Transformer Failure

Failure of transformer in power substation is not a sudden phenomenon, for that matter each and every
failure will take place only after alerting through some pre-signs. If they went unnoticed or unattended
will results into a failure.

Troubleshooting Transformer In Power Substation And Detailed Failure Investigation

Troubleshooting Transformer In Power Substation And Detailed Failure Investigation (photo credit:
ReinhausenTV via Youtube)

Therefore it is wise on the part of the maintenance personnel to act upon the pre failure signs noticed
well in advance to keep the transformer failure free and serviceable at all times.

If new transformer is installed for which there is no past experience, it will be difficult to forecast the
defects and probable failures.

Further if a failure occurred even though all the known precautions were observed, then it is necessary
and more advantageous to investigate into the failure in such a manner to pull out the actual reasons of
failure so that action shall be initiated to avoid recurrence.

Contents:

Transformer failure investigation

Causes of transformer failures and their remedies

Investigation into causes of failures of transformer

DO’s & DON’Ts

An approach to transformer failure investigation

1. On Failure Aspects

Occurrence

Date of occurrence

Past similar occurrences if any

Analysis of failure i.e. why did it happen?

Whether the rate of failure is worse than other installations?

2. On Maintenance Aspects

Whether scheduled maintenance and required testing have been carried out on the failed equipment as
per norms stipulated?

Does the frequency of maintenance require change?

Was the work properly supervised?

Is any modification possible to avoid failure?

3. About Staff

Is the quality of work done satisfactorily?

Is the skilled staff properly trained to carry out the work?

Are proper tools available with the staff?

4. About Material

Is the material received from approved source?

Whether the material is as per approved specification?

Can a better material be used?

5. About Testing

Is the testing equipment available?

Could testing procedure be improved to weed out the failures?

Whether testing equipment are calibrated?

6. General Points
Whether following points were checked / performed properly?

Proper contact

Clearances

Capacity

Proper contact pressure

Crack detections

Cleaning

Proper connections / alignment

Cross checks / super checks

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Causes of failures and their remedies

Common Failures of Transformer

Some of the common failures/ defects occurred in transformer are as under:

1. Oil leakage

Location Possible Causes Remedial Action

From screw joints Foreign material in threads Remove the foreign material

Poor threads Check the threads & replace if required

Improper assembly Ensure proper assembly

From gasket joints Insufficient or uneven compression Tight gasket joints uniformly

Improper preparation of gaskets and gasket surfaces Provide proper gaskets

Old gaskets Provide new gaskets

From weld joints Shipping strains, imperfect weldRepair welds following proper procedure

From couplings & their joints Cracks in couplings Replace couplings and secure the pipe lines
near couplings properly

Defective coupling joints Make proper couplings joints and tight screws

From drain plugs Defective thread portion Check the threaded portion

Defective oil seal Replace the oil seal and tight the drain plug

2. Low break down voltage (BDV)

Type of Failure Possible Causes Remedial Action

Low BDV Moisture contamination in transformer oil due to inactive silica gel (pink color)
Reactivate silica gel crystals or replace them. Purify the transformer oil to restore dielectric
strength

Leaks around cover accessories, breathing air from leaksAttend leaks, replace gasket if necessary. Purify
the transformer oil to restore dielectric strength

Humid atmosphere in rainy season Purify the transformer oil to restore dielectric strength and
check the BDV & water content

3. Bushing failure

Types of Failure Possible Causes Remedial Action

HV Bushing flashover Lightning discharge or overvoltage It may be a break in the turns or end
lead, flash marks on the end coil and earthed parts close to it

Dirty bushing Ensure cleaning of porcelain bushing during each inspection

HV Bushing porcelain insulator petticoat broken / cracked External hitting Ensure proper cleaning
and visual checking of porcelain bushing during each inspection

4. Winding failures

Types of Failure Possible Causes Remedial Action

Primary winding lead open circuited / earthed Due to overload or brazing failure Check the
winding in one or all phases would show signs of overheating and charring

