Junctions 269

5.20 In a p+n junction diode, which side penetration depth will be larger? Estimate and
compare the ratio of the penetration depths on both sides of the junction if the
acceptor concentration is twice than that for the donor concentration. Compare the
generated electric fields on both sides also.
4 2
5.21 For a Si p+n junction of area 2 * 10- cm , calculate the depletion width, the peak
electric field, and the depletion capacitance under 60 V of reverse bias with the
following diode specifications:

p side n side
Na = 1019/cm3 Nd = 1016/cm3
tp = 10 ns tn = 0.1 ns
mp = 800 cm2/V-sec mn = 1250 cm2/V-sec
mn = 200 cm2/V-sec mp = 1400 cm2/V-sec

5.22 In a simple p-n diode, if the diffusion coefficent for holes is twice than that for the
electrons, the minority carrier concentration at n side is twice than that in p side,
and the diffusion coefficent for holes is also twice of that for the electrons,
calculate the injection efficiency for this diode at xn = 0.
4 2 17 3
5.23 An abrupt Si p-n junction diode with area = 10- cm has Na = 10 /cm and Nd =
18 3
10 /cm . The diode has FB of 1 V. The mobility’s for electrons and holes are mn
2 2
= 1350 cm /v-sec, mp = 400 cm /v-sec, and tp = tn = 10 ns.
(a) Find the excess carrier concentration.
(b) Find the electron and hole concentration at x = 2 Ln and 2 Lp.
5.24 A Si p-n junction with cross-sectional area A = 0.001 cm2 is formed with
15 3 20 3
Na = 10 cm- and Nd = 10 cm- . Calculate:
(a) Contact potential, V0.
(b) Space-charge width at equilibrium (zero bias).
(c) Current with a forward bias of 0.7 V. Assume that the current is diffu-
sion dominated. Assume n = 1500 cm2/V@s, p = 450 cm2/V@s, and

n= q = 2.5 ms. Which carries most of the current, electrons or holes, and
why? If you wanted to double the electron current, what should you do?
5.25 Suppose in a p+n diode the n region and the p region thickness are 20 mm and
5mm, respectively. What will be the RB applied to obtain a breakdown for this
15 3
diode? [Given: { = 11.8, Nd = 10 /cm ]
5.26 In a p-n junction diode operating under certain reverse bias Vr, if Vr is increased to
3 Vr, what will be the impact on the following parameters?
270 Chapter 5

(a) Depletion width

(b) Contact potential
(c) Junction capacitance
(d) Probability of breakdown
–3
5.27 We make a Si bar with a p-type doping of 2 * 1016 cm on the left half and
a p-type doping of 1018 cm-3 on the right side. Sketch the equilibrium band
diagram, with precise values marked off, far from the doping transition at 600 K
when the intrinsic carrier concentration is 1016 cm- 3. (Note: This is p type on both
sides. Such a junction is known as a high–low junction rather than a p-n junction.
Observe that the doping level is comparable to ni on the left side! Do not worry
about the exact details right near the doping transition!)
5.28 Assume that an abrupt Si p-n junction with area 10-4 cm2 has Na = 1017 cm-3 on the p
side and Nd = 1017 cm-3 on the n side. The diode has a forward bias of 0.7 V. Using
mobility values from Fig. 3–23 and assuming that n = p = 1 s, plot Ip and In vs.
distance on a diagram such as Fig. 5–17, including both sides of the junction.
Neglect recombination within W.
5.29 In a p+n diode reverse biased at 5 V, the generated capacitance is 20 pF. If the
doping of the p side is doubled and the bias is change to 20 V, what will be the
change in capacitance? If now the bias is changed to 100 V, then what will be the
change?
15 3
5.30 A Ge p+n junction diode has donor doping of 2 * 10 /cm and relative per-
mittivity 16. What will be the minimum thickness of n region that will ensure
avalanche breakdown at 300 V reverse bias voltage?
5.31 Calculate the capacitance for the following Ge p+n junction for two reverse bias
16 3 18 3 4 2
voltages of 1 and 3 V. [Given: Nd = 10 /cm , Na = 10 /cm , area = 10- cm , ni,
10 3
Ge = 2 * 10 /cm ]
5.32 We assumed in Section 5.2.3 that carriers are excluded within W and that the
semiconductor is neutral outside W. This is known as the depletion approxima-
tion. Obviously, such a sharp transition is unrealistic. In fact, the space charge
varies over a distance of several Debye lengths, given by

