/

AD-A256 324

EI Research and Development Technical Report

CECOM-TR-91-3

Tactical Line-of-Sight Radio

Propagation Reliability

Kenneth H. Brockel, CECOM C3 Systems Directorate

William T. Barnett, Telos Corporation
Kenneth D. Chaney, OPM Mobile Subscriber Equipment '- ".?,
Joseph R. Inserra, CECOM C3 Systems Directorate Le, ,.
Robert J. Locher, OPM Mobile Subscriber Equipment 2 0. 9_2
Francis G. Loso, CECOM C3 Systems Directorate OCT 2 01932
Victor J. Procoplo, CECOM C3 Systems Directorate
Arvids Vigants, Telos Corporation
A

October 1991
Second Printing

r/ion

92 U'~ 9227417~
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENTV
Approved for public release.
Distribution is unlimited.

U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command

Command, Control and Communications Systems Directorate
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey 07703-5203
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NOTICES

Disclaimer m

The findings in this report are not to be construed as an 3

official Department of the Army position, unless so designated by
other authorized documents. 3
The citation of trade names and names of manufacturers in this
report is not to be construed as official Government endorsement i
or approval of commercial products or services referenced herein.

Destruction Notice 1
Destroy this report when it is no longer needed. Do not return
it to the originator.

Second Printing July 1992

This edition corrects typographical errors and terminology.
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 FomnAppn--
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE OMU No.074-188
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Tac1ca 1Lne-f-Sgh Radi Prpgt onReiability ec"Of jrt t

Kenneth H. Brockel, William T. Barnett, Kenneth D. Chaney, =

Joseph R. Inserra, Robert J. Lecher, Francis G. Loso,
Victor J. Proco1io1 Arvids ViRants
4. PIERFOMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADSRESS(ES) 3. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
.S. Army Coimnunications-Electronics Command REPORT NUMnER
Command, Cont-rol and Communications Systems Directorate CECOM-TR-91-3

ATTN: AMSEL-RD-C3-EM (V.J. Procopio)

Fort Monmouth, NJ 07703-5203

9. SPONSORING/IMONITORING AGENCY NAMES) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORNG/MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

12a. DISTRIBUTIONIAVAILABiLITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

Approved for public release.
Distribution is unlimited.

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 wods)

Recent deployment to Southwest Asia (SWA) of tactical Line-of-Sight (LOS) radio links,
such as those used with Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE) and other Tri-Service
Tactical Communications (TRI-TAC) systems, and user feedback indicating time-varying
performance have raised the question of link reliability. The climate encountered in
SWA (desert terrain in proximity to bodies of water) is known to be very difficult
for LOS radio because it causes frequent and large reductions in received signal
strength, referred to as time-varying fading. This report provides predictions of
propagation performance for the systems fielded based on the latest technical litera-
ture and validates them with current information collected from system users. The
conditions that cause time-variant fades on LOS paths are also addressed. Particular
focus will be directed at the tactical environment and the unique challenge that
exists to achieve highly reliable links with the limited antenna gains and terrain
clearances present in the tactical world. This report also addresses future work that
should be accomplished to ensure that LOS operators and planners have the latest data
available to optimize the effectiveness oi their current LOS capability.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGFS

Army Tactical Radio, Propagation, Line-of-Sight Links, Fading, 82
Multipath Fading, Propagation Reliability, Climate Effects 16. PRICE CODE

17. SECURITY CiASSIFICATION 11. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. UMITATION OF ABSTRACT
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT
Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified UL

NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89)

Prr,•urihd by ANSI Std Z39-.1
293- 101
 FOREWORD

The Mission of the LOS ProDagatLon Reliability Workina GrouR

o Enhance Army Tactical Line-of-Sight (LOS) Radio per-

formance.

o Incraase soldiezs' capabilitieE to successfully deploy

-- Tactical LOS Radio ini difficult propagation environ-
ments.

o Assist acquisition managers in fielding highly reliable

transmission systems.

3f Accesion For
NTIS
S(UTIC
CRA&W
1A1
U:i4niaouticed U
J'Jastiicatio -"

By ............. ................
Di~t. ibution

AvailabilitY C,
Distl .C

A-I

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

m This report will focus on Army Tactical Line-of Sight (LOS) Radio
and the significant threat posed by the propagation environment
to highly reliable communications. Anecdotal reports from LOS
operators indicated that large performance-affecting variations
m in received signal strength on many of their radio links were a
daily problem during recent Southwest Asia (SWA) operations. The
climate in SWA is known to be difficuli for LOS radio propagation
because it causes large and frequent reductions in received
signal strength, referred to as time-varying fading. The LOS
Propagation Reliability Working Group was established to investi-
gate the problem of degraded link reliability due to time-varying
fading and other related propagation issues.

A key element of our effort is user feedback from the soldiers.

Data corroborating the existence of significant link propagatiorn
problems and degrdded link reliability were obtained during
visits to the 35th Signal Brigade at Fort Bragg, North Carolina,
and the 57th Signal Battalion at Fort Hood, Texas. Frequency
management issues and the related radio frequency interference
problems were identified. It was evident that the soldiers were
not adequately Lrained with regard to either time-varying propa&
gation or the fragility of digital transmission systems. This,
in part, aggravated the link reliability problems encountered in
SWA. Satisfactory reliability, however, was achieved on the
overall radio network by employing extensive link level redundan-
cies. Due to the success of the overall network, .ifter-action
reports often failed to mention single-link reliability problems.
Such redundancies may not always be feasible in future applica-
tions such as the nonlinear battlefield of AirLand OperaLions
(ALO). The users also identified a need for Mobile Subscriber
Equipment (MSE) link reliabilities much greater than the current
90-percent design point. For single-thread links, a reliability
approaching 100 percent was requested.

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This report baselines the key Army LOS radio specificatinns e•nd
develops the maximi, 1 possible equipment fade margins a• a prelude I
to assessing the envirounmental threat. The operating fade marqin
is defined as the difference in the average receivsd signal power
and that requir(d for operation at a Bit Error Rate of 10-5. N
Tactical frequency ranges ý.nvestigated included the UHF bands of
220 to 400 MHz and 1350 to 1850 MHz and the SHF band of 4.4 to I
5.0 GHz. The evaluation of Army LOS link engineering methods for
MSE found that small and fixed fade margins Gf 4 to 6 dB (Bull-
ington, 1957) are allocated for signal strength variations due to
fading. We find this margin value toc small in view of •urrent 3
LOS link engineering methodology, which includes parameters for
climate, location, fraquency, and path length.

A major contribution of our effort is the development of a multi-

path fading reliability model suitable for Army tatical LOS 3
.eadio. This model accounts for frequency, path length, and
climate, and provides fade margin requirements for any needed
reliability. Application graphs and tables are derived and
provided in this report. This model is primarily based on the
extensive radio systems work done at AT&T Bell Laboratories in
the last 20 years and on results repoited in a recent paper
(Olsen-Segal, 1991). We found, for example, that a radio operat- m
ing at 1600 MHz on a 20-km path in a SWA climate would require an
operating fade margin of 17 dB for 99.9-percent reliability (15
minutes/day of fading outage). At 40 km, the operating fade
margin required would increase to 28 dB. Clearly, high reliabil-
ity IUnks require substantial. fade margins.

The amount of fade margin available for allocation to other I

threats and equipment degradations is the difference in the ideal
maximum fade margin, obtained when all the equipment is working
at its baseline specification with the antennas completely unob-
structed by hills or trees, and the required fade margin. A

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 value of 0 dB fo1 the available fade margin determines the maxi-
mum possible path length for a given reliability requirement.
For 99.9-percent link reliability and a difficult propagation
climate such as SWA, the maximum possible link path lengths range
from 35 to 45 km for the radios considured. These results indi-
cate that the radios have the capability to meet their applica-
I tion requirements, but only if the required fade margins are
realized in practice. This capability may be diminished by such
effects as misaligned antennas or reduced link clearance, which
can easily cost 10 dB or more of margin. For example, a net 3 dB
3 of degradation would reduce the maximum path lengths by about 5
km.

Our principal conclusion is that the environmental threat imposed

by propagation may cause significant degradation in the reliabil-
ity of Army Tactical LOS Radio Systems as presently engineered
and operated. The propagation threat appears to be at least as
serious as the interference noise threat since the latter can be
equated to a loss in fade margin. We also conclude that setup
and operation at a BER of 10-5 gives a false sense of security.
This follows from the likelihood of fading, the fragility of
digital transmission systems, and the inadequacy of the opera-
tors' training regarding fading.

