsif in action. The structure is always started by the word if,
followed by a condition to be evaluated, then a pair of braces indicating the beginning
and end of the code to be executed if the condition is true. The condition is enclosed in
parentheses:
if (condition) {
code to be executed
}
The condition statement can be anything that evaluates to true or false. In Perl, any string is
true except the empty string and 0. Any number is true except 0. An undefined value
(or undef) is false.You can also test whether a certain value equals something, or doesn't
equal something, or is greater than or less than something. There are different conditional
test operators, depending on whether the variable you want to test is a string or a number:
Relational and Equality Operators

Test Numbers Strings
$x is equal to $y $x == $y $x eq $y
$x is not equal to $y $x != $y $x ne $y
$x is greater than $y $x > $y $x gt $y
$x is greater than or equal to $y $x >= $y $x ge $y
$x is less than $y $x < $y $x lt $y
$x is less than or equal to $y $x <= $y $x le $y
If it's a string test, you use the letter operators (eq, ne, lt, etc.), and if it's a numeric
test, you use the symbols (==, !=, etc.). Also, if you are doing numeric tests, keep
in mind that
$x >= $y is not the same as $x => $y. Be sure to use the correct operator!
Here is an example of a numeric test. If $varname is greater than 23, the code inside
the curly braces is executed:
if ($varname > 23) {

# do stuff here if the condition is true
}
If you need to have more than one condition, you can add elsif and else blocks:
if ($varname eq "somestring") {
# do stuff here if the condition is true
}
elsif ($varname eq "someotherstring") {
# do other stuff
}
else {
# do this if none of the other conditions are met
}
The line breaks are not required; this example is just as valid:
if ($varname > 23) {

print "$varname is greater than 23";
} elsif ($varname == 23) {
print "$varname is 23";
} else { print "$varname is less than 23"; }
You can join conditions together by using logical operators:
Logical Operators
Operator Example Explanation
&&condition1 && True if condition1 and condition2 are
condition2 both true
|| condition1 || condition2 True if either condition1 or condition2 is
true
and condition1 and condition2 Same as && but lower precedence or
condition1 or condition2 Same as || but lower precedence
Logical operators are evaluated from left to right. Precedence indicates which
operator is evaluated first, in the event that more than one operator appears on one
line. In a case like this:
condition1 || condition2 && condition3
condition2 && condition3 is evaluated first, then the result of that evaluation is used in the ||
evaluation.
and and or work the same way as && and ||, although they have lower precedence than their
symbolic counterparts.
Unless
unless is similar to if.

Let's say you wanted to execute code only if a certain condition were
false. You could do something like this:
if ($varname != 23) {
# code to execute if $varname is not 23
}
The same test can be done using unless:
unless ($varname == 23) {

}
There is no "elseunless", but you can use an else clause:
unless ($varname == 23) {

} else {
# code to execute if $varname IS 23
}
Validating Form Data

You should always validate data submitted on a form; that is, check to see that the form
fields aren't blank, and that the data submitted is in the format you expected. This is
typically done with if/elsif blocks.
Here are some examples. This condition checks to see if the "name" field isn't blank:
if (param('name') eq "") {
&dienice("Please fill out the field for your name.");
}
You can also test multiple fields at the same time:
if (param('name') eq "" or param('email') eq "") {

&dienice("Please fill out the fields for your name
and email address.");
}
The above code will return an error if either the name or email fields are left blank.
param('fieldname') always returns one of the following:
undef — or fieldname is not defined in the form itself, or it's a

undefined checkbox/radio button field that wasn't checked.
fieldname exists in the form but the user didn't type anything
the empty string
into that field (for text fields)
one or more
whatever the user typed into the field(s)
values
If your form has more than one field containing the same fieldname, then the values
are stored sequentially in an array, accessed by param('fieldname').
You should always validate all form data — even fields that are submitted as hidden
fields in your form. Don't assume that your form is always the one calling your program.
Any external site can send data to your CGI. Never trust form input data.
Looping
Loops allow you to repeat code for as long as a condition is met. Perl has several loop
control structures: foreach, for, while and until.
Foreach Loops
foreach iterates through a list of values:
foreach my $i (@arrayname) {
# code here
}
This loops through each element of @arrayname, setting $i to the current array element for
each pass through the loop. You may omit the loop variable $i:
foreach (@arrayname) {
# $_ is the current array element
This sets the special Perl variable $_ to each array element. $_ does not need to
be declared (it's part of the Perl language) and its scope localized to the loop itself.
For Loops
Perl also supports C-style for loops:
for ($i = 1; $i < 23; $i++) {

# code here
}
The for statement uses a 3-part conditional: the loop initializer; the loop condition (how
long to run the loop); and the loop re-initializer (what to do at the end of each iteration of
the loop). In the above example, the loop initializes with $i being set to 1. The loop will
run for as long as $i is less than 23, and at the end of each iteration $i is incremented by 1
using the auto-increment operator (++).
The conditional expressions are optional. You can do infinite loops by omitting all three
conditions:
for (;;) {
# code here
}
You can also write infinite loops with while.
While Loops
A while loop executes as long as particular condition is true:
while (condition) {
# code to run as long as condition is true
}
Until Loops
until is the reverse of while. It executes as long as a particular condition is NOT true:
until (condition) {
# code to run as long as condition is not true
Infinite Loops
An infinite loop is usually written like so:
while (1) {
# code here
}
Obviously unless you want your program to run forever, you'll need some way to
break out of these infinite loops. We'll look at breaking next.
Breaking from Loops
There are several ways to break from a loop. To stop the current loop iteration (and
move on to the next one), use the next command:
foreach my $i (1..20) {
if ($i == 13) {
next;
}
print "$i\n";
}
This example prints the numbers from 1 to 20, except for the number 13. When it
reaches 13, it skips to the next iteration of the loop.
To break out of a loop entirely, use the last command:
foreach my $i (1..20) {
if ($i == 13) {
last;
}
print "$i\n";
}
This example prints the numbers from 1 to 12, then terminates the loop when it reaches 13.
next and last only effect the innermost loop structure, so if you have something like this:
foreach my $i (@list1) {
foreach my $j (@list2) {
if ($i == 5 && $j == 23) {
last;
}
}
# this is where that last sends you
}
The last command only terminates the innermost loop. If you want to break out of
the outer loop, you need to use loop labels:
OUTER: foreach my $i (@list1) {

