Development of Organizations

Development of Organizations (OED 624)
Course Description: Organizations of all kinds are facing the challenge of rapidly advancing
technologies and ever-increasing levels of competition, both nationally and globally. They are also
seeking to operate in an environment where are competing for markets and where they are to
market their goods and services. In the same vein, public organizations are now being pressurized
to become efficient and effective by adopting the private sector ways of doing business. This
course geared towards making organizations more responsive, creative, innovative, productive and
competitive. It aims to improve your understanding of organizations by exposing to you new
perspectives of how organizations should be organised and to the pertinent (relevant, related,
appropriate) issues that need to be addressed to make organizations improve the quantity and
quality of the goods and services they produce.
Learning Objectives: Specifically, the course is aiming at enabling you to:
 Help organizations to improve their performance.

 Identify institutional problems that inhibit improvements at the organizational and system
levels, and work out how to promote the necessary changes to make institutions responsive,
innovative, productive and competitive.
 Transform institutions (e.g., schools) from the bureaucratic practices to embrace learning
and participative culture in the provision of services.
Part 1: Developing Organisations through Effective Management
Lecture 1: The Rationale of Developing Organizations

1.1 Introduction
“Organizations are complex social systems that sometimes perform well and sometimes fail
miserably” (Jex & Britt, 2008, p.xi). Organizations, of all kinds, are facing challenges. The
challenges include among others rapidly advancing technologies, ever-increasing levels of
competition, and pressures to produce products and services of high quality both nationally and
globally. Organizations are also seeking to operate in an environment where they are competing
for markets and where they are to market their goods and services instead of staying behind waiting
for customers. This lecture is about the general rationale of developing organizations.
1.2 Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Give the meaning of an organisation.
2. Describe the nature of organisations.

3. Differentiate education organisations from other organisations of your choice.
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4. Explain the rationale of developing organisations.
1.3 The Nature of Organization
In a simple definition, an organization is a social group of people who work together towards
collective goals. According to Mullins (2005), organizations and especially modern organizations
have a long history and continue to develop, which makes their uniqueness. Organizations consist
of well-defined management structure that regulates relationships between individuals and
activities, roles and responsibilities to perform. Organizations of all kinds are open systems as they
affect and being affected by their environments.
1.4 What does Organizations Consists of?
There are various types of organizations. These differ in terms of goals and objectives the nature
of the organization-activities, procedures, operations and systems. The organizations are such as
Hotel, School, Hospital, Bank etc. It has been contended that although there are many types of
organizations, each organization however, should consists of three common factors:
Figure 1.1 Common Factors in Organizations
Source: Adopted from Mullins (2005).
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1.5 Rationale of Developing Organizations
In their endeavors, organizations face challenges. The challenges come from the rapidly advancing
technologies, the ever-increasing levels of competition, competing for markets, and the pressure
of organizations to become efficient and effective by producing products and services of high
quality and that align with the stakeholders’ needs. Thus, it is important to make organizations
more responsive to customers’ needs and demands, being creative and innovative, and productive
and remain competitive in business world.
Basing on these perspectives therefore, there seems a crucial need to think of how organizations
should be organized; and issues that need to be addressed to make organizations improve the
quantity and quality of the goods and services they produce/offer in the society they serve. This
necessitates the writings and studies by Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management; Max Weber's
Bureaucratic Management and Elton Mayo’s Human Relations. Moreover, the issues of making
our organizations “learning organizations”, ‘effective management and leadership’ are solely
important.
1.6 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the nature of organization, factors that organizations
consist of and the rationale of developing organizations.
1.7 Learning Activity
1. How do you define an organization?
2. What are the differences between educational organizations (e.g. schools) and
other organizations (e.g. hotels)?
3. Drawing examples from education sector, examine the rationale of developing

organizations.
1.8 References
Business Dictionary.
Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner

approach. 2nd Ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Mullins, L. J. (2005). Management and organizational behaviour. 7th Ed. Edinburgh

Gate: Pearson Education Limited.
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Course Manual: OED 624
Lecture 2: Theories of Management

2.1 Introduction
Since organizations have to perform effectively for their survival, ensuring effective management
of the execution of tasks and people’s performance is crucial. Hence, various management theories
were postulated with aim of enlighten managers to new perspectives of how organizations should
be organized. Managers are equipped and enlighten with important technical, human and social
skills. Although many management theories exist, in this lecture only three theories will be
discussed. These are Scientific Management theory by Frederick Taylor; Bureaucratic
Management theory by Max Weber and Human Relations theory by Elton Mayo’s. They will
be analyzed through identifying their strengths and weaknesses in ensuring effective management
of activities and practices in education organizations. However, the management literature has
revealed that there is no single management theory that is the best than others in all environments.
Although there might be general agreement from time to time on what constitutes best
management practice, the theoretical ingredients will tend to vary. Management theories are
therefore contestable rather than definitive and, although there is a sense of progressive,
evolutionary refinement, there is no master narrative to reassure us that the latest theory is
necessarily the best (John Sheldrakein in Mullins, 2005, p.65).
A person may ask “why it is important for management students to learn and discuss about
management theories”. The reasons are:
 It is necessary to view the interrelationships between the development of theory, behavior in

organizations and management practice.
 An understanding of the development of management thinking helps in understanding principles
underlying the process of management.
 Knowledge of the history helps in understanding the nature of management and organizational
behavior, and reasons for the attention given to main topic areas.
 Many of the earlier ideas are of continuing importance to the manager and later ideas on
management tend to incorporate earlier ideas and conclusions (Mullins, 2005, p.66).
This lecture discusses three grand theories of management, the scientific management theory by
Frederick Taylor, Bureaucratic Management Theory by Max Weber and Human Relations Theory
by Elton Mayo.

i. Describe the Theories of Management- Scientific Management, Bureaucratic

Management and Human Relations Theories of Management.
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ii. Explain the evolution of management thinking.
iii. Examine the relationship between theories of management and effective management
practices in education organisations.
iv. Differentiate Scientific Management from Bureaucratic Management and Human

Relations Theories of Management.
2.3 Scientific Management Theory in Organizations
The term scientific management contains two words: ‘scientific’ and ‘management’. The term
Scientific means being systematic, analytical and objective in approaches; while, the term
Management means getting things done through and with people. Hence, the term Scientific
Management means the management based on careful observations, objectives analysis and
innovative outlook. Scientific Management is an art of knowing exactly what is to be done and the
best way of doing it.
Scientific management is one of the famous classical theories of management that looked on the
‘best way’ of performing and managing tasks in organizations. Frederick Taylor as commonly has
known as ‘the father of scientific management’ posited principles of management with the aim of
improving workers performance and organization productivity. He advocated money to be used as
incentives for the best output in organizations. Taylor aimed to control workers and the work
processes. According to Mullins (2005), Taylor:
…. considered that all work processes could be analysed into discrete tasks and that by scientific
method it was possible to find the ‘one best way’ to perform each task. Each job was broken down
into component parts, each part timed, and the parts rearranged into the most efficient method of
working (p.69).
Taylor believed that if managers in work organizations would employ his principles there will be
motivated work force out wages gained through working effectively. The four principles of
management according to Taylor are:
1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based scientific management out of scientific
investigation.
2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to train
themselves.
3. Managers cooperate with workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods of working
are being followed.
4. Equal division of work between managers and workers.
In this manner, managers would apply scientific management principles to planning the work and
the workers perform the tasks.
Advantages of Scientific Management
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There are several advantages of scientific management. First, Taylor’s methods of work processes
improve workers’ performance and organization productivity. Second, there will be effective
utilization of organizational resources. Third, through scientific management principles there will
be standardization of work and workers qualifications.
Criticisms on Scientific Management
There is no theory without criticisms. Scientific management has been criticized for paying little
attention to human factors of work in organizations.
2.4 Bureaucratic Management Theory in Organizations
Bureaucratic management theory was proposed by Max Weber. He was a German Sociologist. It
has been argued that bureaucratic management principles were based on theoretical views against
scientific management that was practical in nature. The bureaucratic management theory focused
on the rigidity and structure of formal organization. Weber thought informal organization practices
would not bring efficiency in organizations as “employees were loyal to their supervisors and not
to the organization” (Hartzell, 2015).
According to Weber the characteristics feature of bureaucratic organization are (adopted from
Stewart in Mullins, 2005, p.74-75):
1. Specialization applies more to the job than to the person undertaking the job. This makes for
continuity because the job usually continues if the present jobholder leaves.
2. Hierarchy of authority makes for a sharp distinction between administrators and the
administered, or between management and workers. Within the management ranks there are
clearly defined levels of authority. This detailed and precise stratification is particularly marked in
the armed forces and in the civil service.
3. System of rules aims to provide for an efficient and impersonal operation. The system of rules
is generally stable, although some rules may be changed or modified with time. Knowledge of the
rules is a requisite of holding a job in a bureaucracy.
4. Impersonality means that allocation of privileges and the exercise of authority should not be
arbitrary, but in accordance with the laid-down system of rules. In more highly developed
bureaucracies, there tend to be carefully defined procedures for appealing against certain types of
decisions.
In the literature of organizational behaviours you can also find the following principles of
bureaucratic theory:
i) In a bureaucratic organization, there is a high degree of Division of Labor and

Specialization.
ii) There is a well-defined Hierarchy of Authority.
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iii) It follows the principle of Rationality, Objectively and Consistency.
iv) There are Formal and Impersonal relations among the members of the
organization.
v) Interpersonal relations are based on positions and not on personalities.
vi) In a bureaucratic organization there are clear Rules and Regulations that should be followed.
vii) Methods for all types of work are well defined.
viii) Selection and Promotion is based on Technical qualifications.
ix) Only legal power is given importance (Akrani, 2011).
2.5 Human Relations Theory in Organizations
Classical theorists focused on building formal organizations for high productivity. Elton Mayo in
contrary focused on building of informal organizations. Through Hawthorne experiments various
management aspects that determine organization productivity were revealed:
 Employees would like to have a friendly environment where they can talk about their problems,
feelings and attitudes and they would like to be listened and cared.
The theory enlightens important skills to organizational managers to be good listeners of

employees’ feelings and problems. The theory thus emphasizes the idea that attitudes,
relationships, and leadership styles play a key role in motivating employees and promoting the
performance of an organization.
Human relations principles focus on social organization, groups and informal relationships.
Managerial control under human relations principles is to enhance interpersonal influence through
interactions and communication (see Mullins, 2005).
Note that in this lecture, we did explore the strengths and weaknesses of bureaucratic
management theory and those of human relations theory of management. We leave this
assignment to you. Find out and present three strengths and three weaknesses of
bureaucratic management theory and those of human relations theory of management in
work organizations.
2.6 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the characteristic feature of three theories of
management and their role in enhancing productivity in organizations. The theories were
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the Scientific management theory by Frederick Taylor, Bureaucratic Management
Theory by Max Weber and Human Relations Theory by Elton Mayo.
2.7 Exercise
1. Describe the Theories of Management- Scientific Management, Bureaucratic
Management and Human Relations Theories of Management.
2. Explain the evolution of management thinking.
3. Examine the relationship between theories of management and effective
management practices in education organisations.
4. Differentiate Scientific Management from Bureaucratic Management and
Human Relations Theories of Management.
2.8 References
Taylor, F. W. (1947). Scientific Management, Harper and Row.
Hartzell, S. (2015). Bureaucracy: Max Weber’s theory of impersonal management.