Our main recommendations are that the link engineering tools and
methodology be modified to provide predicted link reliabilities
for proposed links using fade margins developed in this report,
that e reliability requirement of 99.9 percent be adopted for
single-thread and special services links, and that operating and
planning personnel be trained regarding fading. We also recom-
mend a continuing work program focused on other known propagation
issues, including the occurrence and effects of ducting and the
impact of Radio-Frequency (RF) interference on link fade margins.
* A principal issue for Tactical Radio is the increase in fading
for reduced terrain clearances that are smaller than the free-
space clearances assumed in the model utilized in this report.

* -
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ACKNOWLEDQMNTS

This work program was initiated by A. W. Madnick of the Office of

the Project Manager (OPM), Mobile Subscriber Equipment. The I
continuing support of the PM MSE organization was essential to
this work program. We appreciate tha cooperation and contribu-
tions of the personnel of the 35th Signal Brigade at Fort Bragg
and the 57th Signal Battalion at Fort Hood. The availability of
a pre-publication release if the Olsen-Segal paper (1991) and
discussions with R.L. Olsen were invaluable. The DCEC (1990)
publication maide available by D.R. Smith of the Defense Communi-
cations Engineering Center was helpful.

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 TABLE OF CCLUTNTS

FOREWORD ........................................... .
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................ .. ... vi

1. INTRODUCTION ..................... . . . . . . . . . . I

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ..................................... 1

3. TACTICAL LOS RADIO .................. DIO... 4

3.1 Applications ..................................... ...... 4
3.2 Description .................................... 6
3.3 LOS Radio Fade Margins ......................... 10

4. USER FEEDBACK AND USER NEEDS .......................... 10

4.1 Background ...................................... . 10
4.2 Site Visits .................. .................. 12

5. PROPAGATION 14ETHODOLOGY ............................... 15

5.1 Background ..................................... 15
5.2 Multipath Fading Description ................... 18
5.3 General Multipath Fading Model
for Received Power ........................... 24

3 6. RESULTS .......................................
6.1 Fade Margins ..................................
. 30
30
6.2 Maximum Link Path Lengths and
Available Fade Margin ........................ 36

7. CONCLUSIONS ............................................. 39

8. RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 41

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'IBLE OF COWT S (Continued) I

9. FUTURE WORK .............. 'so*.................... ..... . 42

9.1 Near Term ........... 0.........ý%.................. 42
9 .2 Long Term ...................................... 44 !

10. REIFERENCES ..................... q....................... 44i

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APPENDIX As GRAPHS OF PROBABILITY OF FADING AND REQUIRED
FADE MARGINS ................ ....... .. *....... A-I
APPENDIX Bs LIST OF ACRONYMS .......................... B-1

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 LIST Or FIIRRES

2-1 Multipath Fading: Destructive Interference

of Multiple Rays ............................. 3
3-1 Typical Multichannel Communication System...... 5
3-2 Theoretical Non-Coherent Frequincy-Shift-
Keying Radio Performance ..................... 9
4-1 Radio Problems Identified from Fort Bragg and
Fort Hood Visits ...................... . ...... 14
5-1 Refractivity Gradient Distribution (Illustra-
tive Example) ................................ 20
5-2 Statistical Description of Deep Multipath
Fading ......................... .............. 23
5-3 Geographic Variability of Propagation
Conditions (Qualitative Example) ............. 25
3 6-1 Ideal Available Fade Margin (99.9 Percent
Reliability, Difficult Climate) .............. 38

SA-LA Probability of Fading (300 MHa, Average

Climette) ..................................... A-2
m A-1B Required Fade Margin (300 M3z, Average
Climate) ......................... ............ A-3
A-2A Probability of Fading (300 MHz, Difficult
Climate) . ............................. ........... A-4
A-2B Required Fade Margin (300 MHz, Difficult
Climate) ..................................... A-5
A-3A Probability of Fading (300 MHz, Very Difficult
Climate) ......... A-6
A-3B Required Fade Margin (300 MHz, Very Difficult
mClimate) .................................... o. A-7

A-4A Probability of Fading (1600 MHz, Average

Climate) ..................................... A-b
A-4B Required Fade Margin (1600 MHz, Average
Climate) ..................................... A-9

! LZ
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LIST OF VIOMI3W (Ctat-Imd) 1
A-SA Probability of Fading (1600 MUz, Difficult
Climate) ..................................... -10I
A-5B Raquirbd Fade Margin (1600 MHz, Difficult
climLate) ............ . . .. . . ............. A-11m

A-6A Probability of Fading (1600 MHUz, Very

Difficult. Clim'ate) ...... ............... A-12m
A-6B Required Fade Margin (1600 MOz, Very Difficult
Climate) ...................................... A-13m
A-7A Probability of Fading (4750 kNiz, Average
climate) ..................................... A-14

A-70 Required Fade Margin (4750 MHz,

Climate) .....................................
Average
A-15
m
A-BA Probability of Fading (,!?%0 MHz, Difficult 3
Climate) ....................... .............. A-16
A-8B Requiived Fade Margin (4750 14Hz, Difficult
Cl imate) ..................................... A-17
A-9A Probability of Fading (4750 Mlz, Very
Difficult Climate) .......................... A-18 I
A-9B Required Fade Margin (4750 MHz, Very Difficuit
Climate) ..................................... A-19mI

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 LIST OF TBLES

ITable Til
__

3-1 Radio Parameters .............................. 7

U3-2 LOS Radio Fade Margins for ideal Free Space
Tr."ansmission .................... 1
6-1 Fade Margins Required for Multipath Fading
(300 MHz) ................. 31
6-2 Fade Margins Required for Multipath Fading
(1600 MHz) . ........... 32
6-3 Fade Margins Required for Multipath Fading
(4750 MHz) ................................... 33
6-4 Fade Margins Required
(Difficult Climate) ......... for Multipath Fading
09............... 34

6-5 LOS Radio Maximum Path Lengths for Optimum

Conditions and Free Space Path Loss .......... 37

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 1. INUTBOCTION

Recent deployment to Southwest Asia (SWA)* of tactical Line-of-

Sight (LOS) radio links, such as those used with Mobile Subscrib-
er Equipment (MSE) and other Tri-Service Tactical Communications
(TRI-TAC) systems, and user feedback indicating time-varying
performance have raised the question of link reliability. The
climate encountered in SWA (desert terrain in proximity to bodies
of water) is known to be very difficult for LOS radio because it
causes frequent and large reductions in received signal strength,
referred to as time-varying fading. This report provides predic-
tions of propagation performance for the systems fieieed based on
the latest technical literature and validates them with current
information collected from system users. The conditions that
cause time-variant fades on LOS paths are also addressed. Par-
ticular focus will be directed at the tactical environment and
the unique challenge that exists to achieve highly reliable links
with the limited antenna gains and texrain clearances present in
the tactical world. This report also addresses future work that
should be accomplished to ensure that LOS operators and planners
have the latest data available to optimize the effectiveness of
their current LOS capability.

2. PRODLU ST&ZA2MUn

LOS propagation reliability at UHF is affected by signal strength

variations due to multipath transmission and/or bending of the
beam emitted by the antenna due to abnormal variations of refrac-
tive index with height in the lower atmosphere.

*A list of acronyms is provided as Appendix B.

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At frequencies below about 8 GHz and on paths having adequate
clearance, time-varying fading on LOS paths is generally of two
main types: (1) atmospheric multipath, which occurs relatively
rapidly and is caused by interference between two or more re-
fracted rays arriving at the receiving antenna by different
paths, and (2) reflection multipath, which occurs less rapidly
and is due to interference between direct and ground-reflected
rays (see Figure 2-1). The two types of multipath fading can be
present at the same time. In general, the number of fades per
unit time due to atmospheric multipath increases with path
length.

In terms of occurrence on a single link, multipath propagation is

the prevalent cause of degraded transmission reliability result-
ing from anomalous atmospheric structures. This is why multipath
fading is considered in this report. Future work will include
investigation of the effects of ducting, obstruction fading, and
multipath fading on links where terrain clearance is small, and 3
the integration of models for these effects with the current
long-term transmission-loss model.

The evaluation of Army LOS link engineering methods for MSE

showed that small fade margins of 4 to 6 dB are used to accommo- m
date multipath fading. This fixed margin (Bullington, 1957) was
to provide for a link reliability of 90 percent for average
climatic conditions. We find this margin to be too small for
difficult propagation environments and outdated in view of cur-
rent LOS link engineering methodology, which includes parameters
for climate, location, terrain, and path length. The minimum
link availability of 90 percent is deemed low, especially for MSE
SEN radio links, since they are single links with no alternate
routing capability. Additionally, the Signal School has noted a
requirement for high-reliability links for the Tactical Fire

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Transmitter Antenna Reflected ray Receiver Antenna

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I3 FSurface of the earth

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Figure 2-1. Multipath Fading: Destructive Interference of Multiple Rays
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Direction System (TACFIRE) and other Battlefield Functional Area
(BFA) data links based on field experience in SWA (Mims-Hamilton,
1991).