PskT 12

2
LD = c q Nd d on the n side.
Calculate the Debye length on the n side for Si junctions having Na = 1018 cm- 3 on
the p side and Nd = 1014, 1016, and 1018 cm- 3 on the n side and compare with the
size of W in each case.
4 2 17 3 17 3
5.33 A Si p-n junction diode with area = 10 cm has Na = 10 /cm and Nd = 10 /cm .
2
(a) Find the reverse saturation current, given mn = 1500 cm /v-sec, mp = 450
2
cm /v-sec, and tp = tn = 2 ns.
(b) With the ideality factor n = 1.5 and FB of 0.2 V, calculate the forward current.
 Junctions 271

5.34 Holes are injected in a p+n diode with an n region width similar to hole diffu-sion
length Lp. Excess holes at n side varies linearly from ^pn (at xn = 0) to zero (at xn =
Lp). Solve the diffusion equation to find the excess hole concentration.
5.35 Solve for the electron carrier concentration and current density at the p region for
narrow base diode with high recombination at the edges of depletion n region.

17 –3
5.36 Consider an n+p junction under reverse bias of 5 V. Let Na = 5 × 10 cm . Find
2
the reverse current density due to diffusion. [Given: Dn = 10 cm /sec, Ln = 45mm]

5.37 The diode of Fig. 5–23c is used in a simple half-wave rectifier circuit in which the
diode is placed in series with a load resistor. Assume that the diode offset voltage
E0 is 0.4 V and that R = dv/di = 400 Ω. For a load resistor of 1 kΩ and a sinusoidal
input of 2 sin vt, sketch the output voltage (across the load resistor) over two
cycles.
5.38 The ideality factor n can be used to describe the relative importance of recom-
bination within the transition region and the neutral region. Calculate and plot the
I-V characteristics of a diode, using Eq. (5–74) for values of the ideality factor of
1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0.

2 19 3
A = 100 m , N = 10 cm- , and Nd
19 3 a
= 10 cm- ; vn = vp = os
5.39 Assume holes are injected from a p+-n junction into a short n region of length l. If
δp(xn) varies linearly from ∆pn at xn = 0 to zero at the ohmic contact (xn = l), find
the steady state charge in the excess hole distribution Qp and the current I.

5.40 Assume that a p+-n diode is built with an n region width l smaller than a hole
diffusion length (l 6 Lp). This is the so-called narrow base diode. Since for this
case holes are injected into a short n region under forward bias, we cannot use the
assumption dp(xn = ∞) = 0 in Eq. (4–35). Instead, we must use as a boundary
condition the fact that dp = 0 at xn = l.
(a) Solve the diffusion equation to obtain
(l - x ) L (x - l) L
∆pn[e n p -e n p ]
dp(xn) =
l L l L
e > - e- >
p p

(b) Show that the current in the diode is

qADppn l
I =a ctnh b (eqV>kT - 1)
LpLp
272 Chapter 5

5.41 Given the narrow base diode result (Prob. 5.40), (a) calculate the current due to
recombination in the n region, and (b) show that the current due to recom-bination
at the ohmic contact is
qADp pn l qV kT
I(ohmic contact) = a csch b (e > - 1)
Lp Lp