Study.com accessed on 10:41 Am, 28/12/2015 at:
http://study.com/academy/lesson/bureaucracy-max-webers-theory-of-impersonal-
management.html

Mullins, L. J. (2005). Management and organizational behaviour. 7th Ed. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson
Education Limited.
Taylor, F. W. (1947), Scientific management. Harper and Row, New York
Weber, M. (1947), The theory of social and economic organization. Free Press, New York
Lecture 3: Local Management of Organizations

3.1 Introduction
It is with no doubt that an organization is considered effective and efficient if it fulfills and touches
customers’ needs, tastes, concerns and preferences. This factor necessitates a need to manage
organizational businesses through decentralization fashion. Thus, this lecture focuses on
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discussing the concepts of centralization and decentralization as they are employed in management
of organization activities. For our case in this course, we will always be linking these aspects (i.e.
centralization and decentralization) to the management of education activities.

i Briefly describe the concept of centralisation and decentralisation.
ii. Differentiate centralisation from decentralisation.
iii. Mention the types and three forms of decentralisation.
iv. Analyse the continuum of Centralization and Decentralization in education sector.
v. Discuss the perspective of decentralisation.

3.3 The Concept of Centralization
Centralization is defined as the concentration of power of planning and decision making at the top
level of an organization or government. For example, the top level of education sector in Tanzania
is the Ministry of Education. Centralization is an opposite of decentralization where the power of
planning and decision making is delegated to the lower level of the organization.
According to Mullins (2005), the concentration of power and responsibilities at the top level of an
organization is beneficial in many ways, some of the benefits are:
• the easier implementation of a common policy for the organization as a whole;
• providing a consistent strategy across the organization;
• preventing sub-units becoming too independent;
• making for easier co-ordination and management control;
• improved economies of scale and a reduction in overhead costs;
• greater use of specialization, including better facilities and equipment; and
• improved decision-making which might otherwise be slower and a result of compromise because
of diffused authority (p.608).
Although one may argue against the benefits (e.g., the notion of sub-units being independent) to
be the weaknesses of centralization, some of them have straight managerial advantages (e.g.,
making easier co-ordination) and can be considered the advantage of centralization.
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3.4 The Concept of Decentralization
Decentralization refers to the transfer of power, functions and accountability for the results from
the top level to the lower level of an organization or government. Figure 3.1 present an overview
of the concept of decentralization.
Figure 3.1 The concept of decentralization
It is an opposite of centralization and it’s characterized by delegation of authority and devolution

of power to all units of an organization. Using Tanzanian education sector as an example, the
powers are redistributed from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training to the Regional
Education Offices, District Education Offices, and Ward Education Offices up to the Schools’
Heads.
There are several benefits of decentralizing powers and management functions. One central benefit
of decentralization is to be able to touch local people’s taste, interests and needs. Second, the
central government (top level of an organization) is becoming closer to its clients through
decentralization fashion. Third, through decentralization people at different levels of the
organization are empowered to make decision and being accountable of the results. Mullins (2005)
presented the following benefits of decentralization.
• enables decisions to be made closer to the operational level of work;
• increased responsiveness to local circumstances;
• improved level of personal customer service;
• more in keeping with developments in flatter and more flexible structures;
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• support services, such as administration, are more likely to be effective if provided as close as
possible to the activities they are intended to serve;
• provides opportunities for training and development in management; and
• usually, it has an encouraging effect on the motivation and morale of staff (p.608).
3.5 The Continuum of Centralization and Decentralization
The extent to which work and activities should be divided among sub-units of an organization has
been management challenges in organizations. Most managers would consider an organization
size, nature of the tasks and geographical dispersions as the bases of work divisions. This decision
seemingly may convey the notion that the bigger the size of the organization the higher the need
to decentralize power and responsibilities for organization effectiveness. Moreover, it has been
argued that in order to know the degree of centralization-decentralization managers should
consider the reason of centralizing-decentralizing of powers and responsibilities. However, there
is no a mark line for centralizing or decentralizing powers and responsibilities in organizations.
One aspect can be seen as highly decentralized at one time centralized in the other time for some
management reasons.
3.5.1 Degree of Decentralization of Education in Tanzania
In education sector in most of developing countries such as Tanzania, the degree of

decentralization of powers and responsibilities have been varying basing on the task objective and
managerial reasons. The issues where centralization and decentralization of power and
responsibilities have been affected are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Degree of Decentralization of Education in Tanzania
S/N Issue Degree of Decentralization

1. Curriculum decisions Some decisions (e.g., curriculum goals) are centralized while
others (e.g., teaching methods) are decentralized.
2. Students’ admission In some levels (e.g., secondary education) of education
decisions are centralized while in others levels (e.g., pre-
primary & primary education) decisions are decentralized.
3. Academic assessments Formative assessment is done at the local levels while
Summative assessment is controlled by the central
government.
4. Teachers’ Appointment Primary and secondary school teachers receive their teaching
appointments from the central government but under the
control of Local Government Authorities.
5. Teachers’ salaries and Primary and secondary school teachers receive their salaries
remunerations and other remunerations from the central government but
under the control of Local Government Authorities.
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Teachers’ confirmation and Teachers’ confirmation, promotions and transfers are under
promotions the control of Local Government Authorities.
3.6 Types of Decentralization
In the literature of organizational behavior, there are about five types of decentralization posited.
These are:
1. i. Political decentralization (i.e., different levels of an organization/government are

given power of decision making on their issues).
2. ii. Administrative decentralization (this involves all forms of decentralization i.e. de-
concentration, delegation & devolution).
3. iii. Fiscal decentralization (different levels of an organization/government are given
powers to tax and generate revenues so attain).
4. iv. Economic decentralization (this involves privatization and deregulations whereby
responsibilities are transferred from the public to the private sector).
3.7 Perspectives of Decentralization
There are various perspectives of decentralization. Some of them are such as:
 Local levels of the organization or government are not totally independent. They only enjoy some
degree of autonomy from the responsibilities they are provided with but they still depend on top
level of the organization/central government.
 Local authorities’ powers are restricted to their area of jurisdictions.
 Under decentralization there is local participation of local people who are empowered to make
decisions in their area.
3.8 Participation and Empowerment in a Decentralized Organizations
In a decentralized organization, there is a high degree of participation of the local people [of lower
ranks] in various activities of the organization. People are empowered to make important decisions
on the matters that affect them.
3.9 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the the concept of centralisation as the concentration of
power and responsibilities at the top level of an organisation/government. Moreover, we
described decentralisation as the transfer of powers and responsibilities from the top level
to the lower level of the organisation or government. Moreover, we analyzed the
perspectives of decentralization and the continuum of centralization and decentralization
in Tanzanian education sector.
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3.10 Exercise
1. Briefly describe the concept of centralisation and decentralisation.
2. Differentiate centralisation from decentralisation.
3. Mention the types and three forms of decentralisation.
4. Analyse the continuum of Centralization and Decentralization in education sector.
5. Drawing examples from education sector, discuss the perspective of decentralisation.
3.11 References
Brookes, J. Z. (1984), Decentralization and authority: A study in organizational

behavior. Halt Rinehart and Winston, New York

Litvack, J. I., Ahmad, J. & R. M. Bird (1998), Rethinking decentralization in developing countries,
World Bank, Washington DC.

Part 2: Learning Organisations
This part addresses issues on making sense of organizations by maintaining learning in

organizations. Moreover, this part explains important factors in building learning organizations
and introducing positive reforms for effectiveness in education institutions.
Note that a student should attempt all activities provided for Part 2 of this manual
Lecture 4: Making Sense of Organisations

4.1 Introduction
Various scholars have suggested that maintaining learning in organizations would determine
success and that organization may remain competitive and innovative. This is what makes sense
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of organizations. Organizations should avoid dysfunctional behaviours and embrace functional
behaviours for their good than harm. This lecture teaches some important factors to consider by
organizations’ managers in ensuring that their organizations and especially education
organizations are innovative, remain competitive and thus are effective in the services they offer.

i. Describe the concept of a learning organisation.
ii. Discuss the characteristics of learning organisations.
iii. Analyze three rationales of learning organizations.

4.3 The Concept of Learning Organization
The most popular definition of a Learning Organization is the one that was initially presented by
Peter Senge in 1990. In various management literatures a learning organization is defined as an
organization that facilitates the learning of its members and that strive to remain competitive by
continuously changing itself. The changing-nature of the world of today has posed socio-economic
and technological pressures that necessitate organizations to strive for survival and competition in
the goods they produce or services they offer through embracing learning organization
environments. In order to enhance your understanding of the concept of learning organization
hereunder are the characteristics of a learning organization.
What is a learning organization?
4.4 Characteristics of Learning Organization
There are various characteristics of learning organizations that differentiate them from other
normal [non-learning organizations] organizations. By examining these characteristics, you will
be able to understand well the general concept of a learning organization. While, some of the
characteristics are focusing on individual employees’ motivation and commitment, others are to
do with organization features that facilitate the learning environment. The five characteristics of a
learning organization are:
1. System Thinking
This is about thinking various parts of an organization and the organization as a whole. For
example, there might be current issue [e.g. decision, assessment] in the organization; this should
be seen as a component of a whole organization.
2. Personal Mastery
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A learning organization is characterized by individual commitment to learning processes and thus
this learning is transformed into organization learning. The personal mastery can be acquired
through individual commitment to a desired vision.
3. Mental Models
The mental models are assumptions that individuals and organization hold. For instance, many
managers hold predictive assumptions under theory X of human nature that people are lazy and
dislike work thus they should be controlled (learn more about these assumptions in Mullins, 2005,
p.1064). In order to promote a learning organization, negative assumptions should be replaced by
trust and theories are tested, confirmed and extended accordingly.
4. Shared Vision
A shared vision is simply about “what we want to accomplish?” in our organization. The creation
of a shared vision basing on employees’ visions in a learning organization is crucial. This is
important because it embraces learning, common focus and efficiency in achieving organizational
goals.
5. Team Learning
Team learning is the shared learning- an accumulation of individual learning. This is important as
individuals influence each other’s knowledge and expertise in organization endeavors.
Describe any three characteristics of a learning organization?
4.5 The Rationale of Learning Organization
If you refer to the definition of a learning organization you will learn that maintaining learning and
innovations are crucial for organization survival and competition in the business world. It is with
no doubt that every investor would like to learn that his/her organization is doing good and that is
leading ahead other organizations in the business world and this has been possible only when an
organization encourages the learning of its members and continuously changing itself. Thus, the
rationale of a learning organization is practically justified.
The rationales of a learning organization are many however in this manual only four rationales are
presented. Having knowledge on the concept and the characteristics of a learning organization we
hope that you will be to outline and explain other rationales of a learning organization. Hereunder
are the rationales:
 Through a learning organization we keep pace of change to ensure that the organization remains
competitive.
 Through a learning organization we are able to ensure that the organization is responsive to
external pressures.
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 Through a learning organization we get knowledge on how to link organizational resources to
customer’s needs.
 A learning organization enable attainment of high quality and up to date organizational outputs
at all levels.
4.7 Summary
In this lecture we have learnt the concept of learning organization as the one that
facilitates the learning of its members and that strive to remain competitive by
continuously changing itself. Moreover, we briefly analysed the five characteristics
of learning organizations. The characteristics were system thinking, personal
mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning. This lecture also briefly
explained the rationales of a learning organization.
1. a. Define a learning organization.
b. What are the characteristics of learning organizations?
2. Why do we need learning organisations? Draw examples from education

organisations in presenting your answers.
3. Drawing examples from education sector, examine the rationale of developing

organisations.
4.9 References
Grimsley, S. (2003-2015). Learning organizations: Characteristics and examples. Study.com
Learning organization infographic arch…
http://elearninginfographics.com/tag/learning-organisation-infographic/
Education Limited.
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Lecture 5: Making Learning Organisations
5.1 Introduction
Learning organization as defined in the literature of organizational behavior (see the definition of
learning organization, lecture 4), has been identified as important factor of organizational survival,
competitive, efficient and success. This is an organization which promotes learning, values
individual development, open communication and trust (Mullins, 2005, p.399). This lecture
focuses on the ways and principles guiding the process of making schools as learning
organizations. This seems crucial since schools should survive and remain competitive, efficient
and successful.

