Center of Excellence in Agricultural Engineering

Mariano Marcos State University

Batac, 2906 Ilocos Norte, Philippines
[email protected]

By:
NATHANIEL R. ALIBUYOG
Ag. Eng'g Dept
CAF-MMSU
Batac, Ilocos Norte
Center of Excellence in Agricultural Engineering
Mariano Marcos State University
Batac, 2906 Ilocos Norte, Philippines
[email protected]

A module in

Mech 104
Fluid Mechanics

by

Nathaniel R. Alibuyog, RPAE

Ag. Engineering Dept.
College of Agriculture and Forestry
Mariano Marcos State University
Batac, Ilocos Norte

ii
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Preface
The course of instruction presented in this module is designed to provide students an

introductory topics in Fluid Mechanics. Topics discussed are interrelated and logically arranged into a

comprehensive course of study. The thought of making the material interesting, as well as

informative, has also been given careful consideration. The lessons have been designed for easier

comprehension and should require minimum of instructor consultation or assistance. At the end of

each topic is a sample problem designed to help the reader apply and have deeper understanding on

the topics discussed. A practice task is also given at the end of each unit. The problems were

designed to test how much knowledge the student had gain from the topic. Feedbacks to the practiced

tasks were not included (as per suggestion of previous user of the module), however, each answer for

each problem were given just after the problem.

Additional reading from related books is recommended especially to students who want a

deeper understand on Fluid Mechanics

Nathaniel Alibuyog
October, 2000

iii
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How to Use this Module

If you are going to gain maximum benefit from this module you will have to follow all the
instructions carefully. To help you use the module properly, the key points you need to be familiar
with are:
1. On the first page of the unit you will find the general and specific objectives for the unit.
Read them carefully.
2. The module has a sequence of activities:

Ï Objectives
- These are the general and specific objectives for the unit

Input
- This contains information for you to learn

" Practice Task

- Here you are presented with a series of tasks (based on the input) which you must
complete
3. You must work through each part of the unit as it is presented. After reading the Input, do
the Practice Task.
4. Work as a member of a group whenever possible. When this is not possible, work on your
own.

iv
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INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics is defined as that branch of science which treats of water or other fluid in
motion. A prerequisite to the understanding of the motion of fluid, however, is a knowledge
of the pressure exerted by fluids at rest. This study, called hydrostatics, is usually included in
hydraulics. The field of hydraulics also includes hydrodynamics, which relates to the forces
exerted by or upon fluids in motion.
In this module, the different properties of fluids especially the general properties of
water are discussed as a perquisite to the discussion of the principles of hydrostatic pressure.
In the discussion of hydrostatic pressure, Pascal’s law and pressure variation measured by
manometers are given emphasized.

How to Use this Module

If you are going to gain maximum benefit from this module you will have to follow all the
instructions carefully. To help you use the module properly, the key points you need to be
familiar with are:
1. On the first page of the unit you will find the general and specific objectives for the
unit. Read them carefully
2. The module has a sequence of activities:

Ï Objectives
- these are the general and specific objectives for the unit

Input
- This contains information for you to learn

" Practice Task

- here you are presented with a series of tasks (based on the input) which
you must complete

3 Feedback to Practice Task

- this contains the correct answers to the practice tasks
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3. You must work through each part of the unit as it is presented. After reading the
Input, do the Practice Task. Look at the Feedback to the Practice Task only after
you have completed the practice task itself.
4. Work as a member of a group whenever possible. When this is not possible, work on
your own.
5. When you come across a new word, refer to the Glossary of Terms for an
explanation of that word.
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Ï Objectives
General Objectives: Know the fundamental properties of fluids and apply the different
equations governing fluid properties in solving fluid-related
problems.

Specific Objectives: At the end of this unit you will be able to:
1. Differentiate between liquids and gases
2. Differentiate between solid and fluid
3. Know the general properties of fluid and the governing equation of
these properties
4. Apply these governing equations in solving fluid-related problems
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Input
Fluids
Fluids are substances capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and
change their relative position without a separation of the mass. Fluids offer practically no
resistance to body with which they come in contact.
Fluids may be divided into liquids and gases. The principal differences between them
are:
1. A liquid has a free surface, and a given mass of a liquid occupies only a given volume
in a container, whereas a gas does not have a free surface, and a given mass occupies
all portions of any container regardless of its size.
2. Liquids are practically incompressible and usually may be so considered without
introducing appreciable error. On the other hand, gases are compressible and usually
must be treated.
The theory and the problems of this manual deal mainly with fluids which may be
considered incompressible. A few examples and problems require the use of the simple gas
laws which give the relationship of pressure, volume, and temperature.
The distinctions between a solid and a fluid should be noted here:
1. A solid is deformed by a shearing stress, the amount of unit deformation up to a
certain point being proportional to the unit stress; a fluid is also deformed by a
shearing stress but a time rate of deformation which is proportional to the stress.
2. If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the application of a given unit shearing stress to
a solid produces a certain unit deformation which is independent of the time of
application of the force, and when the stress is removed the solid returns to its
original form. On the other hand, if a given shearing stress is applied to a fluid,
deformation continues to take place at a uniform rate with time, and when the stress
is removed the fluid does not, through forces contained within itself, return to its
original form.
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General Properties of Fluids
The properties of fluids which are of fundamental importance in the study of
hydraulics are define here:
Unit weight ω. The weight of a unit volume of a liquid. In SI units, the unit weight is
expressed in N/m3.
Mass Density ρ (rho). The mass per unit of volume. Thus, in engineers’ gravitational
units,
ω
ρ= or ω = ρ g
g
where g equals the acceleration due to gravity. In SI units, mass density is measured in
kg/m3.
Specific Gravity sg. The ratio of the unit weight of a fluid to the unit weight of water
at 4oC.
Viscosity µ (mu). Viscocity is that property of a fluid which determines the amount of
its resistance to a shearing stress. The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature, whereas the viscosity of gases increases with increasing temperature.
The mathematical basis of viscosity may be derived from Fig 1. Consider two parallel
plates of indefinite extent at distance x apart, the space between them being filled with a
fluid. Consider further that one of these plates moves at velocity V parallel to the other plate.
Three assumptions are made:
1. That the fluid particles in contact with a moving surface have the velocity of that
surface.
2. That the rate of change of velocity is uniform in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
3. That the shearing stress in the fluid is proportional to the rate of change of velocity.
Moving plate
By assumption 2, form similar triangles
V
V dv v+ dv dv
= dx
x dx x dx
v
But by assumption 3, the unit shearing stress
Fixed plate
dv
τ )(tau ) = µ
dx Fig 1
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where µ is a proportionality factor called the coefficient of viscosity. Thence
V τ τ x
= and µ=
x µ V
If the plates are unit distance apart and moving with unit relative velocity
µ =τ
In this case µ is known as the dynamic, or absolute, viscosity and is thus defined as the force
required to move a flat surface of unit area at unit relative velocity parallel to another surface
at unit distance away, the space between the surfaces being filled with the fluid.
In the metric system, the unit of viscosity is called the poise, 1 poise being 1 dyne sec
per cm2. A centipoises is 0.01 poise. The ratio of the dynamic viscosity of any fluid to the
dynamic viscosity of water at 200C is termed the relative viscosity. Therefore, when
expressed in centipoises, the dynamic viscosity and relative viscosity of any fluid are
numerically equal.
Kinematic Viscosity v (nu). The ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass
density. Thus
µ
v=
ρ
In the metric system the unit of kinematic viscosity is called the stoke, 1 stoke being 1
cm2/sec.
Surface tension h. Consider a free water surface as shown on Fig 2. Any water
molecules below the durface is attracted equally by water-to-water (cohesive) forces on all
sides. But a molecule on the surface undergoes a resultant downward pull since there are no
molecules attracting it from above. Thus, the water surface is under tension. A greater force
is needed to pull a molecule from the surface than to move a molecule with the liquid.

Resultant
downward Zero
pull Resultant
Force

Fig 2. Surface tension in water

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Surface tension, or more specifically surface tension coefficient (T), is expressed in
force per unit length. It should not be confused with tensile stress which is force per unit
area.
The surface tension coefficient, being a force per unit length, may be viewed as
energy stored in film of water for a unit increase in the films’ surface area. To illustrate this,
let us consider Kirkham and Powers (1972) example of a wire being pulled from water as
shown on Fig 3. A resolution of vertical forces acting on the system is given by F = 2 TL
where F is the upward force exerted to balance the surface tension forces, L is the length of
the wire, T is the coefficient of surface tension and the
multiplier 2π is used since surface tension forces act on both
sides of the wire. Since the work (W) required to pull the
wire against the surface tension forces through the distance
d is Fd , then
W = T (2 L)d Fig 3. Wire being pulled from water

or
W
T=
2 Ld
where T is the ratio of the work exerted over the increase in the area of the water surface.
Surface tension is very important property of water. It helps explain some energy
concepts in soil moisture. Curvatures or increases in surface areas in water pores may be
viewed as stored energy. A sphere of water dropping a certain distance from a dining table to
the floor will splatter into smaller droplets having more surface areas or stored energy to
compensate for the decrease in its potential energy. A beach stroller usually notices that his
feet sink deeper when the sand is saturated or extremely dry (as the particles easily rill on top
of one another) than when the sand is not too wet nor dry (more water film surface areas).
Surface tension also helps explain the capillary rise of water, If a tube of capillary
dimension is inserted on a free water surface, water will rise on the tube in response to the to
the water-to-solid (adhesive) forces.
Consider a given point A at the liquid-solid interface as shown on Fig 4. At this point
the water is at equilibrium, that is, the surface (T) or the unbalance cohesive forces acting in
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the direction shown by the arrow with the broken line are equal to the adhesive forces (AF)
acting on the opposite direction.
Since the total length of the liquid to the solid interface is 2πr, then the total of the
adhesive force is 2πrT. This force can be resolved into resultant vertical (upward) and
horizontal forces. The resultant upward adhesive fore is
AF
then 2π rT cos ω and this must be equal to the weight
of the water column such that A
ω
2π rT cos ω = (π r 2 h) ρ g
T G
where g is the gravitational constant, h is the height of h

the water column and r is the radius of the capillary 2r

tube. Simplifying the above equation gives
2T cos w
h= Fig 4. Capillary rise of water
ρ rg
The angle of contact (ω) for water is usually very small such that cos ω ≈ 1.0 The above
equation shows that the height with which water will rise in a capillary tube (i.e., soil pores
spaces ) is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube.

Now do the following Practice Task

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" Practice Tasks

1. Give two (2) principal difference between liquid and gases.

2. Differentiate a solid from that of fluid based on their shearing properties.

3. Name at least five (5) properties of fluid.

4. A fluid occupying 3.2 m3 has a mass of 4 Mg. Calculate its density and specific
volume.

5. A liquid has an absolute viscosity of 23.0 cP. It weighs 8.4 kN/m3. What is its
kinematic viscosity?
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3 Feedback to Practice Task

1. The principal difference between liquid and gas are:
a) A liquid has a free surface, and a given mass of a liquid occupies only a given
volume in a container, whereas a gas does not have a free surface, and a given
mass occupies all portions of any container regardless of its size.
b) Liquids are practically incompressible and usually may be so considered
without introducing appreciable error. On the other hand, gases are
compressible and usually must be treated.

2. The principal distinctions between a solid and a fluid are:

a) A solid is deformed by a shearing stress, the amount of unit deformation up to
a certain point being proportional to the unit stress; a fluid is also deformed by
a shearing stress but a time rate of deformation which is proportional to the
stress.
b) If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the application of a given unit shearing
stress to a solid produces a certain unit deformation which is independent of
the time of application of the force, and when the stress is removed the solid
returns to its original form. On the other hand, if a given shearing stress is
applied to a fluid, deformation continues to take place at a uniform rate with
time, and when the stress is removed the fluid does not, through forces
contained within itself, return to its original form.

3. The general properties of fluids are:

a) unit weight
b) mass density
c) specific gravity
d) viscosity
e) surface tension
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3
4. A fluid occupying 3.2 m has a mass of 4 Mg. Calculate its density and specific
volume.
Solution:
Mass = 4 x 106 g
Mass = 3 x 103 kg
Solving for density,
m
ρ=
v
4 x10 3
ρ=
3 .2
ρ = 1250 kg / m 3
Solving for specific volume,
1
υ=
ρ
1
υ=
1250
υ = 0.0008 m 3 / kg

5. A liquid has an absolute viscosity of 23.0 cP. It weighs 8.4 kN/m3. What is its
kinematic viscosity?
Solution:
µ
υ=
ρ
23.0 cP 0.01N .s / m 2 0.01P 1kN 100cm 1St
υ= 3
x x x x x 2
8.4 kN / m 1P 1cP 1000 N 1m cm / s
υ = stokes
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Unit 2
PRINCIPLE OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Ï Objectives
General Objectives: Learned the principle of hydrostatic pressure and governing laws and
apply these to solve fluid problems.