5.42 Assume that a p+-n junction is built with a graded n region in which the doping is
described by Nd(x) = Gxm. The depletion region (W ≅ xn0) extends from essentially
the junction at x = 0 to a point W within the n region. The singular-ity at x = 0 for
negative m can be neglected.
(a) Integrate Gauss’s law across the depletion region to obtain the maximum
value of the electric field ℰ0 = -qGW (m + 1)/P(m + 1).
(b) Find the expression for (x), and use the result to obtain V0 - V =
qGW (m + 2)/P(m + 2).
(c) Find the charge Q due to ionized donors in the depletion region; write Q
explicitly in terms of (V0 - V ).
(d) Using the results of (c), take the derivative dQ/d(V0 - V) to show that the
capacitance is

qGP(m + 1) 1 (m + 2)

Cj = Ac (m + 2)(V0 - V) d
5.43 We deposit a metal with a work function of 4.6 eV on Si (electron affinity of 4 eV)
and acceptor doping level of 1018 cm-3. Draw the equilibrium band diagram and
mark off the Fermi level, the band edges, and the vacuum level. Is this a Schottky
or ohmic contact, and why? By how much should the metal work function be
altered to change the type of contact? Explain with reference to the band diagram.

5.44 Design an ohmic contact for n-type GaAs using InAs, with an intervening graded
InGaAs region (see Fig. 5–44).
5.45 A Schottky barrier is formed between a metal having a work function of 4.3 eV and
17 3
p-type Si (electron affinity = 4 eV). The acceptor doping in the Si is 10 cm- .

(a) Draw the equilibrium band diagram, showing a numerical value for qV0.
(b) Draw the band diagram with 0.3 V forward bias. Repeat for 2 V reverse bias.
5.46 We want to make a Schottky diode on one surface of an n-type semiconductor, and
an ohmic contact on the other side. The electron affinity is 5 eV, band gap is 1.5
eV, and the Fermi potential is 0.25 eV? What should be values of work functions
of the two metals? (Give your answer as greater than or less than certain values.)
Sketch the band diagram of the structure.
5.47 A semiconductor heterojunction is made between the following materials,
A and B, with the following parameters:
 Junctions 273

L n
Doping Length n,p i n,p
3 3
EG (eV) x (eV) (cm- ) (om) (om) (cm- ) (os)
20 8
A: 2 4 NA = 10 0.5 10 10 10
16 10
B: 1 5 ND = 10 0.1 100 10 1

Draw the equilibrium band diagram, marking off the band edge energies and EF ,
with respect to the vacuum level.
Calculate the current density if the junction is forward biased such that the
6
minority concentrations are increased by a factor of 10 .
(Hint: Use appropriate approximations. There is a lot of extraneous informa-tion
here; the answer is very simple. Remember that this is a p +-n junction, and the
length of the semiconductors is V diffusion length; the minority carrier
concentration is zero at the ohmic contacts at both ends of the device.)
17 3
5.48 A p-n junction diode has a doping concentration of 10 cm- on the p- side, and
11 3
double that on the n side. The intrinsic carrier concentration is 10 cm- , band gap
is 2 eV, and Pr = 15. Sketch the band diagram in equilibrium, and mark off the
values of band edges with respect to the Fermi level and the depletion widths on
both sides.
Repeat the above for a heterojunction, where the band gap on the n side is reduced
to 1 eV, and the electron affinity on the n side is 4 eV. Other param-eters are kept
the same. Band offsets are the same for conduction and valence bands across the
heterojunction.

Very useful applets for understanding diode operation are available at https:// Reading List
nanohub.org/resources/animations

Campbell, S. A. The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2d ed.