INNER: foreach my $j (@list2) {
if ($i == 5 && $j == 23) {
last OUTER;
}
}
}
# this is where that last sends you
The loop label is a string that appears before the loop command (foreach, for, or
while). In this example we used OUTER as the label for the outer foreach loop
and INNER for the inner loop label.
Now that you've seen the various types of Perl control structures, let's look at how
to apply them to handling advanced form data.
Fundamentals of arrays
An array stores an ordered list of values. While a scalar variable can only store one
value, an array can store many. Perl array names are prefixed with an @-
sign. Here is an example:
my @colors = ("red","green","blue");
Each individual item (or element) of an array may be referred to by its index
number. Array indices start with 0, so to access the first element of the array
@colors, you use
$colors[0]. Notice that when you're referring to a single element of an array, you
prefix the name with $ instead of @. The $-sign again indicates that it's a single
(scalar) value; the @-sign means you're talking about the entire array.
If you want to loop through an array, printing out all of the values, you could print
each element one at a time:
print "$colors[0]\n"; # prints "red"

print "$colors[1]\n"; # prints "green"
print "$colors[2]\n"; # prints "blue"
A much easier way to do this is to use a
foreach loop:
foreach my $i (@colors) {
print "$i\n";
}
For each iteration of the foreach loop, $i is set to an element of the @colors array. In
this example, $i is "red" the first time through the loop. The braces {} define
where the loop begins and ends, so for any code appearing between the braces,
$i is set to the current loop iterator.
Notice we've used my again here to declare the variables. In the foreach loop, my
$i declares the loop iterator ($i) and also limits its scope to the foreach loop itself.
After the loop completes, $i no longer exists.
We'll cover loops more in Chapter
5. Getting Data Into And Out
Of Arrays
An array is an ordered list of elements. You can think of it like a group of

people standing in line waiting to buy tickets. Before the line forms, the array is
empty:
my @people = ();
Then Howard walks up. He's the first person in line. To add him to the @people array, use
the push function:
push(@people, "Howard");
Now Sara, Ken, and Josh get in line. Again they are added to the array using the push
function. You can push a list of values onto the array:
push(@people, ("Sara", "Ken", "Josh"));
This pushes the list containing "Sara", "Ken" and "Josh" onto the end of the
@people array, so that @people now looks like this: ("Howard", "Sara", "Ken",
"Josh")
Now the ticket office opens, and Howard buys his ticket and leaves the line. To
remove the first item from the array, use the shift function:
my $who = shift(@people);
This sets $who to "Howard", and also removes "Howard" from the @people array,
so
@people now looks like this: ("Sara", "Ken", "Josh")
Suppose Josh gets paged, and has to leave. To remove the last item from the array,
use the pop function:
my $who = pop(@people);
This sets $who to "Josh", and @people is now ("Sara", "Ken")
Both shift and pop change the array itself, by removing an element from the
array. Finding the Length of Arrays
If you want to find out how many elements are in a given array, you can use the
scalar
function:
my @people = ("Howard", "Sara", "Ken", "Josh"); my

$linelen = scalar(@people);
print "There are $linelen people in line.\n";
This prints "There are 4 people in line." Of course, there's always more than one way
to do things in Perl, and that's true here — the scalar function is not actually
needed. All you have to do is evaluate the array in a scalar context. You can do
this by assigning it to a scalar variable:
my $linelen =
@people; This sets $linelen
to 4.
What if you want to print the name of the last person in line? Remember that Perl
array indices start with 0, so the index of the last element in the array is actually
length-1:
print "The last person in line is $people[$linelen-1].\n";
Perl also has a handy shortcut for finding the index of the last element of an array, the
$#
shortcut:
print "The last person in line is $people[$#people].\n";
$#arraynameis equivalent to scalar(@arrayname)-1. This is often used in foreach loops where

you loop through an array by its index number:
my @colors = ("cyan", "magenta", "yellow", "black");

foreach my $i (0..$#colors) {
print "color $i is $colors[$i]\n";
}
This will print out "color 0 is cyan, color 1 is magenta", etc.
The $#arrayname syntax is one example where an #-sign does not indicate a comment. Array
Slices
You can retrieve part of an array by specifying the range of indices to retrieve:

my @slice = @colors[1..2];
This example sets @slice to ("magenta",

"yellow"). Finding An Item In An Array
If you want to find out if a particular element exists in an array, you can use the
grep
function:
my @results = grep(/pattern/,@listname);
is a regular expression for the pattern you're looking for. It can be a plain string, such
/pattern/
as /Box kite/, or a complex regular expression pattern.
/pattern/will match partial strings inside each array element. To match the entire array
element, use /^pattern$/, which anchors the pattern match to the beginning (^) and end ($)
of the string.
grep returns a list of the elements that matched the pattern.
Sorting Arrays
You can do an alphabetical (ASCII) sort on an array of strings using the sort function:
my @colors = ("cyan", "magenta", "yellow", "black"); my

