Longman Academic Writing Chapter 01
Longman Academic Writing Chapter 01
Longman Academic Writing Chapter 01
ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS
Each day you probably do many kinds of informal writing. For example, you may
make lists of things to buy at the supermarket or send text messages to your friends.
Informal writing may contain slang, abbrevia}ions, and incomplete sentences. In
contrast, academic writing-the type of writing you have to do in school-is formal
and has many rules. It is different from everyday English, and it may be different from
the academic writing that you have.done in your native language.
This book will help you learn and practice the format, sentence structure, and
organization appropriate for academic writing. Chapter 1 presents the basic format
and features of an academic paragraph. At the end of this chapter, you will write an
academic paragraph of your own.
/Writing Model
• '~ •' ' I ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' I ' ' ' 2' ' 'I' '' 3'' ' I ' ' ' 4' ''I' '' 5'' ' I ' ' ' 6A_• •'
1 Filmmaker George Lucas has changed the film industry in many ways. 2 He has written,
directed, and produced some of the best-loved movies of our time. 3 He has also made major
contributions to modern film technology. 4 At first, Lucas did not plan to become a filmmaker.
5 His dream was to become a racecar driver. 6 After a bad accident, however, he had to modify
his plans, and he decided to get an education. 7 In college, Lucas studied moviemaking and
made a number of student films. s Lucas's third feature film, Star Wars, changed everything.
9 A seemingly simple story of good versus evil, Star Wars became a huge international hit. 10 The
movie used new technologies that revolutionized the film industry. 11 One of these technologies
was a special computer-assisted camera crane (a tall machine with a long metal arm for lifting
heavy things). 12 Camera operators filmed most of the space fight scenes from the crane. 13 Lucas
is also responsible for the modern THX audio system, which improves the way a movie sounds
in theaters. i4 In addition, Lucas was one of the first people to use computer-generated images
(CGI) in filmmaking. 15ln fact, Lucas's company Industrial Light and Magic has created special
effects for hundreds of movies including Harry Potter, Pirates of the Caribbean, and Star Trek
films. 16 To sum up, George Lucas's love of storytelling and his technological innovations have
Academic Paragraphs 3
Questions about the Model
1. Who is this paragraph about?
2. What is the writer's main point about this person?
3. What kinds of words are capitalized in the paragraph? Circle three examples of
capitalization: a person's name, the title of a movie, and an abbreviation formed
from the first letter of words.
4. In Sentence 1, filmmaker George Lucas is the subject. What is the verb?
NouN VERB
decision decide
1. director direct
2. direction
1. innovator innovate
2. innovation
modification modify
Work with a partner. Complete the chart with nouns and verbs from
the writing model on page 3.
VERB
writer IN rite
1. contributor contribute
2.
1. educator educate
2.
improvement
1. revolution
2. revolutionary
4 CHAPTER 1
PRACTICE2 Forming Nouns
Work with a partner. Complete the chart with nouns. Use one of these
noun endings: -or/-er, -tionl-sionl-ication, -ancel-ence, -ism, -ment, -ness.
Check form and spelling in a dictionary.
NouN VERB
appreciation · appreciate
assist
beautify
brighten
criticize
excite
lead
simplify
ORGANIZATION
In this section, you will learn how to format and organize a paragraph. From the
writing model on page 3, you can see that a paragraph is a group of related sentences.
A paragraph focuses on and develops one topic. The first sentence states the specific
point, or controlling idea, about the topic. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph
support the controlling idea.
In the writing model on page 3, the first sentence states the topic (George Lucas) and
the controlling idea about the topic (George Lucas changed the film industry). The rest
of the sentences in the paragraph support the controlling idea. The model also shows
the format of an academic paragraph.
Academic Paragraphs 5
FORMATTING THE PAGE
When you prepare assignments for this class, pay attention to the page format.
There are instructions to follow for both handwritten and computer-written work.
6 CHAPTER 1
-
. CJuR NAME ~Mardela Perez }
MARGIN
: CJuRsE NuMBER ~English 001 HEADING
'<IP LINES
/~born in a liHle fown near San Salvador, fhe capital of our counfry.
years ago wifh my mofher and my fwo sisfers. We wenf fo New York.,
learn English. Now we have our own aparfmenf near fhe co{{ege. My
sisfers and I work. during fhe day and go fo school af nighf. I wanf fo quif
a nurse pracfifioner. I speak. Spanish fluenfly. I don 'f fhink. I have any
fo movies.