Specific Objectives: At the end of this unit you will be able to:
1. define unit pressure, absolute and gage pressure
2. state Pascal’s law in your own word
3. differentiate an open manometer and differential manometer based
on their application
4. learn the basic steps in solving open manometer and differential
manometer
5. apply these basic steps in solving pressure problems involving
open manometer or differential manometer.
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Input
Unit Pressure
The unit pressure at any point in a fluid is the amount of pressure per unit area. If the
unit pressure is the same at every point on any area, A, on which the total pressure is P,
P
p= (2.1)
A
If, however, the unit pressure is different at different points, the unit pressure at any point is
equal to the total pressure on a small differential area surrounding the point divided by the
differential area, or
dP
p= (2.2)
dA
Where there is no danger of ambiguity, the term pressure is often used as an abbreviated
expression for unit pressure. In SI units, pressure is expressed in N/m2 (Pascal) or kN/m2
(kPa).

Direction of Resultant Pressure

The resultant pressure on any plane in a fluid at rest is normal to that plane.
Assume that the resultant pressure P, on any plane AB (Fig. 2.1) make an angle other
than 90o with the plane. Resolving P into rectangular components
P1 and P2, respectively parallel with and perpendicular to AB,
P P2
gives a component P1 which can be resisted only by a shearing
B
stress. By definition, a fluid at rest cannot resist a shearing stress, P1
A
and therefore the pressure must be normal to the plane. This means
Fig 2.1
that there can be no static friction in hydraulics.

Pascal’s Law
At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions. This principle
is known a Pascal’s law.
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Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
To determine the pressure at any point in a homogenous fluid at rest or the variation
in pressure in such a fluid, consider any two points such as 1 and 2 (Fig. 2.2) whose
difference of elevation is h. Consider that these points lie in the ends of an elementary prism
of the fluid, having a cross sectional area dA and length L. Since this prism is at rest, all the
forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium. These forces consist of the fluid pressure on the
sides and ends of the prism and the force of
gravity. Y P2
X
Let X and Y, the coordinate axes, be 2
respectively parallel with and perpendicular to the L
axis of the prism which makes an angle θ with the h
θ
vertical. Also let p1 and p2 be the pressures at W

points 1 and 2, respectively, and let w be the unit

P1 1
weight of the fluid. Fig. 2.2

Considering forces acting to the left along X axis as negative and remembering that
the pressures on the sides of the prism are normal to the X axis and therefore have no X
components, the following equation may be written:
ΣFx = p1 dA − p 2 dA − wLdA cosθ = 0 (2.3)

Since Lcosθ = h, this reduces to

p1 − p 2 = wh (2.4)
Therefore in any homogenous fluid at rest the difference in pressure between any two
points is the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of the
points.
If h=0, p1 = p2 or, in other words, in any continuous homogenous fluid at rest, the
pressures at all points in a horizontal plane are the same. Conversely, in any homogenous
fluids at rest all points having equal pressures lie in a horizontal plane.
If the fluid is a liquid having a free surface in which point 2 (Fig. 2.2) is assumed to
lie, p2 becomes the pressure pa at that surface. At any depth h the absolute pressure is
p abs = wh + p a (2.5)
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The corresponding gage pressure is
p = wh (2.6)
Pressure head
Equation 2.6 may be written in the form
p
h= (2.7)
w
Here h, or its equivalent p/w, called in hydraulics the pressure head represents the height of a
column of homogenous fluid of unit weight w that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
Equation 2.4 may be written
p1 p 2
− =h (2.8)
w w
meaning that the difference in pressure heads at two points in a homogenous fluid at rest is
equal to the difference in elevation of the points.

Illustrative Problems
1. What height of mercury (sg = 13.6) column will cause a pressure of 690 kPa? What is
the equivalent height of water column?

Solution:
p
To solve this problem, we have to recall that pressure head is given by h =
w
and the specific weight of mercury is wHg = ( wH O )( sg Hg ) thus
2

690kPa kN / m 2
h= x
(9.81kN / m 3 )(13.6) kPa
h = 5.172m
The height of water equivalent to this height of mercury is
h = (5.172 m)(13.6)
h = 70.336 m of water w.s

2. A piece of wood 0.30 m2 and 3 m long, weighing

W
6.5 kN/m3 is submerged vertically in a body of
h=3m
water, its upper end being flush with the water

F=PA
Fig. 2.3
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surface. What vertical force is required to hold it in position?

Solution:

To determine the vertical force required to hold the wood in position we had
to know first the total pressure exerted on the wood. Hence,

p = wh
p = 9.81 kN / m 3 (3m)
p = 29.43 kPa
Considering Pascal’s law, the only unbalance force exerted on the wood is the
upward force F. Thus,
F = pA
F = (29.43 kPa )(0.3m)(0.3m)
F = 2.65 kN
Also, the weight of the wood is
w=ρV
w = (6.5 kN / m 3 )(0.3m)(0.3m)(3m)
w = 1.76 kN
Therefore, the net vertical force is
Fnet = F − w
Fnet = 2.65 − 1.76
Fnet = 0.89 kN (upward )
Absolute and Gage Pressure
If pressure is measured relative to absolute zero, it is called absolute pressure; when
measured relative to atmospheric pressure as a base, it is called gage pressure. This is
because practically all pressure gages register zero when open to the atmosphere and hence
measure the difference between the pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and that
of the surrounding air.
If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, it is designated as vacuum and its gage
value is the amount by which it is below that of the atmosphere.
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All values of absolute pressure are positive, since a negative value would indicate
tension, which is normally considered impossible in any fluid. Gage pressures are positive if
they are above that of the atmosphere and negative if they are vacuum (Fig. 2.4).
From the foregoing discussion it can be seen that the following relation holds:
p abs = p atm + p gage (2.9)

where p gage may be positive or negative (vacuum).

Gage pressure
Pressure

Absolute
Vacuum=negative pressure
Gage pressure Atmospheric
pressure

Absolute pressure
Absolute zero

Fig.2.4
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" Practice Tasks

1. Define the following terms:
a) unit pressure

b) absolute pressure

c) gage pressure

2. State Pascal’s law in your own word.

3. What height of a column of special gage liquid (sg = 2.95) exert the same pressure as
a column of oil 4.5 meters high (sg = 0.84).

4. A gage on the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum of 250 mm of mercury.

Compute :
a) pressure head in meters of water
b) pressure in kPa
c) absolute pressure in kPa if the barometric reads 725 mm of mercury.
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9 Feedbacks to Practice Tasks

1. Define :
a) Unit pressure – it is the amount of pressure per unit area. In other words, the
pressure at any point is the same at every point on any area.
b) Gage pressure – it is the pressure measured relative to the atmospheric
pressure.
c) Absolute pressure – it is the pressure measured relative to absolute zero.

2. Pascal’s law states that at any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all
directions.

3. What height of a column of special gage liquid (sg = 2.95) exerts the same pressure as
a column of oil 4.5 meters high (sg = 0.84).
Solution:
For liquid ( sg = 2.95)
p = wh
p = (9.81kN / m 3 )(2.95)(h)
For oil (sg = 0.84)
p = wh
p = (9.81kN / m 3 )(0.84)(4.5)
p = 37.08kPa
Equating pressure of liquid with that of oil,
(9.81)(2.95)h = 37.08
37.08
h=
(9.81)(2.95)
h = 1.281 m of gage liquid
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4. A gage on the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum of 250 mm of mercury.
Compute :
a) pressure head in meters of water
b) pressure in kPa
c) absolute pressure in kPa if the barometer reads 725 mm of mercury.

Solution:
a) Solving pressure head in meters of water
h = (−250mm Hg )(13.6)
h = −3400 mm
h = 3.4 m of water
b) Solving pressure in kPa
p = wh
p = (9.81kN / m 3 )(−3.4m)
p = −33.354kPa
c) Solving the absolute pressure in kPa if the barometer reads 725 mm Hg
p abs = wh + p a
Pa 101.350
=
725 760
Pa = 96.69kPa
p abs = −33.354 + 96.69
p abs = 63.33kPa (absolute)
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Input
Measurement of Pressure
There are many ways by which pressure in a fluid may be measured. In this manual,
I will only discuss the manometer.

Manometers
A manometer is a tube, usually bent in the form of a U, containing a liquid of known
specific gravity, the surface of which move proportionally to changes of pressure.
Manometers are:
1. open type, with an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of measuring gage
pressures; and
2. differential type, without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only
differences of pressure.
Piezometer Column. A piezometer column is a simple device for measuring moderate
pressure of liquids. It consists of a tube (Fig. 2.5) in
which the liquid can freely rise without overflowing.
The height of the liquid in the tube will give the value
of he pressure head directly. To reduce capillary error p
the tube diameter should be at least 12 mm. w

Simple Manometer. A piezometer is limited in A

its range of pressure measurement since (1) large
pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes, and Fig. Fig.9. Piezometer (for measuring
2.5
p/w) in liquids only)
(2) gas pressures can not be measured because a gas
forms no free atmospheric surface. The objections may be overcome by the use of tubes
which are bent to contain one or more fluids of different specific gravities from that in which
the pressure is desired. One arrangement of such a tube is shown in Fig 2.6.
Liquids used in manometers must form a meniscus, that is, adjacent liquids must not
mix. Liquids other than water that are frequently used are mercury, oil, salt solution, carbon
disulphide, carbon tetrachloride, bromoform, and alcohol.
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It is not advisable to rely on general formulas for the solution of manometer
problems. Each should be considered individually and solved in accordance with
fundamental principles of variation of hydrostatic pressure with depth. It is ordinary easier to
work in units of pressure head rather than pressure. Suggested steps in the solution of open
manometer problems are:
1. Draw a sketch of the manometer approximately to 1

x
scale. 2
2 2

2. Decide on the fluid in meters of which the heads are

Fluid B
to be expressed. x

3. Starting with the atmospheric surface in the

3
m
manometer as the point of known pressure head, Fluid A

number in order the level of contact of fluids of Fig.2.6 Open Manometer

different specific gravities.

4. Starting with atmospheric pressure head, proceed from level to level, adding or
subtracting pressure heads as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively, with
due regard for the specific gravities of the fluids.
Illustrative Problems
The pressure at point m in Fig 2.6 is to be measure by the open manometer shown.
Fluid A is oil (sg = 0.80). Fluid B is mercury. Height y = 762 mm. Height z = 254 mm.
Solution:
Expressing all gage pressure head in meter of oil.
p
At 1 = 0.0 ft of oil
w
From 1 to 2:
254mm 13.6
Pressure head increase = x = 4.318 m of oil
1000mm / m 0.80
All points 2 have the same pressure. Why?
762 mm
From 2 to 3: Pressure head increase = = 0.762 m of oil
1000 mm / m
p
At m: = 5.08 m of oil
w
and p = (5.08m)(9.91kN / m 3 )(0.8) = 39.88 kPa
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" Practice Tasks

1. In Fig 2.7 find the pressure head and the pressure at m when:
a) Fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 381 mm, y = 762 mm.
b) Fluid A is oil (sg = 0.80), fluid B is a calcium chloride solution (sg = 1.25),
z = 305 mm, y = 203 mm.

Fluid C Fluid A
Fluid A

y m
m m y

y z
z z
Fluid A

Fluid B Fluid B Fluid B

Fig 2.7 Fig 2.8 Fig. 2.9

2. In Fig 2.7, what is the height z if fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, the gage
pressure at m is 138 kPa and y = 1.5 m.
3. In Fig. 2.8, fluid A and C are air, fluid B is water, z = 356 mm. Find gage pressure at
m and absolute pressure assuming standard atmospheric conditions.
4. In Fig 2.9 the distance y + ½ z = 1.20m. When fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury,
and the pressure at m is a vacuum of 37 kPa, compute z.
5. In Fig. 2.9, assuming standard atmospheric pressure, compute the absolute pressure at
m when:
(a) Fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 381 mm and y =1.2 m.
(b) Fluid A is oil (sg = 0.82), fluid B is salt solution (sg = 1.10), z = 546 mm and y =
191 mm.
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9 Feedbacks to Practice Tasks

1. In Fig 2.7 find the pressure head and the pressure at m when:
a) Fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 381 mm, y = 762 mm.
b) Fluid A is oil (sg = 0.80), fluid B is a calcium chloride solution (sg = 1.25),
z = 305 mm, y = 203 mm.

Solution : Fluid A

A) Solving the pressure head at point m m

Pm
= (13.6 z ) − y
w y
z
Pm
= (13.6)(0.381 m) − (0.762 m)
w
Pm Fluid B
= 4.4196 m of water
w Fig 2.7
Solving for the pressure at m
Pm = hw
Pm = (4.4196 m)(9.81 kN / m 3 )
Pm = 43.36 kPa
B) Solving the pressure head at point m
Pm
= 1.25 z − 0.80 y
w
Pm
= (1.25)(0.305 m) − (0.80)(0.203 m)
w
Pm
= 0.21885 m of water
w
Solving the pressure at m
Pm = hw
Pm = (0.21885 m)(9.81 kN / m 3
Pm = 2.15 kPa
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2. In Fig. 2.7, what is the height z if fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, the gage pressure at
m is 138 kPa and y = 1.5 m.

