NATIONAL COLLEGE OF BUSINESS

ADMINISTRATION & ECONOMICS

LAHORE

Hierarchy of Sentence

Submitted BY
Waqas Akbar

Submitted to
Dr. Arfan Lodhi Sb

M.PHIL ENGLISH LITERATURE (3rd Semester)

SESSION: 2019-2021

Hierarchy of Sentence
Definition of Hierarchy
A body of authoritative officials organized in nested ranks. | A social, religious, economic or
political system or organization in which people or groups of people are ranked with some
superior to others based on their status, authority or some other trait. | Any group of objects
ranked so that everyone but the topmost is subordinate to a specified one above it.
 Short Example Sentence for Hierarchy

 1. Most of them formed a little hierarchy in themselves. 

 2. A hierarchy of leaders is the essence of its organization. 

 3. Such a hierarchy is seen in savage life. 

 4. The base of the hierarchy is formed by the sense-objects.

1.Morphemes in English

In English grammar and morphology, a morpheme is a meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a

word such as dog, or a word element, such as the -s at the end of dogs, that can't be divided into
smaller meaningful parts.
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. They are commonly classified as
either free morphemes, which can occur as separate words or bound morphemes, which can't
stand alone as words.

Many words in English are made up of a single free morpheme. For example, each word in the
following sentence is a distinct morpheme: "I need to go now, but you can stay." Put another
way, none of the nine words in that sentence can be divided into smaller parts that are also
meaningful.

Etymology
From the French, by analogy with phoneme, from the Greek, "shape, form."

Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes

Morphemes that can stand alone to function as words are called free morphemes. They comprise
simple words (i.e. words made up of one free morpheme) and compound words (i.e. words made
up of two free morphemes).
Examples:
Simple words: the, run, on, well
Compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, bloodshed, smartphone
Morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot stand alone) are called
bound morphemes.
Examples:
pre-, dis-, in-, un-, -ful, -able, -ment, -ly, -ise
pretest, discontent, intolerable, receive

Complex words are words that are made up of both free morpheme(s) and bound morpheme(s),
or two or more bound morphemes.

Roll your mouse over the words below to see how many morphemes are there and whether they
are free morphemes or bound morphemes.
against imperative realize submit
assignment Facebook uncommon misinterpret
disqualified encountered geography irresistible

Root and Affixes

Affixation is the most common word formation process in English. Words are formed by adding
affixes to roots.
Roots can be free or bound morphemes. They cannot be further analyzed into smaller parts.
They form the base forms of the words.
1. Free roots are free morphemes. They can stand alone to function as words.
Examples:
recollect, bilingual, uneasy, mislead, hardly, attractive
2. Bound roots are bound morphemes. They cannot stand alone to function as words
because they are no longer used in Modern English.
Examples:
receive, reduce

Affixes are bound morphemes. They can be classified into prefixes and suffixes in English.
1. A prefix is an affix added to the beginning of other morphemes to form a word.
Examples:
dislike, deactivate, inadequate, immobile, misleading, unaccountable
endurable, underachieve, overdeveloped, prerequisite, postgraduate, recycle
2. A suffix is an affix added to the end of other morphemes to form a word.
Examples:
admirable, fruitful, ambitious, enjoyment, eagerness, standardize, cowardly,
younger, processing, McDonald's, assignments, decides, decided
Affixes
An "affix" is a bound morpheme that occurs before  or after a base. An affix that comes
before a base is called a "prefix." Some examples of prefixes are ante-, pre-, un-,
and dis-, as in the following words:
antedate
prehistoric
unhealthy
disregard
An affix that comes after a base is called a "suffix." Some examples of suffixes are  -ly, -
er, -ism, and -ness, as in the following words:
happily
gardener
capitalism
kindness
Derivational Affixes
An affix can be either derivational or inflectional. "Derivational affixes" serve to alter the
meaning of a word by building on a base. In the examples of words with prefixes and
suffixes above, the addition of the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy.
The resulting word means "not healthy." The addition of the suffix  -er to garden changes
the meaning of garden, which is a place where plants, flowers, etc., grow, to a word that
refers to 'a person who tends a garden.' It should be noted that  all prefixes in English are
derivational. However, suffixes may be either derivational or inflectional.
Inflectional Affixes
There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only
eight "inflectional affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes. English has the following
inflectional suffixes, which serve a variety of grammatical functions when added to
specific types of words. These grammatical functions are shown to the right of each suffix.
-s     noun plural
-'s     noun possessive
-s     verb present tense third person singular
-ing     verb present participle/gerund
-ed     verb simple past tense
-en     verb past perfect participle
-er     adjective comparative
-est     adjective superlative

