Structural Controls On Witwatersrand Gold Mineralisation PDF
Structural Controls On Witwatersrand Gold Mineralisation PDF
Structural Controls On Witwatersrand Gold Mineralisation PDF
www.elsevier.com/locate/jsg
Abstract
Structural controls on the distribution of gold in the Witwatersrand Basin can be seen at scales ranging from that of thin sections up to
regional seismic data sets. At the thin section scale, gold occurs largely in fractures with hydrocarbons. These fractures are associated with
pulses of thrusting deformation that occurred in the latter stages of the basin’s development. The distribution of thrust– fracture networks
(and therefore gold) is controlled by the mechanical attributes of the host stratigraphy. Thrust displacements are generally very low, with
structures exploiting depositional contacts and mesoscale sedimentary bedforms. Many of the small faults are isolated from each other with
bimodal vergence between larger-scale thrusts of the same age. Early-formed faults and fractures become folded and faulted by subsequent
propagation of larger-scale thrusts. These characteristics are consistent with formation of the mineralised thrust– fracture networks in the
frontal, low-displacement parts of a thrust system. In the Carletonville goldfield, the prospectivity of the Ventersdorp Contact Reef (VCR)
has been evaluated by using underground observations to pinpoint the structural habitat of gold, and therefore characterise the size of
prospective zones around structures intersecting the VCR, mapped within 3D seismic data. In the Welkom goldfield, the controls on gold
distribution at the Tshepong mine have been characterised from 3D seismic data, drilling and underground observations, and used to develop
an ore-body model that aids reserve estimation and production planning.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Thrust; Fracture; Propagation; Mechanical stratigraphy; Hydrothermal gold; Witwatersrand
Fig. 1. (a) Simplified geological map of the Witwatersrand Basin, with post-Witwatersrand stratigraphy removed and late-Witwatersrand thrust-related
structures shown. The mines and goldfields discussed in the text are indicated. (b) Generalised tectono-stratigraphic framework, with approximate dates and
group-level maximum thicknesses seen in the basin, derived from Coward et al. (1995). Note that following a company reorganisation several years ago, some
mines were re-named as follows: Great Noligwa (formerly Vaal Reefs 8 shaft); Matjhabeng (Western Holdings); Mponeng (Western Deep Levels South);
Tshepong (Freegold 2 shaft).
Fig. 3. Back-scattered SEM micrograph showing a fracture containing hydrocarbons (black, with white inclusions of uraninite), pyrrhotite (pale grey) and
quartz. Close-ups show matrix comprises quartz and chloritoid (dark grey), with chloritoid cut by a pyrrhotite–quartz assemblage of vein and gold and
florencite associated with fracture fill hydrocarbons (black, with white inclusions of uraninite). Carbon Leader Reef.
Central Rand Group conglomeratic layers of varying 2002). However, interpretations of this observation are still
lithological character, parochially referred to as ‘reefs’ controversial, with some workers (e.g. Minter, 1999;
(Fig. 2). In most cases, the gold is intimately associated with Frimmel and Minter, 2002) contending that the gold was
a hydrocarbon (e.g. Parnell, 1996; Gray et al., 1998; originally detrital and has been remobilised very locally
England et al., 2001). This hydrocarbon is now a (over distances of millimetres to centimetres). Other
mesophase, formed by the rapid heating and proto- workers (e.g. Barnicoat et al., 1997, 1999) contend that
graphitisation of oil derived from within the Witwatersrand the mineralisation is hydrothermal, with gold sourced from
basin (Gray et al., 1998; Gize, 2000). The gold ores are either highly disseminated material within the basin or from
found within mineralogically altered stratigraphies, which a source outwith the Witwatersrand sediments, and point to
include highly aluminous rocks (Palmer et al., 1989; the difficulties of dissolving and then locally reprecipitating
Barnicoat et al., 1997; Jolley et al., 1999; Phillips and gold without evidence of the unreasonably substantial,
Law, 2000; Fox, 2002). Mineralogies are dominated by small-scale gradients in chemistry that would be required.
