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Conservation Biology

M.Sc 3rd semester

Department of Botany

University of Punjab

Reference to

Prof.Dr.Syed Razi Abbas Shamsi

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Conservation :-

Refers to judicious use and management of nature and natural resources for
the benefit of human society and for ethical reasons.

In a narrow sense :-

Reservation or maintenance of some or all of the components of biological diversity.

In broader sense :-

It includes sustainable use of natural resources and its components or their recovery or
restoration or both.

Sustainable use :-

Means the use of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long
term decline of biological diversity thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of present and future generations.

Course outline :-

1. Introduction
2. Biodiversity , Concept , Measurement , Value , Levels , Distribution , Importance ,
Decline , Causes Of Decline
3. The value of species
4. Endangered species , extinction of species
5. Inventory and monitoring of biodiversity
6. Red data book and its importance
7. Insite and exsite conservation of plants ( Biodiversity ).
8. Implementation of laws ( protection & conservation of various taxa )
9. Sustainable use of biodiversity ( plant wealth )
10. Protected areas of Pakistan , criteria for deteremining
11. Different categories of protected areas
12. Baseline study
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13. Impact assessment

14. Management plan for protected area
15. IUCN categories of threatened species & criteria for their region
16. Gene bank management of operation
17. Public awareness strategies
18. Population explosion
19. Biodiversity action plan for Pakistan
20. Role of herbaria and botanical garden in conservation

Introduction & importance :-

• Relatively a new and distinct discipline

• Objectives : To solve problems of damage to nature and wildlife that existed long
before this subject was conceived.
• Concept of conservation : ethics base on 3 primary ideas.

1). That all living things ( creatures ) possess intrinsic ( natural , inherent ) value of its own
right , implying that all the animals and plants have certain rights to exist on their own
merit mean that they have “intrinsic value” and that they are not merely a community with
a utilitarian value based on their usefulness to man.

• Alexander pope further extended this utilitarian concept and even advocated legal
protection to these non-human creatures and non-living land scopes.
• According to Aldo Leopold Land has intrinsic value leading to its own right.it is
not only a storehouse of natural resources so , whereas “Land Ethetics” cannot
present the use of these resources ( including land alteration & management ) but
it affirms their right to continued existence in a ntaural state ( Leopold 1966 ).
• Similarly according to endangered species act endangered species have right to
life and liberty apart from any values or service they provide to mankind ( Petulla
, 1988 ).

2). It also affirms utilitarian value of biodiversity and ecosystems as a result physical
environment of organisms in ecosystem produce materials essential for continuation of
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human civilization as well as for structure and function of all species. Human prosperity
,welfare and even survival are linked to nature ( March 1965 ) i.e climate , land fertility ,
rainfall and rivers. All this continued with advances of science and technology is best
suited for habitation and enjoyment of a dense population. But of soil is exhausted of its
fertility,or its productivity in diminished, it would not able to sustain human population.

3). Physical environment and its creature and value ,knowledge and meaning to the
experiment of having humans and the appreciation of higher values and virtues of life
.Some believe that human civilization with its values and virtues is dependent upon
contact with natural environment. According to Thoreau (1995) “In wilderness is
preservation of the world “ Aldo Leopold claimed that “Wilderness is the raw material
out of which man has hammered the artifact called civilization.”

Historical Perspective of Conservation:

In western societies this concept of conservation advanced from

i) Preservation(by prohibition)

ii) Manipulation and

iii) Management of natural resources .

Wealthy Europeans of the Past employed game keepers to ensure an abundance of

favored species for hunters .Who managed by

1)Eliminating Poachers or Killing predators

2)Introducing game animals to increase their number and

3)Manipulating habitat by cutting trees and planting desirable plant species (Pakistan
:Hubera,lustered:Black buck)

Limitations:

Such activities , because of their limited nature did not achieve a comprehensive
conservation of nature but only satisfied the needs of feudal lords of the past.
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Modern Approach:

Development of modern eratic political system led to a systematic approach to resource

conservation ,supported by all the nations and peoples of the world today .Today most of
the fundamental institutions and concept of conservation such as Nation Parks ,Wild life
refuges , Wilderness areas ,Forest preserves ,Endangered species act for their protection
laws to promote purity of water and air are fundamentally U.S inventions.

Characteristics of Conversation Biology

1. Conservation biology focuses on the Preservation of biodiversity (I.e. the extinct

range of species). And not nearly management of individual species. This concept
arose from the crisis of worldwide extinction and loss of species. Hence need to
take care of all plants and animals to prevent their loss or waste.
2. It is both value laden and Mission Driven.
3. “Mission” is based on ethical norms. Recognizing 04 postulates of Michael Soule
(1985). I.e.Biodiversity is good lent untimely extinction of populations and species
is load. Ecological complexity is for preservation of habitat and ecosystem
diversity. Evolution is good to maintain genetic potential of population that permits
adaptations in a changing environment as well as going on speciation.
Biodiversity has intrinsic value apart from its utilization value. So, conservation
biology recognizes the value of biodiversity.
4. It is Mission oriented I.e. to develop new guiding principals and new technologies
to enable humans.
5. Its Mission of preservation of biodiversity is not only important but also urgent.
Especially for the benefit and the safety of threatened species in nature is declining
or habitat is being degraded may lead to and ensure the extinction of the species
or loss of environment.
6. It is integrative and multidisciplinary in nature. As it is likely to cross disciplinary
lines among major taxa as plants and animals and between physical and biological
process and having Mission oriented, also investigates issues of ethics, human
behavior and culture, law, politics and sociology. So, linked to social sciences to
achieve the actual purpose of conservation.
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7. Also concerned with evolutionary time line. As apart from the conservation of
current Biodiversity, it also preserves their genetic heritage (representing their
evolutionary history and potential) as well as the preservation of ecosystem
processes that promote adaptation, innovation and speciation to maintain and
enhance future biodiversity.
8. It is adaptive science, imperfect and at times imprecise.
9. It is an empowered science as it has received legal, political and cultural incentives
and reinforcement to take action where even necessary.

All these characteristics provide a defining picture of as to what the

conservation biology is and why it has emerged as a distinct discipline and why it was not
absorbed into earlier older disciplines.

❖ The problem addressed by Conservation Biologists.

Preserving Biodiversity is a complex preposition requiring solutions to a
complex web of related problems indicating multidisciplinary character of
Conservation Biology.

1) The conservation of genetic diversity,

It is not only the source of physical appearance of species, it also represents their
history of evolutionary adaptation; thus if genetic diversity is lost, species loses its
ability to adopt to a changing environment as natural selection acting on a variety
of genotypes, generate novel gene combinations leading to the production of new
species. If Biodiversity is reduced, so would be the world’s capacity to maintain
Biodiversity.
2) The Conservation of species;
According to old approach, species preservation, only requires its protection from
any disturbance or change in habitat or environment. However from view point of
conservation of species, its future Level of density and abundance in nature are
achieved through techniques of population demography and analysis of processes
( of birth, death, immigration & emigration)that determines population and growth.
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Such studies contained with environment and genetic factors can help
understanding causes of population decline.

3). The conservation of habitat:

Habitat lose or degradation will be the most significant factor in further species
extinctions (Wilcox of Murphy,1985; Pimm+
Gilpin 1989) since population conservation in many ways is habitat dependent, so it
serves as a source or sink for a population. Populations occur in heterogeneous habitats
with fertile area producing population surpluses ( sources) and areas with poor plant
growth and population cannot replace itself without immigration ( sinks).

• This reflects habitats quality and these effects on populations survival. So it is not
possible to conserve population without conserving these habitats.
• Apart from habitat loss, there may be habitat fragmentation and habitat isolation .
during H. fragmentation large blocks of habitat are such divided into smaller ones.
This not only reduce the total amount of habitat available to a species but also
isolates blocks of same habitat from one another. This not only reduces the
movement of habitat dependent species from one to the other block but also
creates habitat islands. Surrounded by non habitat of urban or agricultural lands.

4)The management of landscapes through ecosystem processes:

Emphasis of conservation biology on managing ecological processes, rather

than individual species, led to the concept of ecosystem management as long-term
preservation of biodiversity can occur only in and through systems which are self
sustaining.

There are three fundamental basis of ecosystem management

1. Ecosystem rather than individual organism, populations, species or habitat is

considered as the appropriate management unit.
2. Emphasis is placed on the development and the use of adaptive management
models of ecosystem level.
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3. All stake holders (with interest in the health and services of ecosystem) should
participate in its management decisions.

5) Sustainable development of human economics and human populations.

1. Both human populations and economics are based on supplies, distribution and
consumption of natural resources.
2. Consumption of natural resources and their processing in human economics
require energy, consume physical space and generate waste.
3. All these activities affect other species, habitat, and ecosystems that sustain them
and humans.
4. Conservation biology focus on sustainable development, forces human beings to
address to two questions:
1) How to sustain present human standards of living?
2) Resources needed for economic use and human consumption as they are
no longer adequate.

6).Studies have established that even the largest “Nature Reserves” in the world
today are inadequate to sustain most of the species present in them for long periods
of time unless some new technologies are introduced to let ecosystem work and
permit other species persist along with humans.

7).Unless humans as individuals, cultures and economies change fundamental

patterns of behavior, worldwide biodiversity will continue to decline rapidly.

Prince William , 33 years seemed in line to the British throne addressed Chinese people
on the eve of Chinese president visited the Britain on October 19,2015

• Chinese people to boycott Ivory and other animal products used in medicine or
ornaments to preserve the world’s remaining elephants ( on Monday , Oct 19 ,2015
).
• China major consumer of ivory with increasing demand for tusks threatening
dwindling elephants populations with extinction.
• Over the last 33 years around 70% of Africa’s elephant has been lost ( extinct ).
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• Of the remaining 20,000 are being killed every year as the 54 elephants killed
every single day.
• At this rate of killing , no wild elephants and rhinos will be left alive in less than 25
years.
• Our past tradition regarding animal use/ hunting have to change.
• China can become a global leader in the protection of wildlife.chinese influence in
the world can change the face of conservation in this century.
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The value of species

Value refers to a general basis for an estimation of work.

Values represent judgments of relative worth, merit, usefulness, importance or degree of

excellence. Values can also justify or explain concrete objectives such as conserving
biodiversity but they are not the same as objectives.

In conservation biology value must be carefully analyzed, measured and understood.

Classification or categories of values:

No single universally accepted system

Two accepted ones are

• General system

• Stephen Kellert system

• General system;

Two basic categories

• Intrinsic values; That resides within an object itself, so this value is not derived
from its utility but independent of any use or function. It may have relation to
something else.

This value is either through simply knowing that it exists (existence value) or because it
embodies or is associated with something good (moral value).

Instrumental values; measure the usefulness of the species in meeting a need or

providing a service to another species (usually humans) thus facilitating human welfare
or happiness.

It is further classified into;

• Non use values

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• Use values

Non use values; are given to items that are not used by anyone but have value in
option to use.

Quasi-option values are given to items that have no use at present but with further
knowledge may prove useful.

Option values; items with option values (recreational areas) are important, not
because the item is frequently used but because the option to use is valued.

Use values; are associated with consumers.

Again divided into 2 categories;

Direct value; It is a measure of consumers’ demand.

Indirect value; an item has indirect value if it supports the product with direct value.

Stephen Kellert’s system (seven values of wild life)

• 0Naturalistic and outdoor recreation values

• Ecological values

• Moral or existence values

• Scientific values

• Aesthetic values

• Utilitarian values

• Cultural, symbolic or historical values

Natural and outdoor recreation values; Related to enjoyment from direct contact
with wildlife.
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Ecological value; Values associated with the importance of a species to other flora
and fanna and to the maintenance of ecosystem processes

Moral or existence value; Values associated with rights or spiritual importance of

species.

Scientific values; Actual or potential values associated with a species contribution to

enhancing human knowledge and understanding of the natural world.

Aesthetic values; values associated with a species possession of beauty or other

qualities admired by humans.

Utilitarian value; Values associated with species as sources of material benefit or

use.

Cultural, symbolic or historical values; Values associated with strong personal

or cultural attachments of human cultural groups to a species especially associated with

In this system, moral and existence value are examples of intrinsic value of species. All
other categories represent same form of instrumental value. Both of the categories are
discussed and analyzed further.

• Instrumental value;
All human cultures are sustained directly or indirectly by through goods and
services derived from living organism.

Direct services;

Biotic resources supply all food and directly or indirectly most of our fuels and
medicines. Plants are source of human clothes, structural material, enhance land value,
reduce soil erosion and used to beautify personal property. In unmechanized past
societies, animal services were used in agriculture, transportation and forestry. These
services provided even in today mechanized society to a less extant. Animals and plants
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play significant role for human entertainment and recreation in varied economical ways
(landscapes, gardens, zoos, circus etc).

Indirect services;

Further, biotic system also perform essential services as water purification, soil
formation and retention, flood control, oxygen production and CO2 absorption.

Above description not complete but enough to illustrate those biotic resources are
instruments of human satisfaction and survival. However, these resources are also
scarce but potentially renewable. At the same time they are also potentially degradable
and exhaustible.

• From viewpoint of conservation biology since species survival is a precondition for

the use of the species as a resource, the preservation problem in principle precedes all
other biotic resource issue (Randall 1986).