Bulging and inter turn short, inter layer short or inter coils short Coils shrink and in between insulation
failure Investigate for overloading and take corrective action accordingly
Shorting between LV and HV coils Insulation failure During manufacturing / rewinding of
the transformer, the coils should be pressed down, heated and cooled repeatedly until the coil height
stabilizes

Flash mark on the core and support Dead short circuit due to lateral or displacement of the coil
Nomex paper insulation sheet should be provided between H.V. and L.V. coils so as to
strengthen the insulation level. Ensure that this insulation sheet does not cause any obstruction in the
passage of oil flow

Winding loose on the core Replace the transformer and core to be lifted for thoroughly checking
and take corrective action accordingly

Repair the winding if possible

5. Excessive overheating of oil

Type of Failure Possible Causes Remedial Action

Temperature rise of transformer oil Any internal fault such as short circuited core, core bolts/
clamps insulation failure etc. Replace the transformer and core to be lifted for thoroughly checking.
Take corrective action according to observations and oil test report.

Low oil level in conservator Check the oil level in conservator and top up if required

Slugged oil Carry out purification of oil to remove sludge

Overloading Adjust the load

6. Low IR value

Type of Failure Possible Causes Remedial Action

Low IR Value Moisture in oil Purify the oil with high vacuum type oil purification plant and test the oil
for electrical strength and water content

Insulation failure between winding and core Replace the transformer. Lift the active part and check
the winding thoroughly for insulation damage and take corrective action accordingly.

Internal connection leads insulation damage Check the internal connection leads by lifting the active
part and re-tape insulation paper of damaged portion

Weak brazing Clean the joint and braze properly

7. Humming sound

Type of Failure Possible Causes Remedial Action

Humming sound Loose core Lift the active part and tight all the pressure bolts and clamping
bolts.

Winding loose due to shrinkage of coils During manufacturing/ rewinding of the transformer, the coils
should be pressed down, heated and cooled repeatedly until the coil height stabilizes.

The winding pressure bolts and core clamping bolts should be tightened during the first periodical
overhauling after commissioning to take care of shrinkage.

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Investigation into causes of failures of transformer

In most cases the causes of the fault can be surmised by careful observation of the condition of
windings, e.g. displacement of the turns or coils, coil insulation (brittle or healthy), evidence of
overheating, carbon deposit or flash marks on the core, supports, the inner surface of the tank or cover.

The following notes may be helpful in identifying the causes:

1. Failure due to Lightning Discharge or Overvoltages

This is characterized by break down of the end turns close to the line terminal. There may be a break in
the turns or end lead, and also flash marks on the end coil and earthed parts close to it, but the rest of
the coils will be found to be healthy.

2. Sustain Overloads

The windings in one or all phases would show signs of overheating and charring. The insulation would be
very brittle and would have lost all its elasticity.

3. Inter-turn short, Inter-layer short, or Inter coils short

The same signs as for indicated for sustained overload would be noticed, but only on affected coils, the
rest of the coils being intact.

This is likely if the differential relay or the Buchholz relay has operated.

4. Dead Short-circuit

This can be identified by the unmistakable, lateral or axial displacement of the coils. The coils may be
loose on the core, some turns on the outermost layer may have burst outwards and broken as if under
tension.

If, in addition to these signs, the windings are also completely charred, it is conclusive evidence that the
short circuit has continued for an appreciable period, not having been cleared quickly by the protective
relays.

5. Buchholz Relay Tripping

If the upper chamber of the Buchholz relay alone has tripped, check the insulation of core bolts, by
applying a voltage of 230V to 1000V between the core and each bolt. If it fails, renew the insulating
bush.

Observe also all the joints, and tap-changer contacts, for overheating and arcing.

6. Internal Flashover

If the oil shows a low break down voltage (BDV), it does not necessarily mean it has caused the
breakdown. At high voltage ratings, excessive moisture content in the oil may result an internal
flashover between the live parts and earth, which all leave corresponding tell tale marks.
Go back to contents ↑

DO’s & DON’Ts

Do’ s

Ensure all safety arrangement while working on electrical installation. Ensure that all tools and tackles
are in good and working condition.