i. Explain the five factors in making a learning organisation.
ii. Examine important factors to consider in creating a learning organization?
iii. Suggest the ways public secondary schools can become learning organizations.
5.3 Factors in Making a Learning Organization
The act of facilitating the learning of organization members and continuously changing by a
learning organization; and the general characteristics of a learning organization (discussed in
lecture 4) have revealed the high need of making our organization- a learning organization.
Moreover, Garvin, Edmondson and Gino (2015) insisted that “each company must become a
learning organization” thus, we have no choice but making our organizations- learning
organizations. Is it possible to make a learning organization? What are the key factors to consider
in the process? If I would have asked to present my views on how to make a learning organization,
my answer could simply be practices related to motivating and giving training opportunities to
employees. In the literature of management (e.g., Mullins, 2005) however, there are various factors
to consider in making a learning organization.
1. Strategic Management
Since the old ways of doing things in organizations are no longer functioning, organizations have
to change their ways by being strategic so as to remain competitive and cope with changes in the
business world. For example, organizational change management should be a responsibility of
each individual in his or her area in organization rather being managers’ responsibility.
It is no longer appropriate for managers to take all the responsibility for implementing
organizational change in response to rapid and complex changes within the environment. Each
individual within the organization needs to be accountable and take responsibility for making the
necessary changes within their individual work areas (du Plessis, du Plessis & Millett, 1999, p.74).
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Moreover, through strategy an organization articulates its future state in terms of its structure,
competencies and practices. For example, by creating vision and mission; promoting culture of
trust, respect and teamwork; and fostering supportive leadership and continuous learning (read
more from du Plessis, du Plessis & Millett, 1999).
2. The Organizational Structure and Systems
Organizational structure and systems are considered the key factor in building a learning
organization. This is about an organization creating an environment whereby individuals learn,
participate in discussions and allowed to freely asking questions and enhance people’s
commitment to organization values. In the process, leadership is considered to be an important
enabling condition that would promote human relations values and power decentralization to allow
needs, information and knowledge sharing, individuals and organizational learning (read more
from du Plessis, du Plessis & Millett, 1999). Table 5.1 hereunder comprises the overview of the
supportive organizational structure and systems conducive for a learning organization.
Table 5.1 Organizational Structure and Systems for a Learning Organization
Looking at Table 5.1 you will learn that decentralized organizational structure is supportive in
building learning organization. Moreover, managers are facilitators and enhance coaching others.
In building a learning organization, systems should embrace open information flow, trust,
innovations and transformational culture (i.e. continuous improvements).
3. Supportive Leadership
The management literature has posited variations between old perception on leadership (e.g., trait
& charisma) and the current perception of leadership in the learning organizations. Leaders’ traits
and views were used to make decisions, plan and control organizations while leaders in learning
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organizations are mentors, coachers, role models, facilitators and motivators of employees’ own
learning (du Plessis, du Plessis & Millett, 1999).
AN IMPORTANT NOTE
Note that in this lecture, we have only highlighted important factors to consider in building
learning organizations and in making schools learning organizations. However, we couldn’t
provide examples from real practices from schools’ contexts. Thus, it is our hope that you will use
the factors in examining the real practices in school contexts and that you can judge on whether
our schools are learning organizations or not
5.4 Making Schools to be ‘Learning Organization’
Having learned the factors in building a learning organization in the previous sub-section, in this
subsection we analyze factors that make education organizations especially schools learning
organizations. The factors are (see Serrat, 2009):
 Supportive Leadership
In order to make schools learning organization, supportive leadership is crucial. This is a kind of
leadership that motivates teachers to learn, emphasizes the culture of learning, show the methods
of learning, the importance of learning and provide opportunities to learn.
 Organizational Structure
For schools to be learning organizations, the organizational structure should be aligned with a
learning culture. The organization structure in schools should consider and manage learning
obstacles. For instance, avoid hierarchy and bureaucracy making decisions and managing teachers’
needs and problems.
 Communication System
The communication system that supports learning is the one that embrace open communication
and free information flow. For schools to be learning organizations the communication system
within education sector and in schools’ environment should embrace open and free information
flow.
 Resource Allocation
According to Serrat (2009), in building a learning organization (such as a school) ensuring

allocating adequate resources is crucial. The resources are such as time to learn, places for learning,
trainers and financial resources that would facilitate the learning needs and processes.
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Adequate resources are allocated for learning in terms of time, space, specialist support staff, and
budgets for knowledge management and learning infrastructure, formal and informal communities
of practice1 and other value networks (both internal and external),2 and learning and development
programs (p.1).
With reference to the performance status of schools in most of developing countries (e.g.,
Tanzania), there is a need to enhance the characteristics of learning organizations by making
schools learning organizations. This will help our schools perform high, produce outputs of high
quality, become relevant to their customers’ needs and demands. Therefore, promoting
participative leadership, decentralized organizational structure, open information systems and
ensuring supportive learning environment is potentially crucial to be available in schools.
5.5 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed important factors to consider in building learning
organizations. The factors are such as supportive leadership, organizational structure,
communication system, and allocation of adequate resources.
5.7 Exercise
1. a. What is a Learning Organization?
1. What are important factors to consider in creating a learning organisation?
2. In what ways can public secondary schools become learning organizations?
5.8 References
Du Plessis, D., du Plessis, M. & Millett, B. (1999). Developing a learning

organization. ResearchGate.
Garvin, D. A., Edmondson, A. C. & Gino, F. (2008). Is your organization learning organization?
Harvard Business Review. Harvard Business School Publishing. Accessed on 18/12/2015: 09:
36 at https://hbr.org/2008/03/is-yours-a-learning-organization

Senge, P. M. (1992), The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization.
Random House, Sydney.
Serrat, O. (2009). Building a learning organization. Knowldege Solutions, ADB Asian

Development Bank.
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Lecture 6: Introducing Positive Reforms for Effectiveness in Education Institutions

6.1 Introduction
Organizations of all kinds are always struggling to be effective. Besides, for an organization to
survive, remain effective and relevant to its customers, embracing levels of innovations is critically
crucial. An organization must be able to respond to external environment that tends to continuously
pose new demands. In education organizations for example, this involves learning gaps between
the society lives and practices; education needs and demands on one hand, and the services that
are provided by education sector on the other hand. Thus, the education sector introduces positive
reforms that reflect relevant education curriculum and policies, effective teaching methods,
learning activities, employees’ motivation, and benchmarking academic standards so as to enhance
effectiveness in education institutions. This lecture discusses the organizational positive reforms
and their influence on the effectiveness of education institutions. Moreover, we analyze the ways
that would maintain effectiveness in education organizations.

1. Describe the concept of organisational reforms.

2. Explain with examples from education institutions the concept of organisational effectiveness.
1. iii. Examine that influence of positive reforms on organizational effectiveness by giving

examples from education organisations.
2. iv. Propose the ways of making schools effective in their endeavours.
6.3 The Concept of Organizational Reforms and Effectiveness
Organization effectiveness is simply defined as the state where an organization attains its aims and
objective. This achievement however, depends on the capability of the organization to remain
competitive and relevant by aligning its activities/programs with the customers’ dynamic needs
and demands. This can only be possible through an organization’s ability to induce positive
reforms. The reforms are related to the activities on improving performance, correcting
malpractice and mistakes, and improving working conditions so that aims and objectives of an
organization are successfully achieved.
6.4 Factors for Organizational Effectiveness
For an organization to achieve successful all its aims and objectives there must important factors
that influence it. In the literature of organizational behaviours many have been discussed. In this
manual only five major factors are examined.
 Quality of Management
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Organizational managers play big roles because they are the ones that have a task of making things
done through and with people. Thus, they affect the improved performance of the organization by
affecting employees’ good behaviours, practices and performance in general. Likewise, managers
affect positively the activities of the organization through planning, organizing, staffing,
coordinating, motivating and controlling.
 People or Employees
Employees are central resource of any work organization. They are without which any
organization cannot achieve its aims and objectives. Employees perform organizational activities
and are involved in overall management of the organization. Thus, their behaviours affect
positively or negatively the overall performance of the organization.
 Organizational Technology
According to Mullins (2005) the organizational technology is “the manner in which the tasks of
the organization are carried out and the nature of the work performance”. This is “the materials,
techniques and equipment used in the transformation or conversion process” p.946.
 Organizational Structure
This involves the framework of the formal relationships of the organizational members.
 Organizational Tasks
These are issues related to the organizational aims, objectives, activities to be performed, inputs
and outputs. The nature of all these and how they are structured and fully managed will determine
the performance status and the organizational effectiveness in general.
With reference to the main purpose of identifying these factors i.e. promoting organizational
effectiveness through positive reforms, the reforms should be continuously made so as to ensure
that each factor is consistently at good pace towards attainment of organizational aims and goals.
6.5 Enhancing Effectiveness in Education Institutions
Many initiatives and investments have been made in education sector for the aim of making the
sector effective in developing countries such as Tanzania. The initiatives are such as Primary
Education Development Program [PEDP] and Secondary Education Development Program
[SEDP] and Big Results Now [BRN] in Tanzania. The programs aim among other things to
promote access to education for all school age children and ensure effective education delivery in
schools. The programs have been accompanied with expenses and investment in teachers’ in-
service programs, building and renovating schools’ infrastructures, laboratories, teachers’ houses
and improving teachers’ incentives. However, despite all these efforts school’s performance has
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consistently remained poor. For example, the performance of secondary schools in Tanzania for
the past 8 years shows consistent decline of academic performance, see Table 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Performance Trends in the Certificate of Secondary School Examination in

Tanzania
Source: MOEVT, Basic Education Statistics in Tanzania (BEST), 1998-2012 in Twaweza, (2013,
p.2).
Although it is clear that schools play key role in the socio-economic development of any nation,
there is little attention on important factors that influence the seen poor performance. Hence, it
seems the reforms that have been made in education sectors were irrelevant towards solving the
performance problem. Thus, positive reforms should be made to harness their effectiveness. The
reforms that focus on improving performance through correcting malpractices in schools,
correcting management mistakes on teachers’ rights and needs, and improving working conditions
in schools so that aims and objectives of schools are successfully achieved.
6.6 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed about the organizational positive reforms and their
influence on effectiveness of education institutions. Moreover, we analyzed the ways that
would maintain effectiveness in education organizations.
6.7 Exercise
1. Describe the concept of organisational reforms.
2. Explain with examples from education institutions the concept of organisational
effectiveness.
3. Examine the relationship between positive reforms and organizational
effectiveness by giving examples from education organisations.
4. Propose the ways of making schools effective in their endeavours.
6.8 References


Twaweza (2013). Form four examination results: Citizens report on the learning crisis
in Tanzania. Sauti za Wananchi, Uwazi at Twaweza, housed by Hivos Tanzania.
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Part 3: The Organisational Change Management
This part addresses issues on the management of organisational change, and theories of
organisational change management. It also focuses on the aspects of organisational climate and
culture in the context of organisational change.
Note that a student should attempt all activities provided for Part 3 of this manual.
Lecture 7: Management of Organizational Change

7.1 Introduction
Since, the world is not static, and that organizations exist to save the world, therefore changes in
the organizations are inevitable. Without changing an organization’s products/outputs will be out
of date from the society’s needs and demands. Thus, changing is part and parcel of organizations.
The organizations may change due to gaps and limitations in their systems that they would induce
changes in order to improve their ways towards attaining organizations goals. Moreover,
organizations may learn gaps between what they produce or the services they offer and the society
demands and so induce changes to fill the gaps. However, inducing changes in organizations has
never been an easy task. Change is by nature causing uncertainties and pain to employees. The
literature posits that about 70% of change programs fail to attain desired results. Kotter (2012,
p.37) said:
Ask almost anyone over thirty about the difficulty of creating major change in an organization and
the answer will probably include the equivalent of “very very tough”.
Hence, learning the ways organizations can manage well changes is important. This lecture aims
to teach you about the concept of organizational change, forces of change and the rationale of
managing change in organizations.