sericite and pyrophyllite with lesser amounts of chloritoid,
chlorite and/or sudoite. Whilst some workers still maintain
that these assemblages and the associated extreme compo- 2. Structural siting of gold
sitions are the results of weathering and metamorphism
rather than metasomatism (e.g. Frimmel and Minter, 2002), While the gold-bearing horizons are generally conglom-
the distribution of aluminous parageneses which cross eratic, their character varies widely, some being pebble lags
stratigraphy (Barnicoat et al., 1997; Phillips and Law, 2000) whilst others are composed of stacked fluvial channels 1–
together with the compositional data and the occurrence of 2 m in thickness. Typically, mineralisation occurs through
pure pyrophyllite rocks (Barnicoat et al., 1999) are no more than 1 m of stratigraphy, and in many cases almost
compelling indicators that post-depositional processes all of the gold is contained within 10 cm of the conglom-
were responsible. erate, in association with micro- and meso-scale fracture
Most workers on the Witwatersrand now acknowledge networks, as described below. For example, underground
that most or all of the gold present is paragenetically late observations and mapping of the Vaal Reef at Great
(e.g. Feather and Koen, 1975; Barnicoat et al., 1997; Phillips Noligwa mine reveal that small-scale flat-lying structures
and Law, 2000; England et al., 2001; Frimmel and Minter, are widespread. Thin phyllonites often mark the base and
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Fig. 4. (a) Cathodoluminescence image of poorly luminescent quartz filling a fracture in a detrital quartz grain accompanied by hydrocarbon ‘nosing’ along the
fracture. Carbon Leader. (b) Back-scattered SEM image showing hydrocarbons and pyrite in a matrix of quartz and pyrophyllite. Note the undeformed nature
of the hydrocarbons. Basal Reef, Matjhabeng mine. (c) Cathodoluminescence image of (b) showing the hydrocarbons and elongated pyrite to be contained in
quartz cemented fracture. (d) Gold accompanied by pyrophyllite (dark grey) in fractures within pyrite. Basal Reef, Matjhabeng mine. (e) Cathodoluminescence
image showing detrital quartz grains with a wide range of luminescence signatures. Gold (black) and pyrophyllite occur in a corrosion embayment in one of the
quartz grains. Basal Reef, Matjhabeng mine.
top of the reef, and occur frequently throughout much of frequently contain hydrocarbons, but may also be
the Central Rand stratigraphy, being typically clustered obviously mineralised with sulphides and gold.
around major unconformities intersected in drill core. We have conducted detailed sedimentological and
These fault rocks are generally sub-parallel to strati- structural face mapping and gold-assay sampling of the
graphy, but in detail they often exploit bedforms. reef packages in 12 gold mines. Despite the practical
Displacements are often very small (centimetre-scale), difficulties experienced in face-mapping fracture networks
and since the phyllonites are extremely rich in phyllo- in challenging underground conditions, this work shows that
silicates, care has to be taken to distinguish them from high gold grades depart from the channelised morphology of
argillaceous lithologies. However, their local discordance the reef lithologies, and instead preferentially follow the
to bedding allows unequivocal interpretation. Zones of smoother profile of thrust-fracture systems exposed in the
sub-horizontal fractures that are locally in mutual cross- faces. Indeed, mineralisation is observed in many mines
cutting relation to the fault rocks are abundant too, often within a variety of sediments outwith the reef package, and
towards the base of the conglomeratic package of the reef even within the Klipriviersberg lavas in the presence of
but also found at its top and within it. These fractures mesoscale thrusts and fractures. These can show relatively
S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086 1071
Elevated gold grades coincide with distribution of linked fault zones and
supporting the contention that the fractures carry the bulk of
Thrust displacements
Fig. 5. Mapping of geological features exposed in underground stope faces. (a) Thin VCR conglomerates overlying argillaceous quartzites that sub-crop against
the reef. The VCR is preferentially fractured and mineralised where low displacement thrusts within the plane of footwall bedding intersect the reef. Raise
tunnel 92/34, Elandsrand mine. (b) Meso-scale duplex and associated mineralised fractures (note fracture complexity related to imbrication). Host ‘reef’ here is
the Mondeor conglomerate package, some distance to the west of the VCR sub-crop against the Klipriviersberg. This is important because the ca. 1-m-thick
zone of mineralisation immediately below the lavas is continuous from the VCR into rocks that are normally sterile beneath it. Stope 33/24, Deelkraal mine.
conglomerates and quartzite interbeds preserved within a The thrust imbricates typically carry 1 –10 m NNW/SSE
marked palaeotopography, with local metre-scale slope- displacement and occasionally several tens of metres, and
terrace relief. To the west, the VCR at Elandsrand mine is are intimately linked to formation of both steep and sub-
thinner and finer-grained with fewer quartzites, and is horizontal gold-bearing fractures, during flexural shear of
characterised by less palaeotopography and less angular the reef and short-cutting of ramps (Jolley et al., 1999).
