Current, Resistance, And

Electromotive Force
Chapter-25

Topics to be covered : 25.1 : Current

25.2 : Resistivity
TYU-22.2, TYU-22.3, TYU-
25.3: Resistance
22.4
25.4: Electromotive Force and Circuits

25.5 Energy and Power in Electric Circuits

Conceptual Problems : TYU-25.1, TYU-25.2, TYU-25.4, TYU-25.5

In class Problems : 25.1, 25.4, 25.5, 25.7, 25.8

Assignment Problems : 25.28, 25.42

Dr. Rajanikanta Parida

Department of Physics ITER, SOA University,
Bhubaneswar
rajanikantaparida@soauniversity.ac.in
Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

Current (I) through a conductor

Current is due to the motion of the free electrons, present in the conductor, from one region to another.
dq I
The magnitude of the current is I = . The current density is J =
dt A
No electric field applied:
• In a metal such as copper or aluminum, some of the electrons are free to move within the
conducting material. These free electrons move randomly in all directions with much greater
speeds, of the order of 106m/s.
But these electrons do not escape from the conducting material, because they are being attracted
to the positive ions of the material.
The motion of the electrons is random, and the average velocity is zero, so there is no net flow of
charge in any direction and hence no current.
• If ‘n’ electrons move with velocities v1, v2, v3, …… then the average velocity of electrons is
v1 + v 2 + v3 + ......
• vav = =0
n
Electric field applied:

• With the application of electric field E each electron experience force given by
F=qE
• This steady force ( F ) causes a steady acceleration in opposite direction (electron being
negatively charged) of E .
• But a charged particle moving in a conductor undergoes frequent collisions with the massive,
nearly stationary, ions of the material.
• The net effect of E is that there is a very slow net motion or drift of the moving charged particles
in the direction of F .
• The velocity acquired by the electron is called the drift velocity (vd). As result, there is a net
current in the conductor. The drift speed is very slow, of the order of 10-4m/s.
• Due to collision the particle undergo a very small displacement x = vd t, in direction of F .

(Given that the electrons move so slowly, one may wonder why the light comes on immediately
when you turn on the switch of a flashlight.
The reason is that the electric field is set up in the wire with a speed approaching the speed of
light, and electrons start to move all along the wire nearly the same time. The time that it takes
any individual electron to get from the switch to the light bulb isn’t really relevant.)

Direction of current flow

• A current can be produced by positive or negative charge flow. But the conventional current
flows along the direction of E .
• In metals the conventional current is due to the electrons

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

Current, drift velocity, and current density

Let n = electron density = number of electron per unit volume
No. of electrons
n=  No. of electrons = n ( Volume ) = n ( A x displacement )
Volume
No. of electrons = n A ( v d dt )
Where, vd = drift velocity, A = cross-sectional area
The charge dQ that flows out of the end of the cylinder during time dt is
dQ = (number of electron ) e where, e = charge of an electron
dQ = n A vd dt e
We know that the current is
dQ n A v d e dt
I=  I=  I = e vd A n
dt dt
Now the current density J is
I A vd e n
J=  J=  J = vd e n
A A
Current density is a vector quantity. So this can be written as
J = vd e n
The direction of J depends on the direction of E
If charge is positive, v d is in the same direction as E
If charge is negative, v d is opposite to E
In either case, J is in the same direction as E

Difference between current and current density

Current (I) Current density J ()
The current is a scalar. Current density is a vector.
The current describes how charges Current density describes how charges flow at a certain point and
flow through an extended object also about the direction of the flow at that point.
such as a wire.
Current(I) have the same value at Current density does not have the same value at all points in the
all points in the circuit. circuit, because direction of J (same as E ) is not same at all the
points.
Even the magnitude of J can also vary around a circuit because the
area of cross-section of the wires may not same as the battery

Resistivity ()

()
Resistivity () of material is the ratio of the magnitude of electric field ( E ) to the current density J .
E
= ( This is called the Ohm’s Law)
J
V/ AE
 =  =
I/A I
Large resistance ‘r’ implies a large E field is needed to generate small current.
Conductivity (σ) is the reciprocal of the resistivity ().