1. Explain the meaning and nature of organizational change.

2. Discuss major changes confronting education organizations today?
3. Describe with examples the two sources of change in education organisations.
4. Examine the rational of organisations investment on managing change.
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7.3 The Concept of Organizational Change
Generally, the word ‘change’ conveys a positive connotation. It simply means making desired
differences. Thus, organization change refers to the process of making an organization different
from the way it was to a new desired state.
Change is more than just changing the way we do business or how we operate. Change involves
managing the transition from where we are now to where we want to be at some future state (Leban
& Stone, 2008, p.6).
Dynamisms in the business world have forced organizations to keep on learning their efficiency
level, internal processes and external demands in order to ensure that they prosper and survive.
The so doing however, forces changes in organizations so as to align the organizations efficiency
status, and processes with the business demands.
7.4 Forces of Change in Organizations
There are various forces of changes in organizations. These depend heavily on the motives of the
change. For instance, if an organization learns gaps in terms of the technology it uses in producing
goods or services, it will plan and implement technological changes in its systems. However, the
same change i.e. technological changes in organization’s systems can be necessitated by external
demands.
Powerful macroeconomic forces are at work… as a result, more and more organizations will be
pushed to reduce costs, improve the quality of products and services, locate new opportunities for
growth, and increase productivity (Kotter, 2012, p.3).
If you look at the quotation from Kotter, you will learn that external pressures have forced
organization changes initiatives in its productivity level and the quality of products and services.
Thus, there two forces or drivers of change in organizations, namely:
 Internal forces of organizational change and

 External forces of organizational change.
7.4.1 Internal Forces of Change in Organizations
The changes of this kind in organizations are such as those related human resources. For example,
downsizing, changing top managers, shortage of skilled labour, increasing turnovers, and lack of
motivation. Other changes may be forced by the organization wish to remain competitive and thus
changes the way they process its inputs to outputs. For instance, there was an introduction of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning in education
organizations in many developing countries such as Tanzania. Moreover, an education
organization may wish to maintain efficiency in the business by inducing changes focusing on
cutting costs by reducing number of assignments or regulating the assessment system. All the
changes in organizations that are motivated by internal needs and of course that aim to maintain
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organizational efficiency, performance and competition in the business are regarded as being
externally forced.
7.4.1 External Forces of Change in Organizations
These are changes necessitated by the needs and demands external environment of the
organization. These are such as political or legal changes (e.g. changes of regulations), changes in
the natural environment (e.g., natural disaster, pandemics etc.), economic and global changes (e.g.
changes of prices of raw materials).
7.5 Rationale of Managing Changes in Organizations
Change management has been defined as the process of enabling an organization to adapt the
internal and external change pressures and that remains effective and survives. That is moving an
organization from where it is now to a better future state, for its effectiveness and survival.
Leban and Stone (2008, p.51) asked “why should we care about managing organizational change?”
There are so many reasons of why we must manage changes in organizations. First, we manage
changes in order to ensure that the desired changes are successfully implemented in organizations.
Second, change programs are costly to organizations thus managing them successful is crucial.
Third, organizations’ survival and relevance to the society they serve depend on their capability to
keep a pace of change, therefore managing changes and especially successful is potentially the
way towards that ends.
Forth, the key players in the change programs are employees and changes to them are always
causing uncertainties. Thus, we must ensure (i.e. through change management) that they hold
positive perceptions and attitudes so that are willing to fully participating in change process in
organizations. Fifth, we manage changes in order to ensure that all drawbacks in change processes
are identified and resolved for successful implementation of the changes in organizations.
Note that there are many rationales and explanations of managing changes in
organizations. Read more in the change management literature to gain more
understanding of the rationales.
7.6 Summary
In this lecture we described the concept of organizational change as the process of making
an organization different from the way it was to a new desired state. Moreover, we
analyzed with examples the two forces (i.e., internal forces and external forces) of
changes in organizations. Thereafter, we discussed five rationales of managing changes
in organizations.
7.7 Exercise
1. Discuss major changes confronting education organizations today? In what ways
the changes can be successfully implemented?
2. Discuss major changes confronting education organizations today?
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3. Describe with examples the two sources of change in education organisations.
4. Why do organisations invest resources in managing change?

7.7 References
Carnall, C. (2007). Managing change in organizations. 5th Ed. Edinburgh Gate:

Pearson Education Limited.
Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2009). Organization development and change. 9th
Ed. SOUTH-WESTERN, CENGAGE Learning.
Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Labianca, G., Gray, B., & Brass, D. J. (2000). A grounded model of organizational
schema change during empowerment. Organization Science, 11, 235-257.
Leban, B. & Stone, R. (2008). Managing organization change. 2nd ED. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper & Row.
Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations. 7th Ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Lecture 8: Theories of Organisation Change Management

8.1 Introduction
A change management theory is considered as a ‘roadmap’ towards successful change

management (see Leban & Stone, 2008). Like other popular aspects (e.g., leadership) in
organizational behavior, change management has received various theories. The theories provide
views on the appropriate behaviours by change agents-managers, expected employees’ responses
to leaders’ behaviours and their attitudes towards change processes. The change management
theories moreover, offer expertise to change agents on how to plan and implement desired changes
in their organizations. There are various theories in the literature of change management. In this
manual we will learn about two theories of change management namely, Lewin Change Theory
and Kotter’s Change Theory.
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1. Describe the Lewin’s theory and Kotter’s theory of change management.

2. Suggest the ways in which the changes in education organizations can be successfully
implemented.
3. Analyze the important features in the successful implementation of organizational change.
4. Examine the roles of leaders in the process of inducing changes in education organizations?
8.3 Theories of Organizational Change Management
There are various theories of change management. The theories aim to equip change agents with
important skills in their change management endeavors and thus engender successful change
results. Among other change management theories there are Lewin’s three phases theories,
Fullan’s four phases theory, Ely’s conditions for change and Kotter’s eight phases theory. In this
manual, only two theories will be analyzed. These are Lewin’s change management theory and
Kotter’s change management theory.
8.4 Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Model
Lewin’s model is one of the earliest change management models. It emphasizes that successful
change can be attained only when managers follows three stages. The stages are:
1. Unfreezing: this is about creating awareness of the need for change by discouraging forces that
maintain people in the current state.
2. Moving: focus on developing new behaviours and attitudes.
3. Refreezing: institutionalizing change into organization structures, norms and values.
The model is simple for the managers to follow when inducing changes in organizations.
Using examples, analyses three strengths and three weaknesses of Lewin’s model of
organizational change.
8.5 John Kotter’s Change Management Model
In his book entitled “Leading Change”, John Kotter started his writings by explaining eight
management errors that influence failures of most of change programs. For instance, Kotter (2012)
contended that the first error managers make is when they induce changes in organizations by
“allowing too much complacency”. That is when managers fail to create greatly sense of urgency
to all employees and other managers and thus necessitate failures in changes programs. And, as
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for the effective side of change, Kotter discussed eight steps that potentially enhance successfully
change implementations in organizations.
The Eight Stages for Successful Change
1. Establishing a Sense of Urgency
Under this step, Kotter calls for a need to create a high sense of urgency for change and that seek
for people cooperation in communicating a vision of change. Since, Kotter insisted about
establishing high urgency it is imperative to know the level of the urgency, Kotter said:
Regardless of how the process is started or by whom, most firms find difficult to make much
progress …..of a major change effort unless most managers honestly believe that the status quo is
unacceptable….a majority of employees, perhaps percent of management overall, and virtually all
of the top executives need to believe that considerable change is absolutely essential (p.51).
2. Create Powerful Guiding Team
For a change to be successful, it is important that managers and heads of departments in the
organization are working as a team of reputations and skills.
3. Have a Visible and Appropriate Vision
Having a vision for change is very important. It adds value to the urgency that have been created
in the beginning and powerful teams that have been created. There should be a sound, visible and
appropriate vision that guides people’s actions otherwise people will be confused and change may
lose direction.
4. Communicate Vision
A change should be supported by employees and for their support and commitment effective
communication of the importance of change is crucial.
5. Remove Obstacles
Work on obstacles that limit people from supporting the change vision. Some leaders behaviours
may make change fail.
…worst of all are supervisors who refuse to adapt to new circumstances and who make demands
that are inconsistent with the transformation (Kotter, 2012, p.11).
6. Create Short Term Win
It takes time for changes to occur that there should be a short-term win to declare the efforts are
producing desired expectations.
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7. Consolidate and Maintain Changes
Don’t declare victory due only little success of the new changes. Keep on consolidating and
maintaining changes. Kotter (2012, p.13) caution managers that “While celebrating a win is fine,
any suggestion that the job is mostly done is generally a terrible mistake. Until changes sink down
deeply into the culture…. new changes are fragile and subject to regression”.
8. Make Change Stick into Corporate Culture
According to Kotter (2012, p.14), “change sticks only when it becomes “the way we do things
here” when it seeps into the very bloodstream of the work unit or corporate body”. Thus, make the
change usable, part and parcel of the organizational activities and values.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Kotter’s model of organizational change?
8.6 Summary
In this lecture we have examined two theories of organizational change management.
The theories were the Lewin Model and Kotter Model of organization change
management.
8.7 Exercise
1. How do you define an organization change?
2. Describe the Lewin’s theory and Kotter’s theory of change management.
3. Suggest the ways in which the changes in education organizations can be
successfully implemented.
4. Analyze the important features in the successful implementation of
5. Examine the roles of leaders in the process of inducing changes in education
organizations?
8.8 References
Carnall, C. (2007). Managing change in organizations. 5th Ed. Edinburgh Gate:

Pearson Education Limited.
Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
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Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper & Row.
Lecture 9: Climate, Culture and Organisation Change

9.1 Introduction
The process of inducing changes in organizations is expensive. It involves financial, psychological

and social costs. Therefore, successful organizational change is important. One may ask: ‘is the
organization wish to arrive at successful organization change? If the answer is ‘yes’, then
managing organization climate and culture is crucial. The concepts of organizational climate and
culture are positive determinants of conducive environment for successful organizational change.
This calls for managers to create and maintain positive climate and culture in all the ways of change
management in organizations.