Solution:

Solving the pressure at point m

Pm = wHg z − wwater y
Pm + wwater y
z=
wHg
138 kPa + (9.81kN / m 3 )(1.5 m)
z=
(9.81 kN / m 3 )(13.6)
z = 1.14 m of water

3. In Fig. 2.8, fluid A and C are air, fluid B is water, z = 356 mm. Find gage pressure at m
and absolute pressure assuming standard atmospheric conditions.

Solution: Fluid C

Solving the gage pressure at m

y
Pm = 0 − wwater z + wair y m
Pm = 0 − 9.81(0.356) + 0
z
Pm = −3.49 kPa
Fluid A

Solving the absolute pressure at m

Pm abs = Pm gage + Patm Fluid B

Pm abs = −3.49 + 101.356 Fig 2.8

Pm abs = 97.86 kPa

4. In Fig 2.9 the distance y + ½ z = 1.20m. When fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, and the
pressure at m is a vacuum of 37 kPa, compute z.
Solution:

Solving the height of mercury in the column, z

Pm
− = −13.6 z − y
w
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but:
1
y+ z = 1.20
2
1
y = 1.20 − z
2 Fluid A
P 1
− m = −13.6 z − (1.20 − z )
w 2 m
P 1 y
− m = −13.6 z − 1.20 + z
w 2
P z
− m = −13.1 z − 1.20
w
Pm
− 1.20 Fluid B
z= w
13.1 Fig. 2.9
37
− 1.20
z= 9 .81
13.1
z = 0.196 m

5. In Fig. 2.9, assuming standard atmospheric pressure, compute the absolute pressure at m
when:
(c) Fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 381 mm and y =1.2 m.
(d) Fluid A is oil (sg = 0.82), fluid B is salt solution (sg = 1.10), z = 546 mm and y =
191 mm.
Solution:
Solving the absolute pressure at m
Pm = − wHg z − wwater y
Pm = −(13.6)(9.81 kN / m 3 )(0.381 m) − (9.81 kN / m 3 )(1.2 m)
Pm = −62.60 kN / m 2 ( gage)

Pm abs = Pm + P atm
Pm abs = −62.60 + 101.356
Pm abs = 38.756 kPa
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Input
Differential Manometer
When the pressure difference between two points in a pipeline is desired a differential
manometer is often used. Again the computation is simpler if units of pressure head are used
rather than of pressure. Suggested steps are:
1. Number the “strategic points” indicated by the levels of contact of the fluids. Some
practice is needed in selecting the points which permit the simplest computation.
2. Starting with the unknown pressure head p/w at one of the end points, write a
continued algebraic summation of heads, progressing from point to point, and
equating the continued sum to the unknown head p/w at the end point.
3. Solve the equation for the pressure head difference and reduce to pressure difference
if desired.

2 2 4
Water

y y

1 B
1.0m

Water
1.2m

3 3

A Mercury

Fig. 2.10 Differential Manometer

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Illustrative problem
Compute the pressure difference between A and B as shown by the differential
manometer in Fig 2.10.

Solution
One system of numbering the points is shown in the figure. Writing the continued
sum of head, in meters of water:
pA P
− 1.2 − y + 1.0 − 1.0(13.6) + y = B
w w
from which
PA PB
− = 1.2 − 1.0 + 13.6
w w
PA P B
− = 13.8 m of water
w w
or
PA − PB = (13.8m)(9.81kN / m 3 )
PA − PB = 127.5 kPa
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" Practice Tasks

1. In Fig 2.11, fluid A is water, fluid B is oil (sg = 0.80), z = 350 mm. Compute the
pressure difference between m and n.
Fluid A Fluid A
Fluid B

m n
z z
Fluid A Fluid A y y
y
m n Fluid B

Fig 2.11 Fig 2.12

2. In Fig 2.12, fluid A is oil (sg = 0.90) fluid B is calcium chloride solution (sg = 1.10),
z = 800 mm. Compute the pressure difference between m and n.

3. In Fig 2.13, fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 450 mm, y = 900 mm. Compute
the pressure head difference between m and n.
n
Fluid A
m Fluid A y Fluid A
y
n m
x x
Fluid A z
z
Fluid B Fluid B
Fig 2.13 Fig. 2.14

4. In Fig 2.14, fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 450mm, y = 1.5 m. Compute the
difference in pressure between m and n.
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5. In Fig. 2.15, fluid A is calcium chloride solution (sg = 1.25) fluid B kerosene (sg =
0.805) and fluid C in air. The diameter of the reservoir is 10 cm and that of the tube if
5 mm. Compute “h” for a pressure head difference between m and n of 12 mm of
water.

Fluid C Fluid C

m n

∆y
∆y
y y-∆y y
Fluid B h

Fluid A
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9 Feedbacks to Practice Tasks

1. In Fig 2.11, fluid A is water, fluid B is oil (sg = 0.80), z = 350 mm. Compute the pressure
difference between m and n.
Fluid B
Solution:
Pm P
+ y + 0.35(0.80) − 0.35 − y = n z
w w Fluid A Fluid A
Pm − Pn
= 0.07 m of water y
w m n
Pm − Pn = 0.07m (9.81 kN / m 3 )
Pm − Pn = 0.687 kPa Fig 2.11

2. In Fig 2.12, fluid A is oil (sg = 0.90) fluid B is calcium chloride solution (sg = 1.10),
z = 800 mm. Compute the pressure difference between m and n.

Fluid A Fluid A
Solution:
Pm P
+ y (0.90) − z (1.10) + ( z − y )(0.90) = n m n
w w
z
Pm − Pn y y
= z (1.10) + z (0.90)
w
Pm − Pn
= 2(0.80 m) Fluid B
w
Pm − Pn = 2(0.80 m)(9.81 kN / m 3 Fig 2.12
Pm − Pn = 1.57 kPa

3. In Fig 2.13, fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 450 mm, y = 900 mm. Compute the
pressure head difference between m and n.
Solution:
Fluid A
Pm P
+ ( y + x) + z (13.6) − ( z + x) = n m
w w
y
Pn − Pm
= y + z (12.6) n
w x
Fluid A
z
Fluid B
Fig 2.13
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Pn − Pm
= 0.90 + 0.450(12.6)
w
Pn − Pm
= 6.57 m of water
w

4. In Fig 2.14, fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury, z = 450mm, y = 1.5 m. Compute the
difference in pressure between m and n.
Solution: n

Pm P Fluid A
+ x − z + z − z (13.6) + z − ( x + y ) = n y Fluid A
w w
m
Pn − Pm
= 13.6 z − z − y x
w z
Pn − Pm
= 13.6 (0.450) − 0.450 − 1.5
w Fluid B
Pn − Pm Fig. 2.14
= 4.17 m of water
w

5. In Fig. 2.15, fluid A is calcium chloride solution (sg = 1.25) fluid B kerosene (sg = 0.805)
and fluid C in air. The diameter of the reservoir is 10 cm and that of the tube if 5 mm.
Compute “h” for a pressure head difference between m and n of 12 mm of water.

Fluid C Fluid C

m n
Solution:
Pm P
+ ( y − ∆y + h)(0.805) − h(1.25) − ( y + ∆y (0.805) = n
w w
Pm − Pn ∆y
= ∆y (0.805)(2) + 0.445 h ∆y
w y y-∆y y
Fluid B h
But the area of the reservoir is,
π
A = D2 Fluid A
4
π
A = (0.10m) 2
4
A = π (0.0025) m 2
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Similarly, the area of the tube is
π
a = d2
4
π
a = (0.05m) 2
4
a = 0.000625 π m 2
Equating the volume of the reservoir and tubes,
A ∆y = a h
ah
∆y =
A
0.000625π h
∆y =
0.0025π
h
∆y =
4

Pm − Pn
= ∆y (0.805)(2) + 0.445 h
w
Pm − Pn h
= ( )(0.805)(2) + 0.445 h
w 4
0.012 m = 0.8475 h
0.012
h=
0.8475
h = 0.014 m
h = 14 mm
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Unit 3
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES

ÏObjectives
General Objectives: Know and apply the principle of hydrostatic pressure on surfaces in
locating and solving the hydrostatic pressure on a plane or curved
surfaces submerged in water.

Specific Objectives: At the end of this unit you will be able to:
1. know and apply the principle of hydrostatic pressure in solving
fluid problems
2. illustrate the different forces acting a plane body submerged in
water
3. solve the total pressure acting on a plane body submerged in water
4. locate the location of center of pressure on a plane body
submerged in water
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Input
Total Pressure on Plane Surfaces
The total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface is equal to the product of the area
of the surface and the unit pressure at its center of gravity.
Consider the surface shown in Fig 3.1 to be made up of an infinite number of
horizontal strips each having an area dA and a width dy so small that the unit pressure on the
strip may be considered constant. The
w.s
liquid having a unit weight of w, the unit θ
dP h
pressure on a strip at depth h below the
h
surface and at distance y is P e yp
y y
P = wh = wy sin θ
The total pressure on the strip is
dP = wy sin θ dA
dA
and the total pressure is
P = ∫ w sin θ y dA

or Fig 3.1

P = w sin θ ∫ y dA (3.1)

From the definition of center of gravity,

A y = ∫ y dA (3.2)

where y is the distance from water surface to the center of gravity of A.

Hence,
P = w sin θ A y (3.3)
Since the vertical depth of the center of gravity below the surface is
h = y sin θ (3.4)
it follows that
P = whA (3.5)

where wh represent the unit pressure at the center.

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Center of pressure on plane surfaces
Any plane surface subjected to hydrostatic pressure is acted upon by an infinite
number of parallel forces the magnitudes of which vary with the depth below the free
surface, of the various infinitesimal areas on which the respective forces act. These parallel
forces may be replaced by a single resultant force P. The point on the surface at which this
resultant force acts is called the center of pressure. If the total hydrostatic pressure on any
surface were applied at the center of pressure the same effect would be produced on the
surface, considered as a free body, as is produced by the distributed pressure.
The position of the horizontal line containing the center of pressure of a plane surface
subjected to hydrostatic pressure may be determined by taking moments at all forces acting
on the surface about some horizontal axis in its plane. In Fig 3.1, taking the free water
surface as the axes of moments and designating by yp the distance to the center of pressure
from the axis of moments, it follows from the definition of center of pressure that
Py p = ∫ y dP (3.6)

yp =
∫ y dP (3.7)
P
but
dP = wy sin θ dA
and
P = w sin θ A y (3.3)
substituting in equation 3.7
w sin θ ∫ y 2 dA
yp = (3.8)
w sin θ A y

∫y
2
dA
yp = (3.9)
Ay

∫y
2
in which dA is the moment of inertia, Is of the area with respect to the water surface, and

A y is the statical moment, Is of the area with respect to the same axes. Therefore,
Is
yp = (3.10)
Ss
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Applying the transfer formula of moment of inertia to equation 3.9 we can show that
Is
yp =
Ss
From the figure,
yp = y + e (3.11)

and by transfer formula

Is = Ig + A y 2 (3.12)
Thus,
2
Ig + A y
yp =
Ay
2
Ig A y
yp = +
Ay Ay
Ig
yp = +y
Ay (3.13)

Equating 3.1 and 3.11, we have

Ig
y+e = +y
Ay
Ig
e= (3.14)
Ay
but
A y = Ss
hence,
Ig
e= (3.15)
Ss
where:
Ig = moment of inertia with respect to the center of gravity.
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Illustrative Problems
1. Water stands on one side of the vertical side shown in Fig 3.2. Find by integration the
total pressure on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.

y
Solution:
3m
Solving for the total pressure: dy

P = w∫ ydA
3 1.2 m
P = (9.81kN / m 3 ) ∫ y (1.20)dy
0
3 Fig 3.2
⎡ y2 ⎤
P = 9.81(1.20) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦0
⎡ (3) 2 ⎤
P = 9.81(1.20) ⎢ − 0⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
P = 52.974 kN
Solving for the center of pressure, yp
Py p = ∫ ydP but dP = wydA

Py p = ∫ y ( wydA)
Py p = w∫ y 2 dA

(52.974) y p = 9.81kN / m 3 ∫ y 2 (1.2dy )

3
(52.974) y p = 9.81(1.2) ∫ y 2 dy
0
3
⎡ y3 ⎤
(52.974) y p = 9.81(1.2) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦0

yp =
9.81(1.2)
52.974(3)
[
(3) 3 − 0 ]
y p = 2.0 m
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2. A vertical circular gate 1.0 m in diameter is subjected to pressure of molasses (sg =
1.50) on one side. The free surface of the molasses is 2.40 m above the top of the
gate. Determine the total pressure and the location of the center of pressure.