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

High conductivity means a large current result from a small applied E field.
A material that obeys Ohm’s law reasonably well is called an ohmic conductor or a linear conductor. For
such materials, at a given temperature, ρ is a constant and does not depend on the value of E .
Many materials show substantial deviation from Ohm’s-law behavior; they are non-ohmic, or nonlinear.
In these materials, J depends on E in a more complicated manner.
Resistivity and temperature

The resistivity of a metallic conductor varies with the variation of the temperature, as shown in the
figure. As temperature increases, the ions of the conductor vibrate with greater amplitude. So the
probability of collision of the electron with ions increases. This impedes the drift of electrons through the
conductor and hence reduces the current.
Over a small temperature range (up to 1000C), the resistivity of a metal can be represented
approximately by the equation
ρ(T) = ρ0[1+ α(T-T0)]
Where ρ0 = resistivity at a reference temperature.
ρ(T) = resistivity at temperature T , which may be higher or lower than T0.
α = temperature coefficient of resistivity.
The resistivity of the alloy manganin is practically independent of temperature.

The variation of ρ(T) with the temperature T for metal, semiconductors and superconductors are shown
below.

The resistivity of semiconductor materials (also graphite) decreases with increasing of temperature.
Here, α is negative. This principle is used in the construction thermistor (a type of thermometer).

In superconductivity materials, as the temperature decreases, the resistivity first decreases smoothly then
at a certain critical temperature (Tc) the resistivity suddenly drops to zero. Once a current has been
established in a superconducting ring, it continues indefinitely without the presence of any driving field.

Resistance

Let us consider a conductor with uniform cross-sectional area such

that
A = area of cross-sectional
L = length of the cross-sectional area
V = potential difference between the higher-potential and lower-
potential ends of the conductor
The direction of the current is always from the higher-potential end to the lower potential end.

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

As the current flows through the potential difference, electric potential energy is lost; this energy is
transferred to the ions of the conducting material during collisions.

If the magnitudes of the current density J and the electric field E are uniform throughout the conductor,
the total current I is given by J = I
A
And the potential difference between the ends is given by
V=EL
We know that
V I  L 
E=J  =  V = I   V = IR This is called Ohm’s law.
L A  A 
L
Where, R = and is called the Resistance of the conductor
A
For ohmic material ‘ρ’ is constant. So, R is constant for ohmic material
From the above equation it is clear that for ohmic material the resistance conductor of uniform cross
section is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. It is
also proportional to the resistivity of the material of which the conductor is made.
The resistance of a metallic conductor varies with the variation of the temperature,
The resistance of a metal at a temperature can be represented as
RT = R0[1+ α(T-T0)]
Where R0 = resistance at a reference temperature.
RT = resistance at temperature T , which may be higher or lower than T0.
α = temperature coefficient of resistance.
RT = R0[1+ α T] where T = T-T0 = change in temperature
=> RT = R0+ R0α T
=> RT - R0 = R0 α T
Thus, the change in resistance resulting from a temperature change T is R0 α T

Color Codes for Resistors

Color Value as Value as

Digit Multiplier
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

Ohmic and non-ohmic resistors

Ohmic resistors Non-ohmic resistors

Ohmic resistor obeys Ohm’s law Non-Ohmic resistor do not obeys Ohm’s law
I α V (I –V is a straight line passing through origin) I –V is a straight line passing through origin
If the sign of V changes, so does the sign of I For +I, I increases exponentially with increasing
produced. So E, J and I all reverse direction. V, For –V, the current is extremely small.
Thus a positive causes a current to flow in the
positive direction, but a potential difference of
the other sign causes little or no current.

