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RC Design 2nd Edition Schaum's Outline Series
RC Design 2nd Edition Schaum's Outline Series
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SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES
THEORY AND PROBLEMS OF
IREINFORCEDE
— «GONGHEE
4 WESTEN Dei Ss
_ SCHAUM’: Ss OUTLINE OF
THEORY AND PROBLEMS
REINFORCED CONCRETE |
DESIGN
Second Edition — - Preface
vs book was published, in 1966, many changes have
rt conceting.the design of reinforeed concreie
the Building Code Reouivemeres for Reinforced
Those versions of the Code were published in 1971
with inter) ages provided in 1974 and 1980. It is the pret) E
Con «Tri luis Comyoittes 318, the committee that devclops th
i provde sm case three years after a Code version hat been
f to pub! completely revised Code every six year. This
al: crm inte, with the,
ACh
Serltert entizely in metric oe units.
a nsember of ACL Com
tet prucurep ae so Dele signed
‘rahod (forty elle th
“gn method (formerly calle
F ee the
a ‘uragesient (10 the point of being a catalyst and even a diving 1 a
sy «ts revised manuserip® was in preparation.
Not J. Evera=
“Joun L. Taxes: ‘Structural Design and the Stress Straia Diagram
Fe Siena o Conern,
© Bar Spacing and Concrete Cover for Steel...
‘twportam Components of Structures.
‘oat end Approsnate Meh of Ass
Continyons Beams and S1Ab8
‘Two-Way Siabs. Contents i
i Chapter 1 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE.
__ CONSTRUCTION...
3 Approximate Methods for Mix Design
‘Water: in the Aggregates:
: Bar Spacing and Conerete Cover for Stel.
‘mportant Components of Structures...
Chapter 2 GRAVITY LOADS: Forces, Shear, Moments and Reactions
Notation.
Structural Analysis and Design. :
‘Exact and Approximate Methods of Adalsis
Continuous Reams and Slabs.
TWO-Way S15 seen
Preliminary and Final Analyses ‘ome? seiner sine lies is
Dewsj ve
Ba “Omg Lie Luang
bun [2 Femi Analysis at
Tables of Design Coefficients.
‘THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD.
Chapter 15
SESSEReeuge gs Chapter 1
- Materials and Components
for Reinforced Concrete Construction
DEFINITIONS
Conorete is. a non-homogencous miinufacturcd Stoie composed of graded, granular inert
materials which are held together by the action of cement and water, The inert materials usually
consist of gravel or large particles of crusted ‘stone, and sand or pulverized stone. Manufactured
lightweight materials are also used. The inert materials aro called aggregates. The large particles are
called coarse aggregates and the small particles are called fine aggregates.
Concrete behaves very well when subjected to compressive forces, but ruptures suddenly when
simall tension forces. cre: applied. Therefore in order to utilize this material effectively, stect
reinforcement is placed in the areas subjected to tension
Reinforced concrete is a composite material which utilizes the concrete in resistirie compression
forces, iad some other material, usually steel bars or wires, to resist the tension forces. Stcel is also
ofien used to assist the concrete in resisting. compression forces. Concrete is always assumed to be
incapable of resisting tension, even though i actually can resist a small amount of tension.
‘A number of definitions are presented in the following list taken from the Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-83, of the American Concrete Institute, (This code
is usually referred to as the ACI Code.) For conversion factors between U.S. customary units and
metric (SI) units, refer to Appendix A-1. Note: In this book the word “density” shalt be
understood as weight density (unit weight) in the context of U.S, customary units, and as mass
density in the context of SI units
Admixture—A material other than Poriland Cement, aggrégnte or water added to concrete to
modify its properties
Aggregate—Inert material which: is mixed with Portland Cement and water to produce concrete
Aggregate, lghiweight—Agarégate faving a dry, loose density of 701b/f (1100 kg/m’) oF Tess
Building official—City Engineer, Plan Examiner, ete.