A major focus of this effort is to review currently available I

literature/data on fading and its relation to the current and
proposed fielding of LOS radios and planning tools. Variables 3
that affect the severity of fading, such as frequency, path
length, atmospheric conditions, and terrain, will be investigat-
ed. Solutions to minimize the effects of fading will also be
investigated and recommended. The tactical frequency ranges to
be investigated include the UHF bands of 225 to 400 MHz and 1350
to 1850 MHL and the SHF band of 4.4 to 5.0 GHz.

3. TAMICAL LOG RADIO

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3.1 APPLICATIONS

Army tactical LOS radio communications systems are used for two
applications: (1) Corps and Division (down to Brigade level) and
(2) Echelons Above Corps (EAC). Corps and Division requirements I
are satisfied with the MSE system; EAC uses the TRI-TAC system.
A typical slice of the MSE system is shown in Figure 3-1. All
internodal (Node Center [NC] or backbone and extension links to
LENs and SENs) operate in the UHF frequency bands of 225 to 400
MHz and 1350 to 1850 MHz of the AN/GRC-226 Radio Set.

In EAC, internodal communication links operate in the 4.4-to-5.0 I

GHz frequency band of the AN/GRC-144 and its replacement, the
AN/GRC-222. The oxtension links operate in the 1350-to-1850 MHz m
and 220-to-405 MHz frequency bands, which are provided by the
AN/GRC-103 Radio Set. m

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3.2 D•KORPIOm

The following LOS radios are used in the Army for tactical commu-
nicationsm

a. Corps and Division areas

(1) AN/GRC-226: UHF radio used in the 1SE AN/TRC-

190(V) radio assemblages to provide the backbone
and extension LOS multichannel communications
links. The AN/GRC-226 is designed to provide a
nominal 25-km link and operate in the 225-to-400
MHz and 1350-to-1850 MHz frequency bands. Techni-
cal characteristics are listed in Table 3-1.

(2) AN/GRC-103: UHF radio used in the Army Tactical

Communications System (ATACS) AN/TRC-113, 145,
151, and 152 radio assemblages (to be replaced by
MSE) to provide all backbone multichannel communi-
cation links. The AN/GRC-103 was designed to
provide nominal 48-km links and operate in the
220-to-405 MHz (Band I) and 1350-to-1850 MHz (Band
IV) frequency bands. Technical characteristics i
are listed in Table 3-1. Band IV of the AN/GRC-
103 is also used in the TRI-TAC extension links
(see below) to provide a nominal 4 8-km planning
range.

b. EAC

(1) AN/GRC-144: SHF radio used in the TRI-TAC

AN/TRC-138 radio assemblage to provide high-capac-
ity LOS multichannel communication links for
interconnection of nodes in EAC operating in the
4.4-to-5.0 GHz frequency band with a nominal
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planning range of 40 km. Technical characteris-
tics are listed in Table 3-1.

(2) ANIGRC-2221 SHF Radio designed to replace the

AN/GRC-144, which also operates in the 4.4-to-5.0
GHz frequency band. Technical characteristics are
listed in Table 3-1.

The UHF radios listed above and the AN/GRC-144 utilize Non-
Coherent Frequency Shift Keying (NC-FSK) type modulation. A
theoretical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) versus Bit Error Rate
(BER) curve describing NC-FSK is shown in Figure 3-2 with a
corresponding table of values. As can be seen from the table,
the difference in SNR values between BERs of 10-5 and 10-3 is 2.4
dB (a BER of 10-3 is assumed to be the largest BER acceptable for
all digital service modes; a BER of 10-5 is assumed to be the
minimum BER acceptable for data transmission). The AN/GRC-222
utilizes four-'evel coherent phase shift keying which has about
0.4 dB better performance than binary noncoherent FSK.

Figure 3-2 clearly illustrates the fragility of digital transmis- I

sion systems. The SNR difference in dB between unacceptable
performance for any service (BER of 10-3) and acceptable perform-
ance for, say, data (BER of 10-5) is only 2.4 dB. Time varia-
tions in received signal power due to fading can and will often
exceed 2.4 dB, hence the recommendation for adequate operating
fade margin. The latter is defined as the difference between the
average received signal power and that for a BER of 10-5. When a
radio system is installed, it is important for the operators to
realize that obtaining/maintaining a received signal strength
that gives a BER between 10-5 and 10-10 is not sufficient to
ensure satisfactory performance when the inevitable fading oc-
curs.
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3.3 LOS RADIO FADE MARGINS

Table 3-2 provides the maximum possible fade margins for a 40-km
unobstructed link for the AN/GRC-226 operating in Bands I and
III, and for the AN/GRC-222 and AN/GRC-144 Radio Sets. These
margins were calculated from the radio parameters given in Table
3-1. Fade margin values are shown for the low-, mid-, and high-
frequency values of each band. For example, for Band I these
values are 225, 300, and 400 MHz; for Band III, 1350, 1600, and I
1850 MHz; and for the SHF Band, 4400, 4750, and 5000 MHz. The
calculation is based on free space loss given by note 5, and does
not consider difficult propagation environments o: inadequate
Fresnel zone clearance. It should be noted that the nominal path 3
length for which the AN/GRC-226 is intended is 25 km rather than
40 km. At 25 km, the AN/GRC-226 Band I and Band III fade margin
will be 4 dB greater than the values shown for 40 km.

The maximum fade margins of Table 3-2 do not include the effects
of radio interference of various kinds. When interference is
present, the fade margin will be reduced in proportion to the
equivalent noise increase caused by the interference. For exam-
ple, a 30-dB reduction in SNR due to interference noise is equiv-
alent to a 30-dB reduction in fade margin. Alternatively, a 30-
dB fade has the same effect as a 30-dB noise-caused degradation.
Thus intereference noise and fading are both threats to radio
system reliability.

4.* UME FMMNN AM USER NEEDS

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4.1 5AK 1L 1

Initial anecdotal reports from LOS operators indicated that LOS 1

signal fading was a daily problem during recent SWA operations.
This was supported by a lessons-learned report from PATRIOT task I
force 2/1 ADA. This report stated "Propagation problems were a
daily problem through the entire deployment; however, it would

-10-
 Table 3-2. LOS Radio Fade Margins for Ideal Free Space
Transmission (Revised June, 1992)
Radio Type
Parameter ANGR- N/Z;RC- AN/GRC- AN/GRC-
_________________226 (V)1 226 (V)2 144 222

I1850
Band (MHz) 225-400 1350- 4400-
5000
4400-
5000

3PTmax (dBW) 10.0 7.0 -6.0 4.0

Gant (dB,spec. value) 9.0 20.0 33.0 33.0

IAcable (dB,Fmin) 1.7(1)

2,10')
5.4(0)
5.9(1)
10.5(2)
10.5(2)
10.5(2)
10.5(2)
3Acable (dBFmax)
Acable (dB,Favg)
2.6(1) 6.4(0) 10.5(2) 10.5(2)

Rcvr Sens (dBW) -123.0 -122.0 -123.0 -118.0

(BER-1iOS) (512 kb/s) (512 kbls) (4.6Mb/s) (4.6Mb/s)

NF Increase (dB, Fmin)( 3 ) 10.4 0.7 0.1 0.1

NF Increase (dB, Fmin)( 3) 8.2 0.6 0.1 0.1
NF Increase (dB, mn)3 6.2 0.4 0.1 0.1

Irdo(1,a)4
Aradio (dBFmin)(4 )
Aradio (dBk,Fmav)( 1) 4
3.
137.2
138.6
5.
157.5
156.6
6.
161.9
161.9
6.
166.9
166.9

Pathioss (dB,40 km,Fmin)( 5 ) 111.5 127.1 137.4 137.4

Pathloss, (dB,40 krn,Favg)(5 ) 114.0 128.6 137.9 137.9
3Pathioss (dB,40 km ,Fmax)( ) 5 116.5 129.8 138.5 138.5
Max Fade Margin(dBFmin)( 6) 25.7 30.4 24.5 29.5
Max Fade Margin(dB3,Favg)( 6) 24.6 28.0 24.0 29.0
Max Fade Margin(dB,Fmax)( 6) 23.1 2. 34 2.

I ~Notes:
2.Callegho49m
0. Due to environmental noise (ITT, 1986).
4. Aradio - PT+ 2 Gant - 2 Acable - Phold - NF Increase.