2.Words

A word is a speech sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing, that

symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme or a
combination of morphemes.
The branch of linguistics that studies word structures is called morphology. The branch of
linguistics that studies word meanings is called lexical semantics.
Etymology

From Old English, "word"

Examples and Observations

"[A word is the] smallest unit of grammar that can stand alone as a complete utterance, separated
by spaces in written language and potentially by pauses in speech."
-David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University
Press, 2003

"A grammar . . . is divided into two major components, syntax and morphology. This division
follows from the special status of the word as a basic linguistic unit, with syntax dealing with the
combination of words to make sentences, and morphology with the form of words themselves."-
R. Huddleston and G. Pullum,  The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge
University Press, 2002

"We want words to do more than they can. We try to do with them what comes to very much
like trying to mend a watch with a pickaxe or to paint a miniature with a mop; we expect them to
help us to grip and dissect that which in ultimate essence is as ungrippable as shadow.
Nevertheless there they are; we have got to live with them, and the wise course is to treat them as
we do our neighbours, and make the best and not the worst of them."
-Samuel Butler, The Note-Books of Samuel Butler, 1912

Big Words
"A Czech study . . . looked at how using big words (a classic strategy for impressing others)
affects perceived intelligence. Counter-intuitvely, grandiose vocabulary diminished participants'
impressions of authors' cerebral capacity. Put another way: simpler writing seems smarter."
-Julie Beck, "How to Look Smart." The Atlantic, September 2014

The Power of Words

"It is obvious that the fundamental means which man possesses of extending his orders of
abstractions indefinitely is conditioned, and consists in general in symbolism and, in particular,
in speech. Words, considered as symbols for humans, provide us with endlessly flexible
conditional semantic stimuli, which are just as 'real' and effective for man as any other powerful
stimulus.

Virginia Woolf on Words

"It is words that are to blame. They are the wildest, freest, most irresponsible, most un-teachable
of all things. Of course, you can catch them and sort them and place them in alphabetical order
in dictionaries. But words do not live in dictionaries; they live in the mind. If you want proof of
this, consider how often in moments of emotion when we most need words we find none. Yet
there is the dictionary; there at our disposal are some half-a-million words all in alphabetical
order. But can we use them? No, because words do not live in dictionaries, they live in the mind.
Look once more at the dictionary. There beyond a doubt lie plays more splendid than Antony and
Cleopatra; poems lovelier than the 'Ode to a Nightingale'; novels beside which Pride and
Prejudice or David Copperfield are the crude bunglings of amateurs. It is only a question of
finding the right words and putting them in the right order. But we cannot do it because they do
not live in dictionaries; they live in the mind. And how do they live in the mind? Variously and
strangely, much as human beings live, ranging hither and thither, falling in love, and mating
together."
-Virginia Woolf, "Craftsmanship." The Death of the Moth and Other Essays, 1942

Word Word
"Word Word [1983: coined by US writer Paul Dickson]. A non-technical, tongue-in-cheek term
for a word repeated in contrastive statements and questions: 'Are you talking about an American
Indian or an Indian Indian?'; 'It happens in Irish English as well as English English.'"