1. Give the meaning of organisational culture and organisational climate.

2. Examine the nature and importance of organisational culture for successful change in
organisations.
3. Examine the role of organisational culture for successful change in organisations.
4. Propose the nature of supportive organisational culture for successful change in education
organisations.
5. Differentiate organisational culture from organisational climate.
9.3 The Concept of Organizational Climate
Organizational climate can be a simplest concept to understand but hardly to explain its meaning.
Is it a peaceful organizational atmosphere? Is it seen or felt? Besides, is it important in
organizational processes and performance? Is related to organizational culture? All these questions
give you clues in describing the concept. According to Mullins (2005), organizational climate is:
……the prevailing atmosphere surrounding the organization, to the level of morale, and to the
strength of feelings or belonging, care and goodwill among members. Climate will influence the
attitudes which members of the organization bring to bear on their work performance and personal
relationships (p.899).
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Basing on Mullins’s description, organizational climate thus is related to good organizational
atmosphere i.e. employees with high morale, good feelings of being cared, recognized and positive
attitudes to work. Employees of this nature would love and trust one another, hold psychological
contract and willingly engage in organizational activities. This healthy organizational climate is
influenced by leadership style [mostly participative style], management processes, supportive
organizational structure and employees’ behaviours (Mullins, 2005). Hereunder are some of the
characteristics of a healthy organizational climate:
 there is democratic functioning of the organization with full opportunities for participation;
 there is justice in treatment with equitable HRM and employment relations policies and practices;
 there is mutual trust, consideration and support among different levels of the organization;
 there is the open discussion of conflict with an attempt to avoid confrontation;
 managerial behavior and styles of leadership appropriate to the particular work situations;
 acceptance of the psychological contract between the individual and the organization;
 recognition of people’s needs and expectations at work, and individual differences and attributes;
 equitable systems of rewards based on positive recognition;
 concern for the quality of working life and job design;
 opportunities for personal development and career progression;
 there is a sense of identity with, and loyalty to, the organization and
 a feeling of being a valued and important member (Mullins, 2005, p.900).
9.4 Organizational Climate for Effective Organization Change
On one hand, organizational change causes pains, uncertainties and fear to employees. On the other
hand, however, healthy organizational climate is characterized with high level of employees’
participation in decision making of organizational matters including changes. There is also high
level of employee’s morale towards organizational activities [change inclusive], love, trust and
sense of being cared and considered; seemingly all these positive effect to successful change
initiatives.
What is the relationship between organizational change and organizational climate?

Use examples to justify your arguments.
9.5 The Concept of Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is simply defined as ‘the ways of doing things around here’. In the literature
of organizational behaviours, the concept of organizational culture comprises common policies,
beliefs, values, perceptions, assumptions, standards and traditions. Atkinson contends that
organizational culture shows “the underlying assumptions about the way work is performed; what
is ‘acceptable and not acceptable’; and what behavior and actions are encouraged and
discouraged” (in Mullins, 2005, p.891).
The organizational culture is determined by the organizational communication systems, rituals,

psychological contract, informal organization and the nature of management (learn more from
Mullins, 2005 and in other books of Organizational Behavior).
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9.6 Organizational Culture for Effective Organization Change
The performance of any organization depends on the ability of managers to make things done
through and with people. This involves managers’ activities in planning, directing and
coordinating employees’ activities towards goals accomplishment in organizations. In the so doing
however, managers’ effectiveness depends on the feature characteristics of the organizational
culture (see Mullins, 2005).
Likewise, in the context of organizational change, managers communicate heavily about the
change contents and try their level best to convince people that the change is good and useful for
organizational development. Change-Managers also perform all management functions e.g.
planning, directing and coordinating employees’ activities towards inducing changes successfully
in organizations.
Since the success of organizational change involves employees’ behavioral changes –consistent to
the contents of the change, the feature characteristics of the organizational culture must potentially
be relevant to the change focus. Otherwise, the organizational change will hardly be successful.
Accordingly, the processes of inducing changes in organizations tend to touch and affect
intentionally or unintentionally “the ways of doing things around” [culture), as it could also be
affected [positively or negatively] by the existing culture in the organization. Thus, the
implementation status would depend on whether the organizational culture support or does not
support the change at hand.
9.7 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed about the meaning of organizational climate and
organizational culture. Organizational culture was defined as the ways of doing things in
an organization that comprises common policies, beliefs, values, perceptions,
assumptions, standards and traditions of organizational members. The feature
characteristics of these concepts (organizational climate & culture) have been linked to
the processes of successful implementations of changes in organizations.

1. 1 Give the meaning of organisational culture and organisational climate.
2. Explore the nature of organizational climate.
3. Examine the nature and importance of organisational culture for successful
change in organisations.
4. Examine the nature and importance of organisational culture for successful
change in organisations.
Differentiate organisational climate from organisational culture.
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9.9 References


Part 4: Effective Change Management for Organisation Success
This part addresses issues of organizational change for organizational success. It also focuses on
the importance of education institutions being innovative in order to gain competitive advantages,
and perform effectively. The part ends with a chapter explaining about the effective role of
information technology in enhancing successful organizational change.
Lecture 10: Organisational Change for Organisational Success

10.1 Introduction
The main purpose of inducing changes in organization is to ensure that the organization achieves
the desired results. An organization cannot change with no purpose or with the aim of changing to
negative direction. Thus, organizational change programs are for organizational success. In this
lecture we are going to learn the ways changes in organizations influence better results and success
in general.

1. Give the meaning of organisational change.
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2. Describe the importance of organizational change.
3. Analyse the ways changes in organizations influence better results and organization success.
10.3 The importance of Organization Change
There are several benefits of inducing changes in organizations. Basing on the various writings
and models of organizational change management we have identified the following major
importance of inducing changes in organizations:
 Changes align an organization with customers’ needs and values.

 Changes help an organization to remain competitive.
 Changes help an organization to excel by producing products of high quality in the business arena.
 Changes help an organization to respond to external challenges and opportunities.
 Changes help an organization to improve its structures and systems towards attainment of
organizational goals.
10.4 Organization Change for better Results and Success
As we have explained earlier organizational change aim for enhancing organizational success.
Hence, organizational change is for better results and success in organizations. Through successful
implementation of organizational change, organizations are able to:
1. Create teams and shared vision which is important in attaining organization goals.
2. Create systems using advanced technology in processing inputs that enhance high quality of
organization outputs.
3. Create conducive working environment that embrace employees’ wellbeing, desired behaviours,
morale, loyalty, and commitment towards organizational tasks. All these are crucial factors in
attaining better results and success in organizations.
Note that the influence of organizational change on the organization better results and
success is widely explained in the literature of organizational change management.
Read and explore more advantages of organizational change in influencing better
results and success in organizations.
10.5 Organization Change for Schools’ better Results and Success
Like other work organizations, schools enjoy the fruits of organizational change. They also wish
to perform better and achieve good students’ academic results. Through successful implementation
of organizational change, organizations are able to:
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a) Create team works and shared vision which is important in attaining organization goals.
Teachers, parents and students would work jointly towards one common focus e.g. promoting
students learning.
b) Create systems of teaching and learning using advanced technology that enhance high quality
of students’ academic performance.
c) Create conducive working environment for teachers and students’ learning that embrace
teachers and student’s wellbeing, desired behaviours, teaching and learning morale, loyalty, and
commitment towards organizational teaching and learning. All these are crucial factors in attaining
better results and success in schools.
Schools of this nature would remain competitive in terms of high academic performance in
summative academic evaluation in national assessment frameworks.
Note that the influence of organizational change on the schools’ better academic results
and success is widely explained in the literature of organizational change management.
Read and explore more in education programs and schools documents to identify more
advantages of organizational change in influencing academic better results and success
in schools.
10.6 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed about the importance of organizational change and the
ways organization change can influence positive results and success in organizations.
1. Give the meaning of organisational change.
2. Describe the importance of organizational change.
3. Analyse the ways changes in organizations influence better results and
organization success.
10.8 References

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Lecture 11: Innovations in Education Institutions

11.1 Introduction
As a reminder of the running head of this manual, we emphasize a need of organizations to be

innovative to their businesses in order to gain competitive advantages, and perform effectively.
Organizations and particularly education institutions have been striving to improve academic
performance through implementing new technology and information systems. These include
innovations and changes on file tracking system, teachers’ information systems (confirmation,
transfer & promotions), students’ assessment and results information systems, and management of
orders systems. This lecture discusses the ways of making schools innovative organization.
Beforehand, we explain the concept of innovation in organizations and how to encourage
innovations in organizations.

1. Give the meaning of innovation in organisations.

2. Explain the ways of encouraging innovations in education organisations.
3. Explore the ways of making schools innovative organisations.
11.3The Concept of Innovations in Organization
Basing on the fact that the world is changing very fast being innovative is highly needed in
organizations. They must learn faster on the standards of the new products of their competitors
and new technology of doing things in organizations. Moreover, in order to maintain effectiveness,
inducing innovations is important. Therefore, by being innovative is the only way of organizations
to respond to the changing world, copying with the technological challenges, survive and align
their products with the customers’ requirements.
An innovation is a new ideas and technology introduced in order to perform a task in an

organization. The new changes are focused on the ways of transforming inputs into outputs of an
organization.
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11.4 How to Encourage Innovations in Schools
Education institutions have been striving to improve academic performance through implementing
new technology and information systems. These include innovations in the file tracking systems,
teachers’ information systems (confirmation, transfer & promotions), students’ assessment and
results information systems, and management of orders systems. However, these can only be
innovations if users- employees and managers are encouraged to undergo learning of important
skills, and knowledge on how to work within the new systems. Moreover, there should be political
will and commitment to hold positive attitudes towards the innovations so that they are embraced
in organizational systems and activities. To make innovations possible encourage team learning
and creative thinking.
11.5 Making Education Institutions Innovative
Innovations are crucial for any organization’s success. Thus, we have no choice rather than making
education institutions, innovative. This is important because the education institutions should
compete as well in the business world by producing products of high quality. This lecture adopted
Yukl (2013)’s conditions of embracing innovations in organizations, and for our case embracing
innovations in education institutions (Table 11.1).
Table 11.1 Conditions for Embracing Innovations in Education Institutions
11.6 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the concept of innovation in organization, the ways of
encouraging innovation organizations and ways of making schools innovative.

1. Give the meaning of innovation in organisations.
2. Explain the ways of encouraging innovations in education organisations.
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3. Explore the ways of making schools innovative organisations.
11.8 References


Lecture 12: Information Technology and Organisational Change

12.1 Introduction
Inducing changes has never been easy task. It involves management of the organization part of the
change and people part of change. On the organizational part of the change managers should ensure
that organizational structure and systems support the change initiatives. Here, managers should
align the organization to the change contents for successful implementation and inducement of the
change program. Moreover, of the people side of change managers do learn people’s perception
and attitudes if they embrace change or not. Thus, managers communicate heavily about the
change, convince people that where the organization is going is better than the current state and
motivate people to board the change vehicle. All these call for advanced technology of information
technology so as to enhance communication activities in the change programs. In this lecture, we
explain about the roles of information technology in organizational change.

1. Give the meaning of information technology.

2. Explain the functions of Information Technology in organizations.
3. Examine the role of information technology in the process of organizational change.
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12.3 Information Technology System
The concept of Information Technology originated from computer systems. However, currently it
is used in meta-communications in organizations. Information Technology has been affecting
organizations in the part of management structures and decisions, individual employee’s ways of
doing tasks and division of tasks.
The impact of information technology demands new patterns of work organization, especially in
relation to administrative procedures. Information technology affects the nature of individual jobs
and the formation and structure of work groups………… The growth of information technology
means that individuals may work more on their own, from their personal work stations or even
from their own homes, or work more with machines than with other people. One person may be
capable of carrying out a wider range of activities (Mullins, 2005, p.133).
12.4 The Role of Information Technology in Enhancing Organizational Change
The literature of organizational behavior has posited various functions of Information Technology
in work organizations and in enhancing the implementation of organizational change in particular.
In this sub-section, we only mention them thus we leave the explanations of the functions as an
assignment to you. Complete this assignment as soon as you read this sub-section. The roles of
Information Technology in enhancing organizational change in work organizations are:
 Easing the process of performing tasks (e.g. organizational change).