@colors2 = sort(@colors);
@colors2 becomes the @colors array in alphabetically sorted order ("black", "cyan",
"magenta", "yellow" ). Note that the sort function, unlike push and pop, does not change
the original array. If you want to save the sorted array, you have to assign it to a variable.
If you want to save it back to the original array variable, you'd do:
@colors = sort @colors;
You can invert the order of the array with the reverse function:

@colors = reverse(@colors);
@colors is now ("black", "yellow", "magenta", "cyan"). To
do a reverse sort, use both functions:

@colors = reverse(sort(@colors));
@colors is now ("yellow", "magenta", "cyan", "black").
The sort function, by default, compares the ASCII values of the array elements (see
http://www.cgi101.com/book/ch2/ascii.html for the chart of ASCII values). This means if
you try to sort a list of numbers, you get "12" before "2". You can do a true numeric sort
like so:
my @numberlist = (8, 4, 3, 12, 7, 15, 5);

my @sortednumberlist = sort( {$a <=> $b;} @numberlist);
{ $a <=> $b; } is actually a small subroutine, embedded right in your code, that gets
called for each pair of items in the array. It compares the first number ($a) to the
second number ($b) and returns a number indicating whether $a is greater than,
equal to, or less than $b.
This is done repeatedly with all the numbers in the array until the array is
completely sorted.
Joining Array Elements Into A String

You can merge an array into a single string using the join function:

my $colorstring = join(", ",@colors);
This joins @colors into a single string variable ($colorstring), with each element of
the
@colors array combined and separated by a comma and a space. In this
example
$colorstring becomes "cyan, magenta, yellow, black".
You can use any string (including the empty string) as the separator. The separator is
the first argument to the join function:
join(separator, list);
The opposite of join is split, which splits a string into a list of values. See Chapter 7 for more
on split.
Array or List?
In general, any function or syntax that works for arrays will also work for a list of values:
my $color = ("red", "green", "blue")[1];

# $color is "green"
my $colorstring = join(", ", ("red", "green", "blue"));

# $colorstring is now "red, green, blue"
my ($first, $second, $third) = sort("red", "green", "blue");

# $first is "blue", $second is "green", $third is "red"
hashes
A hash is a special kind of array — an associative array, or paired list of elements.
Each pair consists of a string key and a data value.
Perl hash names are prefixed with a percent sign (%). Here's how they're defined:
Hash Name key value
my %colors = ( "red", "#ff0000",

"green", "#00ff00",
"blue", "#0000ff",
"black", "#000000",
"white", "#ffffff" );
This particular example creates a hash named %colors which stores the RGB HEX
values for the named colors. The color names are the hash keys; the hex
codes are the hash values.
Remember that there's more than one way to do things in Perl, and here's the other
way to define the same hash:
Hash Name key value

my %colors = ( red => "#ff0000",
green => "#00ff00",
blue => "#0000ff",
black => "#000000",
white => "#ffffff" );
The => operator automatically quotes the left side of the argument, so enclosing
quotes around the key names are not needed.
To refer to the individual elements of the hash, you'll do:
$colors{'red'}
Here, "red" is the key, and $colors{'red'} is the value associated with that key. In
this case, the value is "#ff0000".
You don't usually need the enclosing quotes around the value, either; $colors{red}
also works if the key name doesn't contain characters that are also Perl operators
(things like
+, -, =, * and /).
To print out all the values in a hash, you can use a foreach loop:
foreach my $color (keys %colors) {

print "$colors{$color}=$color\n";
}
This example uses the keys function, which returns a list of the keys of the named
hash. One drawback is that keys %hashname will return the keys in unpredictable
order — in this example, keys %colors could return ("red", "blue", "green",
"black", "white") or ("red", "white", "green", "black", "blue") or any
combination thereof. If you want to print out the hash in exact order, you have to
specify the keys in the foreach loop:
foreach my $color ("red","green","blue","black","white") {

print "$colors{$color}=$color\n";
}
Let's write a CGI program using the colors hash. Start a new file called colors.cgi:
Program 2-2: colors.cgi - Print Hash Variables Program

#!/usr/bin/perl -wT
use CGI qw(:standard);
use CGI::Carp qw(warningsToBrowser fatalsToBrowser); use
strict;
# declare the colors hash:
my %colors = ( red => "#ff0000", green=> "#00ff00",
blue => "#0000ff", black => "#000000",
# print the html headers

print header;
print start_html("Colors");
foreach my $color (keys %colors) {

print "<font color=\"$colors{$color}\">$color</font>\n";
}
print end_html;
Save it and chmod 755 colors.cgi, then test it in your web browser.
Notice we've had to add backslashes to escape the quotes in this double-quoted string:
print "<font color=\"$colors{$color}\">$color</font>\n";
A better way to do this is to use Perl's qq operator:
print qq(<font color="$colors{$colors}">$color</font>\n);
qq creates a double-quoted string for you. And it's much easier to read without all those
backslashes in there.
Adding Items to a Hash
To add a new value to a hash, you simply do:
$hashname{newkey} = newvalue;
Using our colors example again, here's how to add a new value with the key "purple":
$colors{purple} = "#ff00ff";
If the named key already exists in the hash, then an assignment like this overwrites the
previous value associated with that key.
Determining Whether an Item Exists in a Hash
You can use the exists function to see if a particular key/value pair exists in the hash:
exists $hashname{key}
This returns a true or false value. Here's an example of it in use:
if (exists $colors{purple}) {
print "Sorry, the color purple is already in the hash.<br>\n";
} else {
$colors{purple} = "#ff00ff";
}
This checks to see if the key "purple" is already in the hash; if not, it adds it.
Deleting Items From a Hash
You can delete an individual key/value pair from a hash with the delete function:
delete $hashname{key};
If you want to empty out the entire hash, do:
%hashname = ();
We've already seen that the keys function returns a list of the keys of a given
hash. Similarly, the values function returns a list of the hash values:
my %colors = (red => "#ff0000", green=> "#00ff00",

blue => "#0000ff", black => "#000000",
my @keyslice = keys %colors;