• From economic assessment viewpoint, five value categories recognized from two
basic categories of use value and non use value.

Use value is value derived from actual use of a resource and easiest to measure.

Non use value further classified into 4 categories.

Option value; refers to the expected further use of the resources.

Quasi-option value; (speculation value), based on expectation that increase in

knowledge might lead to further use of the resources.

Bequest value; is the value knowing that something is preserved for further generation.

Existence value; the value of knowing that something existence (Randall, 1986). Here
you drive pleasure and satisfaction simply knowing that a resource is there. It not related
to any actual or potential use of the biotic resource.

Kellert and others carried out social surveys to access [human attitude] to determine
human values of wildlife and insight into what people value in conservation and why based
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on these surveys, Kellert developed or topology of wildlife values and attitude with 10
categories of values or attitude.

Naturalistic: related to enjoyment from direct contact with wildlife.

Ecologistic: values associated with the importance of a species to other flora and fauna
and to the maintenance of ecosystem processes.

Moral: values associated with inherent rights or spirituals importance of species with
understanding of natural world.

Scientific: Species actual or potential values associated with contributions in enhancing

human knowledge.

Aesthetic: values associated with species possession of beauty or other perceived

qualities admired by humans.

Dominionistic: associated with the mystery or control of animals especially through

sport.

Utilitarian: associated with species as source of material benefit or use.

Negativistic: attitude of avoidance of animals due to dislike or fear.

Neutralistic: attitude of passive avoidance of wildlife due to lack of interest.

Theistic: values associated with the belief that a super natural force creates, sustains
and values wildlife.

According to Kellert (1991) Japanese attitudes towards wildlife were humanistic (strong
affection for particular animal species) or negativistic. As compared to American,
Japanese were more Dominionistic and less moralistic and Ecologistic. Furthermore,
humans around the world are most concerned for creatures (wildlife) that are large,
aesthetically attractive and phylogenetically similar to humans with capacities for feelings,
threats and pain.
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Shepherd (1978) referred to them as “phenomenological” significant animals.

Consequently such animals are often chosen as emblems for major conservation
organization such as “the world wildlife fund (giant panda) as representative for Govt
agencies e.g. U.S forest service (Smoky Bear, Woody Owl) or as a country’s national
symbol (i.e. the bold eagle for USA).

Another aspect is “user satisfaction” is the level of personal satisfaction an outdoor

recreationist experience in a particular recreational activity or area. This measure is use
to evaluate the quality of natural environment and preferences or values of those who use
them.

2. Intrinsic Value: intrinsic value resides in an object when the object is valuable on its
own and not on the basis of its utility to humans or other species. However some ethicists
assert that intrinsic values do not really exist and all values are due to human
consciousness and perception i.e. anthropocentric and subjected to economic evaluation.

Controversy;

According to Aldo Leopold, intrinsic value of a species is based on its contribution to

ecological stability and integrity of the ecosystem.

Intrinsic value implies a right to life of living creatures.

Second foundations of Leopold view point on intrinsic value was based on evolution of
life, he viewed current members of biotic communities as the products of long processes
of speciation, adaptation and the change that fitted them in their place in the natural world.
All this evolutionary process gives these species a value that should not be destroyed by
momentary and thoughtless acts of humans. These views of Leopold are known as
ecocentrism.

Ecocentrism asserts that value of a species is due to its value to the integrity, health,
function and persistence of the community of which it is a part.
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Collicott (1994) expressed it in more modern ecocentric terms as “A thing is right when
it tends to protect the health and integrity of the ecosystem. It is wrong when it tends
otherwise.
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Biodiversity;

• Concept

• Measurement

• Multiple levels

• Value

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity or Biological diversity is a term that describes the variety of living beings on
earth. In short, it is described as degree of variation of life. Biological diversity
encompasses microorganism, plants, animals and ecosystems such as coral reefs,
forests, rainforests, deserts etc.

Biodiversity also refers to the number, or abundance of different species living within a
particular region. It represents the wealth of biological resources available to us. It’s all
about the sustaining the natural area made up of community of plants, animals, and other
living things that is begin reduced at a steady rate as we plan human activities that is being
reduced by habitat destruction.

The United Nations designated 2011–2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity.
In biodiversity, each species, no matter how big or small has an important role to play in
ecosystem. Various plant and animal species depend on each other for what each offers
and these diverse species ensures natural sustainability for all life forms. A healthy and
solid biodiversity can recover itself from variety of disasters.

Biodiversity, totality of life on earth can be defined at different levels.

According to Wilson and Peter there are several definitions of biological diversity.

The best one was given by Scandland, Hinder and Brown in 1992.
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“It is the structural and functional variety of

Life forms at genetic, population, community

And ecosystem levels.”

It is the array of biological variety not simply a collection of individual species, biological
diversity exists at multiple biological levels.

So it refers to total variety of life

i.e. total number of varieties or species of microbes plants and animals in a system, so
complex beyond the understanding and valuable beyond the measure.

• Measurement of biodiversity:

It is measured and expressed at three levels of diversity;

• Alpha

• Beta

• Gamma

• Alpha diversity is diversity of species within an ecological community, more

practically.

“The species richness of standard sample site”

Richness is the number of species in a community.

Community means all the populations of different species occupying a given area at a
particular time.

Apart from species richness 2nd dimension is the evenness species distribution in a
community. E.g. site A with relatively fewer B species and dominated by only one or
few species and rare species are at the risk of extinction. In contrast site B has more
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species and more equally abundant hence site B will be more diverse with important
implication for conservation.

• Beta diversity unlike alpha, it measures the diversity of species A among

communities. Thus, beta diversity provides an approximation of area diversity or
regional diversity. Also known as “beta richness” as it measures the rate of change in
species in species composition in communities across a landscapes due to
environmental gradients.

• Gamma Diversity refers to the diversity of species across landscapes.

Thus it denotes the diversity of different kinds of communities (ecosystem) within a

landscape as forests, Grassland, lake, pond and river.

The three types of diversities can change independent of one another but in real
ecosystems they are often correlated.

High levels of diversity, whether alpha, beta and gamma almost always leads to some
form of natural verity

1. As more species are added to a community (during its enrichment) the number of
individuals in the populations of other species typically decline, a phenomenon called
alpha verity.

2. Beta verity occurs in species that are habitat specialists. They are abundant in one
habitat (environment) but rare or absent when slightly change in any one factor (pH,
moisture etc) of habitat or environment.

3. Gamma verity describes species restricted to particular geographic areas (with

broad environmental tolerance) but are lost with increasing distance from their
population centers.

• Biodiversity at Multiple Biological Levels

Biodiversity has three essential elements:

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• Genetic diversity,

• Eco system diversity

• Species diversity
Recently a new aspect has also been added- ‘molecular diversity’

1) Species Diversity:

The richness of species in an ecosystem (e.g. forest, grassland or desert) is

referred to as species diversity. These species of microbes, plants, and animals react
or interact with one another as well as with abiotic environment.

2) Diversity of Ecosystem:

Such as forests, grassland, lakes, Ponds Rivers and wetlands with their
characteristics biotic communities of flora and fauna depending upon their abiotic
resources and environmental conditions.

3) Genetic diversity:

Within a species, exists a number of varieties, races or strains differing from

one another in one, two or more characters (as shape, size, quality, resistance to
disease or pests, water and weather stresses due to variation in their genetic
organization and referred to genetic diversity. These with large no. of races, strains/
varieties are rich of diverse in genetic organization.

• Value of biodiversity (Why to conserve biodiversity):

• Ecocentric value of biodiversity;

Biodiversity through mutual interaction of its entire species play important role in the
persistence and health of the ecosystem itself and such values of biodiversity are called
ecocentric values of biodiversity. It has 2 aspects
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• The effects of species on one another

• The effects of species on general ecosystem, structures and function.

• Instrumental values of biodiversity:

• Agriculture/ genetic resources;

World’s major crop plants as corn, wheat, rice, barley, potatoes, tomatoes and
coffee etc have their origin in wild tropical plants.

For all humans, biodiversity is first a resource for daily life. Such 'crop diversity' is also
called agro-biodiversity.

Most people see biodiversity as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the
manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. Thus resource shortages
may be related to the erosion of the biodiversity.

• Medicinal value

Tropical plants are used directly in medicines. As Digitalis sp used for heart disease/
hypertension and Rarewolfia serpentine is used for hypertension, anxiety and
schizophrenia. And Ephedra sp is source of ephedrine used for amoebic dysentery.

Wild plant species have been used for medicinal purposes since before the beginning of
recorded history. For example, quinine (Used to treat malaria) comes from the bark of the
Amazonian tree Cinchona tree; digitalis from the Foxglove plant (chronic heart trouble),
and morphine from the Poppy plant (pain relief).

According the National Cancer Institute of the USA, over 70 % of the promising anti-cancer
drugs come from plants in the tropical rainforests. Animal may also play a role, in particular
in research. It is estimated that of the 250,000 known plant species, only 5,000 have been
researched for possible medical applications.
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• Industrial value

Tropical plants also contribute to textile raw material into fibers, fats, oils,
resins, rubber, fuels, dyes and other resources for industrial processes. Many such
compounds can replace petrochemicals. These phytochemicals unlike petrochemicals
are renewable and considerably less polluting.

Fibres for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Biodiversity may be a source of
energy (such as biomass). Other industrial products are oils, lubricants, perfumes,
fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons and cork can all be
derived from various plant species. Supplies from animal origin are wool, silk, fur,
leather, lubricants, waxes. Animals may also be used as a mode of transportation.

• Non instrumental/ intrinsic values of biodiversity;

Although, economic value of biodiversity is impressive and a strong

argument for its preservation. However at the time, biotic diversity has intrinsic or non
instrumental value regardless of its utilitarian value. A careful examination and analysis of
argument for intrinsic value of biodiversity becomes even more important.

• Moral values of Biodiversity:

According to this concept individual species have a right to exist as

member communities to which they belong. It is argued that the species are to be
respectful as they are product of natural selection during the course of evolution.

Obligation and virtue based ethics of biodiversity :-

According to Norton ( 1995 ) , recognition of the worth of biodiversity and the processes
that create and sustain biodiversity make it obligatory for humans to preserve
biodiversity.these obligations are rooted in the facts that

• Humans should restore the biodiversity that they have reduced or destroyed.
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• Conserve the current framework of biodiversity for future generations of humans and
non-human creatures

Conserve it as a recognition of its inherent complexity, integrity and evolutionary

achievements.
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Biodiversity

• Distribution

• Importance

• Reduction (decline)

Uneven distribution of biodiversity;

Harsh environmental conditions force the enfeebled and weaker sections of natural
populations of species to extinction without giving them a chance to adapt to surrounding
and evolve to better adjusted forms of life, in contrast to mild, warm and humid climates
with great diversity of life and living organisms.

Changes in climatic conditions are reflected in the distribution of living organisms on

earth. Maximum biodiversity exists in mild tropical regions with gradual decline in the
number of species toward severe tundra and taigas. Polar Regions (alpine and sub
alpine) have no trees. Taiga forests (Canada, Europe, Russia) possess less than 12
conifers tree species, compared to 20-35 tree species in temperate forests in USA
whereas tropical forests of panama have over 110 species of tree in relatively small area.
Similar trend prevails in every animal/ plant groups e.g. Canada with 22 species of snakes
compared to 126 in USA with 295 snake species in Mexico (closer to tropics).
Kalimanthan (Indonesia) has 700 tree species from 10 selected one hectare plots. This
almost equals the total number of tree species of entire North America.

The mega diversity countries of the world

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Warm and humid regions between the tropic of cancer and Capricorn
posses most rich and diverse, plant, animal and microbial life. This belt around globe has
more than half of the total number of species present on planet earth. 11 countries (table
16.1) falling in this belt along with number of flowering plant species as well share of
proportion land surface are shown in this table.

Endemism and hot spots of biological diversity:

Endemic species are defined as species confined only to a particular

locality and their disappearance means extinction of the species as they are not found
anywhere else. Thus the habitat in which endemic species thrive is very important and in
many cases such habitats (localities) contain a number of endemic species belonging to
different taxonomic groups.

Obviously endemic species and their habitats should receive urgent conservation efforts
before they are lost.

Myers (1988) identified 12 localities in tropical regions on the basis of degree of

endemism in species composition in fig.16. These 12 areas spread over 292, ooo sq.kms,
represent barely 0.2 percent of earth total surface. These hot spot of biological diversity
represent only 3.5 percent of land under world primary forests. But they possess 34, 400
endemic plant species which about 27 percent of total tropical forest species or 13 percent
of the total plant species found on earth.

Importance of biodiversity and why to protect/conserve

biodiversity:

Four reasons, 3 from utilitarian/instrumental values view point as human obtain

some form of benefit from them. The fourth on ethical and non utilitarian grounds (as
inherit value) argument as humans obtain no direct benefit. Benefit as

i. aesthetic and economics

ii. foods, pharmaceutical and scientific information, products
iii. protecting free services and saving money
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iv. Ethics

Aesthetic and Economics

Wildlife and their habitats are rich aesthetic source. Songs of birds and place provide
solace to fight stresses o0f modern life.