Coluren—An uptight compression ‘member the length: of-which exceeds three times its least
lateral dimension,
Combination column—A column in which a structural steel member, designed to carry the
principal part of the load, is encased in concrete df such quality end in such a renner that an
additional load may be placed thereon,
Composite coiumn—A column in which a steel or eastiron structural member is completely
niug spiral and otter longitudinal reinforcement.
“A. precast concrete member and castin-place rein-
cased] in conerete con
Composite concrete flexural construction
forced eonerete so interconnected that the component elements act together asa flexural un
Compressive sirengih of concrete (f!)—Specified compressive strength of concrete in pounds pet
square inch, psi (megapascals, M2). Compressive strenatly js determined by tests of standard
gylinders mace and tested in accordance. with ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) specifications at 28 days or such earliar age as the concrete is to reccive its full sevice
Joad or maximum stress. The height of a standard cylinder is required to be twice the diameter;
4 Bin, (100% 200 mm) and 6x 12in, (150x300 mm) are common dimensions. In many Euro-
pean countries, cubes are used instead of cylinders. In the case of modem, very strong
concrete—up 10 12,000 psi (83 MPa)—the 45 day strength of the cylinders or cubes may be
tested. The assumption is that live load will not be introduced onto the structure before 45 days
1 2 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS Icuar. 1
after the concrete has been emplaced. If materials for outside walls and studs, dry wall meterials
‘or door frames are piled on :labs that were cast only a few days before, then these factors must
be taken into account in determining strength and serviceability
Concrete—A mixture of Portland Cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water
Concrete, siructural lightweight (low-density)—A concrete containing lightweight agaregate
weighing not more than [15 1b/fC (1900 kg/m).
Deformed bar—A ceintorcing bar conforming to “Specifications for Minimum Requirements for
the Deformations of Deformed Stecl Bars for Concrete Reinforcement” (ASTM A305) or
“Specifications for Special Large Size Deformed Billet-Stee! Bars for Concrete Reinforcement”
(ASTM A-408). Welded wire fabric with. welded intersections not farther apart than 12”
(305 mm) in the direction of the principal reinforcement and with cross wires not more than six
gage numbers smaller in size than the principal reinforcement may be considered equivalent to a
deformed bar when used in slabs.
Effective aren of concrete—The area of a section which lies between the centroid of the tension
reinforcement and the compression face of the flexural member.
Effective area of reinforcement—The area obtained by multiplying the right cross-sectional area
of the reinforcement by the cosine of the angle between the axis of the reinforcement and the
direction for which the effectiveness is to be determined
Pedestal—An upright compression member whose height does not exceed three times its average
least lateral dimension.
Plain bar—Reinforcement that does not conform to the definition for a deformed bar.
Plain concrete—Concrete that does not conform to the definition for reinforced concrete.
Precast concrete—A plain ot reinforced concrete element cast in other than its final position in
the structure.
Prestressed concrete—Reinforced concrete in which there have been introduced internal compres-
sive stresses of such magnitude and distribution that the tension stresses resulting from service
loads are counteracted to a desired degree
Reinforced concrete—Concrote containing reinforcement, designed on the assumption that the
two materials act together in resisting forces,
Reinjorcement—Steel bats used in concrete (0 resist tension forces.
Service dead load—The calculated dead weight supported by a member
Service tive load—The live load (specified by the general building code) for which a member must
be designed.
Spliuing tersile trengih—The vesults of sp
Siress—Forve per unit ates.
Surface water—Water carried by an aggregste, excluding that water held by absorption within the
aggregate particles themselves,
Yield strength or yield poine (f,)—Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforce-
ment in pounds per square inch (megepascals). Yield strength or yield point shall be determined
in tension according 10 applicable ASTM specications.
ig tests of cylinders,
MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE
Cement as used in plain or reinforced concrete has the ability to form a paste when mixed with
water, The paste hardens with passage of time, holding all of the larger inert particles together in a
common bond. Cement may be obtained from nature {natural cement) or it may be manufactured,
When manufactured, cement usually conforms to certain specifications of the ASTM. When the CHAP. 1]
material is so matiufactured, iti clisified as Portland Cemeni, and concrete nade using this material
is called Portland. Cement Concrete, or simply, concrete.