# @keyslice now equals a randomly ordered list of
# the hash keys:
# ("red", "green", "blue", "black", "white")
my @valueslice = values %colors;

# @valueslice now equals a randomly ordered list of
# the hash values:
# ("ff0000", "#00ff00", "#0000ff", "#000000", "#ffffff")
As with keys, values returns the values in unpredictable order.
Determining Whether a Hash is Empty
You can use the scalar function on hashes as well:
scalar($hashname);
This returns true or false value — true if the hash contains any key/value pairs. The
value returned does not indicate how many pairs are in the hash, however. If
you want to find that number, use:
scalar
keys(%hashname); Here's an
example:
my %colors = (red => "#ff0000", green=> "#00ff00",

blue => "#0000ff", black => "#000000",
my $numcolors = scalar(keys(%colors));
print "There are $numcolors in this hash.\n";
This will print out "There are 5 colors in this hash."
Functions
The real power of PHP comes from its functions.In PHP, there are more than 700
built-in functions.To keep the script from being executed when the page loads,
you can put it into a function. A function will be executed by a call to the
function. You may call a function from anywhere within a page.
Create a PHP Function
A function will be executed by a call to the function.
Syntax
function functionName()
{
code to be executed;
}
PHP function guidelines:
 Give the function a name that reflects what the function does
 The function name can start with a letter or underscore (not a number)
Example
A simple function that writes my name when it is called:
<html>
<body>
<?php
function writeName()
echo "Kai Jim Refsnes";

echo "My name is ";
writeName();
?>
</body>
</html>
Output:
My name is Kai Jim Refsnes
PHP Functions - Adding parameters
To add more functionality to a function, we can add parameters. A parameter is just

like a variable.Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the
parentheses.
Example 1
The following example will write different first names, but equal last name:
<html>
<body>
<?php function writeName($fname)
echo $fname .
" Refsnes.<br />";
echo "My name is ";writeName("Kai Jim");
echo "My sister's name is ";
writeName("Hege");
echo "My brother's name is";
writeName("Stale");?></body></html>
Output:
My name is Kai Jim Refsnes.
My sister's name is Hege
Refsnes. My brother's name
is Stale Refsnes. Example
The following function has two parameters:
<html>
<body>
<?php function writeName($fname,$punctuation)
echo $fname . " Refsnes" . $punctuation . "<br />";
echo "My name is ";
writeName("Kai
Jim","."); echo "My
sister's name is ";
writeName("Hege","!");echo "My brother's name is ";
writeName("Ståle","?");
?>
</body>
</html>
Output:
My name is Kai Jim Refsnes.
My sister's name is Hege Refsnes!
My brother's name is Ståle Refsnes?
PHP Functions - Return values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement.
Example
<html>
<body>
<?php
function add($x,$y)
{
$total=$x+$y;
return $total;
}
echo "1 + 16 = " . add(1,16);

?>
</body>
</html>
Output:
1 + 16 = 17
Pattern matching
Pattern-Matching Operators
Zoologically speaking, Perl's pattern-matching operators function as a kind of cage

for regular expressions, to keep them from getting out. This is by design; if we
were to let the regex beasties wander throughout the language, Perl would be a
total jungle. The world needs its jungles, of course--they're the engines of
biological diversity, after all--but jungles should stay where they belong.
Similarly, despite being the engines of
combinatorial diversity, regular expressions should stay inside pattern match

operators where they belong. It's a jungle in there.
As if regular expressions weren't powerful enough, the m// and s/// operators also provide the
(likewise confined) power of double-quote interpolation. Since patterns are parsed
like double-quoted strings, all the normal double-quote conventions will work, including
variable interpolation (unless you use single quotes as the delimiter) and special
characters indicated with backslash escapes. (See "Specific Characters" later in this
chapter.) These are applied before the string is interpreted as a regular expression. (This
is one of the few places in the Perl language where a string undergoes more than one pass
of processing.) The first pass is not quite normal double-quote interpolation, in that it
knows what it should interpolate and what it should pass on to the regular expression
parser. So, for instance, any $ immediately followed by a vertical bar, closing parenthesis,
or the end of the string will be treated not as a variable interpolation, but as the traditional
regex assertion meaning end-of-line. So if you say:
$foo = "bar";
/$foo$/;
the double-quote interpolation pass knows that those two $ signs are functioning
differently. It does the interpolation of $foo, then hands this to the regular expression
parser:
/bar$/;
Another consequence of this two-pass parsing is that the ordinary Perl tokener finds the
end of the regular expression first, just as if it were looking for the terminating delimiter
of an ordinary string. Only after it has found the end of the string (and done any variable
interpolation) is the pattern treated as a regular expression. Among other things, this
means you can't "hide" the terminating delimiter of a pattern inside a regex construct
(such as a character class or a regex comment, which we haven't covered yet). Perl will
see the delimiter wherever it is and terminate the pattern at that point.
You should also know that interpolating variables into a pattern slows down the pattern
matcher, because it feels it needs to check whether the variable has changed, in case it has
to recompile the pattern (which will slow it down even further). See "Variable
Interpolation" later in this chapter.
The tr/// transliteration operator does not interpolate variables; it doesn't even use regular
expressions! (In fact, it probably doesn't belong in this chapter at all, but we couldn't
think of a better place to put it.) It does share one feature with m// and s///, however: it
binds to variables using the =~ and !~ operators.
The =~ and !~ operators, described in Chapter 3, "Unary and Binary Operators", bind the
scalar expression on their lefthand side to one of three quote-like operators on their right:
m// for matching a pattern, s/// for substituting some string for a substring matched by a
pattern, and tr/// (or its synonym, y///) for transliterating one set of characters to another
set. (You may write m// as //, without the m, if slashes are used for the delimiter.) If the
righthand side of =~ or !~ is none of these three, it still counts as a m// matching operation,
but there'll be no place to put any trailing modifiers (see "Pattern Modifiers" later), and
you'll have to handle your own quoting:
print "matches" if $somestring =~ $somepattern; Really,