Protecting and conserving wild places and other species preserves the natural beauty
around us. Tourist towns and resorts, all over the world depend upon natural beauty to
attract visitors. Ecotourism is another by product of preservation of biodiversity which
caters the demand of birds watchers, wild life lovers etc in distant countries and islands
of the world. It provides economics benefits to many African nations and local villagers.

Food, pharmaceutical, scientific information and products:

Wild plants and animals area valuable economic source. They could provide new food
sources to feed the growing human populations (from grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers
and forests) gives that could improve crop species, new medicines to combat diseases.
Scientific knowledge and an assortment of products useful to us of the total 1.5 million
plant species, man has been cultivating only about 2, 500 plant species, which are very
small compared to total number. Only 10 percent of total (250, 500) plant species have
been studied in general and only 1 percent in detail.

Protecting Free Services

Ecosystem provides many valuable services to humanity free of charge as birds control
insect pests. Forests produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide. Forests help maintain
local climate, vegetation help to replenish ground water supplies, control erosion and
reduce flooding while wet lands help purify water.

So biological diversity will help maintaining a stable and healthy ecosystem. Fundamental
system of checks and balance in an ecosystem is dependent upon its biodiversity and
keep a large number of organisms in a functional state. Furthermore, biodiversity is a
means of optimum utilization and conservation of biotic (environmental) sources as soil
nutrients in an ecosystem.
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Ethics (doing the right things):

Preserving other animals and plants species is ethically appropriate and is right thing to
do as what right humans have to drive other things and organisms to extinction. They
also have a right to live. So, their preservation is over responsibility.

Some may disagree, believing that human beings are most important life form thus needs
and rights of other species are not that important and subservient to our needs.

Current Biological Diversity and Reduction in Biological Diversity:

Total number of species in different animal and plant taxa today stands at 15, 95, and
225. Whereas scientists believe that 10-80 million species of animals, plants and
microbes evolved over millions of years of evolution of which only 1.5 million have been
named/identified still about 200-250 new species are described from tropical Africa alone.
We have only described 2.5 to 12 percent of total number of species (10-80 million)
present on planet earth.

Some estimates as many as 500 million species originated since the beginning of time.
Thus 420 to 490 million species have become extinct over a period of 3.5 billion years.

So, extinction is an evolutionary fact of life and refused to as Natural Extinction or

Biological Extinction and proceeded at a rate of one species per thousand years before
mans appearance on this planet. However, pressure of human activities has greatly
accelerated the pace of extinctions and 30 species of higher animals disappeared
between 1650 A.D i.e. in a span of 300 years and currently loss is one species every
year. This type of extinction is called Accelerated Extinction. Some recent estimates
based on loss of habitat and species diversity within ecosystems suggest extinction of
40-100 species every day or even 140 per day. Some scientists believe that we have
entered into an era of extinction. Today, thousands of species are endangered or
threatened.

An Endangered Species

It is one, in imminent danger of becoming extinct.

 28

A ) Threatened Species is one that is still abundant in its natural range but since its
number is declining is likely to become extinct in time. Without concerted efforts to protect
them, many of these will become extinct. How serious is the problem?

Today ¾ of world’s bird species are declining in number or threatened with extinction i.e.
one of the every 10 plant species on earth. In USA 3000 plants species are in danger of
extinction.

There is also alarming disappearance of amphibians i.e. frogs, toads, salamanders. Many
of their species have either vanished or their population are showing steep decline.

Invertebrates;

Total a little over a million species distributed among nine major phyta.
Ecologically of great significance in ecosystem dynamics in food web at different tropic
levels and some (silk, lac and honey bee) of direct benefit to mankind. Almost 50,000
invertebrates are getting extinct per year i.e. almost 140 species per day. Most important
are snails (USA) , 99% Oysters population, prawns, lobsters, squids’, octopus etc.

Pisces;

As a consequence of wide spread degradation of aquatic (marine or fresh

water) habitat, fish population ( representing more than half than total number of
vertebrate species on planet earth ;important source of protein for the mankind) has been
showing a worldwide decline. In North America about 1/3 of entire fish stock is facing
extinction as it is becoming rare with passage of time. Also about 34% reductions in the
population of coastal fishes in USA in recent decades. In Southern Russia almost 90% of
major commercial fishes of rivers and of great seas (Black, the Caspian and Aral) has
been killed off. Extensive deforestation in Malaysia caused only 50% fish species to
survive.

Intensive fishing has caused significant reduction in catches of Atlantic cod and herring &
Pacific Ocean Perch & king crashes.
 29

AmphibiansA small group of 2400 species with worldwide decline in their population
during recent years.

Since they live on land & and in water, their skin is permeable to gases in the atmosphere
hence sensitive to the pollutants of the environment. More than half of these species have
already become rare. 50% of New Zealand’s frog fauna has become extinct due to habitat
destruction & invading species. Population of a number of amphibian species of India is
rapidly declining.

Reptiles;

Over 5300 species of snakes, lizards, tortoises and crocodiles, some exploited
for their skin (snakes), some are consumed by humans (turtles).

Worldwide rapid deforestation caused 45% reptile species to become rare and
endangered. 100 of 270 turtle’s species on planet earth are facing extinction with their
population dangerously low. Of the 400 reptiles of India, 33% are endemic found only in
India and their population declining with destruction of Ghat ecosystem.

Aves;

Over 8,400 and ¾ of them threatened or endangered. Majority of them

frequent wetlands, tropical forests and insular ecosystem. Many of which are disturbed or
degraded. Persistent use of pesticides and their accumulation at lower tropic levels
(worms, larvae, insects etc) cause enormous damage to bird population as they institute
food of birds. A significant reduction in the rate of reproduction of many bird species
(Bermuda petrel, Peregrine falcon, the Golden eagle, Sparrow hawk and Osprey etc). 42
of 1175 species birds in India are endemic. Populations of some are declining and about
50 species are 50 species are included in schedule as endangered.

Mammalian;

4230 species including mammals economically most important after green

plants, providing a variety of products, cheap labor and means of transport since time
immemorial. Nearly 50% world mammals considered threatened or endangered. A rapid
 30

decline in France, Germany, Netherland, Portugal and Australia. Virtually all species of
wild cats and most of the bears are fighting for their survival. 100 of the 150 primate
species are threatened with extinction. Population of Indian rhino and Kashmir stag are
showing decline and over exploitation has driven the Himalayan musk deer almost to the
brink of extinction.

LOWER GREEN PLANTS:

(Algae, fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes and gymnosperms) with 126725

species are most diverse occupying a variety of habitats from ocean floors and high
mountains in sun or shade. Are primary producers and source of food to animal’s world
and serve many useful purposes in ecosystems.

A general decline in populations of many of these lower plants worldwide has been
reported as a result of environmental (land, water air) pollution and destruction of natural
habitats.

FLOWERING PLANTS:

Most successful with great diversity represented by about 300000 species

on planet earth. A large number of them (providing 95 % of human foods) are facing threat
of extinction as 20 to 30000 species had already become rare and threatened by 1975.
2/3 plant species occur in tropics.

It is estimated that by 2020 A.D about ¼ of all tropical plant most probably would be
eliminated. More than 2300 (13% of entire) plant species in South Africa outside tropics
are also considered threatened. About 300 plant species in USA are reported to be
dangerously rare. Within a span of 10 years more than 700 species are likely to disappear,
if not properly protected. Over 13-20% (15000) of flowering plants in India are showing
dangerous decline in their populations (35% endemic plants).
 31

XI.. Major causes of extinction and the decline in biodiversity

1.Destruction of natural ecosystem

Requirements of space, food and raw materials for expanding human

population and establishments is most important cause for rapid decline in biodiversity in
any ecosystem. Much of land area of globe where agriculture or cattle ----------- possible
has been brought under human use to meet pressure of human demands.
2.Habitat fragmentation.

Today pressure of human activity, population and development are fragmenting

biological communities into small patches surrounded by urban or agricultural lands.

Fragmented small habitat patches unable of support large viable

populations of different species leading to their decline and number are the causes of
species extinction.Most dramatic changes occur in biologically rich areas as tropical rain
forests, wetlands, coral reefs and estuaries.

3.Environmental pollution .

it involves introduction into environment (land, water, air) undesirable

and harmful materials / energy (e.g. gas, liquid, solid, heated effluents or radiation in an
ecosystem) thus altering physical and chemical nature of environment that may impair
survival of many sensitive species. Pollution may be altering health o coral reefs resulting
in wide spread losses of biodiversity.

4. Commercial hunting, harvesting and over exploitation of selected

species
Commercial hunting of wild species occurred for centuries and second
 32

largest threat to world’s animal species. Animals killed and hunted for food, fur, elephant
tusks and their purposes. Many types as

i) sports hunting for enjoyment well regulated help to control population of wild life to
remain within carrying capacity of their environment.
ii) Subsistence hunting is to provide food to indigenous people in tropical rain forest
carried out in sustainable level and no threat to animals.
iii) Commercial hunting (harvesting) involves large efforts as whale hunting in the past or
hunting African rhinos for their horns. Whale hunting for oil, meat and other products
resulted in severe reduction in whale populations. Through efforts of whaling commission
, whale hunting greatly reduced.

Large scale commercial hunting doomed the passenger pigeons and also reduced the
size of bison’s herd North America. The world’s fisheries (fishing ground) heavily
harvested for commercial gains and many have been eliminated.
Commercial hunting may also occur illegally and is called poaching. Today
poachers continue to hunt elephants, rhinos, tigers and a variety of other endangered
species as economic benefits outweigh the risks of small fines and light soil sentences.
(Bengal tiger costs 95000 us; South American ocelot costs 40.000 us.

A single orchid or Amazonian parrot costs 5000 us.) 90% rhinos of Kenya killed since
1970 as their horns are worth their weight in gold and its powder used as medicine in
Asia. No. of elephants reduced from estimated 2.5 million in 1970 to around 440,000 to
600,000 due to poaching (WWF).

Plants of scientific and medicinal value are disappearing because of their over
exploitation. Pitcher plants, Gnetum sp., Psilotum sp,.Isoetes sp., (for teaching and lab
work) and already rare. Over collection of medicinal plants as Podophyllum sp,.Coptis
sp,. Aconitum sp,.Rauwolfia sp,. And saussurialappa. have made them rare. Great
demand of orchids for their shiny feathers (Aeridescrispum and Cymbidium aloifolium)
has resulted in species of the lake to near extinction. Eucalyptus (Australia) and
Casuarina (Tropical America and Australia) introduced in Indo – Pak subcontinent has
 33

been extremely successful with fast growth, suppressing the native species of locality.

6. Animal and plant collection trade for enjoyment and research.

• Millions of the wild animals and plants collected and imported into developed for
zoos. (USA in 200318613 primates were imported).No breeding in captivity plus
high mortality. So replenishment from wild populations will continue.Two thirds of
world’s, 150 species of primates were threatened with extinction.

• Similarly in 2003, over 3.8 million, live cacti imported in USA from 2.2 countries
and is a booming business.

• Threating many native plant species, private collections, pet shops and research
etc are contributing to the world-wide loss of species.

7. Pest and predator control.

• Chemical pesticides sprayed on farms and on other areas to control insects and
other pests, and predator control programmes have had a profound impact of
plants and animals contributing to steady decline in biodiversity on earth.

• Impact of DDJ on falcon population as well as eagles and brown pelicans.

• Predator control affected native population of wolves, bears and mountain lines in
N. America leading to uncontrolled number of prey populations of dears etc beyond
carrying capacity of their environment.

8. Biological Factors.

Many biological characters of organism (such as their population size and the number of
off-springs they produce, the size of their destruction rate, their tolerance for people and
their degree of specialization) determine their vulnerability to human impacts on
 34

environment. E.g. In case of passenger pigeon, small and limited population size, over-
hunting, habitat destruction etc led to the extinction of species.

Specialized animals are very restricted to their most favorable conditions and highly
vulnerable to extinction compared to generalists who can survive under a variety of
conditions, hence less vulnerable to habitat destruction.

Animal size also contributes to their extinction. Large sized animals are;

• Easier prey for humans.

• Produce less number of off-springs, and hence small populations and population
loss difficult to recover.

• Smaller the range of destruction, the more vulnerable the organism into extinction.

The loss of keystone species.

These species are organisms on which many other species in an ecosystem depend. E.g
The Gopher tortoise digging 400 feet long and 30 feet deep burrows in sand, that many
other species (as Florida mouse, gopher frog, opossums, grey foods and indigo snakes
etc) share and areas where these tortoise have been eliminated, 37 species of
invertebrates have disappeared almost disappearing of their natural populations.

Introduction of exotic species.

Plants and animal species introduced into new regions may thrive (to grow healthy)
because of the favorable conditions and low environmental resistance. Therefore, they
often out compete and eliminate native species. Islands are especially vulnerable to
exotic species (i.e. there may be no normal predators to hold their population in check)
E.g

• English sparrow introduced in USA in 1850s now competes for nesting sites and
food with blue birds and swallows, starling and barred owls of North America are
other examples..
 35

• Chance introduction of Zebra mussed, fish work, water fleas great in North
America with devastating economic and ecological consequences as they feed on
phytoplankton, main source of food of small fishes and in spreading very fast
affecting food chain.