Solution:
w.s

h = 2.90m

z z C.G
1.0m z
e z
P C.P

Solving for the total pressure, P

P = wh A
π
P = (1.50)(9.81kN / m 3 )(2.90m)( )(1.0m) 2
4
P = 33.52 kN
Solving for eccentricity, e
Ig
e=
Ay
π
D4
e = 64
π 2
D y
4
π
(1m) 4
e= 64
π
(1m) 2 (2.90m)
4
e = 0.022 m
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" Practice Tasks

1. A gate of 0.60 m square lies in a plane making an angle of 300 with the vertical. Its
upper edge is horizontal and 0.90m below the surface of the liquid (sg=3.0). Find by
integration the total pressure of the gate and the location of the center of pressure.

2. A circular gate 1.50 m in diameter is inclined at an angle of 450. Sea water (sg =1.02)
stands on one side of the gate to a height of 10 meters above the center of the gate.
Determine the total pressure on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.
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9 Feedback to Practice Tasks

1. A gate of 0.60 m square lies in a plane making an angle of 300 with the vertical. Its
upper edge is horizontal and 0.90m below the surface of the liquid (sg=3.0). Find by
integration the total pressure of the gate and the location of the center of pressure.

Solution:

θ=30o

0.90m y1

y
dP
y
0.60m yp
dy
P C.G
0.60m
y2
C.P

0.60m

From the figure,

0.90
cos 30 o =
y1
y1 = 1.039 m
y 2 = 1.039 + 0.60
y 2 = 1.639 m
Solving for the total pressure acting on the plane,
dP = p dA
dP = wh dA
dP = 3(9.81kN / m 3 )( y cos 30 o )(0.60 dy )
dP = 15.29 y dy
Integrating both sides of the equation between limits, we have
1.639
P = 15.29∫ y dy
1.039
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1.639
⎡ y2 ⎤
P = 15.29 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ 1.039

P=
15.29
2
[
(1.639) 2 − (1.039) 2 ]
P = 12.286 kN

Solving for the center of pressure, yp

Py p = ∫ y dP
1.639
(12.286) y p = ∫ y (15.29 y dy )
1.039

15.29 1.639 2
12.286 ∫1.039
yp = y dy
1.639
15.29 ⎡ y 3 ⎤
yp = ⎢ ⎥
12.286 ⎣ 3 ⎦ 1.039

yp =
15.29
(12.286)(3)
[
(1.639) 3 − (1.039) 3 ]
y p = 1.361 m

2. A circular gate 1.50 m in diameter is inclined at an angle of 450. Sea water (sg =1.02)
stands on one side of the gate to a height of 10 meters above the center of the gate.
Determine the total pressure on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.
w.s.

h = 10m

P
y

e
C.G.
C.P
1.50m
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Solution:
Solving for the total pressure,
P = wh A
π
P = (1.02)(9.81kN / m 3 )(10m)( )(1.50m) 2
4
P = 176.8 kN
Solving for the eccentricity, e
Referring to the figure,
10
cos 45 o =
y
10m
y=
cos 45 o
y = 14.14 m
Thus,
Ig
e=
Ay
π
D4
e= 64
π 2
D y
4
π
(1.50m) 4
e= 64
π
(1.50m) 2 (14.14m)
4
e = 0.01 m
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Input
Horizontal and vertical components of total hydrostatic pressure on any surface
It is often more convenient to deal with the horizontal and the vertical components of
the total pressure acting on a surface rather than with the resultant pressure. This is
particularly true when dealing with pressures on curved
F A
surfaces.
Consider, for example, the liquid pressure acting on
Y
the curved surface AB shown in Fig. 3.2. The surface may P Py
Px
have any length normal to the plane of the paper. Choosing X

the coordinates axes as shown, let BF represent the trace of B

a vertical plane normal to the xy plane. Consider the Fig 3.2. Pressure on curved surface
equilibrium of the volume of liquid the cross section of
which, as shown in the figure, is ABF and whose ends are parallel with the xy plane. Since
this volume of liquid is assumed to be in equilibrium, ∑Fx = 0 and ∑F y = 0.

The only forces that have any components parallel with the x-axis are the sum of the
x-components of the normal pressures acting on the surface AB and the normal total pressure
on the vertical plane BF, which is the projection on the surface AB on a vertical plane normal
to the x-axis. These forces must be equal in magnitude. As the demonstration holds true
independently of the location of the horizontal x-axis, it may be stated that:

The component, along any horizontal axis, of the total hydrostatic pressure on
any surface is equal to the total pressure on the projection of that surface on a
vertical plane which is normal to the chosen axis.

The location of the horizontal component is through the center of pressure of this projection.
In a similar manner consider the vertical forces acting on the volume of liquid whose
cross section is ABF (Fig. 3.2). The only vertical forces are the force of gravity, represented
by the weight of the liquid, and the sum of the vertical components of the pressure on the
surface AB, which forces must therefore be equal in magnitude. In other words,
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The vertical component of the total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface
is equal to the weight of that volume of the liquid extending vertically from the
surface to the free surface of the liquid.
The location of the vertical component is through the centroid of this volume.
If the liquid is underneath the surface, the pressure acts upward on the surface, and
0the magnitude of the vertical component is equal to the weight of the imaginary volume of
the liquid extending vertically from the surface to the level of the real or imaginary free
surface of the liquid. The location of the vertical component is through the centroid of this
imaginary volume.

Illustrative Problem
The curve surface represented by AB in the Fig.3.3 is the surface of a quadrant of a
circular cylinder 3m long. Determine:
a. The horizontal and vertical components of total hydrostatic pressure on the
surface if r = 2 m and z = 18 m
b. The location of the horizontal and vertical components of the total pressure.

w.s xp

18 m
yp
Pv h = 18 m
21 m

Ph . R =2m

3m
Fig 3.2

Solution:
a. To determine the horizontal component of pressure on the gate, consider the gate projected
onto a vertical plane. This projection is a rectangle with a width of 3 m and a height of 2 m
and its top edge lying 18 m below the water surface. Therefore
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Px = wh A
Px = (9.81kN / m 3 )(19m)[(2m)(3m)]
Px = 1118.34 kN
The vertical component of pressure on the gate is equal to the weight of the prism of
water 3m long and having an end area, A, shown by the shaded region.
⎡π ⎤
A = ⎢ (2) 2 (3)⎥ + [(2)(18)(3)]
⎣4 ⎦
A = 117.4248 m 2
Thus,
Py = wV
Py = (9.81 kN / m 3 )[(3m)(117.4248m 2 )]
Py = 1151.94 kN

b. To determine the position of the center of gravity, yp

Is
yp =
Ay
⎡ 3(2) 3 ⎤
⎢ + (3)(2)(19) 2 ⎥
yp = ⎣ ⎦
12
3(2)(19)
y p = 19.0175 m

Also, to determine the horizontal position xp take moment about the vertical plane xy
Ax p = A1 x1 + A2 x 2
x1
where:
A1 = 2(18)
A1 = 36 m 2
18 m .
π D2
A2 =

π
4 2m ..
A2 = ( 2) 2 x2
4 xp
A2 = 3.14 m 2

A = A1 + A2
A = 36 + 3.14
A = 39.14 m 2
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x1 = 1.0 m
4R
x2 =
3π
4⎛ 2⎞
x2 = ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝π ⎠
x 2 = 0.8488 m
Thus,
(39.14) x p = (36)(1) + (3.14)(0.8488)
x p = 0.988 m
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" Practice Tasks

1. State the two (2) generalization about the horizontal and vertical components of
the total hydrostatic pressure on any surface.

a.

b.

2. The corner plate AB of the hull of a ship is curved on the arc of a circle with a 2m
radius. With submersion in sea water as shown, compute for a 1m length
perpendicular to the sketch the amount and location of the horizontal and vertical
components of total pressure on AB. Determine the amount and location of the
resultant pressure.

w.s.

Sea water (sg = 1.025)

4m
h = 5m

2m
1m
2m 2m
e
Ph
1m

R
Pv
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9 Feedback to Practice Task

1. The two generalization on the total hydrostatic pressure are:
a. The component, along any horizontal axis, of the total hydrostatic pressure on any
surface is equal to the total pressure on the projection of that surface on a vertical
plane which is normal to the chosen axis.
b. The vertical component of the total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface is
equal to the weight of that volume of the liquid extending vertically from the free
surface of the liquid.
2. The corner plate AB of the hull of a ship is curved on the arc of a circle with a 2m radius.
With submersion in sea water as shown, compute for a 1m length perpendicular to the
sketch the amount and location of the horizontal and vertical components of total
pressure on AB. Determine the amount and location of the resultant pressure.

w.s.

Sea water (sg = 1.025)

4m
h = 5m

2m
1m
2m 2m
e
Ph
1m

R
Pv

Solution:

Solving for the horizontal component of the total pressure, Ph

Ph = whA
Ph = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(1.025)(5 m)(2m x 1m)
Ph = 100.55 kN
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Solving for the vertical component of the total pressure, Pv
Pv = wV
where:
⎡π ⎤
V = ⎢ D 2 + bh ⎥t
⎣4 ⎦
⎡π ⎤
V = ⎢ (2m) 2 + (4m x 2m)⎥ (1 m)
⎣4 ⎦
V = 11.1416 m 3

thus,
Pv = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(1.025)(11.1416 m 2 )
Pv = 112.03 kN
Referring to the figure, the eccentricity is
Ig bh 3
e= for rectangular section, Ig = and A = bh
Ay 12
bh 3
e = 12
bh y
(1 m)(2 m) 3
e= 12 but y = h = 5 m
(1 m)(2 m)(5 m)
e = 0.067 m
Solving x by similar triangle,
x Ph
= 1m
y Pv y
Ph e
x= y
Pv Ph
where:
y = 1+ e
y = 1 + 0.065
x
y = 1.065 m Pv
R

thus,
100.55 kN
x= (1.065 m)
112.03 kN
x = 0.96 m from po int A
Solving the total hydrostatic pressure, R
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R = ( Ph ) 2 + ( Pv ) 2
R = (112.03 kN ) 2 + (100.55 kN ) 2
R = 150.54 kN
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Input
Dams
Dams are built for the purpose of impounding water. Since water level is raised on the
upstream side, the dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces which tend to: (1) slide it
horizontally on its foundation, and (2) overturn it about its downstream edge or toe. These
tendencies are resisted by: (1) friction on the base of the dam, assisted in modern practice by
keying the base of a solid masonry dam into the bedrock, and (2) gravitational forces which
produce moment opposite in direction to the overturning moment.
Also because of the raised water level on the upstream face there is a tendency for the
water to seep under the dam and escape at the lower level on the downstream side. Inasmuch
as this seepage is under pressure, it exerts what is commonly called hydrostatic uplift on the
dam.
The hydrostatic uplift on a dam: (1) reduces the stability against sliding; (2) reduces
the stability against overturning; and (3) reduces the total earth or rock pressure on the base,
although it may increase the intensity of this pressure at the toe.
In this manual, five types of loads where a dam maybe subjected too is presented. It
should be noted that one meter strip of the dam is considered to analyzed to whole system.