there's little reason not to spell it out explicitly: print
"matches" if $somestring =~ m/$somepattern/;
When used for a matching operation, =~ and !~ are sometimes pronounced "matches" and
"doesn't match" respectively (although "contains" and "doesn't contain" might cause less
confusion).
Apart from the m// and s/// operators, regular expressions show up in two other places in
Perl. The first argument to the split function is a special match operator specifying what
not to return when breaking a string into multiple substrings. See the description and
examples for split in Chapter 29, "Functions". The qr// ("quote regex") operator also
specifies a pattern via a regex, but it doesn't try to match anything (unlike m//, which
does). Instead, the compiled form of the regex is returned for future use. See "Variable
Interpolation" for more information.
You apply one of the m//, s///, or tr/// operators to a particular string with the =~
binding operator (which isn't a real operator, just a kind of topicalizer,
linguistically speaking). Here are some examples:
$haystack =~ m/needle/ # match a simple pattern

$haystack =~ /needle/ # same thing
$italiano =~ s/butter/olive oil/ # a healthy substitution
$rotate13 =~ tr/a-zA-Z/n-za-mN-ZA-M/ # easy encryption (to

break) Without a binding operator, $_ is implicitly used as the
"topic":
/new life/ and # search in $_ and (if found)
/new civilizations/ # boldly search $_ again
s/sugar/aspartame/ # substitute a substitute into $_
tr/ATCG/TAGC/ # complement the DNA stranded in $_
Because s/// and tr/// change the scalar to which they're applied, you may only use them
on valid lvalues:
"onshore" =~ s/on/off/; # WRONG: compile-time error
However, m// works on the result of any scalar
expression:
if ((lc $magic_hat->fetch_contents->as_string) =~ /rabbit/) {
print "Nyaa, what's up doc?\n";
}
else {
print "That trick never works!\n";
}
But you have to be a wee bit careful, since =~ and !~ have rather high precedence--in our
previous example the parentheses are necessary around the left term.[3] The !~ binding
operator works like =~, but negates the logical result of the operation:
if ($song !~ /words/) {
print qq/"$song" appears to be a song without words.\n/;
}
Since m//, s///, and tr/// are quote operators, you may pick your own delimiters. These work in
the same way as the quoting operators q//, qq//, qr//, and qw// (see the section Section
5.6.3, "Pick Your Own Quotes" in Chapter 2, "Bits and Pieces").
$path =~ s#/tmp#/var/tmp/scratch#;
if ($dir =~ m[/bin]) {
print "No binary directories please.\n";
}
When using paired delimiters with s/// or tr///, if the first part is one of the four
customary bracketing pairs (angle, round, square, or curly), you may choose
different delimiters for the second part than you chose for the first:
s(egg)<larva>;
s{larva}{pupa};
s[pupa]/imago/;
Whitespace is allowed in front of the opening
delimiters: s (egg) <larva>;
s {larva}
{pupa}; s
[pupa]
/imago/;
Each time a pattern successfully matches (including the pattern in a substitution), it
sets the $`, $&, and $' variables to the text left of the match, the whole match, and
the text right of the match. This is useful for pulling apart strings into their
components:
"hot cross buns" =~ /cross/;
print "Matched: <$`> $& <$'>\n"; # Matched: <hot > cross <
buns> print "Left: <$`>\n"; # Left: <hot >
print "Match: <$&>\n"; # Match: <cross>
print "Right: <$'>\n"; # Right: < buns>

For better granularity and efficiency, use parentheses to capture the particular
portions that you want to keep around. Each pair of parentheses captures the
substring corresponding to the subpattern in the parentheses. The pairs of
parentheses are numbered from left to right by the positions of the left
parentheses; the substrings corresponding to those subpatterns are available
after the match in the numbered variables, $1, $2, $3, and so on:[4]
$_ = "Bilbo Baggins's birthday is September 22";
/(.*)'s birthday is
(.*)/; print
"Person: $1\n";
print "Date:
$2\n";
$`, $&, $', and the numbered variables are global variables implicitly localized to
the enclosing dynamic scope. They last until the next successful pattern match or
the end of the current scope, whichever comes first. More on this later, in a
different scope.
[3] Without the parentheses, the lower-precedence lc would have applied to the
whole pattern match instead of just the method call on the magic hat object.
[4] Not $0, though, which holds the name of your program.
Once Perl sees that you need one of $`, $&, or $' anywhere in the program, it provides
them for every pattern match. This will slow down your program a bit. Perl uses a similar
mechanism to produce $1, $2, and so on, so you also pay a price for each pattern that
contains capturing parentheses. (See "Clustering" to avoid the cost of capturing while still
retaining the grouping behavior.) But if you never use $`$&, or $', then patterns without
capturing parentheses will not be penalized. So it's usually best to avoid $`, $&, and $' if
you can, especially in library modules. But if you must use them once (and some
algorithms really appreciate their convenience), then use them at will, because you've
already paid the price. $& is not so costly as the other two in recent versions of Perl.
File input and output