• In USA, about 6500 alive species of plants, animals and insects and spiders and
diseased organism have become established causing 315 native species to
become endangered or threatened because of their predation on native species
and habitat destruction. Estimated losses 120 billion per year.

• Introduction of Nile perch in lake Victoria has driven almost half of the 400
regional fish.
• P.T.O
 36

Inventorying and monitoring of Biodiversity;

Need

Accelerating rates of biodiversity loss and the signing of various international Agreements
such as convention on the Biological diversity and Agenda 21 has necessitated the
world`s biodiversity to the inventoried and monitored.

Definition

Biodiversity inventorying is the surveying, sorting, cataloging, quantifying and mapping of

entities such as genes, individuals, populations, species, habitats, biotopes, ecosystems
and land scapes or their components and the synthesis of resulting information for the
analysis of processes.

Size

The presence or absence, relative abundance and the patterns of variation of the
biological entities can span from few meters to countries, continents, ocean basins and
the biosphere.

Status

No inventory is ever complete because of addition of new entities/ new variation (through
immigration, or mutation ) and disappearance of entities ( through emigration, death or
extinction ) as well as changes in abundance.

Constant Composition

inventories are more than simply lists of names and numbers. They also involve extensive
application of systematics ecology, biogeography and management.
 37

Usage

Inventories give a picture ( snapshot ) of the state of the biodiversity and identify the key
variables and bio indicators. Inventories also provide baseline informations for the
assessment of the change and they apply to all ecosystems from fully natural to
intensively managed

Monitoring

It consists of repeated inventorying over time and space and hence it measures change.

Objectives of inventorying biological diversity is to develop strategic framework for

predicting the behaviour of key variables in order to improve management, increase
management options and provide an early warning of system change.

Importance of Inventorying and monitoring of Biodiversity

These are used to assess the status of biodiversity and indicate changes at all levels,
from genes to ecosystem and landscape. These changes signal
improvements/deterioration in management and their sustainable utilization. Species
inventories are important in the selection of protected and threatened areas, endemic
areas and ecologically and economically important yet sensitive areas. Modeling of the
results of monitoring studies can help to predict the antcipated species changes with
changing environmental conditions.

Preservation Management Utilization

A knowledge of presence + abundance of an

organisms in given area from local to regional & global scale as a result of biodiversity.
Monitoring is crucial for preservation, management and utilization of national and global
biotic resources. Inventorying of genes, population, species, ecosystems etc. tells us as
to what is there and to some extent their relationships as well as, what is useful and what
is threatened?

Spatial Distribution Of Biodiversity

 38

Inventorying emphasizes spatial distribution of

biodiversity and helps to establish the origins of both harmful and beneficial organisms
from pollinators and bio control agents to potential new crops and medicinal animals,
plants, fungi and microorganisms.

Continued Management

Since monitoring assesses as to how + to what extent

biodiversity changes over time, it is essential for continued management of biodiversity.

Natural vs Human Induced Changes

Monitoring natural form significant human-induced

changes: also provides guidelines for managing ecosystems for optional sustainability.
Both short terms (days to months) + long term (years to centuries) changes should be
monitored in view of increasing ecosystems disturbance and landscape fragmentation.

• Protected area monitoring crucial for continued updating of their biodiversity. Also
monitoring of human utilized areas crucial to determine as to whether utilization is
optimal.

Scales, planning and approaches inventorying + monitoring

• The value of biodiversity findings depending on the relevance and importance of

the goals set according to level and geographical scale at which diversity is being
assessed and analyzed as well as on the availability of adequate resources. The
accurate interpretation of results also requires an understanding of the ecological
dynamics of geographical area being monitored.

• Targets of inventorying and monitoring include genes, population, species,

communities and ecosystems which provides comparisons between areas,
keystone species, those which responds to environmental changes or those in
need of protection. Variables use to monitor can be first compositional e.g
abundance, cover, densities and biomass, second structural e.g. dispersion range
 39

population structure or third functional e.g. demographic processes, population

dynamics and growth rates.

• Availability of historical collections of organisms provide important baseline

information as to a species changed its range, abundance and form over time.

• Species inventories must use standardized methods wherever possible and

recognized sampling protocols. The data so collected and its analysis will be thus
comparable with other studies in other areas.

• Voucher collections are essential for verification of field data and to provide a
permanent historical records.

• Methods employed variable according to level of biodiversity and geographical

scale of the study and include first check lists of species, second relative
abundance, third population densities, or complete counts of individuals.
Behavioural, developmental and seasonal variations in abundance should be
taken into consideration in methods employed.

• Population surveys focus on population size and its demographic aspects in view
of anthropogenic disturbance. Population size estimation important for all
organisms to determine rarity or threat status. In case of large mammals, it is
essential for their optimal management. For very small populations, their minimal
viable population (MVP) size should be estimated as well as the chances of
population persistence by using population viability analysis (PVA). For
harvestable organisms, monitoring an modeling determine optimal and sustainable
utilization rates.

• Remotes sensing systems important for monitoring vegetation diversity both for
wild life and human populations. The large scale distribution of vegetation can be
determine from satellite imagery, seasonal and multispectral imagery is useful for
determining the composition and condition of the overstorey;
 40

• while stereo imagery radars or profilers for structure and biomass requiring some
height estimates. Small areas can be covered with airborne videography and
digital cameras.

• Monitoring of species, play a key role in assessing changes to ecological systems

overtime, thus playing a key role in their management and biodiversity protection.

• The inventorying biota both inside and outside, protected areas on long term
bases will provide valuable information for biodiversity conservation and
management.

INTEGRATED APPROACHES FOR MIGRATION OF GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY

LOSSES:

Carefully planned standardization and calibrated temporal and spatial

inventing and monitoring efforts are required by global community of nations in shared
international efforts at regional levels on mitigate the loss of global biodiversity. Very
few countries have programmes to make inventories of their biotic to identify them as
well as adequate resources to expand systematic and ecological infrastructure and
trained human resources. As a matter of fact monitoring of biodiversity in many
countries is almost non extinct.

BASELINE DATA (STUDY)

Baseline data are fundamental units of an inventory which are crucial for biodiversity
conservation planning and management.

They include the presence and abundance of species or other units, other dependent
biotic data e.g. plant cover, important a biotic data variables and human variables.

Biotic and abiotic data are important for meaningful interpretation about spatial and
temporal patterns in the distribution of biodiversity and role of natural and human
influenced environmental variation in their development. The data collected should be
robust enough to accommodate changes in the goals and scales of inventorying and
monitoring as well as help eve evaluate the status of rare and threatened species include,
 41

• Biotic data include RTUs (recognizable taxonomic units) which may or may not
equate to named species but are visibly recognizable entities. They are useful for
comparative localized studies but with distinct disadvantages in biodiversity
conservation.

• PFAs (plant functional attributes) are readily observable features of vegetation

important for growth, physiology and survival of vegetation e.g. pollination
mechanisms, seed dispersal mechanisms and rooting systems.

• Other non taxonomic baseline data include broad vegetation structure as, canopy
height, crown cover, basal area and stratification of vegetation. These may be
modified by physiognomic attributes such as leaf size or tree buttressing.
Descriptive life forms as trees, shrubs or lianas are also recorded. Certain life
history categories as seed dispersal, breeding systems and phonology i.e.
seasonal appearance of leaves, flowers and other visible growth rhythms. For
animals such as non taxonomic base line data include, feeding guilds, different life
history stages (as larval and adult) and breeding systems.

While species and their richness and abundance are important taxonomic
characteristics of biodiversity for localities and regions but they are not useful for
ecological comparisons at the levels of continents and regions with different taxa.

At such higher scales, higher taxonomic ranks (orders, families and genera) may be
more appropriate.

Abiotic data:

Typical baseline data for inventory purposes include climate variable as

mean annual rainfall, rain fall season ability i.e. percentage of monthly rainfall, mean
annual temperature, minimum temperature of eldest month and maximum and
minimum temperatures. Moistures are also significant in upper mountains regions or
certain desert or semi desert conditions.
 42

Human related data:

The status and trends in human population’s density as

population density has a strong inverse correlation with biodiversity. So higher
population levels higher would be adverse trends in biodiversity. Types of human
influence and activities such as urbanization, industrialization, agriculture,
environmental pollution, infra structure development (rail, road network), trends in
deforestation, draining of wet lines, irrigation of arid and semi arid land etc.
 43

Red data books and red lists (IUCN)

Threatened species and Endangered species

The international union for conservation of nature (IUCN) * red data books produced by
the

• Species survival commission (SSC) in collaboration with

• World conservation monitoring centre (WC), are a range of authoritative volumes
providing information on the current status and conservation requirements of
globally threatened species.

For each threatened taxon (species), the Red data books give an assessment of its
distribution population status, habitat and ecology and potential conservation measures.
The volumes are divided on taxonomic or geographical basis.

To date, Red data book publication, in addition to national volumes include

i. Dolphins
ii. Porpoises
iii. And whales of the world. (Klinowska, 1991), the ICBP/IUCN.
iv. Threatened birds of the Africa and related Islands(Collar and Stuart,1985)
v. Threatened birds of America (Collar et al 1992)
vi. Threatened primates of Africa (Le et al,1988)
vii. IUCN invertebrate red data book (wells et al, 1983)
viii. The IUCN Amphibia, Reptilia red book (Grombridge,1982)
ix. The IUCN plant red data book( Lucas and Synge,1978) and
x. Plant red data book of Rodrigues (Strahm, 1989).

“Red lists for the threatened animals are published, generally in a 2 year cycle by WC
MC in collaboration with IUCN-SSC and Birdlife International.” These volumes provide a
global inventory of species or subspecies, which are known to be or are suspected of
being extinct or threatened with extinction in the wild. The 1994 red data lists contains
information on a total of nearly 6000 species (WCMC 1993).
 44

However the species represented are not evenly distributed among taxa. Provisional
assessments cover

• All birds
• Just over 50% of mammals
• 20% of reptiles
• 12% amphibians and
• Under10% fish
• A small proportion of invertebrates as
✓ Dragonflies
✓ Butterflies and
✓ Molluscs also included (WCMC,1993).

Red data books are simply lists of species of one biodiversity that are known to be rare,
threatened or declining. They indicate existing or potential losses of species and
populations and propose appropriate remedial conservation action where possible. They
also serve an important monitoring function at continental and regional scales. Red data
books are national research or policy documents and often contain species that may be
common elsewhere. E.g, Gryllus compestris is enlisted as Endangered in Brittan (U.K)
but quiet common in continental European countries.

Threatened species
These are the species that are rare, often genetically impoverished, of low fecundity,
dependent on patchy or unpredictable resources, extremely variable in population
density, persecuted or otherwise prone to extinction in human dominated landscapes
(terlitzgh and Winter 1980; Davis et al 1986; Pimm etal 1988; Noss 1990 and Smith etal
1993). As their number increases worldwide, their identification and monitoring for their
conservation has become critical. Especially their inherent rarity and ecological
characteristics make them difficult to monitor as indicated by extensive literature and
numerous studies on this subject.
 45

Endangered species

Endangered and threatened species are classified on the basis of their population size
and rate of population decreases. According to US endangered species act 1973, any
species which is in danger of extinction throughout all, or significant portion of its range
of distribution. A threatened species means any species which is likely to become an
endangered species within the forcible future throughout all or a significant portion of its
range of distribution.

Threatened and endangered species classification

History: when IUCN, merely 45 years ago established species survival commission
SSC, it established several categories of threat by which to classify species by their
potential risk of extinction. Species meeting criteria for inclusion in one of the categories
are then included in RED LISTS AND RED DATA BOOKS (E,g IUCN 1990). Many
countries adopted this approach. The purpose of these books and lists is to develop a
database of threatened species, develop their conservation priorities and monitor
effectiveness of recovery efforts.

Old categories/classification upto1994:

Six categories as

i. extinct
ii. endangered
iii. vulnerable
iv. rare
v. indeterminate
vi. Insufficiently known.

A species belonging any one of these categories was known as threatened.

 46

Objectives

Although useful, many scientists criticized it for being over subjective as it included taxa
(species) whose population has been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have
been so drastically reduced that they are in immediate danger of extinction. Also
categorizations differed from person to person and did not reflect real extinction
risks(WCMC,1992).

In view of these objectives, a new system of categories of threatened species was

introduced in 1994 by IUCN. It has ten categories known as revised IUCN red list
categories.

Red list category definition

1. Extinct:

There is no reasonable doubt that the last individual of the taxon has died.

2. Extinct in the wild:

Here a taxon is presumed extinct in the wild according to the various surveys. But is
known to survive in cultivation (plants), in captivity (animals) or as naturalized populations
well outside the past range.

3. Critically endangered

The taxon facing extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in immediate future.

4. Endangered

The taxon is not critically endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild
in near future.

5. Vulnerable

The taxon is not critically endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in
the medium term future.

6. Conservation dependent.
 47

The taxon though not critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable but is focus of
taxon or habitat specific conservation program, which if stopped would result to qualify
the taxon for one of the threatened categories above within a period of 5 years.

7. Near threatened

The taxon is not critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable or conservation

dependent but is close to qualifying for vulnerable.