1. Neglecting hydrostatic uplift

2. Considering hydrostatic uplift
3. Overflowing dam without hydrostatic uplift and neglecting the effect of water on the
downstream side
4. Overflowing dam considering hydrostatic uplift
5. Dams with water on both upstream and downstream
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CASE 1 – Neglecting hydrostatic uplift

X1

X2
1m

W1
2 h
h
h 3
W2

4
P

h/3 RM

R
x
3
OM

The total hydrostatic pressure acting on the dam given by,

P = whA (3.16)
from the figure
h
h= and A = ( h)(1 m)
2
substituting these values, we have
h
P = w( )(h)(1 m)
2
wh 2
P= (3.17)
2
where:
P = total hydrostatic pressure acting at the face of the dam, Pa
w = unit weight of fluid (i.e., water, w = =9.81 kN/m3)
h = height of water on the upstream side of the dam, m
The resisting moment is obtained by taking the summation moment of all forces having
counterclockwise moment at the dam toe. Hence,
RM = W1 X 1 + W2 X 2 (3.18)
where:
RM = resisting moment, kN-m
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W1, W2 = weight of the dam, kN
X1, X2 = distance, m
Similarly, the overturning moment due to he hydrostatic pressure is obtained by taking
moment at the dam toe and it is given by
Ph
OM = (3.19)
3
The resultant moment is therefore obtained by subtracting the overturning moment from the
resisting moment. This is given by
R x = RM − OM (3.20)
where:
R = W1 + W2 (3.21)
The factor of safety against overturning is given by
RM
FS = (3.22)
OM
and the factor of safety against sliding is given by
µR
FS = (3.23)
P
where:
µ = coefficient of friction

CASE II – Considering hydrostatic uplift

Because of the presence of the water on the upstream face which is raised into a
certain height, there is a tendency for the water to seep under the dam and escape at the lower
level on the downstream side, since this seepage is under pressure, it exerts a hydrostatic
uplift on the dam which reduces the stability of the dam against sliding and reduces also the
stability against overturning.
Referring to the figure below, the reaction at the foundation is given by
R = W1 + W2 − U (3.24)
where:
whB
U= (3.25)
2
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X1

X2
1m

W1
2 h
h
h 3
W2

4
P

h/3 RM

wh
R
R
x
x
3
OM

U 2
B
3

where:
B = is the base of the dam, m
The resisting moment is given by
RM = W1 X 1 + W2 X 2 (3.18)
The overturning moment is obtained by taking the summation moment of all forces of
producing clockwise moment at dam toe. It is given by the equation
h
OM = P ( ) + U ( 23 B ) (3.26)
3

CASE III – Overflowing dam without hydrostatic uplift and neglecting the effect of water on
the downstream side

Referring to the figure, the total hydrostatic pressure is given by

P = whA (3.27)
where:
h = is the distance from the water surface to the center of gravity of the dam and is
given by
D
h= y+ (3.28)
2
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W1
XX
1 1 = X2

y X3
1m

W2
D/2
2 h
h
h D
3
W3
e

4
P
P
h/3 RM

R
x
3
OM

and A = ( D )(1 m) (3.29)

The perpendicular distance between the center of gravity and center of pressure, e, is given
by the equation,
Ig
e= (3.30)
Ss
where:
bh 3
Ig = (for rectangular section) (3.31)
12
Ss = Ah (3.32)
The resisting moment is given by
RM = W1 X 1 + W2 X 2 + W3 X 3 (3.33)
and the overturning moment is given by
⎛D ⎞
OM = P⎜ − e ⎟ (3.34)
⎝2 ⎠
The resultant moment is given by
R x = RM − OM
where:
R = W1 + W2 + W3 (3.35)
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CASE IV- Overflowing dam considering hydrostatic uplift
W1
XX
1 1 = X2

y X3
1m

W2
D/2
2 h
h
h D
3
W3
e

4
P
P
h/3 RM

whB
R
R
x
x
3
OM

2
U 3 B
Referring to the figure, the following equations were derived similar to CASE III only
that the upward hydrostatic exerted by the seepage water is considered.

The total hydrostatic pressure is

P = whA (3.36)
and the upward hydrostatic uplift is given by
whB
U= (3.37)
2
The resisting moment is given by
RM = W1 X 1 + W2 X 2 + W3 X 3 − U (3.38)
and the overturning moment is given by
⎛D ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
OM = P⎜ − e ⎟ + U ⎜ B ⎟ (3.39)
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
The resultant moment is given by
R x = RM − OM (3.40)
where:
R = W1 + W2 + W3 − U (3.41)
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CASE V – Dam with water on both upstream and downstream side

X1

X2
1m
X3
W3
W1
2h
2 h
3 h1
h1 3 P2
W2
h2

4
P1
h2
h1/3 RM
2

3
wh2 wh2
x OM
wh1
R
w(h1-h2) B/2
U2
R
x
U1 2
3 B

When water is both present on the upstream side and downstream side of the dam, the
dam will be subjected to two hydrostatic forces acting on the upstream and downstream face
of the dam.
The hydrostatic pressure acting at the upstream face is given by
wh 1
P1 = (3.42)
2
and the hydrostatic pressure acting at the downstream face is given by
wh 2
P2 = (3.43)
2
The standing water at the upstream and downstream side has the potential to seep
under the dam. If this occurs, the seepage water will exert a hydrostatic uplift on the dam
reducing its stability. The hydrostatic uplift due to the water height at the upstream side is
wh1 B wh2 B
and at the downstream side it is equal .
2 2
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From the figure,
w(h1 − h2 ) B
U1 = (triangular section) (3.44)
2
and
U 2 = wh2 B (rectangular section) (3.45)
The resisting moment is given by
h2
RM = W1 X 1 + W2 X 2 + W3 X 3 + P2 ( ) (3.46)
3
which was obtained by taking moment at the dam toe and considering only forces producing
counterclockwise moment. Similarly, the overturning moment is given by
h1
OM = P1 ( ) + U 1 ( 23 B) + U 2 ( 12 B) (3.47)
3
which was obtained by considering only forces producing clockwise moment.
The resultant moment is, thus, obtained by
R x = RM − OM (3.48)
where:
R = W1 + W2 + W3 − U 1 − U 2 (3.49)
The factor of safety to sliding is given by
µR
FS = (3.50)
P1 − P2
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" Practice Tasks

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. The hydrostatic uplift on a dam will result to:

a.

b.

c.

2. The five cases where in a dam may be subject to are:

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

3. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross section, with one face vertical has a thickness of 2m
at the top and 10 m at the bottom. It is 22 m high and has a horizontal base. The specific
gravity of the masonry is 2.40.Where will the resultant pressure intersect the base
assuming: (a) that there is no hydrostatic uplift; (b) that there is hydrostatic uplift which
varies uniformly from that due to a full head of 15 m at the heel to zero at the toe.
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9 Feedback to Practice Task

1. The hydrostatic uplift on a dam will result to:
a. reduction on the stability against sliding
b. reduction on the stability against overturning
c. reduction on the total earth or pressure on the base

2. The five cases where in a dam may be subject to are:

a. neglecting hydrostatic uplift

b. considering hydrostatic uplift
c. overflowing without hydrostatic uplift and neglecting the effect of water on the
upstream side
d. overflowing dam considering hydrostatic uplift
e. dams with water on both upstream and downstream

3. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross section, with one face vertical has a thickness of 2m
at the top and 10 m at the bottom. It is 22 m high and has a horizontal base. The specific
gravity of the masonry is 2.40.Where will the resultant pressure intersect the base
assuming: (a) that there is no hydrostatic uplift; (b) that there is hydrostatic uplift which
varies uniformly from that due to a full head of 15 m at the heel to zero at the toe.

Solution:

A. Without hydrostatic uplift

X1

X2
1m

W1
2 h
h
h 3
W2

4
P

h/3 RM

R
x
3 OM
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Consider 1-m strip of the dam:

Solving the total hydrostatic pressure acting at the upstream face of the dam,
P = wh A
15 m
P = (9.81 kN / m 3 )( )(15 m x 1 m)
2
P = 1103.625 kN
Solving for the weight of the dam:
For the rectangular side,
W1 = wV
W1 = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(2.40)[(2 m)(22 m)(1 m)]
W1 = 1035.936 kN
For the triangular side,
W2 = wV
W2 = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(2.40)[( 12 )(22 m)(8 m)(1 m)]
W2 = 2071.872 kN
Solving for the resisting moment, RM
RM = W1 X 1 + W2 X 2
RM = (1035.936 kN )(9 m) + (2071.872 kN )( 23 )(8 m)
RM = 20373.408 kN − m
Solving for the overturning moment, OM
⎛h⎞
OM = P⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
⎛ 15 m ⎞
OM = (1103.625 kN )⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
OM = 5518.125 kN − m

Solving for the location the resultant force intersect the base, x

R x = RM − OM
RM − OM
x=
R
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where:
R = W1 + W2
R = 1035.936 kN + 2071.872 kN
R = 3107.808 kN
Thus,
20373.408 − 5518.125
x=
3107.808
x = 4.78 m (within the middle third)
B) When there is hydrostatic uplift
X1

X2
1m

W1
2 h
h
h 3
W2

4
P

h/3 RM

wh
R
R
x
x
3
OM

U 2
B
3

Solving for the hydrostatic uplift, U

whB
U=
2
(9.81 kN / m 3 )(15 m)(10m x 1m)
U=
2
U = 735.75 kN
Solving the resultant vertical force acting on the dam
R = W1 + W2 − U
R = 1035.936 kN + 2071.872 kN − 735.75 kN
R = 2072.058 kN
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Solving for the overturning moment, OM
⎛h⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
OM = P⎜ ⎟ + U ⎜ B ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
⎛ 15m ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
OM = (1103.625 kN )⎜ ⎟ + (735.75 kN )⎜ (10 m) ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
OM = 10423.125 kN − m
Solving for the position of the resultant force,
RM − OM
x=
R
20373.408 − 10423.125
x=
2072.058
x = 4..8 m (within the middle third)
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Input
Principle of Archimedes
The buoyant force acting on a body submerged in a fluid is the resultant of two
vertical hydrostatic forces. They are:
1. the upward component of the total pressure exerted by the fluid on the under surface
of the body; and
2. the downward component of the total pressure exerted by the fluid on the upper
surface.
Since unit pressure increases with depth, the upward component is greater than the
downward. The resultant is therefore an upward, or buoyant, force.
In general, any body immersed in a fluid is subjected to a buoyant force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced. This is known as the Principle of Archimedes.

Illustrative Problem
A sphere 1.5 m in diameter floats half submerged in a tank of oil (sg. = 0.80). (a)
What is the total vertical pressure on the sphere? (b) What is the minimum weight of an
anchor weighing 24 kN/m3 that will be required to submerge the sphere completely?

Solution:
W
A. Solving for the minimum weight of the anchor
Pv = BF
Pv = wV
⎛ 2π R 3 ⎞
Pv = w⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (Oil)
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 2π (0.75 m) 3 ⎞
Pv = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(0.80)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Pv = 6.934 kN Pv = BF
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B. Solving for the minimum weight of the anchor to submerge the sphere completely

W
Let Va be the volume of the anchor
Thus the weight of the anchor is,
Wa = 24Va
The buoyant force of the anchor is BF
BFa = wVa
BFa = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(0.80)(Va )
Wa
From (A) the weight of the sphere is
W = Pv
W = 6.934 kN BFa

When the sphere is completely submerged the buoyant force acting on it is,
BF = wV
⎡ 4π R 3 ⎤
BF = w⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡ 4 π (0.75 m) 3 ⎤
BF = (9.81 kN / m )(0.80) ⎢
3
⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
BF = 13.869 kN
Solving Wa
Taking summation forces vertical,
W + Wa = BF + BFa
6.934 + 24 Va = 13.869 + 9.81(0.80)(Va )
Va = 0.429 m 3
Thus,
Wa = 24Va
Wa = 24(0.429)
Wa = 10.30 kN
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" Practice Tasks

Answer the following questions completely.
1. State Archimedes Principles

2. An iceberg having a specific gravity of 0.92 floats in salt water having a specific
gravity of 1.03. If the volume of ice above the surface is 500 m3, what is the total
volume of the iceberg?

3. A cylinder 2 m in diameter, 4 m long, and weighing 12 kN floats in water with its

axis vertical. An anchor weighing 24 kN/m3 is attached to the lower end. Determine
the total weight of the anchor if the bottom of the cylinder is submerged 3 m below
the water surface.
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9 Feedback to Practice Task

1. Archimedes principles state that any body immersed in a fluid is subjected to a
buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
2. An iceberg having a specific gravity of 0.92 floats in salt water having a specific
gravity of 1.03. If the volume of ice above the surface is 500 m3, what is the total
volume of the iceberg?
W
Solution:
500 m3
Let V = be the volume of submerge
The buoyant force due to the submerged sg = 0.92
volume of the iceberg is
V

BF = wV sg =1.03
BF = (9.81 kN / m )(1.03)(V )
3 BF

Also the weight of the iceberg is

W = (0.92)(9.81 kN / m 3 )(V + 500)m 3
Equating the weight of the iceberg to the buoyant force, we have
BF = W
(9.81 kN / m 3 )(1.03)(V ) = (9.81 kN / m 3 )(0.92)(V + 500)
10.1043V = 9.0252V + 4512.6
4512.6
V=
10.1043 - 9.0252
V = 4181.82 m 3
3. A cylinder 2 m in diameter, 4 m long, and weighing 12 kN floats in water with its
axis vertical. An anchor weighing 24 kN/m3 is attached to the lower end. Determine
the total weight of the anchor if the bottom of the cylinder is submerged 3 m below
the water surface.

Solution:
Let: BF1 = be the buoyant force acting on the cylinder
V1 = be the volume of submerged cylinder
BF2 = be the buoyant force acting on the anchor
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V2 = be the volume of the anchor
W1 = be the weight of the cylinder
W2 = weight of the anchor

Solving for the buoyant force acting on the cylinder,

BF1 = wV
⎡π ⎤
BF1 = w⎢ D 2 h ⎥
⎣4 ⎦
⎡π ⎤
BF1 = (9.81kN / m 3 ) ⎢ (2 m) 2 (3 m)⎥
⎣4 ⎦
BF1 = 92.5 kN
Solving for the weight of the anchor
W2 = 24V2
and the buoyant force acting on the anchor is
BF2 = wV2
BF2 = 9.81 kN / m 3 (V2 )
Solving V2
[∑ F v =0 ]
W1 + W2 = BF1 + BF2
12 + 24 V2 = 92.5 + 9.81 V2
14.19 V2 = 80.5 kN
V2 = 5.67 m 3
and
W2 = 24(5.67)
W2 = 136 kN
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Unit 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

Preview

The principles relating to the behavior of water or other fluids at rests are based upon
certain definite laws which hold rigidly in practice. In solving problems involving these
principles it is possible to proceed by purely rational methods. The results obtained being
free from doubt or ambiguity. Calculations are based upon a few natural principles which are
universally true and simple enough to permit of easy application. In problems ordinarily
encountered in hydrostatics, after the unit weight of the fluid has been determined, no other
experimental data are required.
A fluid in motion, however, presents an entirely different conditions. Though the
motion undoubtedly take place in accordance with fixed laws, the nature of these laws and
the influence of the surrounding condition upon them are very complex and have these far
defied complete expression in mathematical form. However, a great number of engineering
problems involving fluid flow have been solved by combining mathematically with
experimental data. In this unit, I will present some of the laws governing fluid flow which are
often a prerequisite in the design of channel and other related structures.