Academic Paragraphs 7
Page Format for Work Done on a Computer
Paper
Use 8112.-inch-by-11-inch white paper.
Font
Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman. Do not use underlining, italics,
or bold type to emphasize words. It is not correct to do so in academic writing.
Use underlining or italics only when required for titles of books and some
other publications.
Heading
Type your full name in the upper left or upper right corner 112. inch from the top of
the page. On the next line, type the course number. On the third line of the heading,
type the date the assignment is due in the order month-day-year with a comma after
the day.
Assignment Title
Skip one line, and then center your title. Use the centering icon on your word
processing program.
Body
Skip one line and start typing on the third line. Use the TAB key to indent (move to the
right) the first line of the paragraph. (The TAB key automatically indents five spaces.)
Margins
Leave a l-inch margin on the left, right, and bottom.
Spacing
Double-space the body.
Saving Files
Remember to save your work. Ask your teacher how to name files.
8 CHAPTER 1
vouR NAME~ Marciela Perez
MARGIN
couRsE --'>~ English 001 HEADING
NUMBER
~~~~~E <:Iountry. I graduated from high school there. I came to the United
States two years ago with my mother and my two sisters. We went
to New York, where my Aunt Rosa lives. We lived with her in her
apartment in Brooklyn for six months. She helped my sisters and
me get jobs. I work for a home health care agency. I help elderly
LEAVE 1-INCH
people with their basic needs. I work near City College, where my
•.1ARGINS ON THREE • •
siDEs sisters and I take classes to learn Enghsh. Now we have our own
< >
apartment near the college. My sisters and I work during the day
and go to school at night. I want to quit my job and go to school
full-time. I hope to go to college and become a nurse practitioner.
I speak Spanish fluently. I don't think I have any other special
talents. My hobbies are making jewelry and going to movies.
Academic Paragraphs 9
TRY IT OUT! On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph introducing yourself to your
teacher and classmates. Use the models on pages 7 and 9 as guides. Write the
paragraph by hand, or use a computer. Format correctly.
I
Ask yourself these questions. Use your answers as a basis for your writing.
Add other information if you. wish.
1. What is your name, and where were you born?
2. What do you want to say about your family?
3. What languages do you speak?
4. Where did you go to school? What were (or are) your favorite subjects?
5. What jobs have you had in the past? What job do you have now?
6. Why are you learning English?
7. What is your goal or your dream?
8. Do you have any special talents or hobbies?
9. What do you do in your free time?
Writing Tip
Give titles to the paragraphs you write. A good title lets the reader
know your topic but doesn't give away too much information. A title
can be short or long, but it rarely should be longer than ten words.
MECHANICS
In English there are many rules for using capital letters. You probably know a lot of
them already.
RULES EXAMPLES
10 CHAPTER 1
RULES EXAMPLES
Academic Paragraphs 11
PRACTICE3 Applying Capitalization Rules
Look at the model on page 9 again. Copy nine more words or groups of words
that begin with a capital letter. Add the capitalization rule next to each entry.
(Note: Don't copy the first words of sentences or names that are repeated.)
3·------------------------------------------------------------
4·------------------------------------------------------------
5·------------------------------------------------------------
6·--------------------------------------------------------------
7·--------------------------------------------------------------
8·--------------------------------------------------------------
9·------------------------------------------------------------
10·----------------------------------------------------------
12 CHAPTER 1
PRACTICES Correcting Capitalization Errors in a Paragraph
I -
I enjoyed reading your paragraph. you are fhe Jirsf person from
here fasf december. unfd now, everyone in my eng fish cfasses came
countries in fhe middle easf. i would {ike fo know more abouf your
nurse pracfifioner. i would afso {ike fo know how many science cfasses
in your paragraph, you say fhaf your on{y special fafenf is speaking
spanish, buf i think you have ofher fafenfs if you are going fo work in
fhefiefd of medicine. your science cfasses wd{ enabte you fo gef a job,
christine {i
[RYI[OU[! In the Try It Out! activity on page 10, you wrote a paragraph to introduce
yourself. Exchange your paragraph with a classmate's. Read your classmate's
paragraph and write a response similar to Christine Li's. Follow the instructions.