3.Phrases

A phrase is a group of words that express a concept and is used as a unit within a sentence. Eight
common types of phrases are: noun, verb, gerund, infinitive, appositive, participial,
prepositional, and absolute. Take a look at our selection of phrase examples below.
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers.
Here are examples:
 The bewildered tourist was lost.
 The lost puppy was a wet and stinky dog.
 The flu clinic had seen many cases of infectious disease.
 It was a story as old as time.
 The sports car drove the long and winding road.
 Saturday became a cool, wet afternoon.
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of a verb and all its modifiers.
Here are examples:
 He was waiting for the rain to stop.
 She was upset when it didn't boil.
 You have been sleeping for a long time.
 You might enjoy a massage.
 He was eager to eat dinner.
Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase is simply a noun phrase that starts with a gerund.
Examples include:
 Taking my dog for a walk is fun.
  Walking in the rain can be difficult.
 Strolling along a beach at sunset is romantic.
 Getting a promotion is exciting.
 Signing autographs takes time.
 Going for ice cream is a real treat.
 Singing for his supper was how he earned his keep.
 Getting a sore back was the result of the golf game.
 Pulling an all-nighter did not improve his test scores.
 Sailing into the sunset was the perfect end to the book.
Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive verb.
Here are some examples:
 To make lemonade, you have to start with lemons.
 I tried to see the stage, but I was too short.
 She organized a boycott to make a statement.
 To see Niagara Falls is mind-boggling.
 He really needs to get his priorities in order.
 The company decided to reduce hours for everyone.
 To donate time or money is an honorable thing.
 I went to Spain to study the language and culture.
Appositive Phrases
An appositive phrase restates and defines a noun. It consists of one or more words.
Examples are:
 My favorite pastime, needlepoint, surprises some people.
 Her horse, an Arabian, was her pride and joy.
 My wife, the love of my life, is also my best friend.
 A cheetah, the fastest land animal, can run 70 miles an hour.
 My idea, a recycling bin for the office, was accepted by the boss.
 The Florida panther, the state animal of Florida, is an endangered species.
Participial Phrases
A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle.
Examples are:
 Washed with my clothes, my cell phone no longer worked.
 Knowing what I know now, I wish I had never come here.
 I am really excited, considering all the people that will be there.
 We are looking forward to the movie, having seen the trailer last week.
 Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted her award.
 The happy dog ran the entire length of the park, pausing only to sniff the dandelions.
 Painted a brilliant white, the small room appeared bigger.
 The lake, frozen over all winter, was finally thawing.
Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and can act as a noun, an adjective or an adverb.
Examples are:
 The book was on the table.
 We camped by the brook.
 He knew it was over the rainbow.
 She was lost in the dark of night.
 He was between a rock and a hard place.
 I waited for a while.
 She smelled of strawberries and cream.
 He won the challenge against all odds.
Absolute Phrases
An absolute phrase has a subject, but not an action verb, so it cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence. It modifies the whole sentence, not just a noun.
Examples are:
 His tail between his legs, the dog walked out the door.
 Picnic basket in hand, she set off for her date.
 The guys attacked the pile of nachos, their fingers getting the last bit of cheese off the
plate.
 Their heads hanging down, the whole group apologized.
 The entire team, their uniforms muddy and stained, shouted for joy.
These are just a few examples of the eight different kinds of phrases. For further information and
examples of each type click on the links in each section.

3.Clause

Like a phrase, a clause is a group of related words; but unlike a phrase, a clause has a subject and
verb. An independent clause, along with having a subject and verb, expresses a complete
thought and can stand alone as a coherent sentence. In contrast, a subordinate or dependent
clause does not express a complete thought and therefore is not a sentence. A subordinate clause
standing alone is a common error known as a sentence fragment.

Independent clauses

He saw her. The Washingtons hurried home. Free speech has a price. Grammatically complete
statements like these are sentences and can stand alone. When they are part of longer sentences,
they are referred to as independent (or main) clauses.
Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions ( and, but,
for, nor, or, so, and yet) or by using semicolons. The most important thing to remember is that an
independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence.

In the following example, the independent clause is a simple sentence.

Erica brushed her long, black hair.

Next, the coordinating conjunction and joins two independent clauses.

Fernando left, and Erica brushed her long, black hair.

Next, a semicolon joins two independent clauses.

Fernando left; Erica brushed her long, black hair.

All sentences must include at least one independent clause.

After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long, black hair.

In the previous sentence, the independent clause is preceded by a clause that can't stand
alone: After she told Fernando to leave.

Erica brushed her long, black hair while she waited for Fernando to leave.

Here, the independent clause is followed by a clause that can't stand alone: while she waited for
Fernando to leave.

Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions

Any of the coordinating conjunctions ( and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) can be used to join an
independent clause to another independent clause. Can you begin a sentence with one of these
conjunctions?

No one knew what to do. But everyone agreed that something should be done.

An old rule says that you shouldn't. But beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is
acceptable today. (Notice the preceding sentence, for example.) Sometimes beginning a sentence
this way creates exactly the effect you want. It separates the clause and yet draws attention to its
relationship with the previous clause.

Subordinate clauses

A subordinate clause has a subject and verb but, unlike an independent clause, cannot stand by
itself. It depends on something else in the sentence to express a complete thought, which is why
it's also called a dependent clause. Some subordinate clauses are introduced by relative
pronouns ( who, whom, that, which, what, whose) and some by subordinating conjunctions
( although, because, if, unless, when, etc.). Subordinate clauses function in sentences as
adjectives, nouns, and adverbs.

Relative clauses

A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective.

In the following sentence, the relative pronoun that is the subject of its clause and won the
Pulitzer Prize is the predicate. This clause couldn't stand by itself. Its role in the complete
sentence is to modify novel, the subject of the independent clause.

The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn't sell well when it was first published.

In the next example , which is the relative pronoun that begins the subordinate
clause. Celebrities is the subject of the clause and attended is the verb. In the complete sentence,
this clause functions as an adjective describing ceremony.

The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received widespread media coverage.

Note that in a relative clause, the relative pronoun is sometimes the subject of the clause, as in
the following sentence, and sometimes the object, as in the next sentence.

Arthur, who comes to the games every week, offered to be scorekeeper.

Who is the subject of the clause and comes to the games every week is the predicate. The clause
modifies Arthur.

In the following sentence , mothers is the subject of the clause, adored is the verb, and whom is
the direct object of adored. Again, the clause modifies Arthur.

Arthur, whom the team mothers adored, was asked to be scorekeeper.

Noun clauses

A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence.

What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the verb is)

The host told us how he escaped. (direct object of the verb told)
A vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking verb is)
Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)

Pronoun case in subordinate clauses

Who, whom, whoever, whomever. In deciding which case of who you should use in a clause,
remember this important rule: The case of the pronoun is governed by the role it plays in its own
clause, not by its relation to the rest of the sentence. Choosing the right case of pronoun can be
especially confusing because the pronoun may appear to have more than one function. Look at
the following sentence.

They gave the money to whoever presented the winning ticket.

At first, you may think whomever is correct rather than whoever, on the assumption that it is the
object of the preposition to. But in fact the entire clause, not whoever, is the object of the
preposition. Refer to the basic rule: The case should be based on the pronoun's role within its
own clause. In this clause, whoever is the subject of the verb presented.

A good way to determine the right pronoun case is to forget everything but the clause
itself: whoever presented the winning ticket is correct; whomever presented the winning ticket is
not.

The following two sentences show how you must focus on the clause rather than the complete
sentence in choosing the right pronoun case.

We asked whomever we saw for a reaction to the play.

We asked whoever called us to call back later.

In each sentence the clause is the direct object of asked. But in the first sentence, whomever is
correct because within its clause, it is the object of saw. In the second sentence, whoever is
correct because it is the subject of called.

Adverbial clauses

Many subordinate classes begin with subordinating conjunctions. Examples of these

conjunctions are because, unless, if, when, and although. What these conjunctions have in
common is that they make the clauses that follow them unable to stand alone. The clauses act as
adverbs, answering questions like how, when, where, why, to what extent, and under what
conditions.

When Mauna Loa began erupting and spewing lava into the air, we drove away as quickly as we
could.

In the preceding sentence, when is a subordinating conjunction introducing the adverbial clause?
The subject of the clause is Mauna Loa and the predicate are beginning erupting and spewing
lava into the air. This clause is dependent because it is an incomplete thought.
What happened when the volcano began erupting? The independent clause we drove away as
quickly as we could completes the thought. The adverbial clause answers the question “When did
we drive?”
In the following sentence, because introduces the adverbial clause in which van is the subject
and needed the verb. This clause is an incomplete thought. What happened because the van
needed repairs? The independent clause the group of tourists decided to have lunch in the
village is necessary to complete the thought. Again, the subordinate clause as a whole act as an
adverb, telling why the tourists decided to have lunch in the village.