In general, Portland Cement is manufactured using definite proportions of various calcareous
materials; whiclt ere burned to, form clinkers. The clinkers are pulverized to.a powderlike form,
which then’becomes cement.
Portland Cement is generally available in a number of different types:
(1) Normal Portland Cément—used for general purposes when specific properties are not
required,
(2). Modified Portland Cement—for use when low heat of hydration is desired, such as in mass
concrete, huge piers, heavy abutments and heavy retaining walls, particularly when the
‘weather is hot. (Type 1 may be more desirable in cold weather.)
(3) High-early-sirength Portiand Cement—for use when very high strengti is desired at an early
age.
(4) Low-heat-of hydration Portland Cement—for use in latge masses such as dams. Low heat of
hydration is desirable to reduce cracking and shrinkage.
(5) Sulfate-resistant Portland Cement—for use when the structure will be exposed to soil or
water having 2 high alkali content
(6) Air-entrained Portland Cement—for use when severe frost action is present, or when salt
application is used to remove show of ice from the structure.
(7) Shrinkage-compensating Portland Cement. (expansive cement)—which expands as the con-
erete cures, thus compensating for some shrinkage.
‘Table: 1.1 shows the variations in strength of identical mixtures using different types of cement.
‘Table 1.1 Approximate Relative Strengths of Concrete as Affected by Type of Cement
‘Compressive streagth—percent of strengitt
Type of Poithind Cement of normal Portland Cement Consr
3 days 28 days 23 montis
ToNomal ssecesscaere 100 100 100
2—Mesified = 35 100
3+ High early strength . 10 130 us
4Low-heat _ 50 65 0
S—Sullate-resistant-..- 6 65 %
It should be noted here that other types of cement are also available. Some cements are made
using blast furnace sleg, while others consist of a mixture known ‘as Portland-Pozzolen Cement
Pozzolan cement is generally a natural cement. These types of cement have rather special areas of
application which will not be discussed in detail in this book.
AGGREGATES
Aggregates form the bulk of the concrete components, Fine aggregates consist-of sand or other
fine grained inert material usually less-than 3" (6.4 mm) maximum size. Coarse egaregates consist of
gravel or crushed rock usually larger then 3" (6.4 mm) size and usually less than 3” (76 mm) size.
WATER
Warer is 2n.important ingredient in the concrete mixture. The water must be clean and fii 4 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS [cHar. 1
salts, alkalis or other minerals which react in an undesicable manner with the cement. Thus sea water
's not recommended for use in mixing concrete,
WATER-CEMENT RATIO
‘The water-cement ratio is the most important single factor involved in mixing conercte. Using
average materials, the strength of the concrete and all of the other desirable properties of concrete
are directly related to the water-cement ratio.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXES:
The ultimate sirengih of concrete is generally defined as the-compressive strength of a molded
concrete cylinder or prism after proper caring for 28 days and is designated as j", measured in psi
(MPa). Using average materia’, the ultimate strengih in compression for various water-cement
ratios can be predicted with recsonable accuracy using Table 1.2.
Tuble 12 Compressive Stengin of Concrete for Varfous Water-Cement Ratios?
Water-Cement Ratios | Probable compressive streagth at 28 days, psi (MPa)
By wt | Galleackt Nen-airentrained ‘Aiveatrained
035) 40 6000 (42) 4800 (33)
50 ‘5000 (35) 4000 (28)
60 4000 (28) 3200 (22)
70 320022) 2600 (18)
30 2500(17) 2000 (14)
9.0 2000 (14) 1800 (12)
* Sings we based oa 0°12" (180300 mn) eylinders wels cured under sendard eonations
for 28 devs
‘Tncuing fre sarface mointoo on aggrepites
$A US. gallon=3.785 tes.