3 5. Pathloss -, 32,46+2OIogF(MHz)+2OlogD(kr().
6. Ideal Free Space Fade Margin (40 kin) = Aradlo - Pathloss (40 kin).
 i
i
affect only one or two systems at a time and only for approxi-
mately 15 to 30 minutes at a time, usually late at night or early
in the morning." These reports, coupled with the knowledge that
the environmental conditions of the Persian Gulf region of SWA
are difficult for LOS radio propagation, called into question the
adequacy of current Army LOS link engineering methods for that
area. Of particular interest were the accommodations for time
varying fading. The CECOM LOS Reliability Working Group was
established to address this and other propagation-related issues,
and site visits were conducted to obtain user feedback from both
EAC units using TRI-TAC LOS equipment and a unit using XSE equip-
ment.

4.2 SITM VISITS i

Two site visits were conducted in order to obtain feedback on |
propagation effects from LOS operators with recent SWA experi-
ence. One visit was to Fort Bragg, North Carolina, to interview
elements of the 35th Signal Brigade that used TRI-TAC LOS equip-
ment to support EAC communication requirements. The second
visit, to Fort Hood, Texas, was to the MSE-equipped 57th Signal
Battalion, which was in proximity to, and under the operational
control off the EAC Brigade.

The TRI-TAC LOS radios discussed were the AN/GRC-.103 UHF, AN/GRC-
144 SHF, and AN/GRC-222 SHF radios; for MSE, the radios were the
AN/GRC-226 UHF and AN/GRC-224 SHF radios. Note that the AN/GRC-
222 information was based on experience in Germany.

Both visits confirmed the occurrence of LOS propagation problems U

in three related areas: (1) multipath fading, (2) RF interfer-
ence, and (3) frequency management. For both the EAC and MSE I
units, we found that single-link LOS transmission reliability was
significantly degraded for all frequency bands due to time-vary-
ing fading. Signal outages of varying duration and frequency
occurred on many nights and sometimes in the daytime for both UHF 3
-12-
 and SHF links. A majority of the propagation problems experi-
enced with the AN/GRC-226 occurred on path length* that did not
exceed the nominal design path length of 25 km.

m However, the overall radio network achieved high reliability by

using multiple links, redundantly connected, and operating on
multiple frequencies. Due to the success of the overall network,
after-action reports often failed to mention single-link propaga-
tion problems. In future applications, such redundancy may not
be feasible and network performance could be degraded or even
unsatisfactory. This is a particular concern for AirLand Opera-
tions (ALO).

m Generally, fading and propagation anomalies experienced in the

desert, foliage blockages experienced in the European environ-
ment, and easier equipment setup stimulated use of Band I over
Band III. This resulted in many frequency management problems
associated with the overpopulation of Band I radios.

Frequency management problems affected both EAC and NSE units.

Blocks of frequencies assigned were inadequate because there was
no flexibility when trouble occurred. Also, when XSE and TRI-TAC
are used jointly, as they were in this case, close coordination
m, of frequency allocation and use is required.

RF interference impaired performance in all bands but was over-

whelming in UHF Band I due to the preference for Band I and the
routine cositing of several systems within 50 to 100 meters.
This was further exacerbated in the desert by use of Band I by
Allied units with high antenna towers, high-power transmitters,
and the extremely wide beamwidth (80 degrees) of our AN/GRC-226
Band I antennas.

Figure 4-1 provides a summary of problems for both EAC and MSE
units as reflected in questionnaire feedback. These data were
obtained during the team's on-site visits.

-13-
 I _.
I

100 -

84I

60-

C 42 4451

1 - 3
"6 : ............ 19 I
00

0 ..........----

Propagation Radio Frequency Frequency Other

Interference Management

Problem Type I
e 4.I
Figure 4-1. Radio Problems Identified from Fort Bragg and Fort Hood Visits I -

I ;
-14-
Also identified during the site visits were training, operation-
al, equipment issues. Operational and equipment issues are
outside the scope of this report; training with respect to fading
is not. Operators were trained, consistent with current tactical
doctrine, to set up links with antennas as low as possible and
with radios operating at the low-power setting to minimize signa-
ture. This arrangement significantly increases the link sensi-
tivity to fading. As noted in Section 3.2, a fade as small as
2.4 dB can force a complete loss of digital throughput, as re-
portedly often occurred. One possible reacti)n to such an outage
would be to switch to high power and then, if necessary, raise
one or both antennas. This was not often done. Generally it was
found that the operators had not been trained on any aspects of
fading, including how and when it occurs, what happens when it
occurs, and how to respond to its occurrence; hence, preventable
or correctable outages may have been improperly diagnosed and
uncorrected.

New operational requirements identified by the operators for UHF

LOS include range extension to distances as great as 80 km (50
miles) to accommodate the 1' 3e areas encountered in desert
operations, a link reliability approaching 100 percent .Zor sin-
gle-link extens..ons, and quicker deployment of antenna assem-
blies. The latter was achieved in SWA by attaching antenna masts
to vehicles to accommodate rapid moves.

5. PROPAGATION

5.1 BACGRUN

The Army's current LOS design requirements are based to a consid-

erable degree on requirements and experience in the European
Theater. Propagation conditions in Germany are benign compared
to those in the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf and in other
warm and humid climates. Allowances for temporarily reduced

31-5-
 m
m
received power caused by time-varying fading are based on knowl-
edge of fading dating back over 30 years (Bullington, 1957).

A large body of new knowledge about LOS fading has been accumu-
lated over the past 20 years, e.g., Vigants (1971, 1975, 1984) I
and DCEC (1990). Much of this knowledge has its origin in the
research performed for the engineering of commercial LOS links in
the United States, where in the 1980s at least two-thirds of long
I
distance communications traffic was routed over long-haul LOS
microwave radio. The initiation of this propagation research was
related to more efficient use of the frequency spectrum when the
Federal Communications Commission reduced the number of frequen-
cy-diversity protection channels from two to one in each frequen-
cy band. This required understanding of fading for a large
variety of climatic conditions, including those causing severe
fading in Florida. The resulting models of fading and its coun- m
termeasures (frequency diversity and space diversity) permitted
commercial link engineering to meet increasing reliability re-
quirements related to increasing amounts of data transmission in
the network. Subsequent introduction of microwave digital radio
technology resulted in further propagation research on the in-
band distortion of the frequency spectrum caused by multipath
fading. The fading models developed from this research included I
meteorological variables. This permitted generation of an LOS
propagation description for worldwide application when business
opportunities arose related to providing microwave LOS communica-
tions to Saudi Arabia and developing countries.

The methods developed to engineer international commercial LOS

links provide initial approaches for updating the engineering of I
tactical LOS links for worldwide deployment. However, additional
fundamental work is needed to model aspects of tactical links
that are different from those of commercial links, such as the
reduction in terrain clearance.

l
-16-m
The Army's transmission systems of interest are UHF and SHF
digital radio utilizing LOS propagation through the atmosphere.
The focus is the single link propagation reliability defined as
the percentage of time that the received signal strength is above
the receiver's 10-5 BER threshold. Commercial systems employing
modern digital radio typically require link reliabilities of
99.99 percent or better. These systems have been designed and
are engineered on a pcr-link basis to accommodate clear-air
received signal decreases of 40 to 50 dB due to time-varying
fading of the received signal. It is important to note that
commercial systems are designed for fixed-plant operation with
generally good clearances and high antenna gains while Army
tactical LOS radios are rapidly deployed and moved in tactical
operations where good sites and high-gain antennas are not the
norm. The link engineering for the Army tactical digital radio
systems does not adequately take time-varying fading into account
and does not incorporate results from the large body of recent
published work on this topic.

The received signal strength varies when clear-air atmospheric

refractive effects cause multipath fading. The ability of a
radio installation to withstand decreases in received signal
strength is represented by its fade margin, i.e., the amount of
power in dB that the average received signal strength exceeds the
receiver threshold. This report addresses multipath fading on
paths where a maximum or free-space fade margin, obtained for
clearances greater than 0.6 of a Fresnel zone for an equivalent
earth radius factor of 4/3, can be realized.

For lesser clearances, the fade margin will decrease and the
impact of multipath fading will increase accordingly. The method-
ology (ECAC, 1986) for determining the average received power and
the fade margin for obstructed paths will be addressed in future
work of the LOS Propagation Reliability Working Group.

-17-
 I
I
The objective of this task is to utilize and adapt the latest
propagation methodology available in order to determine and 3
specify the multipath fade margins required to provide a speci-
fied link propagation reliability as functions of the relevant 3
environmental and operational radio parameters. A model for
tactical LOS radio subject to clear-air, time-varying fading is
developed in the following sections for a large range of cli-
mates, terrains, fade margins, and path lengths.