Electromotive force and circuit

The influence that makes current to flow from lower to higher potential is called electromotive force.
The SI unit of emf is the same as that for potential, the volt
Mechanism:
For ideal source of emf:
• Terminal a is maintained at higher potential and
terminal b is maintained at lower potential.
• Due to potential difference an electric field E is
created in the circuit (both inside and outside the
source).
• The electric field inside the device is directed from a
to b ,
• A charge q within the source experiences an electric
force F = q E
• Another force (Fn) exist inside is of non-electrostatic type.
• Fn maintains the potential difference between the terminals. If Fn were not present, charge would
flow between the terminals until the potential difference was zero.

(The origin of Fn depends on the kind of source. In a generator it results from magnetic-field
forces on moving charges. In a battery or fuel cell it is associated with diffusion processes and
varying electrolyte concentrations resulting from chemical reactions. In an electrostatic machine
such as a Van de Graaff generator , an actual mechanical force is applied by a moving belt or
wheel.)

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

• Fn does a positive work on the charge to move from b to a inside

the source. It is given by W = qε
• Due to this work done the potential energy associated with the
charge q increases and is given by
U = q Vab (Where, Vab = Va - Vb)
• When the emf source is not part of a closed circuit, Fn = Fe and
there is no net motion of charge between the terminals.
Thus qε = q Vab
Vab = ε ( for ideal source of emf)
• The potential difference between the ends of the wire is given by
Vab = IR
So, ε = Vab = IR ( for ideal source of emf)
Internal resistance
When a charge q move through a material of any real source, encounters a resistance (r). This is
known as internal resistance.
As the current (I) moves through r , it experiences potential drop equal to Ir .
Thus, the terminal voltage of an emf source is given by
Vab = ε – Ir.
 IR =  – Ir
  = IR + Ir = I ( R + r )

 
I=
(R + r)
Ammeters
• Ammeters measure flow of current PAST a point.
• Ideally, they should NOT influence the current
• Ideally, R(ammeter) = 0
• Put them IN SERIES with circuit “legs”
Voltmeters
• Voltmeters measure pressure difference across (or between) points in the circuit.
• Ideally, they should NOT influence the current
• Ideally, R(voltmeter) = 
• Put them in parallel
Energy and power in electric circuits
Rate at which energy is delivered to or extracted from a circuit element is called the power. It is given by
P = VabI.
Power delivered to pure resistor: P = I2R = Vab2/R.

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

Conceptual Problems:

Test Your Understanding of Section 25.1

Suppose a electrical circuit uses 18 gauge wire and the drift velocity of electron through it was
vd = 0.15mm/s . Now the wire has been replaced by a 12 gauge copper wire which has twice the
diameter of 18-gauge wire. If the current remains the same, what effect would this have on the
magnitude of the drift velocity vd

i) none— vd would be unchanged;

ii) vd would be twice as great;
iii) vd would be four times greater;
iv) vd would be half as great;
v) vd would be one-fourth as great.

Answer: (v)

We know that

  D2    D2 
I = e vd A n = e vd (  r 2 ) n = e vd  n  A=r =
2

 4   4 
e v D2  n 4I 1
I= d  vd D2 =  vd D 2 = Cons tan t  v d  2
4 en D
Thus when the diameter is doubled, vd decreased by 22 times i.e decreased by 4 times.
1
Hence the drift velocity will reduced by a factor of
4
0.15 mm / s
The new magnitude is v d = = 0.038 mm / s .
4
Test Your Understanding of Section 25.2

You maintain a constant electric field inside a piece of semiconductor while lowering the
semiconductor’s temperature. What happens to the current density in the semiconductor?
(i) It increases; (ii) it decreases; (iii) it remains the same.
Answer: (ii) : We know that the resistivity() of a semiconductor increases as the temperature decreases.

From Eq. J = E/, it is clear that as the current density () increases current density decreases.