Concrete mixtures can be designed to provide a given stréngth and other desirable properties by
properly proportioning all of the materials. Two gencral methods are currently in use: (1) The
arbitrary proportions method and (2) the trial batch method.
The arbitrary proportions method is based on the assumption that average materials will be used
and that ordinary waight aggregates (j.2. sand and gravel or crushed stone) will be used. When
lightweight structural aggregates are used, or if the design strength exceecls 4000 psi (30 MPa), this
method may not be used. If the aggregates are properly graded and proportioned the 28 day
compressive strength of concrete may be based on the water-cement ratios shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Arbitrary Proportions Method for Conerete Strength
Maximum permissible water coment ratio®
Specified
compressive Non-air-entrained concrete Airentrained concrete
strength at
28 days, pst (MPs US. gal} per] Absolute | U.S. gal.) per | Absolute
stb (435). | “ratio by | Otth (4-kg) | ratio by
sack of cesient | weight | sack of cement | weight
250017) 2 6) 0.554
3000 (21) os6 34 0.465
3500 (24) 050 a} 0.299
4000 (28) 0483 4
Tnsluaing Gee sures aint on ayBiegats.
gallon = 3.785 liters CHAR. 1] MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 5
|. The srial batch method is a scientiie method of proportioning conétete. Various proportions of
“fine and coarse aggregate are used with different predetermined water-cement ratios in order to
ide @ mixture-having the desired consistency and a probable stren
proposed design strength..Test mens are molded for cach mix and are tesied at 28 days ~
to establish the value off, for each. ‘The mast desirable mix is adopted for use. A number of factors
which enter into the trial batch method are discussed in the following paragraphs.
FINENESS MODULUS |
‘The fineness modulus indicates the relative fineness of the aggregates, The aggregates are sieved
using standard screeas and the weight of all of the particies larger than a given size is tabulatogh,
‘The percent retained on sieves No. 4,-8, 16, 30, 50-and 100 is tabulated, as well as that passing the
No. 100 sieve. The sum of the weights retained on all GE the sieves larger than a given sieve is
accumulated and. then added together and divided by 100. The result, always larger than 1.0, is the
fineness modulus.
Specifications for sieve analysis are usually provided as part of a general specification for
‘concrete on major projects. One example of the sieve analysis specifiéations is that of the U.S. Dept.
of Interior, which is shown in Teble 1.4. hs
‘Table 1.4 Ranges of Percentages
© of Aggregate Sizes for
Concrete Construetion
vere Siea | Petceit Rewined |
Sieve Size | “(Cumslative)
Nord ve 5
No. 8 101020
No. 16 2010 40
No. 30 401070
No. 50 - 70 1 85
i No. 100 90.20 98
AGGREGATE SIZE AND EFFECTS ON CONCRETE,
Aggregate’ gradation enters into the consideration of the sireiigth and workability of concrete.
Table 1.5 illustrates the effects of aggregate gradation on the cement requiremert for quality
concrete,
= Table 1.5 Effects of Aggregate Gradation on Cement Requirement
imam | Czment required
inset re agave atin | Tent of
(percent by weight) roan of | and indicated,
: -sacks per cu, yd\h
No, 4-3 ia. Ff in. i-i in. ie
5mm) | @519mm) | (19-38 mm) | Poet | Optimum | |35 percens
350 00.0 60 @ 5a 37
20.0 ms 2s 4 s4 58
wo 30.0 480 a 4 62
20.0 480 320 41 54 60
00.0 40.0 00 45 34 7.0
7 Amonnt giving best workability with aggregate wed. Water conten’ 6.3 ga, per sick of comment
Hea yd =0.76m! One sick @ Ub =A26kg, 6 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS [cnar. 1
‘The average quantities of fine and coarse aggregate required for a unit volume of concrete are
functions of the fineness modulus and the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. Values obtained
experimentally are shown in Tables 1.6(a) and 1.6(b) for the coarse nad fine aggregdies respectively.