unconformity with underlying Central Rand rocks. The Fracturing is also focused by the detail of reef architecture,
overlying Klipriviersberg Group lavas were extruded by slippage across quartzite packages within the dominantly
directly onto this regional landform, at first exploiting the conglomeratic reef, and local buttressing and dilation strains
channel systems so that basal flows entrain pebbles and in the reef caused by movement of the rigid lavas against
interdigitate with VCR sediments (Hall, 1994), and then palaeotopography at the VCR/lava contact.
flooding across the interfluves to rapidly fill the basin. Similar thrust structures are seen 5– 6 km to the east
at Mponeng, although these have lower displacements
3.2. Meso-scale structure at Elandsrand and Mponeng and generally simpler less-evolved mesoscale geometries.
mines The thrusts often form isolated structures, and where
linked to form arrays they have ramp-flat geometries, a
At Elandsrand, the VCR has undergone widespread NNW/SSE to NW/SE transport direction and typically
disruption by shallow trajectory mesoscale thrust faults that several metres of displacement, rarely exceeding 10 m.
lie concentrated within or sub-parallel to the plane of the Many of the thrusts have convex-up ‘underthrust’
reef, where they constitute a decoupling surface between the geometries composed of hanging wall ramps in contact
Witwatersrand sediments and Klipriviersberg lavas. Local with long footwall flats, which detach from the lava/VCR
thrust vergence and shear sense reversals are common, as contact with fault-bend-folding restricted to the footwall.
are complex piggyback and break-back thrust sequences. Similar structures were seen at Deelkraal mine and have
Fig. 6. (a) Back-scattered SEM micrograph of gold with sulphides in fractures within crushed pyrite host. Thrust–fracture zones in Mondeor conglomerates to
the west of the VCR sub-crop, Deelkraal mine. (b) Back-scattered SEM image showing gold with arsenopyrite and brannerite in sub-horizontal fracture within
earlier formed sub-horizontal fracture-fill pyrrhotite. VCR, Mponeng mine. (c) Back-scattered SEM image of gold with hydrocarbon and pyrrhotite in complex
intersection zone between a steep fracture and a horizontal fracture. VCR, Mponeng mine. (d) Gold with pyrrhotite, epidote and allanite in a matrix corrosion
space. VCR, Mponeng mine. (e) Cathodoluminescence image showing gold concentrated within and adjacent to a sub-horizontal fracture. VCR, Mponeng
mine.
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Fig. 7. Geological mapping of mining (stope) faces—measured gold grades quoted here are mine survey average assay results for each stope face illustrated. (a) Structure in VCR terrace facies within an imbricate
zone (gold grade 3000 cmg/t). VCR internal stratigraphy part-utilised by thrust structures, and early steep mineralised fractures are cut by later buttressing-related shallow mineralised fractures in thrust ramp.
Note slip vector very oblique to face mapped here. Elsberg quartzite footwall. Stope 87/49-W2, Mponeng mine. (b) Typical 1-m-thick terrace facies VCR with conglomerate –quartzite banding onlapping minor
channel edges. Approximately 100 m from nearest imbricate zone, but adjacent mining shows ultracataclasites within the footwall quartzites beneath the reef (gold grade 1500 cmg/t). Small early steep and
horizontal fractures distributed within the reef, but note shallow structures are concentrated close to sheared thin quartzite beds within the conglomerates. Note slip vector very oblique to face mapped here. Mid-
Kimberley argillaceous quartzites in footwall. Stope 84/61-E3, Mponeng mine. (c) Small shallow fracture systems approximately 150 m south of nearest imbricate zone, ultracataclasites not known locally (gold
grade 360 cmg/t). Fractures, flexural slip and buckle folding associated with buttressing of base lavas erosional topography against a coincident VCR channel margin. Buckle folding focused on the depositional
architecture here absorbs much of the strain. Note slip vector sub-parallel to face mapped here. Mid-Kimberley argillaceous quartzites in footwall. Reef drive tunnel 89/63-RDE, Mponeng mine.
S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086 1075
been documented at Elandsrand (Jolley et al., 1999) and first flat fractures focused by the reef’s palaeotopography
Kloof (e.g. Berlenbach, 1995), indicating thrust short- and internal stratigraphy, and then steep fractures caused by
ening of the sedimentary package beneath the more rigid broader shearing of the reef and thrust loading. This layer-
lavas is a characteristic structural style in the region. parallel shear was superceded towards the end of the strain
Table 1 provides a comparison of deformation between cycle by propagation of thrust imbricates with additional
Elandsrand and Mponeng. shallow fracture development in ramp segments.