5.2 MOLTIPATKHYWDIN DESCRIPTION

I
Tha principal cause of atmospheric multipath fading on LOS paths
with sufficient clearance is an interference (cancellation)
phenomenon that usually occurs at night when the atmosphere is
stratified. Air masses of different temperatures and humidities
overlie each other without mixing. Because these strata cause
radio waves to travel different paths, the receiver is subject to
two or more replicas of the transmitted signal as illustrated in mm
Figure 2-1. Figure 2-1 also illustrates reflective multipath
fading which can also generate one or more additional replicas of
the signal. The replicas, each with a different amplitude and
phase, can and often do combine destructively to reduce the
received signal strength by more then enough to cause unsatisfac-
tory performance of the radio link. Typical durations of each
event range from a few seconds (40-dB fade) to tens of seconds
(20-dB fade). The number of events in a night can range from
fewer than ten to more than a hundred. The multipath-fading m

phenomenon is complex, time-varying, nonstationary, and dependent

on many physical quantities. Nonetheless it can be accommodated 3
for by careful engineering of the radio links and by using high-
quality radio systems. 3
In terms of occurrence, multipath propagation is the prevalent
cause of degraded transmission reliability resulting from anoma- -
lous atmospheric structures. To discuss a classification of
I
-19- I
atmospheric structures, consider first a normal daytime atmos-
phere where the index of refraction decreases gradually as the
height above ground increases. The index of refraction is meas-
ured in units, referred to as N-units, that describe the devia-
I6
tion of the index of refraction from unity, multiplied by 106.
Thus, a representative, ground-level index of refraction value of
1.000320 becomes a refractivity of 320 when expressed in N-units.
In the standard daytime atmosphere, the decrease in height is
essentially linear in the first km above ground. The rate of
decrease (the gradient) is -40 N-units per km, which corresponds
to the standard equivalent earth radius factor of 4/3 used as a
baseline for engineering LOS links.

A statistical description of refractivity gradients occurring in

nature is obtained by measuring the difference in refractivity at
points that are separated in height by 100 meters. The result is
a probability distribution of the gradient, expressed as a per-
cent of time during which it exceeds a particular value. Such a
distribution is illustrated qualitatively in Figure 5-1, where
the curve is broken up into straight-line segments corresponding
to different atmospheric structures. The break points in the
curve and the shape of the curve can change drastically with
geophysical location.

The central portion of the curve around the gradient of -40 N-

units/km represents linear gradients that affect terrain clear-
ance and change the relative phases of ground-reflected rays.
The multipath fading segment is centered on a -157 N-units/km
value. The presence of such gradients creates multiple ray paths
which can generate multipath fading. Experience indicates that
gradients substantially more negative than -157 N-units/km are
necessary to cause prolonged and severe reductions of received
signal power related to ducting. This is indicated in Figure
5-1.

-19-
 ImI
:6 C I
0f
cIDI
LL1

ImI
CR C4
T. 2

-200
 Referring to the other end of the probability distribution, a
positive gradient can also cause prolonged and severe reductions
of received signal power. This is a result of a temporary block-
age of the LOS path, referred to as obstruction fading.

Generically, the probability of the daytime propagation regime is

the largest (note that the percent scale in Figure 5-1 is nonlin-
ear, the so-called normal-probability scale). The probabilities
of the ducting and obstruction fading regimes are relatively
small, but can be significant in areas such as those near the
Persian Gulf. The multipath fading regime has the largest proba-
bilit among the anomalous propagation regimes, which is why it
is addressed in this report.

Analytical models of multipath fading, formulated for the engi-

neering of radio links, describe multipath fading in terms of the
time during which the received signal power is smaller than a
value of interest. The time is accumulated over all fades in a
month, - I it is usually expressed as a percentage of a month,
denoted P. As an example, a value of the fading probability P
of 0.1 percent corresponds to approximately 44 minutes per month.

Multipath fLJing models, being statistical in nature, include the

effects o. oth atmospheric and reflective multipath fading. A
separate issue is path engineering for ground reflection when, in
the absence of atmospheric layers that produce multipath fading,
a strong ground-reflected ray significantly reduces the received
signal power. This can occur at any time of day. The issue of
m dominant ground-reflected rays will not be treated in this re-
port.

The received signal level is described in terms of fade depth,

denoted by A, expressed in positive dB relative to the signal
power in the absence of fading. Thus, if the received signal
power of interest is one percent of the power in absence of
fading, then the value of A is 20 dB.

-21-
 I
I
For deep fades, when A is 20 dB or larger, the fading probability
P has a simple analytical form

P - 100 R 1 0 -A/10 ,A > - 20

where R is the multipath-fade-occurrence factor. As an example,

if the fade occurrence factor is 0.1 and the fade depth is 20 dB,
the probdbility of fading is 0.1 percent. This means that the
received signal power is smaller than one percent of normal for a
total of approximately 44 minutes in a month.

The above behavior of the probability P as a function of the fade

depth A is a consequence of basic physics. This behavior always
occurs when fading is caused by multiple interfering rays. The I
probability is usually plotted on a vertical logarithmic scale as
a function of fade depth on a horizontal linear scale (see Figure
5-2). The probability becomes a straight line on such a plot.
The slope of the line is decade of time (ratio of ten) per 10 dB
of fade depth. This is referred to as the Rayleigh slope, after
a theoretical probability function that describes the result of
the interZerence of multiple raya. The Rayleigh probability
function cannot be used to describe fade depths smaller than 20
dB (shallow fades). Such fades can contain a ray that is domi-
nant, which requires a different mathematical model for their
I
description.

The vertical position of the fading probability line in Figure

5-2 is determined by the fade-occurrence factor R, which is a
function of climate, terrain features, radio frequency, and path
distance. The functional form of R has been the subject of
international propagation research for many years. A CONUS form
for R (Barnett, 1972) is I
R - 6 C F D3 10-7 :

-22- 3
 I

S/ Fade occurrence factor (R) for

multipath fading Is a function of:
Climate
x Terrain features
Radio frequency

7 ;R Path distance

4K
0I
U! Slope of line (Rayleigh
slope) is decade of time

I per 10 dB of fade depth

C
I Ii
IL

I0 20 Fade Depth,
dB

Figure 5-2. Statistical Description of Deep Multipath Fading

-23-
 I
I
where D is the path length in km, and F is the radio frequency
(greater than 2000 Mlz) in GHz. Values for the climate and ter-
rain factor C are obtained from maps that are frequently proprie-
tary. A low-resolution qualitative propagation map for CONUS is
shown in Figure 5-3. In terms of this map, for general planning
I
purposes, C - 1 is recommended for areas of average propagation
conditions.

For difficult CONUS climates and terrains (e.g., the U.S. gulf
coast), C - 10 is recommended. The value of C - 10 is also
recommended for like international climates and terrains, e.g.,
Saudi Arabia. For worst case conditions, C - 100 is recommended.
This would be appropriate for cases of extreme heat and humidity
such as the Red Sea or Persian Gulf coastal plain, or equatorial
climates. For mountainous, dry, or northerly conditions, C -
0.25 is recommended. This would be appropriate for the Rocky
Mountains, Canada, and sections of Germany.

Given the path length and frequency, selecting the climate and
terrain factor, and using the above equations, the site-specific
probability curve for the received power can be drawn (it will be
a scaled version of Figure 5-2). The link reliability (outage)
is determined by reading off the probability corr.esponding to m
the fade depth equal to the link fade margin.
I
The engineering of tactical LOS links requires extension of the
methods described above to include fades shallower than 20 dB and
radio frequencies smaller than 2000 MHz. This is described in
the next section.

5.3 GNRAIL LTIPT FADINDMG UDEL FOR RECEIVED PROE

A general multipath fading model for received signal power is

needed for link engineering at frequencies above 200 MHz, path
lengths from 10 to 100 km, fade depths from 0 dB to 40 dB, and
for a wide range of climates and terrains. The pioneering work in

-24-
 II Illy
E

Ic

I'D
I 6)Ca

M 110

I25
 I
this area was done by K. Bullington (Bullington, 1957). His
results have been utilized for engineering worldwide, including
many Army systems. His work used large-scale averages for the
operating parameters. For example, path length dependence iias not
explicitly specified and no allowance was made for climatic
variability. Bullington's work, however, paved the way for
follow-on work at AT&T Bell Laboratories and elsewhere that
addressed more of tls spocifics -s illustrated in the previous
section. This latter work--published thioughout the 1970s and
1980s--also addressed ampl.itdo ani phase dispersion, fading
countermeasures (frequency anQ snace diversity,, and rain attenu-
ation, itone of which will ba addrLssed in this report.