Check and thoroughly investigate the transformer whenever any alarm or protection is operated.

Check the protection system periodically.

Ensure every employee is familiar with the instructions for restoration of persons suffering from electric
shock.

Trained the staff in operating the fire-fighting equipment.

Always avoid unbalance loading on phase!

Do earthing of all points before starting maintenance.

Keep all spares away from dirt.

Work with full confidence.

Ensure thorough and full cleaning of insulators, since partial cleaning is worse than no cleaning.

Ensure perfect isolation of supply before commencement of maintenance work. Put a caution board
when on work.

Don’ts

Don’t use low capacity lifting jacks on transformer.

Don’t leave circuit tap switch unlock.

Don’t leave any loose connection.

Don’t meddle with protection system.

Don’t allow conservator oil level to fall below minimum level mark of indicator.

Don’t parallel transformers which do not full fill the necessary requirement.
Don’t allow unauthorised entry in the sub-station.

Don’t overload the transformer other than the specified limit mentioned.

Don’t tight the nuts & bolts in excess to arrest any leakage.

Don’t avoid any unusual noise / occurrence noticed in the substation.

Never use fuses higher than the prescribed ratings on HV and LV sides.

Earthing connections should never be done in loose manner.

Simply twisting of galvanized iron (GI) wires would be dangerous! The earthing connections should as far
as possible be done by using continuous wire or providing suitable connectors. It should be ensured that
these connections are tightened rigid.

Never keep the breather pipe open or exposed.

Don’t ignore safety rules during maintenance work.

Distribution Transformer Failure | What goes wrong

Transformers plays a very important role in the power system. Though they are some of the most
reliable component of the electrical grid they are also prone to failure due to many factors both internal
or external. There could be many initiators which cause a transformer failure, but those which can
potentially lead to catastrophic failure are the following : 

Mechanical Failure

Dielectric Failure

In both cases, the transformer is no longer able to perform its intended function of carrying load and
stepping down (or up) the voltage. The main point of concern in ageing and the life expectancy of
transformers is the condition of the insulation system, which is typically based on organic products.The
organic products in a transformer degrade over time and finally they lose the capability to withstand the
stresses a transformer might see in daily life


Some of the most common causes of transformer failure are :  

Lighting Surges

Poor Workmanship-Manufacturer

Overloading

Inadequate Maintenance

Line Surges/External Short Circuit

Deterioration of Insulation

Moisture

Sabotage, Malicious Mischief

Quick Navigation

The Bathtub Curve

types of transformer failures

Mechanical Failure

How much do you know about Transformer Maintenance?

Electrical Failure

Based on construction of transformers 

Common Distribution Transformer Failure Analysis

Other Miscellaneous Transformer Failure 

Solution : Preventative Maintenance of Transformers

Why preventive maintenance for transformers?

Also read 'Why SpaceX Prefers To Land Rockets?'

The Bathtub Curve

The following graph describes the relative failure rate of a whole group of similar products like
transformers. During their life cycle, transformers will go through three different periods of failure rates,
which explains the “bathtub” shape.


Let's explain: 

Infant Mortality : Failures are the least expected. Design, manufacturing or material defects are common
causes and requires from the manufacturer a deep analysis of the incidents.

Normal Life : Also called useful life where random failures may occur. This is the lowest constant failure. 

End of Life Wear-out :  Wear and tear make products fail more often and signal the end of life. 

Types Of Transformer Failures

Transformer Failure appear in different ways, depending on the type of construction. Some modes of

failure can occur regardless of construction type. These might include tap changer failures, bushing
failures, tank failures, moisture ingress, and other forms of dielectric fluid contamination. Sometimes
the failure could be purely due to lack of regular maintenance or lack of awareness. And sometimes it
could be due to natural causes like lightning which causes electrical surge in the power lines. In more
interesting fashion it sometime also happens due to snakes, squirrels etc.

According to a latest 'Technical Paper' and transformer failure report published by OMICRON, up to 26%
of the major transformer failure is related to tap changer. 

Up to 26% of major transformer failures are related to the tap changer ! 