Test Your Understanding of Section 25.3

Suppose you increase the voltage across a copper wire. The increased voltage causes more current to
flow, which makes the temperature of the wire increase. (The same thing happens to the coils of an
electric oven or a toaster when a voltage is applied to them.) If you double the voltage across the wire,
the current in the wire increases. By what factor does it increase?

(i) 2; (ii) greater than 2; (iii) less than 2.

Answer: (iii)
V
We know that the current is I =
R
If the resistance R of the wire remained the same, then by doubling the voltage V, the current I will be
doubled..

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

However, the resistance is not constant. As the current increases and the temperature increases. So, R
increases.
Thus doubling the voltage produces a current that is less than double the original current.
V
An ohmic conductor is one for which R = has the same value no matter what the voltage, so the wire
I
is nonohmic. (In many practical problems the temperature change of the wire is so small that it can be
ignored, so we can safely regard the wire as being ohmic).

Test Your Understanding of Section -25.4:

Rank the following circuits in order from highest to lowest current.

i) A 1.4 Ω resistor connected to a1.5 V battery that has an internal resistance of 0.10 Ω
ii) A 1.8 Ω resistor connected to a 4.0 V battery that has a terminal voltage of 3.6 V but an unknown
internal resistance.
iii) An unknown resistor connected to a 12.0 V battery that has an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω and a
terminal voltage of 11.0 V.

Answer: (iii), (ii), (i)

i) emf of the battery = 1.5 V, External resistance = 1.4 Ω, Internal resistance = 0.1 Ω
So, I =  1.5 V 1.5 V
= = =1A
( R + r ) (1.4  + 0.10 ) 1.5 
ii) Terminal voltage Vab = 3.6 V, R = 1.8 Ω.
Vab 3.6 V
I= = =2A
R 1.8 
iii) emf of the battery = 12.0 V, Terminal voltage Vab = 11.0 V, Internal resistance = 0.2 Ω.
 − Vab 12.0 V − 11.0 V
Vab =  − Ir  I = = = 5.0 A
r 0.20 
Test Your Understanding of Section 25.5

Rank the following circuits in order from highest to lowest values of the net power output of the battery.
(i) a resistor 1.4Ω connected to a 1.5V battery that has an internal resistance of 0.1Ω.
(ii) a resistor 1.8Ω connected to a 4.0V battery that has a terminal voltage of 3.6V but an unknown
internal resistance;
(iii) an unknown resistor connected to a 12.0V battery that has an internal resistance of 0.2Ω and a
terminal voltage of 11.0 V.

Answer: (iii), (ii), (i): Proceed as TYU 25.4

In class Problem

Example 25.1 Current density and drift velocity in a wire

An 18-gauge copper wire (the size usually used for lamp cords), with a diameter of 1.02 mm carries a
constant current of 1.67A to a 200-W lamp. The free-electron density in the wire is 8.5 x 102 per cubic
meter. Find (a) the current density and (b) the drift speed.

Solution:

(a) Diameter of the wire d = 1.02 mm = 1.02 x 10-3 m

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

 d 2 (1.02 x 10-3 m)2

The cross-sectional area of the wire is: A = = = 8.17 x 10-7 m 2
4 4
Current in the wire I = 1.67 A
I 16 A
Current density is : J = = = 2.04 x 106 A/m 2
A 8.17 x 10-7 m 2
(b) Electron density (n) in the wire is n = 8.5 x 102 m-3

vd =
J
=
( 2.04 x 106 A/m2 )
= 1.5 x 10-4 m/s
nq ( 8.5 x 10 2
m -3
)(1.6 x 10 -19
C )
At this speed an electron would require (almost 2 h) to travel 1 m along this wire. The speeds of random
motion of the electrons are roughly 106 m/s, around 1010 times the drift speed. This shows that electrons
moves extremely slow.
Example 25.4 A source in an open circuit

Figure shows a source (a battery) with emf ε = 12V and internal

resistance r = 2Ω. The wires to the left of a and to the right of the
ammeter A are not connected to anything. Determine the
respective readings Vab and I of the idealized voltmeter V and the
idealized ammeter A.
Solution:

The idealized voltmeter has an infinitely large resistance, no

current flows through it.
So, I = 0 because there is no complete circuit.
Hence the ammeter reads I = 0.
Because there is no current through the battery, there is no potential difference across its internal
resistance.
We know that Vab =  − Ir  Vab =  − ( 0) r  Vab = 
So the voltmeter reads Vab =  = 12V
So, the terminal voltage of a real, non-ideal source equals the emf only if there is no current flow through
the source.
Example 25.5 A source in a complete circuit
What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings Vab and I in the circuit shown?
Solution:
The ideal ammeter has zero resistance, so the total resistance external to the
source is R = 4Ω
We know that I =  =
12.0 V
=2A
R +r 4+2

The resistance of the idealized conducting wires = 0

The resistance of the idealized ammeter = 0
So, potential difference between points a and a’ or between points b and b’ = 0
Vab = Va’b’
Now, Va’b’ = IR = ( 2A ) (4 Ω ) = 8V

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

Alternatively we can calculate the potential difference as:

Vab =  − Ir  Vab = 12V − ( 2A )( 2)  Vab = 8V
So, the voltmeter reading is 8 V.
Example 25.7 A source with a short circuit

What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings Vab and I in the circuit
shown?
Solution:
The terminals of the battery are connected directly to each other.
=> The external-circuit resistance is zero
=> This is called the short circuit and R = 0
Vab = IR = I (0 Ω ) = 0V
Again, Vab =  − Ir  0 = 12V − I ( 2)  I ( 2) = 12V  I = 6A

So, the voltmeter reading is 0 V, and the ammeter reading is 6A

Warning: An automobile battery or a household power line has very small internal resistance (much less
than 2 Ω ), and the short-circuit current can be great enough to melt a small wire or cause a
storage battery to explode. Therefore, short circuits can be dangerous.

Example 25.8: Power input and output in a complete circuit

Find the rates of energy conversion (chemical to electrical) and

energy dissipation in the battery, the rate of energy dissipation in the 4
Ω resistor, and the battery’s net power output.

Solution:

 12.0 V
The current in the circuit is: I = = =2A
R +r 4+2

Potential difference between ‘a’ and ‘b’ is

Vab =  − Ir  Vab = 12V − ( 2A )( 2)  Vab = 8V

The rates of energy conversion = Pc = ε I = (12V)(2A) = 24 W

The rate of dissipation of energy in the battery is

Pd = I2r = (2A)2 (2 Ω) = 8 W

The net electrical power output of the battery is

P = ε I - I2r = 24W – 8W = 16W

The electrical power input to the 4 Ω resistor is

Va’b’ I = (8V)(2A) = 16 W

The rate of dissipation of electrical energy in the 4 Ω

resistor = I2R = (2A)2 (4 Ω) = 16 W

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

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Current, Resistance, And Electromotive Force Chapter-25

Assignment Problems

25.28: Consider the circuit shown in the figure. The terminal voltage of the 24 V battery is 21.2 V.
What are
a) the internal resistance r of the battery and
b) the resistance R of the circuit resistor?

Ans: ε = 24 V, I = 4 A , Vab = 21.2 V

a) We know that
Vab = ε − Ir.

 I r = ε - Vab  r=
ε - Vab
 r=
( 24 V ) - ( 21.2 V ) = 0.7 
I 4A
b) Again, Vab = IR, the potential across the circuit resistor
Vab 21.2 V
.  R=  R= = 5.3 
I 4A
25.42: A radio receiver operating at 6.0V draws a current 0.1A. How much electrical energy will it
consume in two hours?
Ans: i= 0.1A, V = 6.0V, t=2h = 2x3600s
Electrical energy consumed = V i t = (6.0V)( 0.1A)( 2x3600s) = 4380 Joul

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