A very recent Canadian paper (Olsen-Segal, 1991) provides the I

needed methodology for fading estimates in the shallov ftaa depth
region between 0 dB und 20 dB and for frequencies c.wn tV 100
MHz. The Olsen-Segal work is adapted and used to meet tie goals
of this report.

The Olsen-Segal result for P in the deep-fade region (A> - 25 d)I

for Canada is (in percent)

P - 10 (G/l--5.7) D3 . 6 F 0 . 8 9 (1+Iepl)- 1 . 4 10 (-A/10) l

where parameters not previously defined are

G - climatic factor in dB I

ep - path inclination in mrad

A relationship between G and the previously used climate factor C

will be established in subsequent paragraphs. Tho path inclina-
tion angle, ep, is the arctangent of a ratio where the numerator
is the difference of the heights of the transmitting and receiv-
ing antennas, and the denominator is the path length.

I
-26-l
 The exponents of the parameters differ from those in the previ-
ously stated fade occurrence factor R for CONUS. In general,
such exponents and additional parameters in the fade occurrence
factor are obtained empirically from experimental data. Coordi-
nazion of the values of the exponents is an ongoing standards
*m.efort at the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR,
1990). Tie will use the Olsen-Segal exponents in this work.

The Olson-Segal deep-fado region empirical results were developed

from various experimental databases for path lengths from 7.5 to
95 km, and frequencies from 2 to 37 GHz. These authors suggest
that the model provides satisfactory results up to l80-km path
length and down to 100 M.~z (depending on path length). The model
will be used here for frequencies down to 200 MHz and path
lengths from 10 to 100 km. Also, the path inclination effect
will be assumed to be negligible, i.e., ep will be set equal to
zero.

The new Olsen-Segal result is a probability function Ps for

shallow fade depths (0 to 25 dB) in percent,

Ps - 100 (1 - exp(-10(-qA/20)))

where the functional form of the shape factor q has been deter-
mined from experimental data. The values of the coefficients in
q are determined from the deep-fade probability P, which is
assumed to be known.

The Olsen-Segal work provides two important capabilities regard-

ing the modeling of multipath fading on tactical LOS links.
First, the shape factor q permits description of shallow fades.
Second, the observation that available fading modeling techniques
apply at frequencies down to 100 MHz permits extension of such
techniques to tactical links. Given these capabilities, the LOS

* -27-
 m
m
Propagation Reliability Working Group has incorporated geoclimat-
ic factors into the model to describe a worldwide range of multi-
path fading conditions and their impact on tactical LOS links.

The model for the probability of fading is composed of the shal- I

low-fade probability Ps and the deep-fade probability P. In this
work, Ps describes the fading probability when A<25 dB, and P I
describes this probability when A>25 dB. Ps and P have the same
value when A - 25 dB. The Olsen-Segal approach also allows use
of 55 dB as the value separating the regions for the use of Ps
and P. The 35-dB value imposes more constraints on the fading
model than the 25-dE value and is therefore not used in this
work.

The shape factor q in Ps is an empirically derived function that

replicatee experimentally observed shapes of shallow fading and
merges Ps smoothly into P at the transition point at A = 25 dB.
The expression for the shape factor q is

q = 2 + KA (qt + RA)

where KA and RA are empirically obtained functions of A

KA = 1 0 -0.016A 11 + 0.3 1 0 -A/20)

RA = 4.3 ( 1 0-A/20 + A/800)

The parameter qt is constant for a particular Ps curve. Its

value is

qt = ( (r - 2) / K25) - R25

I
-28- I
where K25 and R25 are the respective values of KA and RA at A -
25 dB. The parameter r (which is distinct from the fade occur-
rence factor R) in calculated from the deop-fade probability

r = -0.8 log(-1n(1-P25/100))

Irhere In denotes the natural logarithm and P25 is the value of P

at A = 25 dB.

The shallow-fade probability Ps and the shape factor q describe

shallow fading associated with atmospheric structures that cause
multipath fading. The method is valid for such description when
qt >= -2. For qt < -2, the shallow fading is too large to be
accommodated by this model. Such enhanced shallow fading can
occur when multipath propagation is superimposed on depressed
levels of received signal caused by ducting or temporary increase
in terrain blockage due to the presence of a layer of moist air
over a ground-based layer of dry air.

The final step in the adaptation of the Olsen-Segal model for

worldwide use is to establish the linkage between the average
deep fading in Canada and in CONUS. This can be done by calculat-
ing the fade depths for both Canada and CONUS at an identical
probability in the deep-fade region using the same 3et of parame-
ter values. The values selected are D - 40 km, P - 0.1 percent,
and F = 4 GHz since these represent those for which there are
most extensive experimental data. This calculation yields a
Canadian climate factor of G = 5.8 dB corresponding to the
average CONUS fading value of C = 1. Since G = 0 dB is the Cana-
dian average, this result indicates that the average wcrst month
fading in Canada is one quarter that of CONUS, as is expected for
the colder Canadian climate.

The fading model needed is now complete. To use it, values for
the parameters of path length (D), frequency (F), and climate (G)
need to "e selected. At this time, it is recommended that

-29-
 G = 0 dB for mountainous, dry, or northerly climates,
e.g., Canada or Germany
G - 5.8 dB for average climates, CONUS
G 15.8 dB for difficult climates, CONUS or International
G = 25.8 dB for very difficult International climates

A future wxrk item is to provide more detailed contours of G for

International climates.

6. RESULTS

6.1 FADE MARGINS

The multipath fading model developed in Section 5 has been uti-

lized to calculate link reliability as a function of fade margin m
(0 to 40 dB) for selected values of link path length (10 to 80
km) for frequencies of 300 MHz, 1600 MHz, and 4750 MHz. The
latter are selected as representative of the 225-to-400 MHz,
1350-to-1850 MHz, and 4400-to-5000 MHz frequency bands, respec-
tively. For each of the three frequencies, three values of the
climate factor have been selected to span the climate range of
application: average CONUS (5.8 dB), difficult CONUS or Interna-
tional (15.8 dB), and very difficult International (25.8 dB).
Alternatively, the link fade margin has been calculated as a
function of link path length for selected values of link reli-
ability (90, 99, 99.9, and 99.99 percent). Typical results of
the calculations are given in Table 6-1 for 300 MHz, Table 6-2
for 1600 MHz, and Table 6-3 for 4750 MHz. Table 6-4 summarizes
the results for a difficult propagation climate and path lengths
of 20 km, 40 km, and 60 km.

A complete set of graphs is provided in Appendix A as reference

information. Figures A-lA to A-9A display probability (reliabil-
ity) results versus required fade margin for a fixed-path length.
Figures A-IB to A-9B display required fade margin versus link

-30-
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-34
 path length for a fixed reliability. Each set of curves is
equivalent to the other. Both are included since applications
usually begin with either a given distance or a given desired
reliability. The curves labeled Ideal Maximum Fade Margin on
Figures A-1B to A-9B are derived from the maximum fade margin
given in Table 3-2. They will be discussed further in Section
6.2.

I These results satisfy the objective of this work, which was to

provide the means for specifying the link-fade-margin requirement
as a function of link reliability and establishing the trade-offs
with the physical link parameters.

As expected, the required fade margins vary from a few dB up to

40+ dB. For example, Table 6-4 specifies for 40 km and 1600 MHz,
and a difficult propagation climate, a fade margin requirement of
4.2 dB for 90-percent link reliability (144 minutes/day of multi-
path fading outage) increasing to 38.3 dB for 99.99-percent
reliability (0.144 minutes/day of multipath fading outage).
Clearly, high-reai 4 *ility links require substantial fade margins.

Some simple rules of thumb for the fade region beyond, say, 15 dB
can provide useful mnemonics:

I o Adecade of fade probability corresponds to 10 dB of

fade margin.

o For a constant reliability, doubling the link distance

requires an additional 10.8 dB of fade margin.

o For a constan' eliability, doubling the frequency

corresponds to 2.7 dB of fade margin. Increasing the
frequency from 300 to 1600 MHz requires an additional
6.5 dB of fade margin. And increasing the frequency
from 1600 to 4750 MHz requires an additional 4.2 dB of
m fade margin.

-35-
 I
I
o For a constant fade margin, doubling the link distance
increases the fade probability by a factor of 12.

o For a constant fade margin, doubling the frequency

increases the fade probability by a factor of 1.85.
Increasing the frequency from 300 MHz to 1600 MHz
increases the fade probability by a factor of 4.4. And I
increasing the frequency from 1600 MHz to 4750 MHz
increases the fade probability by a factor of 2.6.