NY: Oxford, 2001.
Chang, L. L., and L. Esaki. “Semiconductor Quantum Heterostructures.’’ Physics
Today 45 (October 1992): 36–43.
Muller, R. S., and T. I. Kamins. Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits. New York:
Wiley, 1986.
Neamen, D. A. Semiconductor Physics and Devices: Basic Principles. Homewood,
IL: Irwin, 1992.
Pierret, R. F. Semiconductor Device Fundamentals. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1996.
Plummer, J. D., M. D. Deal, and P. B. Griffin. Silicon VLSI Technology. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000.
Shockley, W. “The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction
Transistors.’’ Bell Syst. Tech. J. 28 (1949), 435.
Wolf, S., and R. N. Tauber. Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era, 2d ed. Sunset Beach,
CA: Lattice Press, 2000.
Wolfe, C. M., G. E. Stillman, and N. Holonyak, Jr. Physical Properties of
Semiconductors. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.
274 Chapter 5

SELF QUIZ Question 1

Consider a forward-biased ideal (abrupt junction, no recombination or generation in the
depletion region) long p-n junction diode under forward bias. On the following
graph, sketch and label the total current Itotal , the total electron current In,total , and the
total hole current Ip,total as a function of position throughout the entire device. The value
of each has been given at the n-side edge of the depletion region for refer-
ence. (Hint: The excess carrier concentrations are essentially pinned to zero at the
contacts.)

current
p-side quasi-neutral depletion n-side quasi-neutral
region region I region
total

I
n,total

I
p,total

0 position

Question 2
(a) Consider (1) a long p-n junction diode with the ohmic contact on the n side,
xcontact,1 W Lp, and (2) a short p-n junction diode with the ohmic contact on the n-
side well within a diffusion length of the depletion region, xcontact,2 6 Lp. Given the
indicated excess hole (equals electron) concentration at the n-side edge of the
depletion region ∆p for both diodes, sketch the excess hole concen-trations as a
function of position dp(xn) within the region for the two cases on the following
graph, and label them (1) and (2) accordingly.

p 0 xn
xn 0 p p
x x
contact,2 L 2L contact,1

(b) Consistent with your answers to part (a), sketch the hole (diffusion) currents within
the region for the same two diodes on the following graph, and label them (1) and
(2) again. The value of the hole current at the edge of the depletion region for the
long diode Ip,1(xn = 0) is provided for reference.
 Junctions 275

Ip

Ip,1 (xn 0)

Ip 0 xn
x x
xn 0 contact,2Lp 2Lp contact,1

Question 3
Consider two Si p-n junction diodes, one long and one short (contacts within a dif-fusion
length of the depletion region) but otherwise identical. Under identical for-ward-bias
voltage, which diode would have greater current flow?

Question 4
If the depletion capacitance of a p-n junction diode is Cd,o at equilibrium and the contact
potential is 0.5 V, how much reverse-bias voltage would have to be applied to reduce the
depletion capacitance to 0.5 Cd,o?

Question 5
(a) What is the difference between depletion and diffusion capacitance in a diode?
Which one dominates in forward bias and why? In reverse bias?
(b) Why is it meaningful to define small signal capacitance and conductance in
semiconductor devices such as diodes? How are they defined?

Question 6

We grow a pseudomorphic heterostructure consisting of an epitaxial film with lat-tice

constant of 6 Å and band gap of 2 eV on a thick substrate with lattice constant of 4 Å and
band gap of 1 eV. Both the substrate and epitaxial layer have a cubic crystal structure in
the unstrained state. If 60% of the band edge discontinuity is in the conduction band,
sketch a simplified band diagram of this heterostructure. Also, qualitatively show a 2-D
view of the crystal structure in relation to the band diagram.

Question 7
(a) In the space below, sketch the equilibrium band diagram resulting from bring-ing
together the illustrated metal and lightly doped semiconductor indica-tingthe Fermi
level; the conduction band and valence band offsets from the Fermi level at the
metal–semiconductor interface in terms of q≥m, q≥s, qx, and/or Eg; any band
bending in the semiconductor in terms of q≥m, q≥s, qx,
276 Chapter 5

and/or Eg; and (qualitatively) any charge depletion or accumulation layer.

Assume no interface traps.
vacuum level

q
qFs

qFm Ec
Eg
Ei
EF,s

E
F,m Ev
metal semiconductor

(b) Is this a Schottky contact or an ohmic contact?