As you start to program more advanced CGI applications, you'll want to store data so you can
use it later. Maybe you have a guestbook program and want to keep a log of the
names and email addresses of visitors, or a page counter that must update a counter file,
or a program that scans a flat-file database and draws info from it to generate a page. You
can do this by reading and writing data files (often called file I/O).
File Permissions
Most web servers run with very limited permissions; this protects the server (and
the system it's running on) from malicious attacks by users or web visitors. On
Unix systems, the web process runs under its own userid, typically the "web" or
"nobody" user. Unfortunately this means the server doesn't have permission
to create files in your directory. In order to write to a data file, you must usually
make the file (or the directory where the file will be created) world-writable —
or at least writable by the web process userid. In Unix a file can be made world-
writable using the chmod command:
chmod 666 myfile.dat
To set a directory world-writable, you'd do:
chmod 777 directoryname
See Appendix A for a chart of the various chmod permissions.
Unfortunately, if the file is world-writable, it can be written to (or even deleted) by

other users on the system. You should be very cautious about creating world-
writable files in your web space, and you should never create a world-
writable directory there. (An attacker could use this to install their own CGI
programs there.) If you must have a world-writable directory, either use /tmp
(on Unix), or a directory outside of your web space. For example if your web
pages are in /home/you/public_html, set up your writable files and directories in
/home/you.
A much better solution is to configure the server to run your programs with your
userid. Some examples of this are CGIwrap (platform independent) and
suEXEC (for Apache/Unix). Both of these force CGI programs on the web
server to run under the program owner's userid and permissions. Obviously if
your CGI program is running with your userid, it will be able to create, read
and write files in your directory without needing the files to be world-writable.
The Apache web server also allows the webmaster to define what user and group
the server runs under. If you have your own domain, ask your webmaster to
set up your domain to run under your own userid and group permissions.
Permissions are less of a problem if you only want to read a file. If you set the
file permissions so that it is group- and world-readable, your CGI programs can
then safely read from that file. Use caution, though; if your program can read
the file, so can the webserver, and if the file is in your webspace, someone can
type the direct URL and view the contents of the file. Be sure not to put sensitive
data in a publicly readable file.
Opening Files
Reading and writing files is done by opening a file and associating it with a
filehandle. This is done with the statement:
open(filehandle,filename);
The filename may be prefixed with a >, which means to overwrite anything that's in
the file now, or with a >>, which means to append to the bottom of the existing
file. If both > and >> are omitted, the file is opened for reading only. Here are
some examples:
open(INF,"out.txt"); # opens mydata.txt for reading

open(OUTF,">out.txt"); # opens out.txt for overwriting
open(OUTF,">>out.txt"); # opens out.txt for appending
open(FH, "+<out.txt"); # opens existing file out.txt for reading AND
writing
The filehandles in these cases are INF, OUTF and FH. You can use just about any
name for the filehandle.
Also, a warning: your web server might do strange things with the path your
programs run under, so it's possible you'll have to use the full path to
the file (such as
/home/you/public_html/somedata.txt), rather than just the filename. This is generally
not the case with the Apache web server, but some other servers behave
differently. Try opening files with just the filename first (provided the file is in the
same directory as your CGI program), and if it doesn't work, then use the full
path.
One problem with the above code is that it doesn't check the return value of open
to ensure the file was really opened. open returns nonzero upon success, or undef
(which is a false value) otherwise. The safe way to open a file is as follows:
open(OUTF,">outdata.txt") or &dienice("Can't open outdata.txt for writing:

$!");
This uses the "dienice" subroutine we wrote in Chapter 4 to display an error message
and exit if the file can't be opened. You should do this for all file opens, because
if you don't, your CGI program will continue running even if the file isn't open,
and you could end up losing data. It can be quite frustrating to realize you've
had a survey running for several weeks while no data was being saved to the
output file.
The $! in the above example is a special Perl variable that stores the error code
returned by the failed open statement. Printing it may help you figure out why the
open failed.
Guestbook Form with File Write
Let's try this by modifying the guestbook program you wrote in Chapter 4. The
program already sends you e-mail with the information; we're going to have it
write its data to a file as well.
First you'll need to create the output file and make it writable, because your CGI
program probably can't create new files in your directory. If you're using Unix,
log into the Unix shell, cd to the directory where your guestbook program is
located, and type the following:
touch guestbook.txt
chmod 622
guestbook.txt
The Unix touch command, in this case, creates a new, empty file called
"guestbook.txt". (If the file already exists, touch simply updates the last-
modified timestamp of the file.) The chmod 622 command makes the file
read/write for you (the owner), and write-only for everyone else.
If you don't have Unix shell access (or you aren't using a Unix system), you should
create or upload an empty file called guestbook.txt in the directory where your
guestbook.cgi program is located, then adjust the file permissions on it using your
FTP program.
Now you'll need to modify guestbook.cgi to write to the file:
Program 6-1: guestbook.cgi - Guestbook Program With File

Write
#!/usr/bin/perl -wT
strict;
print header;
print start_html("Results");
# first print the mail message...
$ENV{PATH} = "/usr/sbin";
open (MAIL, "|/usr/sbin/sendmail -oi -t -odq") or
&dienice("Can't fork for sendmail: $!\n");
print MAIL "To: recipient\@cgi101.com\n";
print MAIL "From: nobody\@cgi101.com\n";

print MAIL "Subject: Form Data\n\n";
foreach my $p (param()) {
print MAIL "$p = ", param($p), "\n";
}
close(MAIL);
# now write (append) to the file
open(OUT, ">>guestbook.txt") or &dienice("Couldn't open output file: $!"); foreach