5.Sentence

In English grammar, sentence structure is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a
sentence. The grammatical function or meaning of a sentence is dependent on this structural
organization, which is also called syntax or syntactic structure.

In traditional grammar, the four basic types of sentence structures are the simple sentence, the
compound sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-complex sentence.

The most common word order in English sentences is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO). When
reading a sentence, we generally expect the first noun to be the subject and the second noun to be
the object. This expectation (which isn't always fulfilled) is known in linguistics as the
"canonical sentence strategy."

Examples and Observations

"Sentence structure may ultimately be composed of many parts, but remember that the
foundation of each sentence is the subject and the predicate. The subject is a word or a group of
words that functions as a noun; the predicate is at least a verb and possibly includes objects and
modifiers of the verb."

—Lara Robbins

Meaning and Sentence Structure

"People are probably not as aware of sentence structure as they are of sounds and words, because
sentence structure is abstract in a way that sounds and words are not . . . At the same time,
sentence structure is a central aspect of every sentence . . . We can appreciate the importance of
sentence structure by looking at examples within a single language. For instance, in English, the
same set of words can convey different meanings if they are arranged in different ways. Consider
the following:

 The senators objected to the plans proposed by the generals.

 The senators proposed the plans objected to by the generals.

The meaning of [first] the sentence is quite different from that of [the second], even though the
only difference is the position of the words objected to and proposed. Although both sentences
contain exactly the same words, the words are structurally related to each other differently; it is
those differences in structure that account for the difference in meaning."

Information Structure: The Given-Before-New Principle

"It has been known since the Prague School of Linguistics that sentences can be divided into a
part that anchors them in the preceding discourse ('old information') and a part that conveys new
information to the listener. This communicative principle may be put to good use in the analysis
of sentence structure by taking the boundary between old and new information as a clue to
identifying a syntactic boundary. In fact, a typical SVO sentence such as Sue has a boyfriend can
be broken down into the subject, which codes the given information, and the remainder of the
sentence, which provides the new information. The old-new distinction thus serves to identify
the VP [verb phrase] constituent in SVO sentences."

The Most Important Thing to Know About Sentence Structure

"Linguists investigate sentence structure by inventing sentences, making small changes to them,
and watching what happens. This means that the study of language belongs to the scientific
tradition of using experiments to understand some part of our world. For example, if we make up
a sentence (1) and then make a small change to it to get (2), we find that the second sentence is
ungrammatical.

(1) I saw the white house. (Grammatically correct)

(2) I saw the house white. (Grammatically incorrect)

6.Paragraph

Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students define paragraphs in terms of
length: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a page long, etc. In
reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is what constitutes a
paragraph. A paragraph is defined as “a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit”
(Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and appearance do not determine whether a section in a
paper is a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a
paragraph can be just one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of
sentences that support one main idea. In this handout, we will refer to this as the “controlling
idea,” because it controls what happens in the rest of the paragraph.

How do I decide what to put in a paragraph?

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with the germination of a seed of
ideas; this “germination process” is better known as brainstorming. There are many techniques
for brainstorming; whichever one you choose; this stage of paragraph development cannot be
skipped. Building paragraphs can be like building a skyscraper: there must be a well-planned
foundation that supports what you are building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions
of the foundation can cause your whole paper to crumble.

So, let’s suppose that you have done some brainstorming to develop your thesis. What else
should you keep in mind as you begin to create paragraphs? Every paragraph in a paper
should be:

 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single

controlling idea (often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).
 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or thesis,
of the paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).
 Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a
definite plan for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).
 Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained
and supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the
paragraph’s controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).

5-step process to paragraph development

 For each step there is an explanation and example. Our example paragraph will be about slave
spirituals, the original songs that African Americans created during slavery. The model
paragraph uses illustration (giving examples) to prove its point.

Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the
paragraph’s development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a
topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph’s
controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for our “model paragraph,” expressed in a
topic sentence:

Model controlling idea and topic sentence — Slave spirituals often had hidden
double meanings.