 Help organizations in cutting running costs in the process of implementing organizational change.
 Enhance open discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of the change programs.
 Increases awareness (through fast and effective communication) of the needs for change.
 Helps in aligning organization structures with the change environmental preferences.
Using examples explain the roles of information technology in enhancing

12.5 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the concept of Information Technology in
organizations. Moreover, we explained about the roles of Information Technology in
enhancing organizational change. That Information Technology enhances employee’s
awareness of the needs for change through a fast and effective communication in the
process of organizational change.
1. Give the meaning of information technology.
2. Explain the functions of Information Technology in organizations.
3. Examine the role of information technology in the process of organizational
change.
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12.7 References

Part 5: Leadership and Management in Organisations
This part addresses issues on leadership as a process that influence others so that they participate
in organization activities. Moreover, management is defined as an art of making things done. The
similarities and differences between leadership and management are also provided. Moreover, the
concept of leadership styles and their effect to employees’ wellbeing and organization performance
are discussed. This part is ending with the description of the concept of collaborative management
as potential strategy in building team-management in organizations.
Lecture 13: Leadership and Management in Organisations

13.1 Introduction
There may be no concepts in the arena of organizational behavior that have received special
attention by writers and practitioners like the concepts of ‘Leadership’ and ‘Management’. They
are keys to the learning and analyses of organizational structures, systems, people and performance
in general. In this lecture, we aim to describe the concept of leadership and management and
exploring their relationship and differences.

1. Give the meaning of leadership.
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2. Describe the concept of management.
3. Differentiate leadership from management using examples from work organization processes.
13.3 The Concept of Leadership
Leadership has been defined differently by various scholars. It is a process of influencing others
so that they willingly participate in performing tasks. Leadership can also be defined as a process
of “getting others to follow or getting people to do things willingly” (Mullins, 2005, p.281). It is
“the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how
to do it” (Yukl, 2010, p.7). Thus, the act of making people to follow your direction is what entails
leadership. That is the reasons Ciulla (2004) argued that there will be no a leader without followers.
13.4 The Concept of Management
The origin of the term management is an Italian word ‘maneggiare’ that entails ‘handle’. Thus,
management can be regarded as the process of handling people and organizational activities.
According to Okumbe (1999), management is the process of effecting organizational objectives
and resources so as to achieve predetermined organizational goals. It is the function of getting
things done through people and directing efforts of individuals towards a common objective (Bose,
2003). Generally, managing has the role of getting people work efficiently with resources towards
organizational objectives. Hence, the main purpose of a manager is to plan, design the tasks, direct
people towards tasks and control organizational tasks and people performance towards successful
organizational performance.
13.5 The Relationship between Leading and Managing
Leadership and management are closely related due to their roles in organizational endeavors.
Leading is among the functions of management, thus, managers do lead others. Managers motivate
employees and create conducive working environment for employees to perform their tasks that
seem to be potential leadership roles. Leadership and management are all important for
organizational survival and effectiveness. The importance of each depends on the organizational
size (larger versus small organization-management) and the nature of the organization (e.g.
dynamic organization-leadership). What is important is that they are equally charged in
organizations, as we need risks takers and those who can ensure that the vision is well reached.
Most scholars seem to agree that success as a manager in modern organizations also
involves leading (Yukl, 2013, p. 7). Analyze this statement with relevant examples.
13.6 The Differences between Leading and Managing
Although leadership and management are seen to be interdependent and closely related, they have
various differences, Table 13.1.
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Table 13.1 The differences between Leadership and Management
In this lecture we have discussed about the concept of leadership and management. We
defined leadership as the process of influencing others so that they are willingly to
participate in performing tasks in organizations. While management has been defined as
the art of making things done through and with people’. Moreover, we explored the
differences between leadership and management using examples from work
organizations.
2. Describe the concept of management.
3. Differentiate leadership from management using examples from work
organization processes.
4. As an organization becomes larger and more complex, managing becomes more
important. Substantiate.
5. As the external environment becomes more dynamic and uncertain, leadership
becomes more important. Discuss.
13.9 References
Ciulla, J. B. (2004). Ethics, the heart of leadership. 2nd Ed. Westport, Praeger Publishers.

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Lecture 14: Leadership Styles
14.1 Introduction
As defined in the previous lecture [lecture 13], leadership is the way of influencing others so that
they can willingly participate in performing organization tasks (see Yukl, 2013). The act of
influencing others and the influencing status depend on the leadership style. Moreover, the
influencing status determines the organizational development. Thus, leadership style has effect on
organizational development through the leader behaviours in influencing others. This lecture
intends to discuss the concept of leadership styles and their effect to organizational development.


2. Describe the concept of leadership styles.
3. Examine the effect of leadership styles on organizational development.
14.3 The Concept of Leadership Styles in Organizations
Leadership theorists posited many leadership styles. For example, behavioral leadership theorists
posited two different kinds of leaders’ behaviours. The task oriented (authoritative) kind of
leadership and people oriented (participative) kind of leadership. In other writings however, other
styles are posited (see Mullins, 2005, p.291).
 “The authoritarian (or autocratic) style is where the focus of power is with the manager, and all
interactions within the group move towards the manager. The manager alone exercises decision-
making and authority for determining policy….
 The democratic style is where the focus of power is more with the group as a whole and there is
greater interaction within the group. ……
 A laissez-faire (genuine) style is where the manager observes that members of the group are
working well on their own ……(p.291).
Therefore, there are three leadership styles namely: authoritative leadership styles, participative
leadership and laissez-faire leadership style. All leadership approaches aim to ensure employees
engagement towards organizational goals attainment.
14.4 The Effect of Leadership Styles on Organization Development
Leadership styles have positive and negative effective on organization development. This is due
to the varying effect of each leadership style on employees’ perception and attitudes towards
organizational tasks (e.g., organizational change) and the performance in general. Hereunder we
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explain the effect of each leadership style on organizational performance and effectiveness that are
important indicators of organizational development.
a. Authoritative Leadership
Authoritative leaders focus on task accomplishment and thus, they enhance force, threats, control,
and domination in interacting with employees (see Mullins, 2005; Ngirwa, 2013; Yukl, 2013).
Basing on the nature of this style of leadership there are more weaknesses than the strengths on
employee’s wellbeing, employees' organization citizenship behaviours, organizational
effectiveness and development in general. Since, a leader is the main decision maker who embraces
threats on employees and communication is limited; employees feel less empowered, demoralized,
cynic and resistant to organizational tasks. An organization operating in this environment would
be negatively affected in its performance and development. Authoritative leadership has been
associated with resistance to change initiatives in organizations (Ngirwa, 2013, Yukl, 2013).
Despite of the weaknesses, authoritative leadership has been said to be important in unstable
organization environment and in urgent and complex tasks in organizations (see Dunphy & Stace,
1988; Mullins, 2005).
b. Participative Leadership
Participative leadership is characterized by democratic values. It focuses on the way’s leaders

share power with their followers and in decision making.
This is one of leadership approaches (ref. Lecture 4) that focuses on guiding, empowering,
consulting and involving employees in decision making.
It insists on gaining employees inputs and potentials in decision making.
Participative Leadership:
…. involves trust and confidence in subordinates, motivation is based on rewards for achievement
of agreed goals, there is participation and a high degree of teamwork and communication;
responsibility for achieving the goals of the organization is widespread throughout all levels of the
hierarchy (Mullins, 2005, p.246).
In the literature of organizational behavior, the impact of participative leadership is extensively

written. Seemingly that participative leadership affects positively the organizational effectiveness
and development in general through its positive effect on employees Figure 14.1.
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Figure 14.1 The Effect of Participative Leadership on Organizational Effectiveness
Looking at the figure, an organization where employees are empowered, motivated, and creative,
committed and remain to work at the organization will eventually embrace effectiveness and
development.
14.5 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the concept of leadership styles and their effect on the
development of organizations.
14.6 Exercise
2. Describe the concept of leadership styles.
3. Examine the effect of leadership styles on organizational development.
14.7 References
Ciulla, J. B. (2004). Ethics, the heart of leadership. 2nd Ed. Westport, Praeger Publishers.
Dunphy, D. C. &State, D. A. (1988). Transformational and coercive strategies for

planned organizational change: Beyond O.D. model. Organization Studies, 9, 317-334.

Ngirwa, C. (2013). Leadership and organizational change: A study in Tanzanian

universities. Published Doctoral Thesis. KUL, Belgium.
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Lecture 15: Collaborative Management

15.1 Introduction
The notion that every organization should strive to remain competitive and effective has opened
up thinking of most organizational managers and practitioners. They would think how their
organizations can cope with competitive business world and what management strategies would
they use to solve managerial gaps and attain the organizational goals successfully. This is major
aim of this lecture teaching you about the concept and rationales of collaborative management.

1. Give the meaning of collaborative management.

2. Explore the rationale of collaborative management in education organizations.
3. Suggest the strengths of collaborative management in organizations.
4. Suggest the weaknesses of collaborative management in organizations.
15.3 The Concept of Collaborative Management
Collaborative management is the concept that conveys the process of managers uniting and
teaming towards the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization. This is one of the management
techniques that ensure the organization is operating efficiently and effectively performing. In this
management technique, managers of different departments of the organization, come together (in
a predetermined time frame) to brainstorm solutions of various problems and challenges facing the
organization. The managers gather, present challenges and problems that hinder efficiency and
effectiveness in their work places of the organization. They sit together and brainstorm of the
solutions of the problems they encounter before the issue would spread to the other parts of the
organization.
The membership of the management team/group will always be determined by the common
business (e.g., education- primary school heads or secondary schools’ heads) they do. The time
frame for the meeting schedules are also set by the members of the team. They can decide to meet
twice per week, term or year. The structure of the meeting can less formal and there may a structure
of reporting and identify what is happening in various areas of the operation, assessing the events,
and responding in the style of their choice.
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15.4 Rationale of Collaborative Management in Education Organizations
Organizations are operating in ever changing environment and high competition pressure. Thus in
some ways the organizational environment have been stressing managers in their endeavors to
ensure that their organization survive and remain competitive. Thus, they would require a helping
hand in management especially in overcoming obstacles in performing organizational tasks and
for the smooth running of business. Hence, collaborative management has come to:
 help managers to work in teams and thus combine their strengths towards overcoming
organizational obstacles and problems,
 collectively increase confidence of others by working on their weaknesses in the management
team,
 promote organizational effectiveness and efficiency of all operations within the organization,
 enhance employees’ morale, motivation, positive relationships and engender positive perception
of organizational key stakeholders, and
 enhance sharing of innovative ideas important for organization effective performance.
15.5 The Strengths of Collaborative Management
Referring to the management practitioners and promoters of collaborative management, a major

strength was revealed. That through collaborating, managers are able to combine the strengths
each manager towards solving organizational problems and overcoming obstacles in their
organization endeavors. Collaborative management enhances confidence to some managers who
may seem not confident in overcoming some obstacles in organizations.
15.6 The Weaknesses of Collaborative Management
There are no concepts with strengths without weaknesses. Collaborative management has been
criticized for promoting dependence behavior on the part of managers in organizations. Managers
involved in collaborative management may cause delays in making urgent decisions for waiting
managers’ gathering.
Moreover, through collaboration, managers may not be effective in managing conflicts and
problems before they spread and affect other parts of the organization. This is due to waiting time
for managers to meet.
But all in all and by all means, working collaboratively has positive effect to organizational
performance and effectiveness since organizational problems are collectively handled and many
good innovations are likely to be proposed out sharing of ideas and collective thinking.
15.7 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed about the nature of collaborative management as the
concept that convey the process of managers uniting and teaming towards the
management of an organization. Moreover, we have explained with examples the
strengths and weaknesses of collaborative management.
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1. Give the meaning of collaborative management.
2. Explore the rationale of collaborative management in education organizations.
3. Suggest the strengths of collaborative management in organizations.
4. Suggest the weaknesses of collaborative management in organizations.
15.9 References
Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/Organizational psychology: An applied approach. 6th

Ed. WADSWORTH CENGAGE Learning.
Katzenbach, J. & Smith, D. (1993), “The discipline of teams”, in Harvard Business Review,
111- 120.