’ OBJECTIVES
GENERAL OBJECTIVES: Know the different types of fluid flow, their characteristics and
governing laws and apply them in solving various fluid flow
problems as a prerequisite in channel design.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. Discuss and differentiate the different types of fluid flow
2. Know the different forms of energy and apply them in
consonance with Bernouli’s equation in solving fluid
energy and related problems.
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Inputs
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow. Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles
do not cross or intersect (Fig 4.1). With this type of flow in conduits having parallel sides the
path lines are parallel. The velocities in the various path lines are not the same, however, but
increase with the distance from the wells of the conduit (Fig. 4.2).

Fig 4.1 Laminar Flow Fig 4.2. Real velocity profile

In conduits having non-parallel sides, the path lines in laminar flow converge or
diverge. The cross-sectional area of each stream tube varies proportionally with that of the
conduit, but its relative position in the cross-section does not change. Converging path lines
result in decreased velocity.
Any fluid will flow with laminar motion under certain limiting conditions. Conditions
which tend to produce laminar flow are:
1. low velocity
2. small size of conduit
3. high viscosity of fluid
Turbulent Flow. Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves
which continually cross each other and form a complicated network which the aggregate
represents the forward motion of the entire stream. The particles of a stream flowing with
turbulent motion occupy successively various transverse positions without any regularity,
and their path are neither parallel nor fixed. Figure 4.3a represent irregular motion of a large
number of particles during a very brief time interval, while Fig. 4.3b shows the erratic path
followed by a single particle during a longer time interval.
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Fig. 4.3a Fig. 4.3b

Discharge. The volume of fluid pressing a cross section of a stream in unit time is
called the discharge. The symbol Q is used to designate the discharge, the usual unit being
m3/sec or gal/min.

Steady Flow and Uniform Flow

Steady Flow. A steady flow is one in which all conditions at any point in a stream
remain constant with respect to time, but the conditions may be different at different points.
Uniform Flow. A uniform flow is one in which the velocity is the same in both
magnitude and direction at a given instant at every point in the fluid.

Remarks: Steady flow involves permanency of conditions at any particular cross section,
whereas uniform flow implies simultaneous uniformity of conditions at successive
cross sections.
Continuous Flow. When, at any instant, the number of particles passing every cross
section of the stream is the same, the flow is said to be continuous, or there is continuity of
flow.

Equation of Continuity
Figure 4.4 presents a short length of a stream tube, which may be assumed for
practical purposes, as a bundle of streamlines. Since the stream tube is bounded on all sides
by streamlines and since there can be net velocity normal to a streamline, no fluid can leave
or enter the stream tube except at the ends. The fixed volume between the two fixed sections
will be designated by vol. According to Newtonian physics (i.e., disregarding the possibility
of converting mass to energy), mass must be conserved. If the mass of the fluid contained in
the control volume of volume (vol) at time t is masst, then the mass of fluid contained in vol
at time t + dt would be:
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Figure 4.4
mass t + dt = mass t + ρ 1 V1 A1 dt − ρ 2 V2 A2 dt (4.1)

But, the mass contained in vol at t + dt can also be expressed as

∂ρ
mass t + dt = mass t + (vol ) dt (4.2)
∂t
∂ρ
where is the time rate of chage of the mean density of the fluid in vol.
∂t
Equating these two expressions for masst+dt yields
∂ρ
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ 2 A2 V2 = (vol ) (4.3)
∂t
This is the general equation of continuity of flow trough regions with fixed boundaries. It
states that the net rate of mass inflow to the control volume is equal to the rate of increases of
mass within the control volume. This equation can be reduced to more useful forms.
∂ρ
For steady flow, = 0 and
∂t
ρ1 A1V1 = ρ 2 A2V2 = U (4.4)
or
ω 1 A1 V1 = ω 2 A2 V2 = G (4.5)

These are the continuity equations that apply to steady, compressible or incompressible flow
within fixed boundaries.
∂ρ
If the fluid is incompressible, ρ = constant; hence ρ1=ρ2 and = 0 and thus
∂t
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q (4.6)
This is the continuity equation that applies to incompressible fluids for both steady and
unsteady flow with fixed boundaries.
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Energy and Head
Three Forms of energy considered in flowing fluid:
1. Kinetic Energy. It is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.

If a body of mass m when moving at a velocity V possesses a kinetic energy,

1
KE = mV 2 . At the same manner, if a fluid were flowing with all particles moving at
2
1
the same velocity, its kinetic energy would also be mV 2 ; this can be written as:
2
1 1
mV 2 ρ (vol ) V 2
KE V2
= 2 = 2 = (4.7)
weight w (vol ) w (vol ) 2g
V N .m
In SI unitsis expressed as = m.
2g N
2. Potential Energy
The potential energy of a particle of fluid depends on its elevation above any
arbitrary datum plane. We are usually interested only in differences of elevation, and
therefore the location of the datum plane is determined solely by considerations of
convenience. A fluid particle of weight W situated a distance z above datum possesses a
N .m
potential energy of Wz. Thus its potential energy per unit weight is z, i.e., = m.
N
3. Pressure Energy.
Pressure energy differs fundamentally from kinetic and elevation energy, to the
extent that no mass per se can have such energy. Any mass having pressure energy
acquires that energy only by virtue of contact with other masses having some form of
energy.

Head
The three forms of energy which a fluid may have are illustrated in Fig 4.5. At any
2
Va
point A in a stream of fluid where the velocity is Va, the velocity head is , the pressure
2g
Pa
head is , and the elevation head referred to the datum plane MN is Za. Thus, with respect
w
to the plane MN the total head at point A, or its equivalent, the total energy per pound of fluid
at A, expressed in N.m, is
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2
Va P
H= + a + Za (4.8)
2g w
Considering the entire stream as a simple stream tube in a given cross section of
which the average velocity is V. The pressure and elevation heads being computed to the
center line of the stream tube, the total head at cross section A of the stream tube is,

Fig. 4.5. Three forms of energy

Frictional Loss
A fluid in motion suffers a frictional loss, which is an expenditure of energy required
to overcome resistance to flow. The expended energy is transformed into heat. After being so
transformed it cannot, through the ordinary process of nature, be reconverted into any of the
useful forms of energy contained in a flowing fluid and is therefore often referred to as lost
energy or loss head.
The loss occur as a result of friction between the various fluid particles as they rule
against one another, or it may be due to loss in kinetic energy resulting from the impact of
molecules or masses moving with different velocities.
With laminar flow, the magnitude of frictional loss is independent of the degree of
roughness of the conduit. With turbulent flow, the amount of frictional loss increase with the
degree of roughness.

Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem

In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli, an eminent European mathematician and philosopher,
demonstrated that in any stream flowing steadily without friction the total energy contained
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in a given mass is the same at every point in its path if low. Bernoulli’s energy theorem is in
reality the law of conservation of energy applied to fluids which may be considered
incompressible. The theorem may be stated as:
Neglecting friction, the total head, or total amount of energy per unit weight, is the
same at every point in the path of flow.
Considering the illustration shown in Fig 4.6 the theorem can be written as
Total energy = velocity head + pressure head + elevation head
where:
V2
= velocity head
2g
Z2
P1
= pressure head Z1
w Datum
Z = elevation head
Figure 4.6 Stream with constant flow
Thus,
2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 (4.9)
2g w 2g w
Fluid in motion suffers a loss of energy through friction. If the direction of flow in the
stream tube is from section 1 to section 2, the total energy at 2 must be less than at 1. In order
to make the equation balance, a quantity, HL, equal to the loss of energy, or what is
equivalent, the loss of head due to friction between the two sections, must be added to the
right-hand side of the equation.
A statement of the energy equation of the entire cross section of a continuous stream
including loss head then becomes
2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L (4.10)
2g w 2g w
The statement of this form of the energy theorem may be stated as follows:
With Continuous, steady flow, the total head at any point in a stream is equal to the
total head at any downstream point plus the loss of head between the two points.
If energy is added to the stream between points 1 and 2, as for instance by a pump,
the left side of the energy equation must include the HA, and the complete energy equation
then becomes
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2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + Z 1 + HA = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L (4.11)
2g w 2g w
If energy is given up by the stream to a turbine between points 1 and 2, the right side
of the energy equation must include a term HE to represent the head given up and the
equation becomes
2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + Z 1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L + HE (4.12)
2g w 2g w
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$ Practice Tasks
1. Differentiate laminar flow and turbulent flow.

2. Differentiate steady flow and uniform flow

3. Give the three forms of energy considered in flowing water

a.
b.
c.

4. A fluid is flowing in a pipe 200 mm in diameter with a mean velocity of 3 m/s. The
pressure at the center of the pipe is 34.5 kPa, and the elevation of the pipe above the
assumed datum is 4.5 m. Compute the total head in meters if the fluid a) water b) oil
(sg = 0.80).
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5. In the figure shown, with 15 liters/sec of water flowing from 1 to 2, the pressure at 1
is 100 kPa and at 2 is 70 kPa. Compute the loss of head between 1 and 2.

300 mm 1 2 100 mm

Q = 0.015 m3/s

6. In the figure shown, a 50 mm pipeline leads downhill from a reservoir and discharges
into air. If the loss of head between A and B is 43.5 m, compute the discharge.

A
El. =45m

50 mm dia

B
El. =0 m
jet
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3 Feedback to Practice Tasks

1. A flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or
intersect. With this type of flow in conduits having parallel sides the path lines are
parallel. The velocities in the various path lines are not the same, however, but
increase with the distance from the wells of the conduit. On the other hand, in
turbulent flow its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross each other
and form a complicated network which the aggregate represents the forward motion
of the entire stream. The particles of a stream flowing with turbulent motion occupy
successively various transverse positions without any regularity, and their path are
neither parallel nor fixed.
2. A steady flow is one in which all conditions at any point in a stream remain constant
with respect to time, but the conditions may be different at different points. While a
uniform flow is one in which the velocity is the same in both magnitude and direction
at a given instant at every point in the fluid. In other words, steady flow involves
permanency of conditions at any particular cross section, whereas uniform flow
implies simultaneous uniformity of conditions at successive cross sections.
3. Three forms of energy considered in fluid flow are:
a. Kinetic energy
b. Potential energy
c. Pressure energy
4. A fluid is flowing in a pipe 200 mm in diameter with a mean velocity of 3 m/s. The
pressure at the center of the pipe is 34.5 kPa, and the elevation of the pipe above the
assumed datum is 4.5 m. Compute the total head in meters if the fluid a) water b) oil
(sg = 0.80).
Given:
D = 200 mm
V = 3 m/s
P = 34.5 kPa
Z = 4.5 m
Required: E
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Solution:
a) Water
V2 P
E= + +Z
2g w
(3) 2 34.5
E= + + 4.5
2(9.81) 9.81
E = 8.48 m
b) Oil (sg = 0.80)
V2 P
E= + +Z
2g w
(3) 2 34.5
E= + + 4.5
2(9.81) (9.81)(0.80)
E = 9.38 m

5. In the figure shown, with 15 liters/sec of water flowing from 1 to 2, the pressure at 1
is 100 kPa and at 2 is 70 kPa. Compute the loss of head between 1 and 2.