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An example of a detailed transformer failure report of a 315MVA which failed at Bamnauli Substation,
Delhi-India can be found here.

Mechanical Failure

Mechanical failures can be the result of shipping damage, seismic activity, and thru-faults. The obvious
result of a mechanical failure is the displacement of winding turns or damage of the turns by the forces
exerted during the damaging event. Mechanical failure can result in scalloped conductors (beam failure),
conductors which have been looped over adjacent turns by the hoop stress (hoop failure), or in rare
cases, conductors which have been severed by the tension applied by the hoop force. That’s why it’s
highly recommended to perform a SFRA (Sweep Frequency Response Test) test on site to observe any
change in the SFRA test result in comparison to the factory results. Doble's M5400 Sweep Frequency
Response Analyzer well renowned for carry out the SFRA tests. 

How much do you know about Transformer Maintenance?

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Indications for Mechanical Failure

Moreover change in low voltage excitation current, a change in impedance, and sometimes, the
presence of partial discharge (PD) during an induce voltage test can also give valuable indications about
a mechanical failure in the transformer. Mechanical failure is often discovered by electrical failures
which are the result of mechanical deformation.

Electrical Failure

Electrical failures are the result of insulation degradation. This can be caused by thermal degradation
over the life of the transformer, by thermal degradation due to excessive or frequent fault current, or by
dielectric breakdown due to high voltage stress. A dielectric breakdown can also be the result of
mechanical forces tearing the insulation. The result of a electrical failure can be a turn to turn failure.
The consequences can be arc from the energized winding to an adjacent winding or to ground. It is
important to note that overloads rarely result in transformer failures, but do cause thermal aging of
winding insulation.

According to a detailed article at Electrical Engineering Portal, when a transformer becomes hot, the
insulation on the windings slowly breaks down and becomes brittle over time. The rate of thermal
breakdown approximately doubles for every 10°C. 10°C is referred to as the “Montsinger Factor” and is
a rule of thumb describing the Arrhenius theory of electrolytic dissociation. Because of this exponential
relationship, transformer overloads can result in rapid transformer aging. When thermal aging has
caused insulation to become sufficiently brittle, the next fault current that passes through the
transformer will mechanically shake the windings, a crack will form in the insulation, and an internal
transformer fault will result.

Based on construction of transformers 

Transformer Failure modes for shell form construction

Shell form construction is resistant to winding deformation due to thru-faults.This is because the coil
“pancakes” are arranged in multiple groups to limit force magnitude. The exposure to conductor
bending is limited by many support spacers to avoid beam bending. Form fit tank and core prevent
movement of the core and winding groups.

The area which is vulnerable is the edge of the coil where “pancake” windings are connected together.
There is a relatively high voltage in the kV range at this point between the same end of odd or even
number “pancakes”. Failure can be prevented by adequate support of the outer turns.

Winding failure modes for core form construction

Core form construction can exhibit failure in several ways. Radial tension failure, also known as hoop
tension failure, can occur;conversely, radial compression failure can also occur. Radial failure can
collapse the inner winding unless the winding support structure is strong.

Axial failures can occur in both compression and tension. Sometimes the windings telescope, caused by
uneven axial forces.The result is typically a tangled mess of winding conductors which eventually arc to
ground or each other, and disrupt the force vectors in ways that were not accounted for in the original
design.

Core form designs have subsets consisting of numerous winding configurations such as layer windings,
helical (or spiral-type)windings, continuous disc, and interleaved disc windings. Each has different
voltage stress applied to different components of the winding (individual strand to-strand, conductor-to-
conductor, layer to-layer or disc-to-disc, etc.)

Indications for Electrical Failure

Electrical failures will manifest themselves as a source of dissolved gas products. Diagnostic tests will
typically show deterioration and the results will provide clues where the failure occurred or where it is
about to happen. Winding turns ratio, winding insulation tests, insulation power factor will all give
indications and should confirm the DGA results. They frequently show results observed during an
internal inspection or tear-down as some form of insulation “burning” which appears as discoloration or
carbonisation of cellulose. Those where cellulose is not involved typically show as points of contact on
core steel or tank steel and winding or leads where the conductor is bare.