Part 6: Management Strategies in Organisations
This part addresses issues of staff empowerment in organizations as a strategy of aligning staffs’
psychological states, performance capability status with the performance demands of the
organization. Moreover, it has been contended that ensuring effective communication in
organizations and building of communities in organizations would be the basis for the wellbeing
of all organization staff and business success.
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Lecture 16: Staff Empowerment in Organisations
16.1 Introduction
Employees are central resource in organizations that make possible the attainment of
organizational goals. Accordingly, an organization needs employees for its survival, compete and
operate effectively. In the process of maintaining effectiveness and the deal of remaining
competitive and survive however, organizations innovate, change their normal operations that
disturb their employees’ confidence, feeling of lack of important skills and knowledge, cause
uncertainties, pain and so employees feel powerless. The situation seemingly necessitates the need
of empowering staff in order to align staffs’ psychological states, and performance capability status
with the performance demands of the organization. In this lecture, we consider staff empowerment
as one of the important management strategies in enhancing organizational effectiveness. In this
lecture we discuss about the concept of empowerment, and the rationale of empowering staff in
organizations. This lecture also presents the conditions for staff empowerment in organizations.

1. Give the meaning of staff empowerment.

2. Describe the rationale of empowering staff in organizations.
3. Explore the ways leaders would increase staff empowerment in organizations.
4. Analyze the conditions for staff empowerment in organizations.
16.3 The Concept of Empowerment
The concept of empowerment is related to psychological state. It is a situation whereby “intrinsic

motivation and self-efficacy of people are influenced by leadership behavior, job characteristics,
organization structure, and their own needs and values” (Yukl, 2013, p.126). Mullins (2005)
associated participation and involvement of all kinds of employees in the organization with the
concept of empowerment.
16.4 The Rationale of Empowering Staff in Organizations
As explained in the introduction of this lecture, organization and managerial activities influence
employees’ feeling of powerless and a need for staff empowerment. Specifically, the rationales of
staff empowerment are necessitated by:
 Increasing feelings of uncertainties.

 Lack of knowledge and skills important to accomplish task.
 Complicated issues for decision.
 Managerial behaviours.
Note that few points have been presented, more points are needed. The points that have
been presented are only examples of the rationales of staff empowerment. These
require your explanations and examples on how for example the increasing feelings of
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uncertainties by organizational change initiatives may necessitate staff empowerment.
The process of inducing change in organizations cause uncertainty feelings of the
future state which call for managers to involve staff in decision making,
communicating and coaching about the change contents, and encouraging employees’
acceptance of change.
From the discussions you will learn that staff empowerment is important. This is for organizations
performance and staff’s wellbeing. The day to day policies and activities in organizations pose
challenges to staff. The challenges are associated with lack of specific information, knowledge,
skills, and confidence; and unacceptable managerial behaviours. The challenges can be managed
and solved through strategic managerial practice such as delegating, and involving in decision
making.
16.5 How Leaders Increase Staff Empowerment in Organizations
In the literature of management delegation and participation in decision making have been
mentioned as the major sources of staff empowerment that leaders would depend on. However,
some authors mention a list of leaders’ practices that would enhance staff empowerment in work
organizations. Yukl (2013) contends that leaders should:
 encourage subordinates to view problems as opportunities,

 encourage innovating thinking,
 act supportive when subordinates are discouraged,
 provide resources needed to deal with problems,
 avoid being defensive, and
 remove unnecessary bureaucratic restraints (p.127).
Figure 16.1 presents an overview of leaders’ ways of empowering staff and the characteristics of
the empowered staff in organizations.
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Figure 16.1 The Process of Staff Empowerment and its Consequences
16.6 Conditions for Staff Empowerment in Organizations
There are important conditions posited by various scholars for staff empowerment in organization.
One of the conditions posited is ‘time’. This is about “time to think, to meet, to discuss, to agree.
If there is not time to do these things on top of one’s basic job there can be no empowerment”
(Mullins, 2005, p.875). Other conditions posited are of two categories those that decrease
(unfavorable) and those that increase (favorable) staff empowerment Table 16.1.
Table 16.1 Conditions for Staff Empowerment
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Source: Adopted from Yukl (2013, p.130), Table 5-10 Conditions Facilitating Psychological
Empowerment.
The conditions presented in Table 16.1 can be used as the bases in exploring potential managerial
behaviors and practices favorable in enhancing staff empowerment in work organizations.
16.7 Summary
In this lecture we have discussed about the concept of empowerment, and the rationale
of empowering staff in organizations. This lecture also presented the conditions for staff
empowerment in organizations.
1. What is empowerment of staff?
2. In what ways can leaders promote staff empowerment?
3. Using examples substantiate the notion that ‘participative leadership is related to staff
empowerment.
4. What are conditions for staff empowerment in organizations? Use examples from
education organizations to support your answer.
16.9 References
Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/Organizational psychology: An applied approach. 6th Ed.

WADSWORTH CENGAGE Learning.
Education Limited.
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Lecture 17: Communication in Organisations

17.1 Introduction
It has been contended that effective communication is the basis for the wellbeing of all
organization staff and business success (see Aamodt, 2010). In contrary, ineffective
communication leads to conflicts and ineffectiveness in organizations. These factors inform the
main purpose of teaching this topic on communication as important determinant of developing
organizations. In this lecture we teach about the meaning of communication in organisation,
described the four types of communication in organisations and analyse the ways effective and
ineffective communication affect organizations’ performance and development in general. This
chapter also discussed the nature of effective communication that enhances organizational
development.

1. Give the meaning of communication in organisation.

2. Describe the four types of communication in organisations.
3. Analyse the ways effective and ineffective communication affect organizations’ performance and
development in general.
17.2 The Concept of Communication in Organizations
The concept of communication in organizations comprises exchange of information, ideas, news

and feelings through various ways i.e. writings, signs, telephone, radio, television and symbols.
This is done among organizational members and other business stakeholders. In case of education
organization, the communication-sharing of information can be between school Heads and
teachers, students and parents.
17.3 The Types of Communication in Organizations
Basically, there are four types of communication. These are upward communication, downward
communication, business communication and informal communication. The types of
communication are described hereunder:
 Upward communication: this involves communication by subordinates to the top management.

According to Aamodt (2010, p.402), “in ideal upward communication, employees speak directly to
management in an environment with an open door policy…..the quality of upward communication
is a significant factor in employee job satisfaction” (Miles, Patrick, & King, 1996 in Aamodt, 2010,
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p.402). This type of communicating has been criticized as being ineffective because of the nature
of relationship between employees and managers. Subordinates often feel threatened by
managers and may not be willing to openly communicate bad news or complaints (Aamodt, 2010,
p.402).
 Downward communication: involves communication by the top managers to subordinates. It has
noted from the literature of organizational psychology and behavior that in the past downward
communication involves information about ‘happy invents’ to employees which tended to boost
their working morale. Recently, downward communication is extremely important as it has been
determining employees work performance.
 Business communication: involves communication of work-related information among all
‘business’ stakeholders (Managers, subordinates and customers).
 Informal communication: as the name expresses itself, this kind of communication involves
transmission of information through rumors, and gossip. It involves informal communication of
aspects important to those involved. Members in the informal communication are close and
friends.
17.4 Communication Effectiveness and Organization Development
Effective communication is defined as the one that convey information clearly and in a simple
way. The information is sent to the intended recipient; it is well understood and engenders expected
response(s). In organizations, effective communication is associated with high productivity,
organizational effectiveness, e.g. effective communication is the primary mechanism for creating
readiness for change among members of the organization.
Communication would involve oral (e.g., in meetings, presentations) and written organizational
documents, and it engenders employees’ readiness for organization’s tasks and their working
morale. Effective (thorough) communication influences employees’ motivation, and commitment
to organization initiatives e.g. changes, and organization objectives. Effective communication
reduces uncertainties associated with new objectives, tasks/changes. It has been contended that
effective communication decreases employees’ cynicism towards organizational activities while
poor communication in organizations causes rumors, interpersonal conflicts, low employees’
motivation to work and poor performance.
One may ask, is it necessary that managers avoid rumors in organizations? The quick answer could
be no! But managers do only deal with their negative consequences. Rumors may help organization
managers identify information gaps in organizations. Managers may also use rumors to correct
their managerial mistakes and improve employees’ performance. All these have positive effect to
the organizational development. Table 17.1 hereunder, present the management strategies for
handling of rumors and reduce their negatives consequences.
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Table 17.1 Management Strategies of Reducing Negative Consequences of Rumors
17.5 Summary
In this lecture we taught about the meaning of communication in organisation, described
the four types of communication in organisations and analyse the ways effective and
ineffective communication affect organizations’ performance and development in
general. This chapter also discussed the nature of effective communication that enhances
organizational development. This lecture ended with explanations about the management
strategies in dealing with negative effect of rumors.
1. Define communication?
2. Briefly explain the types of communication in organizations.
3. In what ways effective and ineffective communication can affect organization
performance?
17.7 References
Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/Organizational psychology: An applied approach. 6th

Miles, E. W., Patrick, S. L. & King, W. C. (1996). Job level as a systematic variable in
predicting the relationship between supervisory communication and job satisfaction. In
Aamodt, M. G. (Eds). Industrial/Organizational psychology: An applied approach. 6th

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Lecture 18: Building of Communities in Organisation

18.1 Introduction
Working in teams is potentially wealth than working individually in developing organizations.

Accordingly, building a sense of community in an organization enhance employee’s motivation
and commitment to organizational tasks. Towards effective organizational performance, and
competitive advantages in the business world, building communities in organizations seemingly
important. In this lecture we teach you about the concept of community in organizations, the
factors in building communities in organizations and the ways of building communities in
education organizations.