1. Remember to be kind: Begin by describing what you like about the paragraph.
2. Write helpful questions and comments.
3. When your classmate returns your paper to you, read the comments
and questions.
4. Make changes if you agree with your classmate's comments.
5. Write more to answer your classmate's questions.
Academic Paragraphs 13
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
A sentence is a group of words that (1) contains at least one subject and verb and
(2) expresses a complete thought.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence has one subject +verb combination. The subject tells who or what.
The verb usually expresses the action (jump, work, think) of the sentence or a condition
(is, was, seem, become).
SUBJECT VERB
Filmmaker George Lucas has changed the film industry in many ways.
SUBJECT VERB
One new technology was a special computer-assisted camera crane.
A simple sentence can have several possible "patterns." Here are four basic ones.
Notice that a simple sentence may have a compound subject (with two or more items,
as in sentences 2 and 4). It may have a compound verb (with two or more items, as
in sentences 3 and 4). These are still simple sentences because there is still only one
subject + verb combination.
Also notice the parts of speech (nouns, pronouns, and verbs) in English simple
sentence patterns. Use a noun or a pronoun for the first (subject) part of a subject+
verb combination. Use a verb in the second part of the pattern. Look at the examples.
S (NOUN) V (VERB)
George Lucas developed CGI and the THX sound system.
S {PRONOUN) V (VERB)
14 CHAPTER 1
PHRASES
A phrase is a group of words that does not have a subject + verb combination. A
common type of phrase is a prepositional phrase. This combination has a preposition
(in, on, at, from, to, of, with, around) followed by a noun or a pronoun. In these sentences,
the prepositional phrases are in parentheses:--Look at the examples.
George Lucas has changed the film industry (in many ways).
Underline the subjects and double underline the verbs. Put parentheses around
the prepositional phrases.
Use what you know about subject-verb patterns in sentences to circle the
correct noun or verb form. Put parentheses around the prepositional phrases.
There are two NBA teams in Los Angeles. (Use the verb are to agree
with teams.)
2. Prepositional phrases can come between a subject and its verb, but they are not
the subject. You should mentally cross them out when you are deciding if the verb
should be singular or plural.
The price (of NBA tickets) is high. (The subject is price, not NBA
tickets.)
The fans (at an NBA game) are noisy. (The subject is fans, not game.)
5. A few words can be either singular or plural. In these cases, look at the noun in the
prepositional phrase.
Some (of the excitement) at a Lakers game occurs off the
basketball floor.
Some (of the fans) find the movie stars at Lakers games more
interesting than the game.
16 CHAPTER 1
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
Underline the subject and write subject above it. Then circle the correct
verb form.
t I.
)UDJ€'C
1. ~ is /8in the business of playing basketball and making money.
2. Basketball games on television I make big profits for the NBA.
3. The sale ofT-shirts, hats, and other NBA products is I are also good for business.
4. Some of the NBA games is I are on television in countries outside the
United States.
5. Some of the success of the NBA is I are because of individual players.
6. There was I were more NBA games on TV in China after 2002, the year that Yao
Ming started playing for the Houston Rockets.
7. There was / were a very good reason for the NBA' s increase in popularity.
8. Most of the new Chinese fans was I were originally fans of Ming.
9. Now each of the NBA games on Chinese television attracts I attract millions
of viewers.
10. Ming' s popularity with Chinese fans has made I have made him one of the most
important athletes ever to play in the NBA.
the game, and some of them has caused a lot of excitement. One of the young
stars are Sergio Garcia, a fascinating golfer from Spain. Garcia was born in
1980 and started golfing at the age of three. He became a professional golfer
in 1999 at the age of 19. Garcia caught the world's attention by hitting a golf
shot at a target from behind a tree with his eyes closed. Two other young golf
stars are Michelle Wie and Ryo Ishikawa. Both of them is quite different from
Academic Paragrapns 17
shocked everyone by competing against men-and beating many of them-
I
at the age of fourteen. Today she is one of the world's best female golfers.