1 2 100 mm

Q = 0.015 m3/s

Solution:
Q = A1V1
π
Q= D 2V1
4
4Q
V1 =
π D2
4(0.015)
V1 =
π (0.3) 2
V1 = 0.212 m / s
Similarly,
4(0.015)
V2 =
π (0.1) 2
V2 = 1.910 m / s
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From Bernoulli’s equation,
2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L
2g w 2g w
(0.212) 2 100 (1.910) 2 70
+ +0= + + 0 + HL
2(9.81) 9.81 2(9.81) 9.81
H L = 2.874 m
6. In the figure shown, a 50 mm pipeline leads downhill from a reservoir and discharges
into air. If the loss of head between A and B is 43.5 m, compute the discharge.
A
El. =45m

50 mm dia

B
El. =0 m
jet

Solution:
2 2
VA P V P
+ A + ZA = B + B + ZB + HL
2g w 2g w
2
VB
0 + 0 + 45 = + 0 + 0 + 43.5
2(9.81)
2
VB
= 1 .5
2(9.81)
V B = 5.425 m / s
Solving for the discharge, Q
Q = AV
π
Q= D 2V
4
π
Q= (0.050) 2 (5.425)
4
Q = 0.011 m 3 / s
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Inputs
Venturi meter
This instrument is used for measuring the discharge through pipes. A venturi meter
set in an inclined position is illustrated in Figure 4.7. It consists of a short converging tube
BC, connected to the approach pipe at the inlet end B, and ending in a cylindrical section CD,
called the throat.
Let V1, P1, and Z1, represent the mean velocity, pressure and elevation, respectively at
point 1 in the inlet. Also let V1, P1, and Z1 represent the corresponding quantities at point 2 in
the throat. Writing the energy equation between point 1 and 2, neglecting friction, and
assuming uniform distribution of velocity in each cross section.
2 2
V1 P V P
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 (4.13)
2g w 2g w
Transposing,

⎛P ⎞ ⎛P ⎞
2 2
V2 V
− 1 = ⎜ 1 + Z1 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 + Z 2 ⎟ (4.14)
2g 2g ⎝ w ⎠ ⎝w ⎠
Figure 4.7. Venturi meter

This equation shows that the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in
potential energy.
With the decrease in potential head known, the only unknown terms are
2 2
V1 V
and 2 . The velocity heads are related, however, by the equation of continuity, Q=AV.
2g 2g
That is,
Q1 = Q2
A 1 V1 = A 2 V2
π 2 π
D1 V1 = D 2 V2
4 4
2
⎛D ⎞
V2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ V1
⎝ D2 ⎠
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1
Thus, squaring and multiplying both sides by , we have
2g
4
V2
2
⎛D ⎞ V2
= ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ x 1 (4.15)
2g ⎝ D 2 ⎠ 2g

Q
Thus, for a given Q, V varies inversely as A (i.e., V = ). With circular cross sections, A
A
varies directly as the square of the diameter D. Therefore V varies inversely as D2, and the
V2
velocity head varies inversely as the fourth power of the diameter D as derived in
2g
equation 4.15.
By combining equations 4.14 and 4.15, the velocity head at either 1 or 2 and the
corresponding velocity canbe computed. With the area known, the theoretical flow, Qt, can
be computed. This Qt is the flow computed neglecting the head loss between the inlet and
throat. To compute for the actual flow, a factor C called the meter coefficient is multiplied to
the theoretical flow. That is,
Q = CQ t
where:
Q = is the actual flow, m3/s
Qt = is the theoretical flow, m3/s
C = meter coefficient which varies from 0.96 to 0.98 depending on the discharge of
the meter and by the roughness of its inner surface.

Illustrative problem
Venturi meter having a diameter of 150 mm at the throat is installed in a horizontal
450 mm water main. In a differential gage partly filled with mercury( the remainder of the
tube being filled with water) and connected with the meter at the inlet and throat, the mercury
column stand 375 mm higher in one leg than on the other. What is the discharge through the
meter in cubic meter per second: (a) neglecting friction; (b) if the loss of head between inlet
and throat is 300 mm of water? Compute meter coefficient in (b).
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Solution:
a) neglecting head loss between point 1 and 2
Writing the energy equation between point 1 and 2, we have
V12 P1 V2 P
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L
2g w 2g w
V12 P1 V22 P2
+ +0= + +0+0
2g w 2g w
2
V12 V2 P P
− = 2 − 1 (1)
2g 2g w w
Also writing the pressure difference equation as measured by the manometer, we have
P2 P1
= + y + 0.375 − 0.375(13.6) − y
w w
P2 P1
− = −4.725 m of water (2)
w w
Since the discharge is the same at point 1 and 2, we can apply the continuity equation
Q1 = Q2
A1V1 = A2 V2
π 2 π 2
D1 V1 = D 2 V2
4 4
π π
(0.45) 2 V1 = (0.15) 2 V2
4 4
V1 = 0.111V2 (3)
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Now let us substitute equation (3) in (1) and then equate the result in (2)
2
(0.111V2 ) 2 V2
− = −4.725
2g 2g
− 0.9877 V2
2

= −4.725
2(9.81)
V2 = 9.688 m / s
Solving for the theoretical discharge, Qt
Q t = A 2 V2
π
Qt = (0.15m) 2 (9.688m / s)
4
Q t = 0.171 m 3 / s
b) Considering head loss between the inlet and throat, we write the energy equation between
point 1 and 2 as
V12 P1 V2 P
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L
2g w 2g w
V12 P1 V22 P2
+ +0= + + 0 + 0.30
2g w 2g w
2
V12 V2 P P
− = 2 − 1 + 0.30 (1.1)
2g 2g w w
Substituting equation (3) in (1.1) and then equate the result in (2), we have
2
(0.111V2 ) 2 V2
− = −4.725 + 0.30
2g 2g
− 0.9877V2
2

= −4.425
2(9.81)
V2 = 9.376 m / s
Solving for the actual discharge, Q
Q = A 2 V2
π
Q= (0.15m) 2 (9.376 / s)
4
Q = 0.166 m 3 / s
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c) Solving for the meter coefficient
Q
C=
Qt
0.166 m 3 / s
C=
0.171 m 3 / s
C = 0.969
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$ Practice Tasks
Solve the following problems completely.
1. A venturi meter having a diameter of 150 mm at the throat is installed in a horizontal
300 mm water main. In a differential gage partly filled with mercury (the remainder
of the tube being filled with water) and connected with the meter at the inlet and at
the throat, what would be the difference in level of the mercury columns if the
discharge is 150 liters/sec? Neglect loss of head.

2. A 76 mm by 38 mm Venturi meter is installed in 1 76 mm pipe to measure the flow

of oil (sg = 0.825). A differential gage connected with the inlet and throat contains
water in the lower part of the tube, the remainder of the tube being filled with oil. The
difference “Z” in height of water columns in the two legs of the tube is 550 mm. If
the coefficient of the meter is 0.957, compute the discharge.

3. A 300 mm by 150 mm Venturi meter is installed in a vertical pipeline carrying water

as shown in the figure. The flow is upward through the meter. A differential
manometer containing carbon tetrachloride (sg = 1.50) is attached to inlet and throat,
the difference Z in gage levels being 750 mm. Neglecting loss of head, write the
energy equation from inlet to throat of meter. Also write step-by-step equation of
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differential gage between inlet and throat of meter, and combine the two equations to
compute the discharge.
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3 Feedback to Practice Tasks

1. A venturi meter having a diameter of 150 mm at the throat is installed in a horizontal
300 mm water main. In a differential gage partly filled with mercury (the remainder
of the tube being filled with water) and connected with the meter at the inlet and at
the throat, what would be the difference in level of the mercury columns if the
discharge is 150 liters/sec? Neglect loss of head.

Solution:
From continuity equation,
Q = A1 V1 = A 2 V2
Solving the velocity of flow at point 1
π 2
Q= D1 V1
4
4Q
V1 =
π D1
2

4(0.150 m 3 / s)
V1 =
π (0.30 m) 2
2
V1
V1 = 2.122 m / s and = 0.23 m
2g
Solving the velocity of flow at point 2
π 2
Q= D 2 V2
4
4Q
V2 =
π D2
2

4(0.150 m 3 / s)
V2 =
π (0..15 m) 2
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2
V2
V2 = 8.488 m / s and = 3.67 m
2g
Writing the energy equation between point 1 and 2, we have
V12 P1 V22 P2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + H L
2g w 2g w
P P
0.23 + 1 + 0 = 3.67 + 2 + 0 + 0
w w
P1 P2
− = 3.44 m (1)
w w
Also, writing the pressure head difference as measured by the manometer, we have
P1 P2
= + y + h (13.6) − h − y
w w
P1 P2
− = 12.6 h (2)
w w
Equating equation (1) and (2), we have
12.6 h = 3.44
h = 0.273 m
or h = 273 mm ans.

2. A 76 mm by 38 mm Venturi meter is installed in 1 76 mm pipe to measure the flow

of oil (sg = 0.825). A differential gage connected with the inlet and throat contains
water in the lower part of the tube, the remainder of the tube being filled with oil. The
difference “Z” in height of water columns in the two legs of the tube is 550 mm. If
the coefficient of the meter is 0.957, compute the discharge.
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Solution:
Writing the equation between the inlet and throat, we have
V12 P1 V2 P
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L
2g w 2g w
V12 P1 V2 P
+ +0 = 2 + 2 +0+0
2g w 2g w
2
P1 P2 V22 V1
− = − (1)
w w 2g 2g
Also, writing the pressure head difference between point and 2 as measured by the
differential manometer, we have
P1 P2 0.550
= +y+ − 0.550 − y
w w 0.852
P1 P2
− = 0.0955 m (2)
w w
From continuity equation, we have
Q1 = Q 2
π 2 π 2
D1 V1 = D 2 V2
4 4
π π
(0.076) 2 V1 = (0.038) 2 V2
4 4
V1 = 0.25V2 (3)
Substituting equation (3) in (1) and then equating the result in (2),we have
2
V2 (0.25V2 ) 2
− = 0.0955
2g 2g
2
0.9375 V2
= 0.0955
2g
2
0.9375 V2
= 0.0955
2(9.81)
(0.0955)(2)(9.81)
V2 =
0.9375
V2 = 1.414 m / s
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Solving for the theoretical discharge, Qt
Q t = Q 2 = A 2 V2
π
Qt = (0.038m) 2 (1.414 m / s)
4
Q t = 0.0016 m 3 / s
Solving the for the actual discharge of the pipe, Qa
Qa
C=
Qt
Q a = CQ t
Q a = (0.957)(0.0016 m 3 / s)
Q a = 0.00153 m 3 / s)
or
Qa = 1.53 liters/s

3. A 300 mm by 150 mm Venturi meter is installed in a vertical pipeline carrying water

as shown in the figure. The flow is upward through the meter. A differential
manometer containing carbon tetrachloride (sg = 1.50) is attached to inlet and throat,
the difference Z in gage levels being 750 mm. Neglecting loss of head, write the
energy equation from inlet to throat of meter. Also write step-by-step equation of
differential gage between inlet and throat of meter, and combine the two equations to
compute the discharge.
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Solution:
Writing the equation between the inlet and throat, we have
V12 P1 V2 P
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L
2g w 2g w
V12 P1 V2 P
+ + 0 = 2 + 2 + 0.30 + 0
2g w 2g w
2
P1 P2 V22 V1
− = − + 0.30 (1)
w w 2g 2g
Also, writing the pressure head difference between point and 2 as measured by the
differential manometer, we have
P1 P2
= + 0.30 + y + 0.75(1.50) − 0.75 − y
w w
P1 P2
− = 0.675 m (2)
w w
From continuity equation, we have
Q1 = Q 2
π 2 π 2
D1 V1 = D 2 V2
4 4
π π
(0.30) 2 V1 = (0.15) 2 V2
4 4
V1 = 0.25V2 (3)
Substituting equation (3) in (1) and then equating the result in (2),we have
2
V2 (0.25V2 ) 2
− + 0.30 = 0.675
2g 2g
2
0.9375 V2
= 0.375
2g
2
0.9375 V2
= 0.375
2(9.81)
(0.375)(2)(9.81)
V2 =
0.9375
V2 = 2.80 m / s
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Solving for the actual discharge, Qa
Q a = Q 2 = A 2 V2
π
Qa = (0.15 m) 2 (2.80 m / s)
4
Q a = 0.0495 m 3 / s
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UNIT 5
Fluid Flow Measurement

Introduction
Both engineers and the scientific investigator are often faced with the problem of
measuring various fluid properties such as density, viscosity, and surface tension. Also,
measurements are often required of various fluid phenomena, as pressure, velocity, and
flow rate. In this unit only the principles and theory of such measurements will be
discussed. The orifice and weirs will be given emphasis here for practicing engineers to
measure fluid flow commonly uses them.

’ OBJECTIVES
GENERAL OBJECTIVES: Know the different types of fluid flow measuring
instruments, their characteristics and governing principles
and apply them in measuring various types of fluid flow.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. Discuss the principle governing orifice and weirs.
2. Discuss the different types of weirs.
3. Apply these principles in solving various fluid flow
problems.
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Inputs
Among the devices used for the measurement of discharge are orifices and weirs.

Orifices
An orifice is an opening (usually circular) in the wall of a tank or in a plate
normal to the axis of a pipe, the plate being either at the end of the pipe or in some
intermediate location. An orifice is characterized by the fact that the thickness of the wall
or plate is very small relative to the size of the opening. A standard orifice is one with a
sharp edge as shown in Fig 5.1a or an absolutely square shoulder as in Fig 5.1b so that
there is only a line contact with the fluid. Those shown in Fig 5.1c and d are not standard
because of the flow through them is affected by the thickness of the plate, the roughness
of the surface, and for (d) the radius of curvature.