Step 2. Explain the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation that the
writer gives for how the reader should interpret the information presented in the idea statement
or topic sentence of the paragraph. The writer explains his/her thinking about the main topic,
idea, or focus of the paragraph. Here’s the sentence that would follow the controlling idea
about slave spirituals:

Model explanation — On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul;
but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance.

Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)

Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or evidence for
the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as a sign or representation
of the relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of the paragraph. Here are
two examples that we could use to illustrate the double meanings in slave spirituals:

Model example A — For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O
Canaan, Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their
desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the
following lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the
danger. / I don’t expect to stay.”

Model example B — Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)”
to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings.

Step 4. Explain the example(s)

The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its
relevance to the topic sentence and rationale that were stated at the beginning of the paragraph.
This explanation shows readers why you chose to use this/or these particular examples as
evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.

Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the
writer deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left
unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship between the example and the topic
sentence in the same sentence which introduced the example. More often, however, you will
need to explain that relationship in a separate sentence. Look at these explanations for the two
examples in the slave spirituals paragraph:

Model explanation for example A — When slaves sang this song, they could have
been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however,
they also could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to
Jesus, but to the North.
 Model explanation for example B — [The relationship between example B and the
main idea of the paragraph’s controlling idea is clear enough without adding another
sentence to explain it.]

Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph

The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph
and reminding the reader of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the main or
controlling idea of the paper. At this point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of the
information that you just discussed in the paragraph. You might feel more comfortable, however,
simply transitioning your reader to the next development in the next paragraph. Here’s an
example of a sentence that completes the slave spirituals paragraph:

Model sentence for completing a paragraph — What whites heard as merely

spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in
spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say.

7.Essay

An essay is an extended piece of writing that presents and supports a thesis or proposition. The
word ‘essay’ derives from the Latin word ‘exagium’, meaning the presentation of a case.

The five-paragraph essay is no secret. Everyone knows about it. The problem is that students fail
to pay close attention when it's taught in class, but this isn't rocket science. Pay attention and
you'll succeed.

These are the steps you take in writing an essay:

1. The teacher gives you an assignment

2. You think about how you want to approach the topic or you are allowed to choose a
topic.

3. Brainstorm and prewrite. This might involve the creation of an outline. Once you have
your outline completed, you can begin to write the essay. If you don't create an outline,
that's okay, as long as you know how you want to organize your work. Good organization
of your ideas will be noticed by the reader.

4. Write a rough draft. This is written according to your outline, or the rough draft could be
a writer's first attempt to get as much of the essay completed as possible, knowing that
the rough draft will be revised.
 5. Write a second draft. This is the revised rough draft in which you really try to pay
attention to the structure of your essay and follow the rules of good grammar. Show your
work to someone or, if possible, let the second draft rest for a few days and come back to
it later with a fresh perspective.

6. After receiving freedback from another student or a teacher or a friend, write your third
and final draft of the essay.

It is helpful to start with an outline; however, it's not always necessary nor is it possible to write
an outline if you are under time constraints that might be imposed during an essay test. At the
very least, you can jot down your ideas on a piece of paper before you begin so that you can
consider how your essay will be organized.

What goes into each paragraph of the essay? Let me explain what the content should consist of
and then I'll show you an example.

I. Introduction. This is the first paragraph. This is where you explain your position, your topic,
or your thesis.

II. Second paragraph. This paragraph provides more detailed explanation for a statement made
in the first paragraph. The next two paragraphs do the same thing; however, the second, third,
and fourth paragraphs each address a specific example or idea that is in support of the position,
the topic, or the thesis stated in the first paragraph.

III. Third paragraph. This may offer a more specific example in support of the topic.

IV. Fourth paragraph. This is the third example is support of the topic, and it may offer some
kind of transition to the final paragraph.

V. Conclusion. This is the fifth paragraph. It summarizes what has already been said, it refers to
the position or the topic that was addressed in the first paragraph, and--if possible--it leaves the
reader with some sort of lasting impression or it ends with a bold, final statement that concludes
the paragraph. Concluding paragraphs, like concluding sentences, can be difficult to write
because they summarize without obviously saying exactly the same things that were already
mentioned.