Compared with the VCR at Elandsrand, the VCR at
3.3. Mineralised fractures Mponeng is generally thicker, with more pronounced
palaeo-topography of perched alluvial terraces and inter-
Several types of gold-bearing fractures formed connecting slopes at its top, and a more pronounced
in association with the thrusting at Mponeng: steep erosional topography at its base; and the reef’s internal
quartz/sulphide-bearing fractures; and sub-horizontal stratigraphy of channels, quartzites and coarse units is also
quartz- and/or sulphide-bearing fractures. Both sets of more complex. This appears to have restricted thrust
fractures formed in the reef after pervasive matrix alteration, propagation along the top of the reef and consequent
and both sets of fractures host the gold mineralisation. Mine- decoupling of the lavas from the sediments. However, it has
scale mapping, detailed meso-scale stope face mapping and provided a stronger focus of fracture strains along the reef’s
microstructural observations show that gold grades are internal stratigraphy (Fig. 7a and b) and against channel
greatly elevated above background values where thrust- margins and topographic edges where indentation and
related deformation features are present at Mponeng. buttressing by the more rigid lavas caused buckle-fold
Similarly at Elandsrand, mineralisation is concentrated in tightening of channels and slope–terrace inflexions and
the reef where thrusts intersect it (Fig. 5a), and gold grades associated fracture formation (Fig. 7c). The thrust–fracture
are an order of magnitude higher where thrust-related network at Mponeng was therefore initiated by a combination
fractures are present and mappable. Indeed at Deelkraal of layer-parallel shear of the VCR package and shortening
mine, which straddles the stratigraphic subcrop of the VCR across VCR topographic features, similar to Elandsrand,
against the base Klipriviersberg lavas to the west, the older although the subsequent propagation of thrust imbricates is
Mondeor conglomerate package lies in contact with the less well developed. Where the latter are present, the later-
lavas and hosts the mineralisation (Fig. 5b). This is formed shallow fracture sets can be seen in the reef, invariably
important because the 1– 2 m thick zone of gold mineral- focused within thrust ramps, and interpreted to result from
isation is generally restricted to the VCR, but at Deelkraal buttressing and fault short-cut development, similar to
the mineralisation is clearly continuous across the VCR examples more commonly seen at Elandsrand.
subcrop into rocks that are normally sterile beneath it. In detail, the thrust-related fault rocks at Mponeng,
Mineralisation is therefore clearly associated with the in common with those at Elandsrand, initiated as
tectonised plane of the base Klipriviersberg, where the cataclastic zones with quartz cements. These zones
lavas lie in contact with a suitably fracture-prone conglom- were subsequently the focus of significant syn-kinematic
eratic host, and is not particularly restricted to any given fluid flow and hydrothermal alteration, corrosion of
depositional unit, thus demonstrating an essentially strata- quartz and extensive precipitation of phyllosilicates.
bound rather than stratiform nature. All of the gold grains These cataclasites contain extremely small clasts, and
we have observed by SEM in VCR samples occur within are identical in fabric and evolution to the micaceous
fractures and fracture intersections, or in matrix corrosion ultracataclasites described from Elandsrand, where
sites within several 100 mm of intersections between microstructural data demonstrates that these fault-rocks
fracture edges and the adjacent matrix (Fig. 6; also formed coevally with mineralised fracture systems
Barnicoat et al., 1997, fig. 3c; Jolley et al., 1999, fig. 4). (Jolley et al., 1999, fig. 4). The key observations are
Gold is preferentially concentrated in the sub-horizontal that the ultracataclasites and the fracture fills share a
fractures, although gold and hydrocarbons also fill steep common mineralogy and textural sequence; the two
fractures. These observations demonstrate the broad con- dominant fracture sets display mutual cross-cutting
temporaneity of the different fracture sets, and the syn- relationships with the fault-rocks; and jogs in fractures
kinematic nature of gold precipitation. host ultracataclasite, whilst the faults tip-out as miner-
alised fractures such that ultracataclasite is transitional
3.4. Relationship between thrusting and mineralised with fracture-fill within a single structure.
fractures Shallowly dipping fractures are more common than
steep fractures in the Mponeng VCR. However, mutual
At Elandsrand, thrust-fracture networks evolved pro- cross-cutting relationships are developed between the
gressively in the reef, due to concentration of thrust-related fractures and between the fractures and the cataclastic
strains towards the lava/VCR contact (Jolley et al., 1999). fault-rocks, indicating that the fractures formed immedi-
Local strain histories began with early layer-parallel shear- ately prior to and during thrust imbrication of the reef.