Common Distribution Transformer Failure Analysis

Other causes of distribution transformer failure modes can be the result of a grounded core or core
clamping structures (such as through-bolts) that develop shorts. These result in a shorted turn (the core)
and produce high currents which are often detected by dissolved gas analysis.Transformer can also fail
due to poor maintenance. Especially when there are leakages in the transformer tank and the
transformer oil level drops below a certain level which gives rise to local heating in the windings which
will eventually fail if there is no transformer oil to cool down the temperature. Thus it's very essential to
carryout regular oil filtration of the transformer and leak arrests before it becomes very critical.
Preventive maintenance is the key to avoid such kinds of disasters.

Now let's try to another three important factors which could also lead to the failure of the distribution
transformers : 

Craftsmanship

Probably one of the most important factor in transformer life is the level of the craftsmanship, the
quality of manufacturing process and controls placed to keep a check on the process. Which
unfortunately is overlooked where we try to automate all our manufacturing process. 

Material 

After craftsmanship comes the most important factor : material. According to experts using the right
wire and insulating materials makes an enormous difference in the life of the transformer.
It's also important to use the right iron core material. It should be original and not recycled. According to
studies the best material to use for the core is magnetic silicon steel with thinner thickness. 

Design

Design also plays an important role in the life of a transformer. Round-wound transformer designs are
preferred as it reduces the voltage stresses, stay cooler, don't create noise and also offers less risk
of short circuit with sheet wound secondary. 

Here is a short video the showing the devastating  consequences when an electrical transformer
explodes :

Other Miscellaneous Transformer Failure 

Loose connections : Due to long term vibration, connections can loosen in the transformer. If this goes
unnoticed it might lead to excessive buzzing and overheating. 

Excessive Harmonics : If a higher temperature is observed at the neutral termination then it's an
indication of the presence of harmonics. Usually the harmonics on the third and fifth level indicates
interference from the electronics loads.

Unbalance Loads : Due to the presence of the unbalance load in the power system a higher temperature
on the one of the phase may occur resulting in local heating. 

Cooling issue : Some times the cooling fans are out of order or the transformer is suffering a severe oi
leakage resulting in the increase of temperature inside.

Solution : Preventative Maintenance of Transformers

Since the operational situations of a transformer keeps changing over its life time so does its expected
life time. An important point to be noted is that the transformer should not be loaded more than 80% of
its capacity otherwise it’s life deteriorates quickly overt time. Therefore, a proper maintenance program
should be in place in order to for the aging process to be quantified and tracked so that catastrophic
failures can be avoided.

Having a good transformer maintenance program in place will result in the following benefits:

As they say prevention is better than cure, problems can be detected at an early stage before it becomes
a hazard.

Also it results in a good overall efficiency since conditions related to transformer losses can be
corrected.

Cost efficiency since necessary repair works can be properly scheduled.

Why preventive maintenance for transformers?

A good transformer maintenance program should have regular electrical testing of the transformer for
different parameters like turns ratio, excitation current, polarization index, insulation resistance, short
circuit impedance etc.

But since it’s not possible for all the tests to be carried out on transformer on a regular basis a predictive
maintenance program for transformer is essential since it provides trending data to help anticipate and
plan future maintenance activities, which saves time and money.
Keeping the above point in mind below are some of the few important and very essential test which
should be carried out and can give us an overall picture of the health of the transformer:

Three phase turns ratio

Insulation resistance

Winding resistance test

Short Circuit impedance measurement.

With the above tests in place a transformer is being tested for 4 major parameters: electrical,
geometrical, magnetic and dielectric. Thus by having a good and reliable transformer maintenance
program catastrophic failures and high cost repairs can be avoided.

In addition to the above test oil sample should be taken a series of test should be conducted on a
regular basis in order to determine the dielectric strength of the insulating oil inside the transformer. In
case of a lower dielectric value transformer filtration should be carried out for the transformer by taking
it offline. After the oil filtration is carried out a sample of the oil should be taken and Break Down
Voltage (BDV) should be carried out to check the dielectric strength of the oil.