6.2 NAXID LINK PW LEGTHIS AD AVAILBLFDE ARGIN

The ideal maximum fade margins developed in Section 3.3 and

listed in Table 3-2 are obtained when all the equipment is work-
ing at its baseline specification (see Table 3-1). They are
given for a 40-km path but can easily be converted to other
lengths by using the equation given in footnote 5 of Table 3-2.
This has been done as plotted on Figures A-lB to A-9B. The other
curves on these figures are the required fade margins for a fixed
reliability. Therefore the dB difference between the ideal
maximum fade-margin curve and the required fade-margin curve is
the fade margin available for allocation to other threats and
equipment degradations. For example, referring to Figure A-2B,
the available fade margin for 30 km and 99.9-percent reliability
is about 11 dB. The path length corresponding to an available
fade margin of 0 dB is the maximum possible path length. From
Figure A-2B and for 99.9-percent reliability, the maximum possi-
ble path length is 45 km. This procedure has been repeated for
other frequencies and propagation climates with the maximum path
results summarized in Table 6-5. For example, a link reliability
objective of 99.9 percent (1.44 minutes/day outage) will limit
the maximum possible path lengths in a difficult propagation
climate (CONUS or international) to 45 km at 300 MHZ, 40 km at
1600 MHz, and 35 km at 4750 MHz. Another representation of
available fade margin for a difficult climate and a 99.9-percent
reliability is displayed on Figure 6-1. The crossover point at 0

-36-
 Table 6-5. LOS Radio Maximum Path Lengths for Optimum
ConditIons and Free Space Path Loss

1
Maximum Path Length, kilometers( . 2)
Reliability, Average Difficult Very Difficulf
Percent Climate Climate Climate
300 MHz
Fade Margin at 40 km = 24.5 dB, AN/GRC-226 (V)1

99.0 100 70 45

99.9 70 45 30

99.99 45 30 20

1600 MHz
Fade Margin at 40 km= 28 dB, AN/GRC-226 (V)2

99.0 95 60 40

99.9 60 40 26

99.99 40 26 18

4750 MHz
Fade Margin at 40 km = 28.9 dB, AN/GRC-222

99.0 80 52 35

99.9 52 35 23

99.99 35 23 16

Notes:
1. Assuming ample antenna clearance and radio operating at equipment
specification values.
2. Maximum pw'h length for a fixed frequency would decrease 4% for every dB
of margin degradation due to hardware degradation, antenna misalignment,
reduced maintenance, etc.

-37-
 C~I
MOI
E C', CI
cm C%,

(0 C3 ~ _

6666 Ii

LLZ 0

-I / I. ~ .

U..9;.

/(00

J*/

-38-
I

dB is again the maximum possible path length. Path lengths

longer than this cannot provide 99.9-percent reliability in
difficult climates.

The maximum path length results indicate that the radio has the
capability to meet its baseline requirements if and only if the
required fade margins are realized in field applications. To
reiterate, the maximum possible path lengths assume adequate
3 antenna clearance (ideal free space transmission), on-beam anten-
na alignment, radio equipment operating at its specification
values, and negligible radio frequency interference. All this is
unlikely. Misaligned antennas or those with reduced clearance
can easily cost 10 dB or more of margin. The values of available
fade margin derivable from Figures A-lB to A-9B are the budget
available for such use if necessary. For example a net 3-dB
degradation would reduce the maximum path lengths by about 12
percent or roughly 5 km for the previous Table 6-4 example. As
an aside, note that every 1-dB change in fade margin changes the
maximum link path lengths for a fixed frequency by about 4 per-
3 cent. This relationship follows from the 3.6 power relationship
of fade depth with distance combined with the second power rela-
tionship of fade margin with distance. Thus the change in fade
margin varies with the log of the 5.6 power of distance.

7. CUiCKUSIORS

Our principal conclusion is th'ft time-varying reduction in re-

ceived signal strength (fading) causes significant degradations
in the reliability of Army Tactical LOS Radio Systems. Based on
our analysis and a review of the literature, we find that fade
margin recommendations used in current engineering methods are
much too smell, especially for difficult propagation environ-
ments. We have developed new fade margin recommendations, which

I -39-
accommodate time-varying multipath fading and could be incorpo- I
rated into LOS engineering methods. These improvements provide a
means for engineering critical links requiring enhancr-i reliabil-
ities. Greater link reliability is recommended for single-thread
links and links serving BFAs with critical data requirements. We
also conclude, based on user feedback, that the radio system
operators have not been trained on any aspects of fading, includ-
ing how and when it occurs, what happens when it ocnurs, and how
to respond to its occurrence.

A listing of our main conclusions follows:

"o Time variations in received signal strength due to m

fading cause Army Tactical LOS Radio Systems to have
degraded reliability as confirmed by user feedbacl.,

"o The need for realizing adequate fade margins is not 3

recognized by current tactical doctrine.

"o Current fade margin requirements are too small for I

difficult propagation environments; current link engi-
neering methods do not adequately consider fading.

"o Fading exposes and increases the effects of any defi-

ciencies in the equipment, its operation, or the link
engineering.

"o setup and operation at a BER of 10-5 gives a false

sense of security.

"o The fragility of digital transmission when operating at m

syster-measurable BERs is not recognized.

-40-
 o There is a projected need for 99.9-percent link reli-
ability for single-thread and BFA ddta applications.

o Propagation issues cause preferential use of Band I

over Band (II. Tl..s results in many frequency manage-
went problems associated with the overpopulation of
Band I radios.

o Radio syLtem operators require increased training with

respect to fading.

I -- MOEAIONS

We recommend that:

I o The fade margins used to engineer MSE links be changed

to accommodate time-varying multipath fading depending
on path length a.-I climate.

Link engixieerang tools be modified so that the network

planner may predict link reliabilities for proposed
links.

o Reliability requirements of 99.9 percent be adopted for

single-thread and BFA data links.

o MSE and other operating personnel be trained regarding

fading.

o The capability be added to measure the actual received

strength when high reliability is required.

o The methods, models, and tools from this effort be

incorporated into FURIES, the Network Planning Tool,
and the Integrated System Control (ISYSCON).

-41-
 I
I
We also recommend that additional work be done to:
I
o Analyze and model the effects of reduced clearance
resulting from lowering the antennas as is commonly
done in tactical operational environments.

o Investigate and model combined effects of power fading m

(Longley-Rice, TIREM) and multipath fading.

o Analyze and model the occurrence and effects of duct-

ing.

o Evaluate the impact of RF interference on link fade

margins.

o Determine the reliability impact of significantly I

increasing the path lengths, i.e., range extension.
I
o Determine link reliability requirements for Army Tacti-
cal LOS Radio Systems. 3
o Develop fading countermeasure strategies and models
enabling improved reliability and increased path
length.

o Generate a plan for an experimental fading measurement

program spanning all LOS radios used by the Army. 3
L. FOTNE IK)RK

9.1 EARTU
W

The evaluation of current methods for predicting average receiver

signal power is essential for establishment of accurate planning
tools to assist network managers. Longley-Rice and TIREM models
are currently accepted as the standards for this purpose. Both

-42-
 are currently used by commercial and military LOS designers.
However, tactical LOS application of these models is an area of
concern, since these models do not include all factors related to
reduced clearances required for tactical LOS operations. Also,
the parameters used for these models are somewhat different than
those used for time-variant-fading models such as Olsen-Segal.
These functions must be incorporated into the path loss baseline
predictions of Longley-Rice and TIREM. A technical report (ESSA,
m 1970) identified some of the results of low clearance perform-
ance. Specifically, the report focused on increased variability
of path loss when LOS sites with reduced clearances were tested.
Our efforts will be focused on obtaining a better understanding
of the factors that influence the models and enhancing the cur-
rent models in order to reduce this variability for tactical LOS
applications.

As a part of this effort, the group will investigate the time-

variant atmospheric fading effects for reduced-clearance applica-
tions. This will include the nececsary tailoring of the Olsen-
Seegal model in order to predict the effects of low clearance in
applications where clearances are smaller than 0.6 of a Fresnel
zone. The group will also investigate the occurrence and effects
of ducting.

m The group will aeve~op a plan for iink performance and propaga-
tion measurements relevant to the &pplication of Army LOS radios
3 inthe tactical environment. This effort is needed to obtain
data to evaluate reduced-clearance operation and to further im-
prove LOS network planning tools. The group will develop a
user's guide of actions and procedures to assist in identifica-
tion of propagation threats and counterueasures for each situa-
tion. The guide will also include suggestions for LOS planners
to assist them in planning LOS links with adequate margins to
reduce the threat and to deal with adjustmen•t of the network
where propagation variability impacts LOS performance.