8. Least concern

The taxon is not critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable and does not qualify for
conservation dependent or near threatened,

9. Data deficient

Information available is inadequate to make a direct or indirect assessment of the risk of

extinction based on distribution and/or population status of the taxon. Apparently more
information is required.

10. Not evaluated

The taxon has not yet been assessed against the criteria.

Detailed criteria were established only for three categories viz, critically endangered,
endangered and vulnerable. Each one of them uses the same five criteria.

i. Population and habitat decline

ii. Habitat area
iii. Population fragmentation or isolation
iv. Population size
v. Population viability analysis.

Different quantitative thresholds are used for each category. E.g, for critically endangered
species, mature population size criteria is fewer than 50 mature individuals while the
threshold is 250 for endangered and 1000 for vulnerable. Secondly, to be included in any
one of the 3 categories, a species need to meet only one of the five criteria.
 48

Criticism

This new system is also considered to quantitative. For example the numerical rankings
( for including a species in any of the categories) as being too specific for the vast majority
of the rare and potentially threatened species, leading to possibly serious errors. Also
costs of quantitatively determining species status would be too high and unbearable in
many developing countries.

Red lists are considered as compendia of species known to be threatened under the old
or new system. Many more species in fact may be threatened but not listed because little
information gexists or they have not yet been categorized. For example, while all the
known bird species have been reviewed, only 50% of the the world’s mammals less than
20% reptiles, 10% amphibians and 5% of its fish have been reviewed for potential
threatened classification WCMC 1992.

Criteria for recognizing different categories of threatened

species.

The IUCN Red list represents species that are recognized as globally threatened with
extinction. In recent times, these categories are also being used to set priorities for their
conservation. This change of emphasis required a revision of the category definitions, to
provide an explicit, objective framework to classify species according to their extinction
risk.

The three categories, critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable, defined earlier
on the basis of quantitative criteria applicable to ant taxonomic unit at or below the species
level. Meeting any one (rather than all) of the criteria qualifies a taxon to be listed at that
level of threat. In the absence of high quality data, even estimates, inference or projection
can be used to assign species to different categories. These categories provide an
assessment of the likelihood of extinction and those listed in higher risk categories implies
a higher expectation of extinction. The threat status of a taxon will also depend on the
scale at which it is assessed, whether globally, regionally or nationally. Criteria are most
 49

appropriate when applied at global level. When considered at regional or national level,
the category status of a taxon may be different.

Although the classification of threatened species is important for identifying areas

for protection, there are several disadvantages to using national statistics for monitoring
as the data may be expressed positively or negatively with respect to threat of extinction.

2- Threatened species may be inherently rare (that is with low abundance / and or small
range) but this doesn’t mean that they are necessarily threatened. May be they are
adopted to exploiting a changing environment.

3- Endemic species with restricted distributions are considered important for conservation
as the threats to these species become more apparent.

Sustainable use of Biodiversity (Plant wealth).

 50

It means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does
not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thirdly maintaining its potential
meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generation. However does not imply
that that live-diversity orbits sources can be passed on it future generations completely
unchanged. Virtually all process of use lead to some change or less in biodiversity,
however small.
1- Nature and impact of biodiversity:
complex collection of innumeralute organisms system become more and more complex
with several tropic leads its vulnerability to climatic variations of floods, brought, attach of
insect pests and pathogens etc) diminishes under most adverse conditions, a few
organisms or species may be affected that the basic functions of the system, biogas
chemical cycles and the hold of energy continue along other channels and the system
remain value. Homogeneous systems (crops fields, mono (single-spaces) culture forests)
with little biodiversity, the alternative channels are not available.
Rapid degeneration of bio-diversity during proceeding century with large number of
extinctions from plant earth and the rate of extinctions may become faster in immediate
future as human populations and enterprise expands and resources diminish. This will
seriously effect lives of forest generation human lives and would above the detrimental to
the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. So need to stop rapid
degeneration of biodiversity. Two strategies having employed (i) ex-sitra conservation
ie.e conservation of species etc. under artificial conditions away from their natural habitats
9ii) in-stra conservation of species at places where they occur naturally. Both these
methods have their own limitations, are only partially effective. Iuspete of all our sincere
efforts it sis suspected that a large number of species
Even if a large number of species are saved from extinction, we may most probably the
interrupting this vital process of evolution. We need not only to preserve the bio diversity
but need to preserve it in such a way that the process of evolution i.e. the adjustment and
adaption which the species undergoes in response to changing environment – continues
uninterruptedly. Otherwise the organisms so conserved could the total failure as they
cannot survive in changing environment.
 51

So to conserve biodiversity, there is need to conserve, Nat used habitats with all its
organisms. Wild-life and man have existed together ever since man appeared on this
planet and so they will in future. Both have influenced each other and will continue to do
so in future as well. However man because if his superior intellectual capabilities should
assume stewardship of planet earth, manage things in such a way that both man and
wild-life may live together for all time together. However there is need to place a check
on human population growth as house ever large may be resources of this planet and
their regeneration capacity; indeterminate growth and consumption by human
populations would exhaust them at some point of time in future and the system would
collapse.
For sustainable management of renewable biotic resources we need to
Avoid over exploitation and pollution of biotic system. Natural systems provide resources
to mankind up to a limit beyond which damage to productivity of the system may occur.
Also stresses like pollution and temperature changes reduce productivity of the system.
However, modern intensive agriculture tend to over exploit the system through use of high
yielding varieties, large amounts of fertilizers and energy inputs of pesticides etc. thus
depressing microbial life which is the basis of regenerative and nutrient re-cycle capacity
of soils leading to their desertification.
Over-exploitation of aquatic systems leaves little from which fresh stocks can be limit for
the next harvest.
Too much extraction of timber and fuel wood from a forest damages its regenerative
capacity and converting it with unproductive waste land. For sustainable management of
natured system only that much should the extracted from it which it’s too productivity
perm both the affluence of developed countries as well as poverty in under-developed
countries adversely affect productivity of biotic system. Poor in the developing countries
work while day to do , earn same money, they will cut down any tree and poach any
animal to make some money regardless of its long term consequences, while a little
restrain is required on over indulgence and consumption of resources in developed would,
proper environment friendly development is necessary for the developing countries.
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2- Strengthening the resources base and augmenting regenerability of biotic

systems.

So far humans endeavored to maximize yields from biotic systems without any regard for
the health and self-regeneration capacity of the system. Thus gradually weakening the
system and leading to its degeneration followed by degradation, in the absence of more
material and energy inputs the system could collapse.
Although, high yield is highly is highly desirable yet it should not be at the cost of
regenerability or healthy of the system. So the objectives of management of biotic system
need to be changed in the light of above argument agricultural sector. Forest and wild life
are important sectors of biotic system which affect mankind.
A. Agricultural Sector:
present day agro ecosystem depend upon provision of fresh water, fertilizers, pesticides
and high yielding hybrid varieties of crops along with fuel far agri machinery. This heavy
reliance of modern agriculture on material and energy input make it un-sustainable. As (I)
supplies of fresh water for irrigation is limited in view of ever-expanding agriculture
activity. Thus necessitates (i) economic use of fresh water, its recycling and reuse (ii) by
controlling surface water pollution by sewage and industrial (iii) Recharge of the ground
water table by proper land use planning and reforestation (iv) Increase surface water
storage capacity by developing dams to store water that flows down to sea as flood water.
(II) Supplies of fertilizers and pesticides are not going to last forever, neither they are
cheap nor is there frequent use healthy for soil fertility. (III) Similarly energy (oil + gas)
required for agriculture is neither cheap nor going to last forever. (IV) Suitable hybrid
varieties for future agro-climate conditions may be difficult to arrange due to widespread
loss of genetic resources.
Best strategy for sustainable agro-ecosystems is to promote a healthy soil microbial
community which strengthens soil nutrient regeneration capacity, water holding potential
and porosity of soil. Can the done by providing
Organic matter to soil which serves as food for microbial life
Crop rotation and infusion of diversity in agro-ecosystems
 53

Environment friendly viable alternatives should be used to reduce damage caused by

pesticides. All this may reduce productivity of the biotic systems but it will be sustainable
without any damage to the system.
B .Forests and wild life: Benefits,
source of livelihood local population depend upon forest products. Forests also check soil
erosion and degradation of soils, shape natural environment and local climatic conditions
by maintaining humidity, regulating temperatures, impeding wind velocity and influencing
precipitation. With Destruction of forests, (i) Natural wildlife habitats are lost. (ii) Capacity
of forest soils of vegetation to absorb and accumulate environmental pollutants is lost, so
deforestation seriously disturbs viable biotic systems, so essential for the mankind. So for
sustainable human society there is need to maintain healthy forests and wild-life involving
Prevention of deforestation by controlling (i) Unregulated expansion of agriculture and
cattle ranching at the expense of forests, un-regulating grazing, destruction of green cover
and unregulated fuel wood collection and timber harvesting.
Extending the forests by planting the selected species suited to local conditions an lands
which have lost their plant cover thus widening the resource base, providing additional
habitats for wild life.
C .The use of alternative food sources;
Pre-historic times man used about 5000 species / varieties edible plants to-day, only
about a down species, provide 90% of world food supplies and only 150 plant species are
cultivated on large scale.
There are thousands of species with edible food parts and can serve as source of food
for mankind along with many species of birds, fishes of mammals. They can be easily
cultivated and have higher productivity.
A little change in our food habits and with little adjustments these species can be used to
supplement human food.
This will widen our resource base and add sustainability to supplies by reducing
dependence on a few species.
Role of all the problems = Human Population.
Placing a check on growth of Human population
 54

Plant earth has enough for all if resources are carefully manages and ensure just and
equitable distribution of necessities of life to all living beings of the world as well as avoid
extravagance.
However, we cannot afford indeterminate growth of human beings. Because, howsoever
large may be the resources of a planet what so ever may be its capacity for regeneration
, indetermination growth and consumption thereby shall exhaust the carrying capacity of
the system at some point of time in future and it shall collapse. So a line must be drown
within which human population numbers have to be confined.
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PROTECED AREA;

Criteria for different categories.

The basic aim of all conservation efforts is to protect and conserve the biodiversity
of planet earth for the benefit of the present and future generations of mankind.
1 Over populated world of today, with its
2 population still growing, with
3 Over expending human enterprise could
4 Swallow entire wilderness in future. Thus
5 Leading to the destruction of the vital life support system on earth since human
enterprise difficult to stop, the least we could do is to mark out biologically significant.
Localities on this planet and pay sincere attention for their maintenance and
conservation referred to as “protected Areas” the areas should
1 Include representative sample of lustic spectrum of locality
2 Should be capable of sustaining all viable biodiversity of the locality
3 Should allow free play of natural forces viz, fire, drought, floods, pathogen, insects
of pests etc. that make
1 an organism grows and adopt to the prevailing environmental conditions and adopt
to a better adopted life-form to let processes of natural selection and evolution
continue uninterruptedly
Selection:
First priority for conservation efforts should be for areas with richest and
most diverse planet and animal communities (tropics) facing some kind of threat
form internal and external sources. These are mega diversity countries with largest
population of world species diversity or countries of the world which together
possess largest number of species (nearly 70% of the total) in a relatively small area
have been identified in tropical region. They are leased on the lists of 1 vertelirates
2 butterflies 3 higher plants of different countries.
Secondly areas with to endemic species (which is restricted to a given
location / habitat and not found anywhere else, should also receive attention on
priority basis as once lost from their original habitat. Cannot be found anywhere else.
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Myers identified 12 such localities in 1988 in tropics and later in 1990 identified
another 08 but spots of endemic species diversity in other climatic regions.
Thirdly: size of protected areas should be large enough to support
population of species, in tended to be conserved such viable populations are
capable of growing and multiplying actively otherwise it will be eliminated and effort
wasted. Fragmentation of a large forest into small patches drastically declines its
capacity to sustain viable populations of different species. According to the
biogeographic principles, a tenfold declining in the area of the patch could reduce
the species to about half of their original number.
In, sanctuaries and national parks intended for conservations of one, tow or
a few species, it has to be ensured that the (habitat) should be large enough for
resistance and multiplication at a rate higher than the mortality of the species or a
group of species concerned. Nature reserves or biosphere, meant for conservation
of the total biodiversity of the locality/ region the area should be large enough to
support all the life forms in viable state. They can also be protected in a relatively
small area (if larger one available) but with intensive management and some
undesirable effects on the organisms being protected. Furthermore some life forms
may be omitted from protection because of limitations.
Defined (IUCN, 1994 b) an area of land and / or sea dedicated to the protection
and maintenance of biodiversity, and natured and associated cultural resources and
managed through legal or other effective means. Protected areas established over
the last 80 years, represent an important medianism by which biodiversity can be
assessed and monitored.
According to (IUCN, 1994 b) and WCMC (world conservation monitoring center) joint
report; There were 9832 protected areas covering more than 9:25 million km 2 8.2 %
of earth land formed in the most of the biographical provinces and all major global
biomes. Their distribution in far from even politically or biologically classified by
(IUCN, 1994 b) under -- broad management categories based on 3 criteria
(1) Size: more than 10 km2 with the exception of offshore or oceanic islands of at
least 1 km2 and the whole island is protected.
(2) With clear management detectives
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(3) Authority of the management agency. In the past only the areas protected and
managed by the highest competent authority but now even those managed by state
or provincial authorities are also included in the U.N. list of protected areas.
At present 9832 protected area soils recorded in the WCMC (World
Conservation Monitoring center) protected areas database under the above criteria.
Category: I
Strict Nature Reserve / Wilderness Area. To protect nature and maintain
natural processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative
examples of the natural environment for scientific study environmental monitory education
and maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state. There are two
sub-categories: IA includes protected areas managed mainly for scientific research and
monitoring; IB includes protected areas managed mainly for wilderness protection
subsistence and recreation.
Category: II
National Park: to protected outstanding natural and scenic areas of national
or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use. These are
relatively large areas not materially altered by human activity and where extractive
resource uses are not allowed.
Category: III
National Monument / Natural landmark.
To protect and preserve nationally significant natural features because of their special
interest or unique characteristics. These are relatively small areas focused on the
protection of specific features.
Category: IV
Habitat/ Species Management Area. To assure the natural conditions
necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic communities
or physical features of the environment where these may require specific human
manipulation for their perpetuation. Controlled harvesting of some resources may be
permitted.
Category: V
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Protected Landscapes and Seascapes. To maintain nationally significant

natural landscapes that are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land
while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism. These
are mixed cultural. Natural landscapes of high scenic value where traditional land uses
are maintained.