Japan. Each of his victories since then have shown his incredible athletic skill,
and he has become a favorite with fans. In 2011, after a terrible earthquake in
Japan, Ishikawa impressed his fans once again by promising to donate all of
the money he earned that year to help the earthquake victims. Of course there
is still older golfers who continue the traditions of the sport, but these three
FRAGMENTS
[
In some languages, it is possible to leave out the subject in a sentence. In others, you
can sometimes leave out the verb. In English, you must always have at least one
subject-verb combination in each sentence.
If you leave out either the subject or the verb, your sentence is incomplete-this is
a fragment. Fragments are sentence errors. (There is an exception to this rule. In
commands such as Stop that! and Listen carefully, the subject you is understood but not
specifically stated.)
Here are two examples of fragments.
Is a good idea to do volunteer work. (There is no subject.)
18 CHAPTER 1
Sentence Fragments
a Fragments
Find four more fragments. Make corrections.
My Best Friend
Was a very scary for me to go to a new school. I very shy. In fact, I was afraid
to speak to anyone. Suzanne asked me to eat lunch with her on my first day.
During the next several months, she helped me to adjust to life in school and
out of school, too. Now Suzanne in Venezuela with her husband and three
children. We have not seen each other for eight years. However, we stay in
touch by email and on Facebook. Telephone each other at least once a month.
Academic Paragraphs 19
Using Nouns and Verbs in Sentences
ii
0 Complete the chart with nouns and verbs. Check meaning, form, and spelling
in a dictionary. There may be more than one possible answer.
VERB
bravery brave
create
encouragement
enjoy
1. equal
2. equalize
length
modernism
2. modernization
20 CHAPTER 1
THE WRITING PROCESS
Doing academic writing assignments takes time and patience. It is never a one-step
action. When you begin the process of writing a paragraph or an essay, you have
already been thinking about what to say ang how to say it. Then after you have
completed your assignment, you read over what you have written and make changes
and corrections. You write and revise and write and revise again until you are satisfied
that your writing expresses exactly :what you want to say.
The process of writing generally has four steps. In the first step, you come up with
ideas. In the second step, you organize the ideas. In the third step, you write a first
draft. In the final step, you polish your first draft by revising and editing it.
LISTING
In the following example, the assignment is to write a paragraph about a person who
has made a difference in the world, in the community, or in the writer's life. First,
the writer made a list of people who have made a difference to him. Then he decided
which person to write about and circled his choice.
Academic Paragraphs 21
Next, the writer started a new list. He wrote his chosen topic-Grandfather-at the top
of a new piece of paper and started writing words and phrases that came into his mind
about his grandfather.
Grandfather
Uneducated (high S'chool? Started hoS'pital in toLNn - only hoS'pital
eighth grade?) in big area
Farmer LNho LNorked hard Improved local medical care
Helped hiS' community FirS'tfarmer to terrace hiS' land- noLN
Starte~ community hoS'pital everyone doeS' it
ReS'pected in community Improved farming techniqueS' in hiS' area
Went to church every LNeek Smart
Got up early Read about neLN thingS'
Worked late Terracing helpS' prevent S'oil eroS'ion
WaS' the firS't perS'on in toLNn to LiS'tened to expertS'
buy a car ThoughtthingS' over
forLNard-thinking Made me laugh LNhen I LNaS' little
The writer then looked at his second list and decided to write about the ways his
grandfather helped his community. He circled that idea. Then he thought about how his
grandfather helped his community. He highlighted two ideas and marked them A
and B. The writer also crossed out anything that didn't belong to these two ideas.
Grandfather
u,edbcated (J.i9J' rcJ.ool? Started hoS'pital in toLNn - only hoS'pital
ei9M·J, 9rade?) in big area
~~met h'l•o ~•o1l<ed ~ard Improved local medical care
<fl!:lped hiS' communi"iV FirS'tfarmer to terrace hiS' land- noLN
f3 Started community hoS'pital everyone doeS' it
Rerpected in ct,,,,b .. i"t) A Improved farming techniqueS' in hiS' area I
Wer,tt, cl.btcJ. ev"et1 ~··eelt Smart
Gotbp earl)' Read abobt ilt."l>d"l•iii9S'
W,t!ted late Terracing helpS' prevent S'oil eroS'ion
~f tl,e firrt pet""'' i" 'fol>tiJ to Lirte,ed to e:xped·r
bb1 a cat T~'"t:>9J,t tJ.i "9" o vet
f,, l>totd tJ.i .. ltin9 Made ,,e lab9J. ~,.J,e,, I l>•'of li#le
22 CHAPTER 1
TRY IT OUT! At the end of this chapter, you are going to write a paragraph about a
person who has made a difference in the world, in his or her community, or
in your personal life. Use the listing technique to choose a topic and gather
information. Your classmates might be especially interested in learning about a
person from your home country, such as a politician, a sports star, a writer, an
artist, or an entertainer. Follow the instructions.