driven mineralised fracture formation in the reef interval: The fracture fill mineralogy is typical of the type associated
1076 S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086
Fig. 8. Cross-sections through the WUDLS 3D seismic survey. (a) Regional section. Thinning and sub-cropping of Central Rand stratigraphy beneath the VCR
towards the Bank fault, caused by syn-Central Rand reverse movement on the Bank thrust. Subsequent thickening of the upper Klipriviersberg lavas in the
same direction, due to extensional reactivation of the fault. Note downward-facing of thrust detachments (e.g. Booysens Shale), induced by regional tilting
during the upper Klipriviersberg to Platberg extension. The section also shows a much earlier angular unconformity in the West Rand, associated with
movement on the Bank thrust. (b) Detail (modified from Gibson et al. (2000)), showing thrust climbing from detachment in the Booysens Shale to the base of
the Klipriviersberg lavas—note the flexure of the base of the lavas associated with the thrusts.
with mineralisation described above (see also Barnicoat et al., orebody that is continuous for at least 450 km2. Whilst
1997), and is found to include gold grains, indicating that these individual mines are in the order of 5 –10 km across,
thrust-related fractures are contemporaneous with mineralis- typically only those areas close to zones of active mining are
ation. The implication is that mineralisation post-dated accessible for direct observation and sample collection.
diagenetic occlusion of sedimentary permeability, and was However, mine plans represent a huge data source that
coeval with and focused by the development of the thrust- contains the detailed data and mappings collected by mine
fracture networks in the reef; and that gold was precipitated as geologists on advancing stope faces during decades of
a consequence of fluid introduction coeval with development mining activity. We have collated data from these worked-
of the fault-rocks. out areas of the mines, supplemented by our own under-
ground observations and SEM work, to build detailed
3.5. Mine-scale structure of the VCR in the Carletonville structural models of the gold deposits. An additional source
goldfield of increasing importance in Witwatersrand mines, is 3D
seismic reflection data. Interpretation of this data has been
The VCR in the Carletonville region alone represents an of immense value in determining geological structure in
S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086 1077
Fig. 9. Structural maps of the VCR at (a) Elandsrand (southern half of map from this work, northern half after Lavery (1989)) and (b) Mponeng mines, compiled
from 1:200 mine plans containing underground mappings by mine geologists. Density of mapped faces in the mine plans diminishes in both mines towards the
SE, due to changes in work practice. Note three imbricate zones at Elandsrand. These climb section towards the south with trailing imbrication and propagation
accomplished through coalescent capture of isolated slip patches. Distribution of thrusting deformation and the ‘apple green’ alteration at Mponeng shows
strong spatial correlation.
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thrust system. Furthermore, thrusting deformation detaching green quartzites, which are broadly associated with elevated
from the Booysens Shale in the NW of the region is gold grades, were once considered to be a primary
terminated where these shales sub-crop against the VCR depositional marker in the VCR package. However, they
along the eastern edge of Mponeng. Thrusts detaching along owe their spectacular pistachio green colour to Cr-bearing
lower parts of the Central Rand stratigraphy such as the Bird sericitic alteration.