1. Describe the concept of sense of community in organisation.

2. Explore the factors in building a sense of community in organisations.
3. Analyse the ways of building a sense of community in organizations.
The Concept of Community in Organizations
A community is defined as a group of people who live and work together. In the part of work
organizations, a community has been associated with social rather than formal relationships. This
is from the fact that “We are social animals who cannot function effectively without a social system
that is larger than ourselves” (Lizzadro, Szczech, Cain, LCSW & Buividas, as quoted Mintzberg,
2009). Thus, a community is a sense of belonging to a social group/relationship. A sense of
community is highly needed in work organizations for many developmental factors to successful
functioning towards organizational effectiveness. We need organizational communities for
organizational learning (refer to our discussion in lecture 4 & 5), and organizational innovations
and changes (ref. Lecture 8). Employees who work under organizational community are motivated,
royal and committed. Hereunder, we explore the rationale of building a sense of community in
work organizations.
18.2 The Factors of Building a Sense of Community in Organizations
As we have already learned a sense of community is important in developing organizations. It is

related to employees’ citizenship behaviours, morale, motivation, and commitment to
organizational tasks and objectives. In this sub-section we are learning about the important factors
in building a sense of community in organizations. In the literature of organizational behavior there
are six (6) factors [conversations] of building communities in organizations from Peter Block’s
Approach as found in Lizzadro et al. The factors are:
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1. Invitation: this about calling not forcing people to come to build a community.
2. Possibly: this about checking the organization possibilities through sharing opinions and ideas,
and building collective vision.
3. Ownership: this focuses on making people think individually about their contribution to a
controversial issue.
4. Dissent: this about leaders allowing people to honestly express their views for common vision
creation.
5. Commitment: this is about making promise for accountability.
6. Gifts: this is about focusing on people good values to the organization.
18.3 The Rationale of Building a Sense of Community in Education Organizations
The competition pressures in the business world and the need to perform effectively of work
organizations have necessitated connecting people and enhancing interpersonal relationships at
working places. It is seemingly important to build a sense of ‘togetherness’ and ‘connectedness’
at work places so as to have collective efforts towards attaining organizational goals. Employees
who work under organizational community are motivated, loyal and committed. A sense of unity,
connectedness is important factor in implementing organizational change and innovations in
organizations. Lizzadro et al. posited about seven reasons of building a sense of community in
work organizations:
1. Enhance organizational learning.

2. Elevate innovations and creativity.
3. Strengthen employees’ morale.
4. Increase a sense of employees’ loyalty.
5. Increase employees’ organizational citizenship behaviours.
6. Develop leadership.
7. Help with organizational change efforts (p.3).
Note that we have briefly explained the rationales of building a sense of community in
work organizations. Use the seven points by Lizzadro et al. to analyse the rationale of
building a sense of community in education organizations using examples from any
country of your choice.
Building a sense of community enhances connectedness, bond, shared values and employees’
devotion to organizational tasks and objectives.
Page 58 of 65
Source: Adopted from Lizzadro et al. (p.8).
18.5 Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed the about the concept of communities in organizations,
factors in building communities in organizations and the rationales of building a sense of
community in education organization.
1. Describe the concept of community in organisation.
2. Explore the factors in building communities in organisations.
3. Using examples from education organizations analyse the ways of building a
sense of community in organizations.
4. It has been contended that “it is easier to develop a sense of community in
smaller schools than large schools”. Substantiate this statement with relevant
examples.
5. It is easier to develop a sense of community in schools with orderly students’
disciplines. Discuss.
18.7 References
Lizzadro, A. M., Szczech, M., Cain, S., LCSW, & Buividas, T. Building effective
communities: Defining community how to build it within your organization. Corporate
Learning Institute.
Page 59 of 65
Mintzberg, H. (2009). Rebuilding camponies as communities. In Lizzadro, A. M., Szczech,
M., Cain, S., LCSW, & Buividas, T. Building effective communities: Defining community how
to build it within your organization. Corporate Learning Institute.
O’Donell, S. & Schumer, E. (1996). Community building & community organizing: Issues
in creating effective models. NHI, Shelterforce Online.
OED 624: References
 Bagdanor, J. (1979), Devolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford

 Bolman, L. G. (1991), Reframing organisations: Artistry, choice and leadership. Jossey Bass
Publications, San Francisco
 Brookes, J. Z. (1984), Decentralisation and authority: A study in organisational behaviour. Halt
Rinehart and Winston, New York
 Burns, D., Hambleton, R. & Hagget, P. (1994), The Politics of decentralisation: Revitalising local
democracy. Macmillan, London
 Cardwell, B. & Spinks, J. (1988), The self-managing school. Falmer Press, London
 Cardwell, B. & Spinks, J. (1998), Beyond the self-managing school. Falmer Press, London
 Cardwell, B. & Spinks, J. (1992), Leading the self-managing school. Falmer Press, London
 Chapman, J. D., Boyd, W. L., Lander, R. & Reynold, D. (eds), (1996), The reconstruction of
education. Cassell, London.
 Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2009). Organization development and change. 9th Ed. SOUTH-
WESTERN, CENGAGE Learning
 Dalin, P. & Rust, V. D. (1996), Towards school for twenty-first century. Cassell, London
 D’Souza, A. (1989), Leadeship. Better yourself Books, Mumbai
 Fullan, M. G. (1991), The new meaning of educational change. Cassell, London.
 Goodstain, L. D. & Burke, W. (1991), “Crating Successful organisational Change”, in Organisational
Dynamics, 5 (1).
 Hoy, W. K. & Miskel, C. (1996), Educational administration: Theory, research and
practice. McGraw Hill, New York (chapter).
 Katzenbach, J. & Smith, D. (1993), “The discipline of teams”, in Harvard Business Review, 111-120
 Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2001), Organisational Behavior. McGraw Hill, Boston. (Chapter 17 only).
 Marshall, R. & York, L. (1994), “Planning for a restructured, revitalized organisations”, in Slean
Management Review, Summer 81 – 91.
 Mayo, E. (1933), Human problems of an industrial civilization. Harvard University Press, Boston
 Weber, M. (1947), The theory of social and economic organisation. Free Press, New York
 McLagan, M. & Noel, C. (1995), The age of participation. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, San-
Francisco.
 Mullins, L. J. (2005). Management and organizational behavior. 7th Ed. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson
Education Limited.
 O’Neil, J. (1995), “On schools as learning organisations: A conversation with Peter Senge” in
Educational Leadership, 20 -23
 Ouchi, W. & Prince, R. (1993), “Hierarchies, clans, and theory Z: A new perspective on
organizational development”, in Organisational Dynamics, 62 - 70
Page 60 of 65
 Senge, P. M. (1992), The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organisation. Random
House, Sydney.
 Taylor, F. W. (1947), Scientific management. Harper and Row, New York
 West, P. (1994), “The concept of learning Organisation”, in Journal of European Industrial Training,
18: (1), 15 – 21.
 Thach, L. & Woodman, R. (1994), “Organisational change and information technology: Managing
on the edge of cyberspace”, in Organisational dynamics, 30 – 45.
 Webb, G. (1996), Understanding staff development. Open University Press, London
 Yukl, G. (2010). Leadership in organizations. 7th Ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
An Organization
Is a social group of people who work together towards collective goal.
Authoritative leadership
This is a style of leadership that focuses on task accomplishment and thus, enhances force, threats,
control, and domination in interacting with employees.
B
Bureaucratic Management Theory
This focuses on the rigidity and structure of formal organization.
C
Centralization
Is the concentration of power of planning and decision making at the top level of an organization?
Page 61 of 65
Collaborative management
Is the process of managers uniting and teaming towards the effectiveness and efficiency of an
organization. This is one of the management techniques that ensure the organization is operating
efficiently and effectively performing.
Communication in Organizations
Comprises exchange of information, ideas, news and feelings through various ways i.e. writings,
signs, telephone, radio, television and symbols. This is done among organizational members and
other business stakeholders.
D
Decentralization
The concept refers to the transfer of power, functions and accountability for the results from the
top level to the lower level of an organization or government.
E
Employee empowerment
This is related to psychological state. It is a state of providing freedom and autonomy to employees
so that they can make decisions and control their work.
H
Human Relations Management Theory
The theory focuses on creating friendly environment where employees would feel valued, listened
and cared.
Page 62 of 65
L
Leadership
Leadership as defined in the literature of organisation behaviour is a process of influencing people

so that they are willingly to participate in doing tasks in organisations.
Learning organization
This is an organization that facilitates the learning of its members and that strive to remain
competitive by continuously changing itself.
M
Management
Management is an art of making things done through and with people.

Keyword(s):
O
Organization effectiveness
Is a state where an organization attains its aims and objectives.
Organizational Change
It simply means making desired differences. Thus, organization change refers to the process of
making an organization different from the way it was to a new desired state.
Page 63 of 65
Organizational Climate
Is related to good organizational atmosphere i.e. employees with high morale, good feelings of
being cared, recognized and hold positive attitudes to work. Employees of this nature would love
and trust one another, hold psychological contract and willingly engage in organizational
activities.
Organizational Culture
This is simply defined as ‘the ways of doing things around here’. The concept of organizational
culture comprises common policies, beliefs, values, perceptions, assumptions, standards and
traditions.
P
Participative leadership
This is characterized by democratic values. It focuses on the ways leaders share power with their
followers and in decision making. This is a kind of leadership that focuses on guiding,
empowering, consulting and involving employees in decision making.
S
Scientific Management Theory
Focuses on showing exactly what is to be done and the best way of doing it basing on scientific
principles and procedures.
Jain, A. (2004, January). Using the lens of Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy. In 37th Annual Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences, 2004. Proceedings of the (pp. 127-136). IEEE. This is the APA
system of citing documents.
Page 64 of 65
Severance
Severance
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Development of Organizations (OED 624)

Learning Objectives: Specifically, the course is aiming at enabling you to:

 Help organizations to improve their performance.

Part 1: Developing Organisations through Effective Management

Lecture 1: The Rationale of Developing Organizations

1.2 Learning Objectives

1. Give the meaning of an organisation.

2. Describe the nature of organisations.

1.3 The Nature of Organization

1.4 What does Organizations Consists of?

Figure 1.1 Common Factors in Organizations

Source: Adopted from Mullins (2005).

3. Drawing examples from education sector, examine the rationale of developing

Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner

Mullins, L. J. (2005). Management and organizational behaviour. 7th Ed. Edinburgh

Part 1: Developing Organisations through Effective Management

Lecture 2: Theories of Management

 It is necessary to view the interrelationships between the development of theory, behavior in

2.2 Learning Objectives

i. Describe the Theories of Management- Scientific Management, Bureaucratic

iv. Differentiate Scientific Management from Bureaucratic Management and Human

2.3 Scientific Management Theory in Organizations

Advantages of Scientific Management

Criticisms on Scientific Management

2.4 Bureaucratic Management Theory in Organizations

i) In a bureaucratic organization, there is a high degree of Division of Labor and

ii) There is a well-defined Hierarchy of Authority.

v) Interpersonal relations are based on positions and not on personalities.

vii) Methods for all types of work are well defined.

viii) Selection and Promotion is based on Technical qualifications.

ix) Only legal power is given importance (Akrani, 2011).

2.5 Human Relations Theory in Organizations

The theory enlightens important skills to organizational managers to be good listeners of

Taylor, F. W. (1947). Scientific Management, Harper and Row.

Hartzell, S. (2015). Bureaucracy: Max Weber’s theory of impersonal management.

Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner

Taylor, F. W. (1947), Scientific management. Harper and Row, New York

Course Manual: OED 624

Part 1: Developing Organisations through Effective Management

Lecture 3: Local Management of Organizations

3.2 Learning Objectives

i Briefly describe the concept of centralisation and decentralisation.

ii. Differentiate centralisation from decentralisation.

iii. Mention the types and three forms of decentralisation.

iv. Analyse the continuum of Centralization and Decentralization in education sector.

v. Discuss the perspective of decentralisation.

• the easier implementation of a common policy for the organization as a whole;

• providing a consistent strategy across the organization;

• preventing sub-units becoming too independent;

• making for easier co-ordination and management control;

• improved economies of scale and a reduction in overhead costs;

• greater use of specialization, including better facilities and equipment; and

Figure 3.1 The concept of decentralization

It is an opposite of centralization and it’s characterized by delegation of authority and devolution

• enables decisions to be made closer to the operational level of work;

• increased responsiveness to local circumstances;

• improved level of personal customer service;

• more in keeping with developments in flatter and more flexible structures;