1. On a separate sheet of paper, list at least six people you think have made a
difference. Then choose one person for your writing assignment.
2. Create a second list of the ways in which this person made a difference.
3. Choose one or two important ways the person made a difference, and circle them.
(Do not write the paragraph yet, but save your prewriting.)
TRY IT OUT! On a separate sheet of paper, make a simple outline from the lists you made in
the Try It Out! activity above. Follow the instructions.
1. Give your outline a title like the one in the example.
2. Write a sentence like the one in the example that names the person and says what
he or she did to make a difference.
3. Write supporting information or main points below this sentence. If there are two
main points, as in the example, give them letters (A and B). If there are more, gi,·e
a capital letter to every main point that you list below the first sentence. (Sa,·e
your outline.)
Academic Paragraphs 23
STEP 3: Write the first draft.
The next step is to write a first draft, using your outline as a guide. Write your first
draft as quickly as you can without stopping to think about grammar, spelling, or
punctuation. Just get your ideas down on paper. You will probably see many errors in
your first draft. It is perfectly usual and asceptable-after all, this is just a rough draft.
You will fix the errors later.
Notice that the writer added some ideas that were not in his outline. Notice also that
he added a concluding sentence at the end.
FmsTDKAFT
On pages 253-273, there are general instructions and specific Peer Reviews for each
chapter in this book to help you improve and revise your writing. A classmate, or
peer, will read and review your paper in order to help you improve its content and
organization.
A peer reviewer's job is to read, ask questions, and comment on what is good and on
what might be changed or made clearer. He or she should not check your grammar or
punctuation. Your instructor will'help do this until you and your classmates learn to
do it for yourselves.
Revising
In the following example, the peer reviewer's comments are in black on both sides of
the page. The writer's replies are in blue. The writer and peer reviewer discussed the
comments, and then the writer wrote a second draft.
Good
para9rapt-t!
I es-pecially
!ike tt-te
partabovt
tt,e ne1f./
J,os-pital.
his fields. Then people thought he was~' but now, every farmer
I don 1t
vnders-tand does it. Terracing helps prevent soil erosion. This improved farming
wt-tat . n~h
''terracrn9 .
tee mques . h"1s area. After h e IS
m . too old to wor k at 1armmg,
r .
my - - I don 1t
tt-tink yovr
is-. Pleas-e grandfather get the idea that his town needs a Hospital, so he spend 9randfatt-ter
explain it
1f./ovld like
Als-o1 1f.lhat his time raising money to build one. There is no hospitals nearby, and
tt-ti> part!©
i> "s-oil
eros-ion 1'? people have to go long distance to see doctor. People again think he
Yov vs-e --really crazy, but he succeed. Now a small Hospital in community, and
tt-te1f./ord -
,(
crazy
}}
two doctor. Each of the doctors have lots of patients. The Hospital
a lot Is-n 1t
is named the james walker community hospital. It was named for my
it s-lan9?
grandfather. He improved local medical care. My grandfather just a
simple, uneducated farmer, but he helped his community a lot.
Academic Paragraphs 25
SECOND DRAFT
his time raising money to build one. There is no hospitals nearby, and
people had to go long distance to see doctor. People again think he
two doctor. Each of the doctors have lots of patients. The Hospital
is named the james walker community hospital. It was named for my
Self-Editing
On pages 253-273, there are general instructions and specific Writer's Self-Checks
for your use in self-editing. You do self-editing as you polish your paper. This student
checked his paper with the Writer's Self-Check, found and corrected errors, and wrote
a final draft.
26 CHAPTER 1
FINAL DRAFr
WRITING ASSIGNMENT
You are going to write an academic paragraph about a person who has made a
difference in the world, in his or her community, or in your personal life. Follow the
steps in the writing process.