sequence, become relevant east of a strain shadow zone Several 3D seismic surveys have been collected over
immediately below the Booysens Shale (Fig. 8; Gibson Mponeng and the regional Western Ultra Deep Levels
et al., 2000). Mine-scale variations in Central Rand (WUDLS) area south of the Carletonville mines. The
lithologies that sub-crop beneath the VCR become signifi- pattern of sub-crops beneath the VCR of various Central
cant. For example, thinly bedded or argillaceous quartzites Rand stratigraphy has been identified by using base-lavas
and shales are more prone to layer-parallel shear than either reflection attributes such as amplitudes and waveform
the lavas or the VCR conglomerates. The major mechanical tuning (Gibson et al., 2000). Structures have been picked
interface may in these circumstances lie beneath the reef, in the seismic data using conventional and attribute-based
such that shear strains and associated thrusting are focused techniques, and then characterised as thrusts, flexures and
into the reef’s footwall. In contrast, a massive quartzitic normal faults where seismic resolution allows. Thrusts seen
footwall to the VCR provides good mechanical coupling to in the seismic data to detach from the Booysens Shale and
the lavas through the more deformable VCR, and hence link into the base of the lavas have been correlated with
focuses all of the fault – fracture strain within the reef (e.g. mineralised imbricate zones within an overlap area between
Fig. 7a; Jolley et al., 1999, fig. 3). Local facies variation the 3D seismic data, and the mine plans and active workings
within the VCR, such as quartzite beds and/or channel (Jolley et al., 1999; Gibson et al., 2000). At Mponeng, it has
features, form relatively less-competent bands within the been possible to directly compare seismically mapped
conglomerates, and therefore focus otherwise broad shear structures with those observed underground, since extensive
strains within the reef (e.g. Fig. 7b). Variation of top and mining and geological mapping has taken place in the years
basal VCR landform palaeo-topography and early fault following acquisition of a pilot 3D seismic survey there.
scarp features can be considered as rugosity on the interface With such detailed integration work, we are confident that
between the rigid lavas and the Central Rand Group we have been able to map the regional distribution of
sediments. These features influence the propagation and prospective thrust-related structures in the VCR from the
geometry of mesoscale thrusts and fractures, and produce seismic data.
additional fracture networks by generating local buttressing
strains (e.g. Fig. 7c), and local dilation sites across the 4.3. Prospectivity in the WUDLS exploration ground
contact. Where the reef is thin to non-existent (along low- to
non-depositional or erosional inter-terrace slopes) and Our understanding of the various influences on the
where the reef is sandy rather than conglomeratic, discrete hydrothermal mineralisation discussed in this paper and
layer-parallel shear occurs rather than wider zones of elsewhere (Barnicoat et al., 1997; Jolley et al., 1999) has
fracture generation. Gold-bearing potential is accordingly been used to assess the prospectivity of the regional-scale
reduced. WUDLS 3D seismic survey area. To do this, we compared a
qualitative matrix of these controlling factors with the
4.2. Mine-scale and 3D seismic reflection data structure map produced from the seismic data. In doing so,
we were able to assign prospectivity ‘values’ to individual
Data from underground mapping at Elandsrand and structures, in which seismically mapped thrusts and flexures
Mponeng was compiled into structural maps of the mines are judged to be equivalent to gold-bearing thrust-fracture
(Fig. 9), and compared with maps of gold grade data for the systems mapped in the mines. Comparison of seismically
same areas. In this way, we have been able to verify and mapped structures with mine plan overlays and the
quantify the up-scaling of our observations to mine- and extension of mined-out structures shows that our classifi-
seismic-scale discussed here, through examination of large cation procedure is reasonably robust. Thus, whilst the
confidential datasets. Although we cannot publish these seismic data resolution only allows the general pattern of
grade data, we can describe the key features of the striking thrusting to be identified, we have taken this as a proxy for
correlation we have seen between thrusting deformation and the distribution of prospective imbricate zones. Based on the
gold distribution at the mines as follows. The highest gold mapped zones of faulting in Elandsrand and Mponeng, we
grades occur within 250 m of the larger mapped compres- have been able to estimate the width of structurally
sional structures at Mponeng, and in zones of imbrication controlled high-grade domains and overlay these onto the
and within 50 m either side of steep lateral fault zones, picked structures to produce a prospectivity map.
which partition the imbricates into distinct panels at The validity of our classification and mapping approach
Elandsrand. At Mponeng, a comparison of the structural was tested by comparing our prospectivity map with
domains with the distribution of locally famous ‘apple green average gold values determined from existing surface
quartzite’ shows a remarkably good match (Fig. 9b). These boreholes. Borehole intersections within 250 m of seismically
1080 S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086
Fig. 11. Stratigraphy enclosing the Basal Reef in the Welkom goldfield. The
Khaki Shale (also known as the Booysens Shale) is a layer-cake of 2–6 m
thickness: the quartzite wedge it contains is the Waxy Brown Leader
Quartzite (WBLQ). The Basal Reef consists of two laterally exclusive Fig. 12. Cartoon of the late Witwatersrand structural evolution at
conglomeratic packages (the Loraine and Black Chert facies). Matjhabeng mine in the Welkom goldfield.