Category: VI
Managed resource Protected Area. This is a new category designed to
include areas that ensure long-term protection and maintenance of biodiversity while
providing a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs,
they are intended to be relatively large and predominantly unmodified natural systems
where traditional and sustainable resource uses are encouraged.
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Management of Protected Areas.

Basic:
Objective of management is to ensure that:-
• The viable populations of species present in the system should be able to co-exist,
grow and multiply without any interference from outside factors.
• Free play of chance variation in the environment i-e. Floods, draught, hailstorms,
various pathogens, flies etc. is permitted to enable organisms to adjust and adopt
to variations in the environment so that process of natural selection and evolution
should continue uninterruptedly.
• The basic Objective is that managerial interference in the affairs of wildlife should
be as little as possible the management practices for P.A. Grouped into 04
categories
• Excluding Detrimental Human Interference. Many human establishments within
and around the boundaries of protected areas and
• Encroachment of man descend groups for collection of firewood’s, timber, fruits
and nuts and hunting game are injurious to wild life. Their shift to other parts of
P.A. leading to their crowding and other undesirable changes.
• Indigenous tribes living and using forest as their resource base are difficult to
exclude and their attitude became more and more hostile.
• Furthermore illegal poaching activity continues in many protected areas for skin,
for, feather, leather, rhino horns, tusks, ivory etc.
• Air pollution and water pollution from industries and waste disposal sites are other
important constraints around protected areas, so from smelter leading acid rain
along with too much sort asks and smoke from power plants may cause population
of toxicity due to man fall.
• Complete elimination of human influence from natural ___ is questionable as man
is just another species in the biosphere and organism have been evolving in his
presence in the past and wile-life has to co-exist with man in future as well. Some
scientists believe that complete elimination of much influence may not be as wise
as we assume. Man and wild life can co-exist if we eliminate the detrimental human
interference from a protected area.
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Excluding Exotic Species or Detrimental Biotic Interference:

Due to rapid strides his communication and transportation man has introduced his pets
and plants in new localities/ countries wherever the migrated. So the original flora and
fauna of the locality has to compete with the introduced (exotic) forms. Those which failed
to compete were eliminated and the surviving ones adopted to life in the presence of alien
organism, leading to changes in the entire biotic spectrum which could also effect course
of future evolution of organisms of the locality. Example: Hawallan parks (Hawaii Island
is the mid pacific ocean) with unique flora and fauna evolving in isolation without any
external influence of other flora/ fauna. 95-99% if its 1160 plant species were endemic.
Polynesian colonists introduced about 30 species in 1985. About 4600 species of
vascular plants were introduced by people from different cultural backgrounds of which
nearly 700 has established successfully. It is caused extinction of nearly 200 endemic
species and another 1000 or so are endangered as the exotics are usually rough, hardy
and tenancies form and widely distributions. This completely altered the indigenous
Hawaiian islands flora / fauna. So exotic species should be excluded from P.A to protect
original habitats flora, and fauna.
Using Limited Corrective Measures:
• Chance environmental variations as floods, draught, fires, pathogens, adversely
affect wildlife in protected areas.
• Through essential for adaptations and survival of species in nature but sometimes,
they may be so severe as to decimate the entire population.
• This necessitates applying limited corrective measures to ensure survival viable
populations of as many species as possible.
• These steps include provision of space, food, water treatment of deceased
animals, eliminations or removal of exotic species and diseased individuals and
displacement of threatened populations to safer places.
Intensive Monitoring of the Protected Areas:
• Essential to keep a close watch on biological spectrum to the protected. This
includes
• Observations on air, water and soil quality is essential due to wide-spread
environmental pollution. Adverse changes in air, water of soil quality may introduce
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changes in biotic spectrum of the protected area. As the susceptible species shall
the suppressed hardy and resistant forms shall survive and multiply leading to
changes in biotic and biotic environment making life difficult for organisms to the
protected.
• Observations on changes in Population densities, frequencies, and health of
biotic community within the system.
• Changes in physics-chemical parameters of environment are perceived by biotic
community of the ecosystem which regularly adjusts to these changes. So
biological monitoring i-e, close observation on the biotic component provides early
warning system so that prevential / precautionary measures may be taken beyond
changes appear in their full intensity. Similarly rise in poaching activity or entry of
some exotic organisms can also be detected by such observations.
• Observations on behavior, growth pattern, growth requirements and life-cycles of
organism occurring in a protected area are very helpful for their conservation under
stresses included by habitat destruction or pollution. Knowledge of requirements
of a species are essential to ensure its growth and reproduction in future for its
successful conservation.

SHORT COMINGS OF THE EXISTING SYSTEM OF PROTECTED AREAS:

Major draw backs as under.

A large proportion of land in number of countries set aside as PA’s for wildlife but little
actually occur in them. E.g. Bhutan. 1/5 land here designated as PA but with little wild-
life. Similarly in Chile, protected habitants with unique vegetation type are not protected
at all.
Many of the existing PA’s on paper only as maps and may even lack a proper ___
adequate staff or budget for maintenance.
Profitable activities (such as logging) injurious to the wild life are carried out with Govt.
permission in the parks of a number of countries like Canada, Indonesia of
Czechoslovakia. Logging fuel wood collection cause extensive damage to the wildlife in
many developing countries. In Europe & Canada many wild-life reserves are oriented
 62

primarily for tourism and recreation with biodiversity conservation being secondary or no
consideration at all.
• Human settlements present around or within protected areas affect natives of their
vital resources (who have been using them since times immemorial). Their hostility
and lack of cooperation defeats very purpose of conservation efforts.
• Knowledge of nature and wild-life of the natives is ignored by the planners and
policy makers in wild-life conservation efforts.
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Extinction of Species
Extinction is the rule of nature.
• Local extinction occurs when a species disappears from a part of its range of distribution.
• Global extinction occurs when a species becomes extinct very where all over the world.
• The rate of extinction has varied greatly over geological time and has increased rapidly
twice the industrial revolution.
• From 580 MYA, until the beginning of the industrial revolution, on the average, about one
species per year became extinct. This is referred to as Background extinction.
➢ Various studies established that as much as quarter of earth’s species become
extinct each million years.
➢ Studies have established that background extinction rates have decreased over
time in higher animals as marine animals are less vulnerable to extinction now them
during the Paleozoic as do some terrestrial mammals.
➢ On the other hand extinction rates among Eukaryotic plankton and land plants
seem to have increased over time.
Mass Extinction:
Alongside background extinctions, are geological intervals during which vast
numbers of species and higher taxa have disappeared.
The most severe mass extinction (seen in the Phanerozoic fossil record) is in the
latest Permian (Paleozoic – Mesozoic boundary) approximately 245 MYA ‘8 the oceans,
approximately 50% of animal families and 80% of animal genera disappeared. Some
calculations showed that 96 % of marine animal species disappeared.
➢ Record about terrestrial biota is less precise.
➢ Retallaca (1995) collected evidence of severe disruption among land plants. Benton (
1985,89) 49% extinction of vertebrate tetrapod families and lauendiera and sepusok
(1993) reported 2/3 extinctions among insect families.
➢ Exact period during which these extinction occurred not clear.
➢ Recent studies in china showed that the end Permian mass extinction was very abrupt
occurring over less than 10,000 years and was catastrophic.
➢ According to Jinetal (1994), there were two mass extinctions during the late Permian,
the first depict 5 million years. Before the Triassic elimination large no. of foraminifera,
 64

brachiopods and echinoderms and second nearer to Triassic elimination perhaps 80 %

of remaining species.
Various explanatory hypotheses ranging from
1. Lowering of sea level leading to reduction of habitat space for sea life to
2. Climate change and reduction endemicity.
3. Wide spread oceanic anoxia (reduction in dissolved O2) and super nova explosion.
Four other mass extinctions eliminated 15% or more of marine animal families followed
by another 15 extinctions of lesser magnitude.
1. The best studied major mass extinctions is at the end of cretaceous about 65 MYA. When
Dinosaurs and other mesozoic reptiles became extinct
2. Entry Margret of Britain into Europe. Along with marine invertebrates, ammonite
cephalopods, bivalves and nearly all planktonic foraminifera.
3. According to Alvarez etal (1984) extinctions are caused due to the impact of 10 km
asteroid hitting the earth ensuing blanketing of the earth by an opaque dust cloud,
shutting down the primary productivity leading to starvation of herbivores and carnivores
and suspension feeders.
4. Others attribute extinctions to wide spread explosive volcanism leading to climate
change (due to injection of
1. Sulphates
2. Aerosols
In upper atmosphere) thus disturbing the biotic environment.
5. Although reasons and causes of ancient mass extinction remains controversial, however
global diversity in most situations recovered rather quickly on global time scales. For
example.

I. After the end Ordovician and late Devonian events, marine diversity rebounded by
previous levels of richness.
II. After end Triassic and cretaceous event, marine biodiversity rebounded to general trend
of increase, established after end Permian.
HOW SPECIES BECOME EXTINCT:
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I. Over much of the history of life of earth the rate of evolution of new species equaled or
slightly exceeded the rate of extinction.
II. The average longevity of a SP has been about 10MYA
III. However second show there have been periods of catastrophic losses of sp. And other
periods of rapid evolution of new species. And referred by some as Punctuated
extinctions.
As about 250 MYA, a mass extinction occurred leading to disappearance of about 53 %
marine animal species, about 65 MYA most of dinosaurs became extinct. In between
these episodes of mass extinctions, there are small periods of hundreds of thousands of
years with comparatively loss rates of extinctions (Background extinctions). In Natural
Extinctions, there is replacement of one from by a more successful one through
competition and evolution. However at the end of last great continental glaciation (about
10,000 Ya), massive extinctions of large birds and mammals occurred as 33 genera of
large mammals (50kg or more) became extinct whereas only 13 genera became extinct
in the preceding 1 or 2 MY. Smaller mammals and marine mammals were not so
affected.
Arrival of man & Sudden Extinction.
It is suggested that these sudden extinctions coincided with arrival (on diff. continents)
at diff. Times of stone age people and extinction may have been caused due to hunting
by them
Causes of Extinction.
Four basic categories as
I Population risk
II Environmental risk
III Natural Catastrophe
IV Genetic risk.
Risk here means chance that a SP or population of that SP. Will become extinct owing
to one of these causes.

Population risk:
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Random variations in population rates (i.e. birth & death rate) can lead a SP. In
low abundance to extinction called population risk E.G in case of blue whales, their
success is finding mates probably varied from year to year. If in any year, they are
unsuccessful in finding mates, then birth would be dangerously low such random
variations in populations, among many SP. Can occur without any change in environment.
Thus a risk especially to those species, that consist of only a single population in one
habitat.
Environmental Risk:
Changes in environment that occur from day to day, month to month and year to year,
even though not severe enough to be considered as environmental catastrophes can
affect population size of a species. Environmental risk involves variation in the
➢ Physical
➢ Biological environment including variations in predator, pry, symbiotic or
competitor species. In some cases, SP. Are sufficiently rare and isolated so that
such vernal variation can lead to their extinctions. An example of this is local
extinction of a population of butterflies in the Colorado mountains USA as
described by Paul and Ahne Ehruch.
➢ These buffer flies lay their eggs in the unopened buds of a single SP. Of a legume,
Lupine and the hatched caterpillars feed on the flowers.
➢ One year, however very late snow and freezing environmental conditions, killed all
the lupine buds, leaving the caterpillars without food and causing local extinction
of butterflies. The plants however survived and their roots produced new stems,
leaves and flowers. The next year, had this been only population of that butterfly,
the entire SP. Would have become extinct
Natural Catastrophes:
A sudden change in the environment (not due to result of human action) is a
natural catastrophe. (Floods, volcanic eruption, earthquake, drought and storms are
normal catastrophes, on land. Changes in currents and upwelling’s are oceanic
catastrophes e.g. the explosion of volcano in the island of Krakatoa (Indonesia) is 1983
was one of the worst natural catastrophes of recent history. Most of island was blown to
bits, bringing about local extinction of most life forms these.
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Genetic Risk:
Detrimental changes in genetic characteristics, not caused by external changes
is called genetic risk. Genetic changes can occur in small populations from reduced
genetic variations genetic drift and mutation. In a small population, only some of the
possible inherited characteristics will be found. The species is vulnerable to extinction
because its lacks variety or because a mutation can become fixed in the population. For
example, it stands to reason that the last 20 “condors” in the wild in California (USA) is a
small number, likely, to have less genetic variability than the much higher population that
existed several centuries ago. This increased the “Condors” vulnerability. Suppose that
last 20 condors by chance had inherited characteristics that made them less able to with
stand lack of water. If left in the wild, these condors would have been more vulnerable to
extinction than a larger, more genetically variable population.