Academic Paragraphs 27
STEP 2: Organize your ideas.
Use the simple outline you created in the Try It Out! activity on page 23 to create
an outline for your paragraph. Also use the lists you prepared in Step 1 to write
your outline.
• Decide on your main iaea about your topic. Write a sentence that
expresses the main idea. Put it at the top of your outline.
• List two or more ways in which the person you chose has made
a difference.
• Think about which way should come first, second, third, and
so on. Put the ways and any supporting information in a
logical order.
• Make a simple outline that lists information in the order you will
write about it. Use the outline to guide you as you write.
• Use your outline from Step 2 to write the body of the paragraph
in a logical order.
• After you finish your first draft, check your page format. Make
sure all of your sentences have at least one subject and one verb.
Check that your subjects and verbs agree and that you have used
capital letters correctly.
• Give your paragraph a title. The title should clearly identify your
topic. For examples, look at the titles of the models in this chapter.
.~. . <.~dit.
' ..
', .... ,,·.•.-_ ,
STEP 4: Revise and edit the draft.
• Exchange papers with a classmate and ask him or her to check
your first draft using the Chapter 1 Peer Review on page 254.
Then discuss the completed Peer Review and decide what
changes you should make. Write a second draft.
• Use the Chapter 1 Writer's Self-Check on page 255 to check
your second draft for format, content, organization, grammar,
punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and sentence structure.
28 CHAPTER 1
SELF-ASSESSMENT
In this chapter, you learned to:
0 Identify and use correct page formats for academic
paragraphs
0 Use capitalization correctly
0 Identify and write simple sentences
0 Check for and' correct errors in subject-verb agreement
0 Check for and correct fragments
0 Write, revise, and edit an academic paragraph about
someone who has made a difference
EXPANSION
• TIMED WRITING
In many academic situations, especially during tests, you will have to write quickly
because there will be a time limit. It's important to practice timed writing so that you
can feel more comfortable during tests.
In this expansion, you will write an academic paragraph in class. You have 30 minutes.
To complete the expansion in time, follow these guidelines.
1. Read the writing prompt (or the prompt your teacher assigns) carefully. Make
sure you understand the question or task. Then choose a topic for your paragraph.
(2 minutes)
2. Use the listing technique to plan and gather information for your paragraph. Then
quickly organize your information and key points into a simple outline. (9 minutes)
3. Write your paragraph. Be sure to give your paragraph a title and use the correct
page format. Remember to double-space and write as clearly as possible if you
aren't using a computer. (15 minutes)
4. Revise and edit your paragraph. Correct any mistakes. Check sentence structure,
spelling, and punctuation. (4 minutes)
5. Give your paper to your teacher.
Prompt: You have had teachers in school, but other people such as your parents, your
grandparents, neighbors, and friends have been your teachers, too. Which
teacher has made the biggest difference in your life? State who the teacher
is. Then explain what you learned from the teacher and why the lesson was
important.
Academic Paragraphs 29
• JOURNAL WRITING
To acquire written fluency, you need to experiment with writing words, phrases, and
sentences in a nonthreatening environment. Journal writing gives you a chance to
do this. You can write down your though!s and feelings without worrying about all
the rules of formal academic writing. Journal writing can also help you develop your
ideas. In some cases, your journal will become a source of ideas that you can use later
in your paragraphs and essays. .
A journal allows you to relax and just write about any topic that interests you. Don't
worry about looking up words in a dictionary or carefully checking your grammar.
Focus on the content and the flow of ideas. Your teacher may check your journal to
be sure you are writing in it, and he or she may respond to what you have written, by
asking questions and offering advice.
Sometimes you will choose the topic that you write about in your journal. Other times,
you will have an assigned topic.
To get started, you will need to buy an 8 112-inch by 11-inch spiral notebook and put
•
your name on the outside cover. Before you begin your first journal entry, put the date
at the top of the first page.
For your first journal writing activity, write on this topic for at least 20 minutes
without stopping.
TOPIC
The most important thing my teacher should know about me
~ ~
Writing Tip
Take advantage of your journal! Start writing immediately and don't stop until
your time is up. Write "from the heart." In other words, give your first and
strongest reaction, and then explain with reasons, details, and examples.
30 CHAPTER 1