my $p (param()) {
print OUT param($p), "|";
}
print OUT "\n";
close(OUT);
print <<EndHTML;
<h2>Thank You</h2>
<p>Thank you for writing!</p>
<p>Return to our <a href="index.html">home page</a>.</p>
EndHTML
print end_html; sub
dienice {
my($errmsg) = @_;
print "<h2>Error</h2>\n";
print "<p>$errmsg</p>\n";
print end_html;
exit;
}
Now go back to your browser and fill out the guestbook form again. If your CGI
program runs without any errors, you should see data added to the guestbook.txt
file. The resulting file will show the submitted form data in pipe-separated form:
Someone|[email protected]|comments here
Ideally you'll have one line of data (or record) for each form that is filled out.
This is what's called a flat-file database.
Unfortunately if the visitor enters multiple lines in the comments field, you'll end up
with multiple lines in the data file. To remove the newlines, you should
substitute newline characters (\n) as well as hard returns (\r). Perl has
powerful pattern matching and replacement capabilities; it can match the most
complex patterns in a string using regular expressions (see Chapter 13). The basic
syntax for substitution is:
$mystring =~ s/pattern/replacement/;
This command substitutes "pattern" for "replacement" in the scalar variable

$mystring. Notice the operator is a =~ (an equals sign followed by a tilde);
this is Perl's binding operator and indicates a regular expression pattern
match/substitution/replacement is about to follow.
Here is how to replace the end-of-line characters in your guestbook program:
foreach my $p (param()) {
my $value = param($p);
$value =~ s/\n/ /g; # replace newlines with spaces
$value =~ s/\r//g; # remove hard returns
print OUT "$p = $value,";
}
Go ahead and change your program, then test it again in your browser. View the
guestbook.txt file in your browser or in a text editor and observe the results.
File Locking
CGI processes on a Unix web server can run simultaneously, and if two programs try
to open and write the same file at the same time, the file may be erased, and you'll
lose all of your data. To prevent this, you need to lock the files you are writing
to. There are two types of file locks:
 A shared lock allows more than one program (or other process) to access the file
at the same time. A program should use a shared lock when reading from a file.
 An exclusive lock allows only one program or process to access the file while the
lock is held. A program should use an exclusive lock when writing to a file.
File locking is accomplished in Perl using the Fcntl module (which is part of the
standard library), and the flock function. The use statement is like CGI.pm's:
use Fcntl qw(:flock);
The Fcntl module provides symbolic values (like abbreviations) representing the
correct lock numbers for the flock function, but you must specify: flock in the
use statement in order for Fctnl to export those values. The values are as follows:
LOCK_SH shared lock

LOCK_EX exclusive lock
LOCK_NB non-blocking lock
LOCK_UN unlock
These abbreviations can then be passed to flock. The flock function takes two
arguments: the filehandle and the lock type, which is typically a number. The
number may vary depending on what operating system you are using, so it's best
to use the symbolic values provided by Fcntl. A file is locked after you open it
(because the filehandle doesn't exist before you open the file):
open(FH, "filename") or &dienice("Can"t open file: $!");

flock(FH, LOCK_SH);
The lock will be released automatically when you close the file or when the
program finishes.
Keep in mind that file locking is only effective if all of the programs that read and
write to that file also use flock. Programs that don't will ignore the locks
held by other processes.
Since flock may force your CGI program to wait for another process to finish writing
to a file, you should also reset the file pointer, using the seek function:
seek(filehandle, offset, whence);
offset is the number of bytes to move the pointer, relative to whence, which is one of
the following:
0 beginning of file
1 current file position
2 end of file
So seek(OUTF,0,2) repositions the pointer to the end of the file. If you were reading the
file instead of writing to it, you'd want to do seek(OUTF,0,0) to reset the
pointer to the beginning of the file.
The Fcntl module also provides symbolic values for the seek pointers:
SEEK_SET beginning of file

SEEK_CUR current file position
SEEK_END end of file
To use these, add :seek to the use Fcntl statement:
use Fcntl qw(:flock :seek);
Now you can use seek(OUTF,0,SEEK_END) to reset the file pointer to the end of the file, or
seek(OUTF,0,SEEK_SET) to reset it to the beginning of the file.
Closing Files
When you're finished writing to a file, it's best to close the file, like so:
close(filehandle);
Files are automatically closed when your program ends. File locks are released when
the file is closed, so it is not necessary to actually unlock the file before closing
it. (In fact, releasing the lock before the file is closed can be dangerous and cause
you to lose data.)
Reading Files
There are two ways you can handle reading data from a file: you can either read one
line at a time, or read the entire file into an array. Here's an example:
open(FH,"guestbook.txt") or &dienice("Can't open guestbook.txt: $!"); my
$a = <FH>; # reads one line from the file into

# the scalar $a
my @b = <FH>; # reads the ENTIRE FILE into array @b
close(FH); # closes the file
If you were to use this code in your program, you'd end up with the first line
of
guestbook.txt being stored in $a, and the remainder of the file in array @b (with
each
element of @b containing one line of data from the file). The actual read occurs
with
<filehandle>; the amount of data read depends on the type of variable you save it into.
The following section of code shows how to read the entire file into an array, then
loop through each element of the array to print out each line:
open(FH,"guestbook.txt") or &dienice("Can"t open guestbook.txt: $!");

my @ary = <FH>;
close(FH);
foreach my $line (@ary) {

print $line;
}
This code minimizes the amount of time the file is actually open. The drawback
is it causes your CGI program to consume as much memory as the size of the
file. Obviously for very large files that's not a good idea; if your program
consumes more memory than the machine has available, it could crash the
whole machine (or at the very least make things extremely slow). To process
data from a very large file, it's better to use a while loop to read one line at a
time:
open(FH,"guestbook.txt") or &dienice("Can"t open guestbook.txt: $!"); while