I
* -43-
9.2 IONG TEMR

The following projected goals follow from the above near-term

efforts and are subject to change based on information received
from customers and acquisition managers:

o Execute measurement plan.

o Develop geoclimatic propagation charts for regions of

interest.

0 Provide countermeasure strategies and model.

o Further improve predictive performance models.

o Develop next-generation LOS models for soldier's use. m

10. R1FZRZNCRS

Barnett, U. T. (1972). "Multipath Propagation at 4, 6, and 11

GHz,- The Bell System Technical Journal, 51(2) (February
1972).
Bullington, K. (1957). "Radio Propagation Fundamentals," The
Bell System Technical Journal, XXXVI(3) (May 1957).
CCIR XVIIth Plenary Assembly, Study Group V (1990). Report 338- I
6, "Propagation data and prediction methods required for
line-of-sight radio-relay systems," International Telecommu-
nication Union, Geneva, Switzerland.
DCEC (1990). DCEC Engineering Publication (EP) 1-90, DCS Digital
Line-vf-Sight Link Design, April 1990.
ECAC (1986). ECAC-HDBK-86-076, Terrain-Integrated Rough Earth
Model (TIREM) Handbook. September 1986.
ESSA (1970). ESSSA Technical Report No. ERL 148-ITS-97, January
1970.

i
-44- I •
I

ITT (1968). Radio Engineers Handbook. 5th ed.

Mime, T., and M. Hamilton (1991). "Validation/Testing Efforts in
Support of Operation Desert Shield - Command, Control, and
Communications Report Number 5," Director of Combat Develop-
ment, U.S. Army Signal Center, Fort Gordon, Georgia, 1 March
1991.
Olsen, R.L., and B. Segal (1991). "New techniques for predicting
the multipath fading distribution on VHF/UHF/SHF terrestrial
line-of-sight links in Canada," The Canadian Journal of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Vo. 17, No. 1, 1992.
Vigants, A. (1971). "Number and Duration of Fades at 4 and 6
GHz," The Bell System Technical Journal, 50(3) (March 1971).
Vigants, A. (1975). "Space-Diversity Engineering," The Bell
System Technical Journal, 54(1) (January 1975).
Vigants, A. (1984). "Temporal Variability of Distance Dependence
of Amplitude Dispersion and Fading." Conference Record,
International Conference on Communications, Amsterdam, the
Netherlands, June 1984, pp. 1447-1450.

I45
-I5
Ir
I "
 APPENDIX A

GRAPH OF
PROABDILI? OF FAD3ING
IND REQUIRED FAkDZ NMWGINS
 IAPPEDIX A

This appendix contains pairs of graphs describing the probability

of fading and the corresponding required fade margins for partic-
ular values of propagation reliability. Figures A-lA to A-9A
display probability (reliability) results versus required fade
margin for a fixed-path length. Figures A-lB to A-9B display
required fade margin versus link path length for a fixed reli-
ability. Each set of curves is equivalent to the other. Both
* are included since applications usually begin with either a given
distance or a given desired reliability. The curves labeled
Ideal Maximum Fade Margin on Figures A-IB to A-9B are derived
from the maximum fade margin given in Table 3-2.

I
I
m
m
I
I
I
I
m
* A-i
 I
1E+2 I

1E+1- 90
I
SI

PE+O-
Path Distance (kj}) 99
CL

w7

4.9

_: __ I
I1E-2 A 9
05
1~I. 40

.30 99,999
2I
I___ E-2

1-E-3 -20
99 --
Fade Level, dB!
10=

Figure A-i1A. Probability of Fading (300 MHz, Average Climate) •

 IC
ILL c

-I- a

C)l
c-1----
LLI
Ia oa: ý5 CQ6
co - .0

a U. n C nL r.
Ln m j.

Il
04

_1m~ ein Ep_

I a-3
 I
1E+2I

I
1E_ _____ __- 90

w \I CI
S

o. + .9 1
040

p 1E-1 99.99
I
_

[PathDistance (kin)H

U-I
1E-4---.... .... r [r .... r . r r .. 25.. --- 35'' . 40. .
\10 20
Fade Level, dBi

Fading (300 MHz, Difficult Climate)

Figure A-2A. Probability of1-4 i
 C

00
& CD
= E cI

C I4

oAU~ ~~ 0)00__0

0 e£ Q
C14

- - -
to
U9
-
mv ql r)CM
C*4II
CCWQ

-uimy ain -pj

L)L

A-5
1 E+2, ------ ----- -------- r - ,,

"I E+I
1E+1
90

C I
040

1-1i..__ ._99.9

I99. 30

1E-2 99.99 I
& SI~Path Distance (kmn)]\ '
I E-3. 99.999

1 E-4-'
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fade Level, dB

Figure A-3A. Probabslity ol Fading (300 MHz, Very Difficult Climate)

A-6
 00

e to) v>

Ia M
0-T

IM 9I

I; am
CM)
M\
0)C

_C cq

I C14

0~ 31

IIn/
qp 'uiBxs4 epezi pe~iinbeH

I k-7
 I E+I

1E+21 -90-

90
CL1E.1--

LU U

LI-
I0

20

Om\

1E-4 0 5 10
17 7 15 20 25 so 40
Climate)
Figure A-4A. Probability of Fading (1600 MHz, Average
A-S
 Ir
pc OD

P-.

0
t-Q- - 0~

C II C14 0
qp'u~ijiq p pine
 I E+2

IE+1
06
-I6

i500I I
IE-2
Ac
- I -- 9.99

5 10 15 ~2025 3 35 4I
FiueA5.Prbblt aa eed

E-2in of (90 z9D.iul9li9e

A-0
I-I

I' I C

a nO

-I-m
_EIS

< I,cc

crmLLli (41 - --
pej einboU
Splu~mV4
 1E+2- I" I
- - I - 9

1E+1. I 90•
I

-e1E-1 \ IN - 99.9

Z- 1

I. I

1 E-3o" 99.999

1 E-4 - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fade Level, dBI
Figure A-6A. Probability of Fading (1600 MHz, Very Difficult Climate)
-- 12
 IC

0 a

U)C 0)C

'Io

-u~iV jI - ~ -e - - - U
 1E+2 -3

I E+190

8U
7I
50.
0=40

LL

0-

I E-399-999

0 5 10 15 20 25 30O 35 40
Fade Level, dB

Figure A-7A. Probability of Fading (4750 MHz, Average Climate)

JL-14
 0) C0

F I
C L V L)0
102 ,G I)
CL IL

CV0)
Eucu CD4

- -D a:_ _-o
cc Q

Lo LII
ce fS Ir Iq- Wl
Sp ep. ein -Jfe~
 I
I

1 E+1 ___
I
- 90
I

r-4 . 1E+-1 99.

wI
2 1E-1.
20
99.9

a.
Path Distanice (kin) ••I I
1E-3
1E4
.99.999

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40=
Fade Level, dBI

Figure A-SA. Probability of Fading (4750 MHz, Difficult Climate)

JL-1I
 2:* 0

*0
It _m

.2 E

zm N

J) I U -JO

A-17
 I
1 E+2 -.-.-

I E+11 90

C!

Uw
I +- 99.9
99.9 I
000\3 & I
01

_ _____ 99.999I

.- 8

Fade Level, dBI

Figure A-9A. Probability of Fading (4750 MHz, Very Difficult Climate)

 E- 0

U. 7EU

. U.r

0 N,
0 0 _ _ _ 0

eri _ _ _

LfI /r ) CN N

I -A- 1--0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I APBNDII B

N LIST OF IC1WTNS

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
U
I
WI
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

ALO AirLand Operations

ATACS Army Tactical Communications System

BER Bit Error Rate

BFA Battlefield Functional Area

CCIR Tnternational Radio Consultative Committee

CECOM Communications-Electronics Command

CONUS Continental United States

DCFC Defense Communications Engineering Center

EAC Echelons Above Corps

FSK Frequency Shift Keying

FORIES Frequency Utilization Resource Integration and

Engineering System

ISYSCON Integrated System Control

LEN Large Extension Node

LOS Line-of-Sight

XSE Mobile Subucribsr Equipment

NC Node Center

NC-FSK Non-Coherent Frequency Shift Keying

8ii
 m
OPM Office of the Projict kanagr

PM Project Manage':

RAn Radio Access Unit m

RF Kadi% Frequency

RSL Recc iied •igiaI Le-il I

SEN .im'..i .xtension Node

SHF Super High Frequency

SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio

SWA Southwest Asia

TACFIRE Tactical Fire Direction System K

TIREM Terrain-Integrated Rough Earth Model m

TRI-TAC Tri-Service Tactical Communications

UHF Ultra High Frequency

I
I
3-2