Cc⊄0.6 Cc⊄0.6 Cc⊄1.0 Cc⊄1.0

2 2 0 0
Cv⊄0.9 Cv⊄0.9 Cv⊄0.8 Cv⊄0.9
8 8 6 8

Fig 5.1 Orifice (a) sharp-edge (b) square shoulder

(c) thick-plate square-edge (d) rounded.

Jet Contraction
Where the streamlines converge in approaching an orifice, as shown in Fig 5.2,
they continue to converge beyond the upstream section of the orifice until they reach the
section xy where they become parallel. Commonly this section is about 0.5 Do from the
upstream edge of the opening, where Do is the diameter of the orifice. The section xy is
then a section of minimum area and is called the vena contracta. Beyond the vena
contracta the streamlines commonly diverge because of frictional effects.
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Figure 5.2. Jet contraction

Jet velocity and Pressure
Jet velocity is defined as the average velocity at the vena contracta in Fig 5.1a
and b and at the downstream edge of the orifices in Fig 5.1 c and d. The velocity at these
sections is practically constant across the section except for a small annular region around
the outside (Fig 5.3b). In all four of the jets of Fig 5.1 the pressure is practically constant
across the diameter of the jet wherever the streamlines are parallel, and this pressure must
be equal to that in the medium surrounding the jet at that section. At sections mn in Fig
5.1 where the streamlines are curved, the effective cross-sectional area of the flow (at
right angles to streamlines) is greater than at the minimum section and hence, the average
velocities at sections mn are considerably less than the jet velocities. The same is true of
section aob of Fig 5.2. In Fig 5.3a the velocity and pressure distributions at section aob of
Fig 5.2 are shown. These variations arethe result of the curvature of the streamlines and
centrifugal effects.

Figure 5.3. Pressure and velocity variation in jet. (a) At

section aob of Fig. 5.2. (b) At vena contracta
(section xy) in Fig. 5.2.

Coefficient of Contraction Cc
The ration of the are A of a jet (Fig 5.1),to the area Ao of the orifice or other
opening, is called the coefficient of contraction. Thus A= Cc Ao.
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Coefficient of Velocity Cv
The velocity that would be attained in the jet if friction did not exist may be
termed the ideal velocity Vi. It is practically the value of uc in Fig 5.3. Because of friction
the actual average velocity V is less than the ideal velocity, and the ratio V/Vi is called
the coefficient of velocity. Thus V = Cv Vi.

Coefficient of Discharge Cd
The ratio of the actual rate of discharge Q to the ideal rate of discharge Qi (the
flow that would occur if there were no friction and no contraction) is defined as the
coefficient of discharge. Thus Q = Cd Qi. By observing that Q= AV and Qi = AoVI, it is
seen that Cd = Cc Cv.

Head Loss
The relationship between the head loss and the coefficient of velocity of an orifice
may be found by comparing the ideal energy equation with the actual (or real) energy
equation between points 1 and 2 in Fig 5.4.

Cc ⊄ 0.94
Cv ⊄ 0.98

Figure 5.4. Conical Nozzle

The ideal energy equation is

2 2
P1 V1 P V
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + 2
w 2g w 2g
In the case of a free jet, P2 = 0 while for the most general case of a submerged jet P2 ≠ 0.
From continuity A1 V1 = A 2 V2 , hence we can write
2
P ⎛A ⎞ V2 2 2
P V
Z1 + 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = Z2 + 2 + 2
w ⎝ A1 ⎠ 2g w 2g
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which leads to

1 ⎡⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞⎤
(V2 ) ideal = 2g ⎢⎜ Z1 + 1 ⎟ − ⎜ Z 2 + 2 ⎟⎥ (5.1)
1 − (A 2 / A1 ) 2
⎣⎝ w⎠ ⎝ w ⎠⎦

The real energy equation accounts for head loss and is expressed as
2 2
P V P V
Z1 + 1 + 1 − H L1− 2 = Z 2 + 2 + 2
w 2g w 2g
which leads to

1 ⎡⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎤
(V2 ) actual = 2g ⎢⎜ Z1 + 1 ⎟ − ⎜ Z 2 + 2 ⎟ − H L1− 2 ⎥ (5.2)
1 − (A 2 / A1 ) 2 ⎣⎝ w⎠ ⎝ w⎠ ⎦

Remembering that Vactual = Cv Videal, and combining this with the above expressions for
Videal and Vactual gives

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ A 2 ⎞ ⎤ V2 2
2

H L1− 2 = ⎜⎜ 2 − 1⎟⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ (5.3)

⎝ v
C ⎠⎣⎢ ⎝ A 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2g

This equation is perfectly general; it expresses the head loss between a section upstream
of an orifice and the jet (section A in Fig 5.1) or between section 1 and 2 in Fig. 5.4. If the
orifice or nozzle takes off directly from a tank where A1πA2, then the velocity of
approach is negligible and equation (5.3) reduces to
⎛ 1 ⎞V 2
H L1− 2 = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ 2 (5.4)
⎝ Cv ⎠ 2g

Submerged Jet
For the case of a submerged jet, as shown in Figure 5.5, the ideal energy equation
is written between 1 and 2, realizing that the pressure head on the jet at 2 is equal to h3.
Thus
2
V
h1 = h 3 + i
2g
Vi = 2g (h 1 − h 3 ) = 2g (∆H )
where:
Vi = is the ideal velocity at the vena contracta of the submerged jet
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<H = is the net head differential expressed in

terms of the flowing liquid
Hence, the actual liquid flow is
Q = C c C v A o 2g(∆H)
where:
Q = is the actual flow, m3/s
Cc = is the meter coefficient
Figure 5.5. Submerged jet
Cv = velocity coefficient
Ao = is the cross sectional area of the orifice, m2
g = gravitational acceleration equal to 9.81 m/s2
For a submerged orifice the coefficient is practically the same as for a free jet,
except that, for heads less than 3 m and for very small openings, the discharge coefficient
may be slightly less. It is of interest to observe that, if the energy equation is written
between 1 and 3, the result is h L1− 3 = h 1 − h 3 = ∆H . Actually, head loss in this case is that

of equation (5.4) plus that of a submerged discharge. Hence, for submerged orifice
⎛ 1 ⎞ V2 2 V2 2
h L1− 3 = ⎜⎜ 2 − 1⎟⎟ + and V2 = CvVi
⎝ Cv ⎠ 2g 2g

where:
V2 = is the velocity at the vena contracta

Illustrative problem
A 5 cm circular orifice (not standard) at the end of a 7.5 cm diameter pipe
discharges into the atmosphere a measured flow of 17 L/s of water when the pressure in
the pipe is 70 kPa. The jet velocity is determined by a pitot tube to be 12 m/s. Find the
values of the coefficients Cv, Cc, Cd. Find also the head loss for inlet to throat.
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Solution:
Let us define the inlet as section 1 and the throat as section 2. The pressure head at the
inlet is given by
P1 70 kPa
=
w 9.81 kN / m 3
P1
= 7.14 m
w
The velocity at this point is
Q
V1 =
A1
Q
V1 =
π 2
D1
4
17 x 10 −3 m 3 / s
V1 =
π
(0.075m) 2
4
V1 = 3.848 m / s
and the velocity head at this point is
2
V1 (3.848m / s) 2
=
2g 2(9.81 kN / m 3 )
2
V1
= 0.75 m
2g
Express the ideal energy equation from 1 to 2 to determine the ideal velocity at 2
2 2
P1 V1 V
+ = 2
w 2g 2g
2
V2
7.14 + 0.75 =
2g
(V2 ) ideal = 12.44 m / s
The velocity coefficient is therefore computed as
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V 12 m / s
Cv = =
Vi 12.44 m / s
C v = 0.965

Solving for the area of the jet

Q
A2 =
V2
17 x 10 −3 m 3 / s
A2 =
12 m / s
A 2 = 0.001417 m 2
Solving for the coefficient of contraction
A2
Cc =
Ao
0.001417 m 2
Cc =
π
(0.05 m) 2
4
C c = 0.722
Hence, the coefficient of discharge is
Cd = C vCc
C d = (0.965)(0.722)
C d = 0.697
Solving the head loss between point 1 and 3
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⎡ 1 ⎤⎡ ⎛ A ⎤V 2
2
⎞
h L1−3 = ⎢ 2 − 1⎥ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ 2
⎣⎢ C v ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ A 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2g

⎤ ⎡ ⎛ D 2 ⎞ ⎤ V2 2
4
⎡ 1
h L1−3 =⎢ − 1⎥ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2g
2
⎣ (C v )
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎤ V2 2
4
1
h L1−3 =⎢ − 1⎥⎢ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 7.5 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2g
2
⎣ (0.965)
V 2
h L1−3 = 0.059 2
2g
(12) 2
h L1−3 = 0.059
2(9.81)
h L1−3 = 0.433 m
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Glossary of Terms

Fluid. Refers to substances capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and
change their relative position without a separation of the mass.
Unit weight. Refers to the weight of a unit volume of liquid.
Mass Density. Refers to the mass per unit of volume.
Specific gravity. Refers to the ratio of the unit weight of fluid to the unit weight of water
at 4oC.
Viscosity. Refers to the property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance
to shearing stress.
Kinematic viscosity. Refers to the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass
density.
Unit pressure. Refers to the amount of pressure per unit area.
Pascal’s law. States that at any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all
directions.
Pressure head. Refers to the height of a column of homogenous fluid of unit weight that
will produce an intensity of pressure.
Gage pressure. Refers to the pressure measured at atmospheric pressure.
Manometer. Refers to a tube, usually bent in the form of a U, containing a liquid of
known specific gravity, the surface of which move proportionally to changes of
pressure.
Differential manometer. Refers to a manometer which is intended to measure pressure
difference between two points.
Dams. Refers to a structure used to impound water.
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POST TEST

Part I. Each of the following questions below contains four possible answers. Select the
best answer by encircling the letter that corresponds to your choice.
1. It is the weight of a unit volume of liquid
a) unit weight b) mass density c) unit mass d) specific gravity

2. It is the ratio of the unit weight of a fluid to the unit weight of water at 4oC.
a) unit weight b) mass density c) unit mass d) specific gravity

3. It is the mass per unit volume of a liquid.

a) unit weight b) mass density c) unit mass d) specific gravity

4. It is the property of a liquid which determine the amount of its resistance to a

shearing stress.
a) shearing stress b) viscosity c) friction d) bearing stress

5. It is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass density.

a) mass viscosity b) unit viscosity c) kinematic viscosity d) viscosity ratio

6. Any water molecules below the surface is attracted equally by water-to-water

know as force in all sides.
a) cohesive b) adhesive c) attractive d) none of the above

7. A type of binding force that exist between a water molecules to a solid molecule.
a) cohesive b) adhesive c) attractive d) none of the above

8. It is the amount of pressure per unit area.

a) unit pressure b) total pressure c) hydrostatic pressure d) pressure difference

9. A law which states that at any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in
all direction.
a) Pascal b) Archimedes c) Boyles d) Charles
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10. It is the pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure.

a) absolute b) gage c) vacuum d) atmospheric

11. A gage pressure measure below the atmospheric pressure.

a) absolute b) gage c) vacuum d) atmospheric

12. A tube, usually bent in the form of U, containing a liquid of known specific
gravity intended to measure gage pressure.
a) manometer b) piezometer c) differential manometer d) U-tube

13. A manometer used to measure pressure difference.

a) single manometer b) piezometer c) differential manometer d) U-tube

14. The point on the surface at which the resultant hydrostatic pressure acts.
a) center of gravity b) centroid c) center of pressure d) none of the above

15. A structure built for the purpose of impounding water.

a) dam b) canal c) culvert d) tank

Part II. Write T if the statement is true and F if it is false in the space provided for.
1. The total hydrostatic pressure always acts at the center of gravity.
2. Water is lighter than mercury.
3. A good liquid used in manometer must not form a meniscus, that is, adjacent
should mix.
4. The hydrostatic uplift in a dam reduces the stability against sliding.
5. The hydrostatic uplift n a dam increases its stability against overturning.
6. It is possible to have negative absolute pressure in liquids.
7. Gage pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure.
8. Vacuum pressure means it is below the absolute pressure.
9. The hydrostatic pressure at the surface is zero.
10. Hydrostatic pressure decreases with increasing water depth.
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Part III. Solve the following problems completely.

1. In the figure shown, fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury( sg = 13.6), fluid C is
calcium chloride (sg=1.25).Compute the pressure difference between A and B.

1.5m
Fluid A

A
0.45m
Fluid A
0.60m
0.45m

Fluid C Fluid B

2. A rectangular gate (3m x 4m) is inclined at an angle of 45o. Sea water (sg=1.02)
stands on one side of the gate to a height of 10 meters above the center of the
gate. Determine the total pressure on the gate and the location of the center of
pressure.