S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086 1081
Fig. 15. Summary sketch showing relationships between thrusting and stratigraphy, and associated gold grades at Tshepong mine.
the overlying Khaki Shales or underlying quartzites. WBLQ, located in the eastern part of the mine, is a low
Elevated grades were also observed in steep buttressing grade area in which gold content of the reef increases
zones or lateral structures associated with the mineralised towards the margins of the quartzite body. A further
thrusts. These steep features appear to be related to the important observation from detailed analysis of the grade
early-formed small (always less than 0.5 m throw), steep data for the mine is the presence of higher-grade lineaments
oblique extensional structures that developed prior to the within the data that coincide with areas in which mapped
main thrusting deformation, possibly as ‘systematic’ NW/SE striking thrusts intersect the reef package.
fractures and normal faults within the foreland, ahead of Our SEM work on Basal Reef samples from Tshepong
the advancing thrust front. Where the thrust propagation shows gold to be hosted within fractures and other
direction was at a high angle to the strike of these steep secondary, post-diagenetic microstructural sites, most
structures, the interaction caused reverse reactivation, often in association with hydrocarbon mesophase (‘carbon’)
buttressing and fracturing, and hence local gold concen- or sulphides, in common with other Witwatersrand reefs.
tration. Where the propagation direction was close to the Fractures associated with both steep and flat-lying faults are
strike of the steep structures, they became reactivated and mineralised in the reef, whilst additional small amounts of
captured by the thrust system as lateral ramps. Therefore, gold occur in association with thrust-reactivated steep
whilst the steep structures control local gold grade, the structures in the footwall. The main controls on the
dominant volumetric control on gold mineralisation is the distribution of this syn-kinematic permeability (and there-
presence and intensity of the fracturing associated with fore gold) are the location of thrusts and variations in the
the mineralised thrust system. The architecture of the mechanical stratigraphy through which they propagated.
thrust – fracture networks and hence the ore-scale gold For example, clast-supported oligomict conglomerates such
grade, is controlled by a number of other factors that relate as the Loraine facies are more fracture-prone than polymict
to the mechanical properties of the stratigraphy. varieties such as the Black Chert facies. However, the most
Fig. 14b, shows the distribution of gold at Tshepong critical variation in stratigraphy at Tshepong is the
superimposed on the location of the Basal Reef facies type distribution of the WBLQ, which removes almost all of
boundaries and the distribution of quartzite-filled channel in the Khaki Shale above the Basal Reef in a SE-trending
the Khaki Shale (WBLQ unit). There is a strong correlation channel. Variation in WBLQ morphology resulted in
between the presence of oligomict, clast-supported con- variation of the mechanical coupling between stratigraphic
glomerate (Loraine facies) and gold grade. Black Chert elements and propagating thrusts, to affect the distribution
facies conglomerates of the Basal Reef contain lower of associated mineralised fracture systems within the reef
average gold grades than the Loraine facies. Gold grades are (as summarised in Fig. 15). The fault –fracture network is
also markedly higher in the Basal Reef where it is overlain better developed in the reef where the imbricates climb
by the WBLQ channel feature, and especially high beneath through it. The areas with the most intense fracture
the margins of the channel. The tabular outwash area of permeability lie beneath the WBLQ channel margins,
Fig. 14. Maps showing Basal Reef attributes at Tshepong mine. Facies and isopachs compiled from logging core from 100 þ boreholes. The N–S polygon in
the centre of the maps is the locally famous Dagbreek fault zone. (a) Isopach map of the Waxy Brown Leader Quartzite (WBLQ). (b) Gold grade at the mine
(kriged to 20 m blocks). Basal Reef facies boundary, WBLQ channel and outwash sheet are indicated. Note better grades associated with the fracture-prone
Loraine facies, the sharp increase in grade in the Basal Reef beneath the edge of WBLQ channel, and NW–SE high grade linears in the data (the latter coincide
with the mapped trace of thrusts intersecting the reef).
1084 S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086
Fig. 16. Basal Reef gold grade values at Tshepong mine estimated by Fig. 17. Cartoon of the front of a propagating thrust imbricate zone (cf. Fig.
multiple regression of sampling data using the key parameters outlined in 9). Isolated patches of faulting occur in advance of the tip line to the main
the text. Each summary data point shown here is based on several thousands imbrication, which grows by coalescing these isolated slip patches. Frontal
of individual data points. Note the consistent differences between areas with and lateral ramps and footwall plucking structures develop to facilitate
and without thrusting, WBLQ channel, sheet or absence, and between the capture of slip patches ahead and above or below the main tip line,
different Basal Reef facies. respectively.