Exsitu/ InSitu Conservation

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Judicious use and management of nature and natural resources for the benefit of human
society and for the ethical reasons.
II Term used both in the narrow sense of preservation or maintenance of some or all of
the events of biological diversity and in broader sense includes sustainable use of the
components or their recovery or restoration or both.
Background:
Most animal and plant species are limited in distribution. Their habitats may not be
sufficient and possibility of finding new habitats of adequate are wildlife habitats shrink,
numerous life-forms will be lost through extinction. Large vertebrates will ultimately be
confined to wild life preservers.
Whatever we do, species shall continue to disappear and wild life failing to survive even
in protected areas and natural habitats, conservation under human care can be the only
solution. It is not possible to preserve all the species yet efforts should be intensified for
ex-situ conservation as it would save some fragments of once extensive wild life for the
future.
I: What is ex-situ Conservation?
It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plants and animals species
under partially or wholly controlled conditions in zoos, gardens, nurseries, and
laboratories. In wilderness organisms enjoy gold free.
Natural Stresses,
Wild animals have always to be alert, compete for food, water and space and have to die
by a lingering death due to disease, injury, starvation. Or thirst, often unable to breed due
to absence of mate.
Plants in wilderness experience equally difficult conditions i-e grazing animals, diseases,
forest fires that destroy entire plant population while there is tough competition for
nutrients, space, light etc.
During conservation, human case eliminate the stresses which living organisms
experience in natural habitats and provide conditions necessary for a secure life and
breeding.

II the Strategy of Ex-Situ Conservation:

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➢ Ex-situ conservation in old-age practice is man has been breeding animals and
plants under his care for various purposes since time immemorial.
➢ However, these captive breeding has become very important method of
conserving some very important life forms.
➢ Application of advanced scientific methods and technology has improved it further.
The strategy involves.
➢ Identification of the species to be conserved.
➢ The methods of ex-situ conservation.
A .Identification:
Since all species cannot be conserved. So, some criteria needs to be devised to
select species for ex-situ conservation. There
(i) Vulnerability of the species to extinction
(ii) Economic, ecological / aesthetic importance of the species.
Vulnerability:
A number of traits (attributes of life-cycle that determine species vulnerability to
extinction include
Rarity:
Due to fragmentation of habitat due to human activities understory birds occupy
fewer forest fragments per species than the species common ones and are prove to
extinction sooner than the other species.
Dispessal ability:
Mobile species capable of migration between fragments of habitats with case of
swiftness are not at much risk of extinction.
Degree of specialization:
Species depending on specific resources distributed in small patches in time and
space are more prone to extinction as their resources may be affected more than others.

Niche Location:
 70

Species able to tolerate conditions at the interface between different types of

habitats are less affected by the habitat fragmentation while the intolerant ones are more
prone to extinction in a relatively shorter time.
Population Variability:
Species with the stable populations are less vulnerable to extinction as they do not
fall below the critical threshold from which it is difficult to recover as compared to those
which undergo fluctuations in population densities.
Trophic Status of the species.
Animals at higher trophic levels are usually less abundant and thus more
vulnerable to extinction because of rarity
Adult survival Rate:
Species with naturally low adult survival rates are usually more vulnerable to
extinction than those with higher adult survival rates.
Longevity:
➢ Usually long lived animals, are less vulnerable to extinction than those species
which have shorter spam of life.
➢ Economic, Ecological and aesthetic importance of the specie play important role
in the final selection of the species for its ex-sita conservation as the resources
available for conservation are limited and cannot be applied to all the endangered
species.
Methods of Ex-Situ Conservation
Involves techniques to maintain, multiply or help the species to survive under
natural conditions
1- Long Term Captive Breeding:
The method involves capture, maintenance and breeding in captivity
As long term basis of individuals of the endangered species which have lost their habitats
permanently or some factors in their habitats shall force them to extinction again such as
(a) Poaching
(b) Excessive hunting
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Zoos and botanical gardens house a number of such animal and plant species which are
irregularly bred in captivity as they shall not survive in their wild habitats, captive breeding
and maintenance is to only way to preserve such species.
Examples:
These include
1) Silurian tiger
2) Pere David’s Deer
3) European Larson
4) Brown eared pheasant
5) Gravy’s zebra
6) Chinese alligator etc.
2. Short term propagation and release:
Here, short term maintenance and captive breeding followed by the release of the
animal in their natural habitat is used when the population of a species declines due to
some temporary setback in their living conditions as over hunting which can be banned
by law. The endangered animals maintained and in captivity under human care are
subsequently released in the wild habitat. Thus with little help, they can re-establish
themselves in their natural home.
Examples Include
• Alpine Ibex (Switzerland)
• Tawny vultures, (France)
• Silurian Crane
• Breaded Vulture
• Red wolf
• Cheetah
• Bold Eagle
3.Animal Translocations
It involves release in a new locality of animals which came from place other than
in which they are being released. The Capture, transfer and release of animals from one
to another locality involves maintenance of the animal in captivity for some time. Captivity
period should be as short as possible E.G. Swedish Hitchcock was Trans located to
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Scotland and Northern England in 1937-38. Similarly. Translocation of Golden Lion

Tamarins (a squirrel sized monkey) endemic to a small past of forests of Rio De Janeiro
to a safer habitat where they have established themselves.
4. Animal Re-Introduction
I. It involves release of animals either borne in captivity or caught in infancy
from the wild and grown in captivity into an area from which they have either
declined or disappeared as a result of human pressure (hunting etc.) or
some natural causes (like in epidemic).
II. These reintroduction may also involve rehabilitation as well as an animal
borne in captivity or captured as an infant and revise in captivity, it is
ignorant of the mid vivendi in the wild habitats as they need to learn who to
survive in the wild and need to be trained before being introduced into their
natural habitats a process referred to as rehabilitation a very important step
in the introduction of intelligent animals as primates. It is less significant or
even unnecessary in case of animals with instinctive behavior like crodile.
Examples: Many animals e.g. America Bison, Eagle owl, white tailed sea eagle and
gas hawk have been re-established in their natural habitats in North America and Britian.
Through captive breeding and re-introduction.
Similarly, Bold Eagle, osprey and Hawk have been restored to their original
habitats in USA.
Adverse Consequences of Ex-Situ Conservation.
Some inherent disadvantages in the practice of Ex-Situ conservation as wild life
we breed in captivity is not exactly the same as it would have been in nature.
1) In order to prevent genetic drift, larger population should be kept in captivity for
which necessary found, space and man power is not available. As act of 629 threatened
species only 20,628 specimens of 140 species are kept in zoos of the world too small a
number to avoid genetic drift and eventual loss of a number of useful genes.
2) Animals in captivity may undergo genetic adaptations to their artificial conditions
thus become useless for their natural habitats. E.G. may undergo changes in the mouth
parts and the digestive enzymes due to the diet of the zoo food. Carnivores may lose the
ability to pursue and hunt their own food. Due to lack of genetic diversity, off spring of
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the parents kept in captivity become unfit to adjust and adopt the persistently changing
environmental conditions in nature.
3) Animals in captivity lose their knowledge of natural environment making them in
capable of living in the wild to the extent that no amount of acclimatization or training can
rehabilitate them in the wild.
4) The Ex-situ populations may represent only a limited portion of the gene pool of
the species especially in the case of wide ranging species with scattered populations.
5) Ex-Situ conservation requires a regular supply of resources, funds and institutional
support and any interruption may result in considerable losses.
6) Ex-Situ conservation efforts are usually restricted in one or few places. There are
possibilities that entire population of endangered species may be wiped out due to some
natural calamity or catastrophe, such as a war caused by man.
Justification to continue Ex-Situ Conservation
Major objectives to practice are.

1) Maintenance and breeding of animals in captivity often results in adverse genetic

and behavioral consequences for species.

2) Frequent and costly failures during re-introduction of the species into their natural
habitat though in some cases re-introduction has been successful.

3) Heavy expenditure increased during ex-situ conservation e.g. keeping African

elephants and black rhinos in captivity shall cost 50 times as much as protecting and
managing the same number of individuals in the wild habitats.

Therefore ex-situ conservation efforts are undertaken only in case of those

endangered organisms which have no chances of survival in the wild under in-situ
conservation efforts, so ex0situ conservation is the resort of last choice.

EXAMPLES
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Pere David’s deer, Addax, Ory x and the douc ranges live today because of their ex-
situ conservation.

IN-SITU CONSERVATION

I. It involves conservation of species in tis natural habitat – i.e. places where species
normally occur and live. Entire ecosystem or natural surroundings is protected and
maintained so that all known or unknown species in it are conserved and benefited.
Here unlike ex-Situ conservation, few individuals of a species are not kept in an
artificial habitat for their maintenance, feeding and provide a mate for their
reproduction.

II. Here factors detrimental to the existence of species are eliminated and the rest in
left to the nature which takes care of its own self.

III. It is an age-old practice as parks, protected areas, reserve forests or sanctuaries

were established where wild-life could grow and multiply to meet the threat of
diminishing wild-life since times immortal.
Advantages & Disadvantages:
Many Advantages:
It involves promotion of natural system to take care of its own self by providing
(improving) conditions to let life-forms do it themselves. Advantages as follows:
Cheap and convenient method of conservation as our role is only supportive factors
detrimental to the existence of species concerned are eliminated to let species grow in
their natural environment where they have been growing since a long time This reduces
cost of conservation efforts enormously.

To ensure survival of a population of carnivores, these have to be adequate population

of herbivores in the system to serve as food for the predators and plenty of green
vegetation for the herbivores is needed in the system as their food. So we need to protect
the entire natural habitat or the system along with the large number of organisms there,
Thus, unlike ex-situ conservation, here we protect a large number of organisms
simultaneously, known or unknown ___?
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3) In natural ecosystems, organisms not only live and multiply but evolve as well
due to free lay of natural agencies like drought, storm, super storms, snow,
temperature fluctuations, excessive rains, fires and pathogens etc. Providing
organisms an opportunity to adjust to prevailing conditions of environment and
evolve into a better adopted life-form. This is in contrast to ex-situ conservation
where organisms lose chances to adopt to prevailing environmental conditions
under human care in isolated artificial environmental conditions. As the vital
process of evolution freezes (stops), germ plasma tends to stagnate and these
protected species become useless for us in future.

Disadvantages:

Requires large area of earth’s surface if full component of regional biodiversity is to be

preserved. This requires minimizing or excluding human activity and interference from
that locality which is difficult in the face of growing demands of humans for space to live.

Strategy:

The Strategy of in situ conservation revolves around establish3ing small or large

protected areas set aside exclusively for wildlife with restricted human activities like (i)
hunting, (ii) fire wood collection and (iii) timber harvesting to allow wild plants and animals
to grow and multiply in a protected environment. The strategy though not fully successful
but of great help in preserving a considerable variety of life forms.

Today about 7000 protected areas, parks and sometimes sanctuaries, nature reserves
all around the world which cover more than 650 million hectares of earth’s surface
representing about 5% of total land area of our planet. These include a variety of

i. Natural Parks

ii. Sanctuaries

iii. Biosphere Reserves etc.

These differ from one another in their

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i. Size

ii. Purpose and the

iii. Degree of human interference or

iv. Management efforts accorded.

Natural parks and Sanctuaries:

➢ Protection of one, two or more species and their habitats.

➢ Usually small in size and range from 100 sq. KMs to 5000 Sq. KMs

➢ The boundaries of (A) National parks are well marked and circumscribed whereas
those of a (B) Sanctuary are often not well defined.

➢ Controlled biotic interference is permitted in sanctuaries which

➢ Allow tourist activities as well.

➢ National Parks tourist activity as well as limited biotic interference on the outskirts
or the bufferzone may be permitted but not in the deep interior on the core zone of
the park.

Role of herbaria and botanical gardens in conservation

Concept :-

Here collections of living plants and grown for some educational , economic , medicinal
and scientific purpose.
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Role :-

They have played a many significant role in civilization and cultures over the ages.They
work on a variety of botanical disciplines of which conservation is also an important part.

Characteristics of botanical garden :-

• They maintain documented living plant collections.

• Open to public and provide educational information on their collection for visitors.
• They undertake scientific or horticultural research.
• Their plant collections are labeled.
• Their collections are often of documented wild in origin valuable for scientific and
conservation purposes apart from decoration and amenity.
• Most botanical gardens do not have sufficient sufficient technical resources for
effective conservation and research into biodiversity.However,their developing role
in conservation and education justifies their existence and last decade has been a
renaissance period for botanical garden.