(my $line = <FH>) {
print $line;
}
close(
FH); Poll
Program
Let's try another example: a web poll. You've probably seen them on various news
sites. A basic poll consists of one question and several potential answers (as radio
buttons); you pick one of the answers, vote, then see the poll results on the next
page.
Start by creating the poll HTML form. Use whatever question and answer set you wish.
Program 6-2: poll.html - Poll HTML Form
<form action="poll.cgi" method="POST">

Which was your favorite <i>Lord of the Rings</i> film?<br>
<input type="radio" name="pick" value="fotr">The Fellowship of the Ring<br>
<input type="radio" name="pick" value="ttt">The Two Towers<br>
<input type="radio" name="pick" value="rotk">Return of the King<br>
<input type="radio" name="pick" value="none">I didn't watch them<br>

<input type="submit" value="Vote">
</form>
<a href="results.cgi">View Results</a><br>
In this example we're using abbreviations for the radio button values. Our CGI
program will translate the abbreviations appropriately.
Now the voting CGI program will write the result to a file. Rather than having
this program analyze the results, we'll simply use a redirect to bounce the
viewer to a third program (results.cgi). That way you won't need to write the
results code twice.
Here is how the voting program (poll.cgi) should look:
Program 6-3: poll.cgi - Poll Program
#!/usr/bin/perl -wT
strict;
use Fcntl qw(:flock :seek); my
$outfile = "poll.out";
# only record the vote if they actually picked something if

(param('pick')) {
open(OUT, ">>$outfile") or &dienice("Couldn't open $outfile: $!");
flock(OUT, LOCK_EX); # set an exclusive lock
seek(OUT, 0, SEEK_END); # then seek the end of file print
OUT param('pick'),"\n";
close(OUT);
} else {
# this is optional, but if they didn't vote, you might
# want to tell them about it...
&dienice("You didn't pick anything!");
}
# redirect to the results.cgi.

# (Change to your own URL...)
print redirect("http://cgi101.com/book/ch6/results.cgi");
sub dienice {
my($msg) = @_;
print header;
print start_html("Error"); print
h2("Error");
print $msg; print
end_html; exit;
}
Finally results.cgi reads the file where the votes are stored, totals the overall votes as
well as the votes for each choice, and displays them in table format.
Program 6-4: results.cgi - Poll Results Program
#!/usr/bin/perl -wT
strict;
use Fcntl qw(:flock :seek); my
$outfile = "poll.out";
print header;
print start_html("Results");
# open the file for reading

open(IN, "$outfile") or &dienice("Couldn't open $outfile: $!");
# set a shared lock flock(IN,
LOCK_SH);
# then seek the beginning of the file
seek(IN, 0, SEEK_SET);
# declare the totals variables

my($total_votes, %results);
# initialize all of the counts to zero:
foreach my $i ("fotr", "ttt", "rotk", "none") {
$results{$i} = 0;
}
# now read the file one line at a time:
while (my $rec = <IN>) {

chomp($rec);
$total_votes = $total_votes + 1;
$results{$rec} = $results{$rec} + 1;
}
close(IN);
# now display a summary: print

<<End;
<b>Which was your favorite <i>Lord of the Rings</i> film?
</b><br>
<table border=0 width=50%>
<tr>
<td>The Fellowship of the Ring</td>
<td>$results{fotr} votes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>The Two Towers</td>
<td>$results{ttt} votes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Return of the King</td>
<td>$results{rotk} votes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>didn't watch them</td>
<td>$results{none} votes</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
$total_votes votes total
</p>
End
print end_html; sub
dienice {
my($msg) = @_;
print h2("Error"); print
msg; print end_html;

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Programming the WEB 10CS73

PROGRAMMING THE WEB

Subject Code: 10CS73 I.A. Marks : 25

University, RAND corporation and many more universities with initial

 Every node has a unique numeric address

 Organizations are assigned groups of IPs for their computers

Domain Name Conversion

Fig. Domain Name

Client and Server

1.4 Web Servers

controlled by going to control panel 

1.5 URLs (uniform resource locators)

1.12 HTML Document Structure

 Typical display of this text:

bleach the bones of countless millions

< &lt; Less than

<h1> Aidan's Airplanes </h1>

2.2 Hypertext Links

• Hypertext is the essence of the Web!

UNIT – 2: XHTML – 2: CSS: XHTML (continued..)

Color; Alignment of text;

<li> Set propeller to high RPM </li>

 Definition lists (for glossaries, etc.)

<table border = "border">

 A table can have two levels of column labels

<table border = "border">

<td rowspan = "2"> </td>

 Creates a horizontal box for text input

4. Menus - created with <select> tags

With size = 1 (the default)

 After clicking the menu:

 After changing size to 2:

• A percentage specifies the percentage of total window height for

<frameset rows = "150, 200, 300">

<frameset rows = "25%, 50%, 25%">

<frameset rows = "50%, 20%, *" >

<frameset rows = "50%, 25%, 25%"

 Inline style sheets appear in the tag itself

 Document-level style sheets appear in the head of the document

 > SHOW fonts2.html and display

 On <li>, list-style-type applies to just that item

 Could use an image for the bullets in an unordered list

 The color property specifies the foreground color of elements

<style type = ―text/css‖>

The Box Model

 Object has no data properties, but several method properties

 A String literal is delimited by either single or double quotes

++, --, unary - Right

>, <, >= ,<= Left

AN OVERVIEW OF DATA TYPES

A complex type whose elements are an unordered group is defined in an all

An XML instance that conforms to the planes.xsd schema is as follows:

DISPLAYING RAW XML DOCUMENTS

<?xml-stylesheet type = "text/css" href = "6a.css"?>

<college> RNSIT </college>

defining the presentation and transformations of XML

documents. o XSL Transformations (XSLT),

< < Less than