S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086 1085
Fig. 18. Schematic thrust system, showing the styles of structures seen within the frontal process zone. Note the setting of various Witwatersrand mines. The
structural history described for the mines in the text is compatible with progressive diachronous deformation in a thrust system with early formed, low
displacement structures becoming folded and cut by thrusts upon arrival of the propagating imbricate system.
stratigraphy are seen to have exerted controls on develop- mapped sole thrust. In such sites, areas of small amounts of slip
ment of the mineralised thrust – fracture network at macro- occur in advance of the linked imbrication front, and their
to micro-scales of observation. Examples described here capture facilitates the advance of the main thrust system (Fig.
include the kilometre-scale strain discontinuity between the 17). Fig. 18 is a schematic section based on our seismic
rigid Klipriviersberg and the less competent Central Rand interpretations and observations in the mines, showing the
groups, accommodated by decoupling across thrust – variation in structural styles and progressive strain evolution
fracture systems within the VCR; and the macro- to meso- seen in a thrust system’s low-displacement, frontal process
scale variation of efficiency in mechanical coupling between zone. Viewed in terms of hydrothermal ‘plumbing’, the larger
stratigraphic elements, caused by variations in the distri- structures within the linked thrust system would form
bution of quartzites, conglomerates, shales and bedforms upstream flow backbones growing from the hinterland,
within Basal Reef and VCR depositional packages. Con- and the smaller semi-linked mesoscale thrust–fracture net-
glomeratic units are fracture-prone with respect to finer works, would represent smaller-scale ‘dangling’ elements
grained lithologies, and therefore tend to host the better- facilitating downstream hydrothermal discharge, an arrange-
developed mineralised fault–fracture arrays in multilayers ment seen in other mesothermal mineralising systems (e.g.
subjected to thrusting deformation, whilst the adjacent Cox, 1999). It is clear from the observations and interpret-
quartzites generally remain barren. This general association ations presented in this paper that careful synthesis of
between stratigraphy and gold has in the past led to integrated work across scales from that of thin sections to
syngenetic interpretations. However, as described in this that of the whole basin, is essential to the development of
paper, economic concentration of gold is controlled by a fuller understanding of ore-forming processes in the
development of mineralised thrust –fracture arrays, through Witwatersrand, and the generation of effective process-
the interplay between thrusting deformation and the based exploration–production models.
stratigraphic template.
Thrusting in the Witwatersrand gold mines generally forms
low displacement (centimetre–metre scale) systems, which Acknowledgements
we interpret as representing a typical frontal process zone to a
thrust belt, where the isolated and partially linked thrust and This paper is drawn from over a decade of our work in
fracture networks are developed on the foreland side of the the Witwatersrand Basin, principally under contract to
1086 S.J. Jolley et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 26 (2004) 1067–1086
Anglo-American and subsequently AngloGold, to whom we Gize, A.P., 2000. Organic petrology applied to ore deposits. Reviews in
are grateful for the opportunity and financial support. We Economic Geology 9, 63 –85.
Gray, G.J., Lawrence, S.R., Kenyon, K., Cornford, C., 1998. Nature and
are grateful to the many geoscientists and engineers we have
origin of carbon in the Archean Witwatersrand basin, South Africa.
interacted with working on Witwatersrand mines; discus- Journal of the Geological Society, London 155, 39–59.
sions with them and with John Walshe, Bruce Hobbs, Dave Gross, M.R., Gutierrez-Alonso, G., Bai, T., Wacker, M.A., Collinsworth,
Kershaw and Mark Gibson have helped to shape our ideas. K.B., 1997. Influence of mechanical stratigraphy and kinematics on
We are grateful to AngloGold for permission to publish this fault scaling relations. Journal of Structural Geology 19, 171– 183.
work, and to Shell for funding to reproduce figures in Hall, R.C.B., 1994. Supporting evidence for the placement of the inter-reef
lavas and associated sediments within the Venterspost Conglomerate
colour. Constructive comments from reviewers Johnathan
Formation: Kloof Gold Mine. South African Journal of Geology 97,
Law, Richard Spencer and Julian Vearncombe helped to 297 –307.
improve our manuscript. Hanks, C.L., Lorenz, J., Tuefel, L., Krumhardt, A.P., 1997. Lithologic and
structural controls on natural fracture distribution and behaviour within
the Lisburne Group, northeastern Brooks Range and North Slope
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