Functions :-

• In 1989 , the botanical garden conservation strategy was published and their role
in living resources conservation and in the implementation of world conservation
strategy.
• Manuals of botanical gardens have been published on the subjects of Exsitu
conservation.
• Seed banking
• Reintroduction
• Species recovery
• The convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and
fauna.
• Environmental education
• Plant data management

Number and distribution :-

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There are 5 botanical gardens in Pakistan with 430 number of taxa reported in cultivation.
Worldwide almost 1600 majority in Europe and North America.Few countries have not
any botanical garden.As compared to earlier European botanical gardens meant to study
the properties of medicinal plants.These have developed over the last 40 years are
primarily for conservation management and utilization of plant diversity and for
environmental education.Many botanical gardens established before this century by
European colonial powers in many tropical countries were meant to introduced the plant
growth for economic importance.Some of these are in India , Brazil , Indonesia ,
Singapore and Sirilanka are now being recognized for new roles in the conservation of
plant genetic resources.

Most other botanical gardens have now shifted emphasis towards conservation of native
plants than on introduced ones.Some 800 botanical gardens are active in biodiversity
conservation according to Botanical Garden Conservation International ( BGCI ).Though
their extent and effectiveness varies from those involve din small scale local actions to
those undertaking major international programmes.

Botanical garden linkages and Networks :-

• A network of closely cooperating botanical gardens were developed between

1985-1995 and their secretariat ( BGCS ) was established in 1987 to unite them
and promote their role in plant conservation.In 1990 BGCS become independent.
• They are further linked through international association of botanical gardens (
IABG ) founded in 1956 with many regional divisions. Many countries as Australia
China Japban France , USA have national botanical gardens organizations with
close cooperation between their gardens.

Nature of botanical garden collections :-

Not less than 3.2 million total number of accessions of taxa and upto 4 million of
unregistered collections are included that representing 80,000 species or 30% of known
species of lowering plants and ferns , 25% of those estimated for the world.BGCI has
documented 250,000 accessions representiong 30,000 species.
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Documentation of garden collections inadequate in many institutions as only 76 ( 7.3% )

equipped with computerized system.

Best represented plant groups in botanical gardens are

I. Those of horticultural or economic interests ; carnivorous , plants , orchids , palms

, cacti and other succulents , ferns , cycads , wood , legume , bulbous plants and
conifers.
II. Thematic collections of medicinal and aromatic plants , fruit , trees and their wild
relatives , ornamentals , alpine , temperate and tropical trees.
III. Floras of many tropical and subtropical countries as Brazil , Indonesia as well as
many African and South American countries are poorly represented in many
botanical garden collections while those of Europe , North America , Australia ,
Newzealand etc are better represented.About 30% of their rare and endangered
flora as well as endemic floras are also well represented.

Conservation programmes :-

A wide range of exxsitu conservation activities include

I. Maintenance of living collections including representative of many rare and

endangered species.
II. Gene banks basically have seed storage facilities.
III. Specialized nurseries and horticultural centeres.
IV. Propagation and bulking up of materials for reintroduction programmes.
V. Micropropagation and tissue culture.
VI. Herbaria with non-living reference collections for systematic research.The BGCI
database lists 721 botanical gardens with associated herbaria containing over 80
million specimens which can contribute to research in fields like ethnobiology ,
horticulture , conservation biology , population biology , ecology , molecular botany
and genetics.
VII. Botanical gardens also have role in protecting ecosystems.Over 500 botanical
gardens either contain areas of natural vegetation or have such areas directly
under their control providing an opportunity for extensive in-situ conservation
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action.Many of these botanical gardens work with protected area managers to

contribute to the management of in-situ plant resources.

GENE BANK MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION.

DEFINTION;

Gene is the functional unit of heredity, part of DNA molecule that encode a particular
protein.
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GENE FLOW; exchange of genetic traits between population by movement of individual

, gametes or spores

GENETIC DIVERSITY; variation in genetic composition of individual within or among

species, the heritable genetic variation, within and among population.

GENETIC DRIFT; random gene frequency changes in a small population due to chance
alone.

GENETIC EROSION; loss of genetic diversity between and within population of the same
species over time, or reduction in genetic basis of a species due to human intervention ,
environmental changes etc.

GENETIC RESOURCES. Genetic material of plants, animal or microorganisms

,including modern cultivars, primitive varieties, domesticated animals of value as a
resource for future generations of humanity.

GENE BANK; a storage facility where germ plasm is stored in the form of seeds, pollen,
semen ,pollen ,or invitro culture, or in case of a field gene bank, as plants growing in field.

GERM PLASM. A set of different genotypes that may be conserved and used; the genetic
material, especially its specific molecular and chemical composition , that comprises the
physical basis of the inherited qualities of an organism .

GENOTYPE; the entire genetic constitution of an organism , or a genetic composition at

a specific gene locus or set of loci.

TYPES OF GENETIC RESOURCE/ COLLECTIONS FOR GENE BANKS.

a) PLANT GENETIC RESOURCE COLLECTIONS.

It include seed samples, spore samples ,pollen samples, field grown material for clonally
propagated species or those with recalcitrant seeds and in vitro collections , as embryos,
tissues or cell suspension.
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ANIMAL genetic resources collection include embryos and semen under cryogenic
storage ,groups of living animal kept in an exclusive area under supervision or networks
of breeding groups linked by administrative measures, legal restrictions and functional
incentives. E.g pedigree registers. These collections , historically known as culture
collections and considered as particular categories of genetic resource collections.

b) WHAT ARE AND HOW THE GENETIC RESOURCES COLLECTION ARE

DEFINED?

A genetic resource collection is a repository of samples of living material of animals ,

plants , fungi or microorganisms generally in a dormant or other phase in which they are
not actively growing and has been assembled for use in breeding and for other purposes.

These collections encompass stores of gametes, pollen, seeds and embryos maintained
in large term storage facilities . cultivated plants are maintained in field gene bank as they
can not be stored in dormant phase.

(C) MANAGEMENT OF GENETIC RESOURCE COLLECTION(gene bank)

These collections are assembled to ensure the conservation of genetic diversity.(2) to

provide a source of material for its characterization and evolution and to make it available
for distribution and utilization.it can also be used for characterization and evolution of the
variation present within a species or genus.it is therefore essential to conserve adequate
stocks which are regularly monitored and update with to ensure its availability in future
and to maintain genetic heredity of material.

Both taxa and individual accessions(new additions)should be clearly defined and

catalogued with relevant information about their origin and properties .for microbial
collection the use of molecular markers such as those obtained from DNA finger printing
and RFLP technique are valuable for investigation the genetic basis of variation between
different varieties.

Genetic resources can be conserved ‘’in site’’(maintained in their original habitat and
reproducing within the environment in which they evolved and continue to do so) or “ex-
 83

situ’’. if in situ they may be artificially maintained on in the case of formers field or
managed to some extent as in the case of protected areas.

(D) COMMUNITY GENE BANKS;

Farmers still make extensive use of traditional varieties or landraces in many part of the
world. farmers grow then as they are adopted to particular agro-ecological niches or to
meet specific uses for which the improved cultivars are not suited. such land races are
maintained by individual farmers ,often subjected to selection and experimentation and
frequently exchanged within between the communities through traditionl seed supply
system.

Many communities in different ways have developed methods of ensuring that their crop
resources are maintained for using emergencies or after natural disasters e.g in indian
communities .scred groups serve their purpose;in same Brazillian Indigenores groups
.individuals are changed with maintaining a secret resource of planting materials .in
Ethiopia ,community grain pits may be made to store seeds of different crops

CRITICISM;

They are in accessible to famers and communities in general. since they are designed
to conserve the maximum crop diversity for long period genetic resources to professional
plant breeders so their access to local communities in difficult.at the same their local
communities in difficult.at the same time local resources for traditional farming areas and
to obtain new crop germplasm are under way .in the USA have developed a community
gene bank for their own traditional crop.in Ethiopea the plant genetic research
center(PGRC\E) have developed close links with farmers over many years and have
collected in the maintenance and multiplication of landraces especially of barley,lentils
and chickpea and a number of community gave banks formed in part by the global
environment facility are being planned in different regions of countries.

(C) MANAGEMENT OF GENETIC RESOURCE COLLECTION(gene bank)

These collections are assembled to ensure the conservation of genetic diversity.(2) to

provide a source of material for its characterization and evolution and to make it available
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for distribution and utilization.it can also be used for characterization and evolution of the
variation present within a species or genus.it is therefore essential to conserve adequate
stocks which are regularly monitored and update with to ensure its availability in future
and to maintain genetic heredity of material.

Both taxa and individual accessions(new additions)should be clearly defined and

catalogued with relevant information about their origin and properties .for microbial
collection the use of molecular markers such as those obtained from DNA finger printing
and RFLP technique are valuable for investigation the genetic basis of variation between
different varieties.

Genetic resources can be conserved ‘’in site’’(maintained in their original habitat and
reproducing within the environment in which they evolved and continue to do so) or “ex-
situ’’. if in situ they may be artificially maintained on in the case of formers field or
managed to some extent as in the case of protected areas.

(D) COMMUNITY GENE BANKS;

Farmers still make extensive use of traditional varieties or landraces in many part of the
world. farmers grow then as they are adopted to particular agro-ecological niches or to
meet specific uses for which the improved cultivars are not suited. such land races are
maintained by individual farmers ,often subjected to selection and experimentation and
frequently exchanged within between the communities through traditionl seed supply
system.

Many communities in different ways have developed methods of ensuring that their crop
resources are maintained for using emergencies or after natural disasters e.g in indian
communities .scred groups serve their purpose;in same Brazillian Indigenores groups
.individuals are changed with maintaining a secret resource of planting materials .in
Ethiopia ,community grain pits may be made to store seeds of different crops

CRITICISM;

They are in accessible to famers and communities in general. since they are designed
to conserve the maximum crop diversity for long period genetic resources to professional
 85

plant breeders so their access to local communities in difficult.at the same their local
communities in difficult.at the same time local resources for traditional farming areas and
to obtain new crop germplasm are under way .in the USA have developed a community
gene bank for their own traditional crop.in Ethiopea the plant genetic research
center(PGRC\E) have developed close links with farmers over many years and have
collected in the maintenance and multiplication of landraces especially of barley,lentils
and chickpea and a number of community gave banks formed in part by the global
environment facility are being planned in different regions of countries.

Public Awareness Strategies

Concept :-

Education and awareness about conservation is a non-ending process or an ongoing

process that tends to educate and train master trainers ( Key players ) and masses in the
environmental education with the lasting impacts as to manage the natural resources of
locality in a sustainable manner.

Monitoring :-
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It requires monitoring in order to identify emerging issues and timely intervention/

resolution for sustainable development of communities , resources and livelihoods.

Local traditional knowledge :-

Apart from transmitting new information on biodiversity collecting and appreciating

traditional knowledge on biodiversity , its local use and management can be equally
effective and important as regards awareness , impotance and values of biodiversity.

Development of interpretive facilities :-

Another important tool for awareness raising is the development of interpretive facilities
in and around the protected areas and exsitu conservation sites e.g Botanical gardens
and zoos.

Formal education system :-

In order to develop a comprehensive strategy for public education and awareness use
the formal education system to increase the awareness about biodiversity and the need
for its conservation.

Biodiversity contribution :-

Accordingly develop national curricula emphasizing biodiversity contributions to local and

national welfare to the health of ecosystem binding ecological , economic and social
themes together.

Build opportunities for children :-

Young children are more perceptive and curious about environment.They are also future
decision makers and leaders.so , build opportunities in their curricula for interaction with
natural environment.

Levels of education :-

The secondary level incorporate biodiversity themes into curricula of all relevant subjects
and at tertiary level strengthen and elaborate these themes create at least one degree or
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master level course which focuses on the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity.

Biodiversity themes for training :-

For teachers training administrators , managers and even armed forces , integrate
relevant biodiversity themes into the curriucla of the courses at the institutions etc.

Media :-

The local media and religions leader also play an important role in public awareness.As
far as possible develop local curricula relevant to the students local , ecologized , cultural
and economic environment.

Course of conservation :-

Develop course materials relevant to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity to

be incorporated in school text books.Encourage public private partnerships in curricula
development.

Informal biodiversity education programme :-

Develop and promote a comprehensive informal biodiversity education programme for

some specific audiences.Also develop more focused campaigns with a particular goal in
mind such as working with local community adjacent to a protected area to faster local
knowledge related to the protected area and promote understanding of the need for
protected areas.

Local knowledge :-

Document to local knowledge and cultural and religious basis of biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use in Pakistan.

Biodiversity themes :-

Link biodiversity themes with community assistance programmes such as primary health
care and education as well as agricultural and forestry extension programmes.
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Development of field guides :-

Develop affordable , popular , accessible and comprehensive field guides to the birds ,
animals and flora of Pakistan. Also develop locally relevant resources materials on the
conservation .

Use of agencies :-

Sustainable use of biodiversity for the use of agencies developing informal education
programmes.