The type of constructioi ofien dictates the desirable maim size of aggregate. Recomiended
values are listed in Pable 1.7. e
x “Table 1.6(ai"_Yolume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concret
Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggrogate per unit volume
faxiinun Siz
% e of conerete for different fineness moduli of sand
of Aggregate,
SEE. 240 | 200 | 20 | 30 | 320 | 340
ED 4s [044 | oa | oa | oss | 036
209) os | 063 | 06 | os9 | ost | oss
1(25) 070 | 0.68 | 065 | 06 | 002 | 0.60
G8) 07% | 074 | om | om | os | 0.66
2(51) 079 | 077 | 07 | 073 | om | 009
376) oa | ox | oso | o7e | ays: | 0.74
+ From report of A.C.1. Committee 613: Reconimended Prose for Selecting Proportions for
Concrete
For les workable ‘oacrele such as required for concrete pasement consnvction, increase
volumes by approximately 10%.
‘Table 1.6(4)" Approximate Percentages of Sand for Different Gradings and Maximum Sizes of
Coarse Aggreyate
Maximum Size [Cement Factor, sacks per ou. yd.t ] Cement Factor, sacks per on pdb
of Coarse for Rounded Aggregate for Angular Aggregate
Azgrezate,
in. (mm) 4 6 7 4 3 8 1
Fine Sand—F.M. 2.3 10 24
ao) » 7H 2 | 4 “ 2 3
15) 8 36 8 3 45 g 4 38
11.38) 36 4 at » | @ o 8 36
2181) 35 3 300g] at 9 oF 33
378) 3 31 2, | 30 73s 4
Medium Sand
39) 2 0 3 4 a 2
1Q5) gee a a 41
1 (38) # % OM 31 4 2
2031) is [eg ag a 9 7
3(76) x 2 oi » | 4 » 7 35
Coarse Send—F-M, 30 t0 3.1
09) a a a 8 2 8 97
1025) 5 42 OF 3 5) a 65
1 G8) 2 40 35 os 8
2051) oe 3 | 474s 8 4
3006) 373s 31 4 2 40 8
“Tabi om NRNGCA. Publication No
Pu veh =C.768 em? One sack @ OTE
2. Calculating the Proportions for Concrete
he cur. 3} MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 7
‘Table 1.7 Maximum Sizes of Aggrtigales Recommended for Various Types of Construction
‘Maximum Size Aggregates, in. (wm)
eeeia ee
oie eee
24-5 (4-127), 4-3. 03-19) 319) 4-1(19-25) 4-14 (19-38)
6-11(152-279) 3-12 (19-38) 14 (38) 14 (38). 14-3 (38-76)
12-29 (305-737) 3 (38-76) 3(76) -3 (25-76) 3(76)
CONSISTENCY
“The consistenty of concrete is important since it is necessary to have the concrete flow freely
around corners and between the reinforcing bass. The standard method of determining the relative
consistency of concrete is the slump test. In this test, a standard slump cone is filed ia three layers,
Todding cach layéx.25 times. The conercte is smoothed off at the top of the cone. The cone is then
lifted vertically, permitting the concrete to slump downward. The distance between the original and
final surfaces of the concrete is called the slump and is measured in inches. (millimeters), Recom-
mended slumps for various types of construction are listed in Table-1.8
“Table 1.8 Recommended Slumps for Various Types of Coastruction*
ee ? Slump, io. fw
Types of Construction
Maz. [Min
Reinforced foundation walls and footings | 5(127)
Plain footings and caierons 4402)
Slabs, Seams and reinforced wals 6 (152)
Builcing columns 6 (132)
Pavements 306),
Heavy mass construction 376)
Adapted from Tobe 4 of the 1940 Joint Commitee Report on Recommensed
Practice and Standard Specifications for Concrete and Reinforoed Concrete
{+ When high feoquoncy sibeation je ued, the vals piven should be rodueed by
about one-third,
Experience has shown that the slump of concrete ié directly related to the water-cement ratio and
the sizes, gradation’ aud quantities of the aggregates. Table 1.9 indicates the approximate mixing
water requirements for the variables which affect the stump of concrete.
ENTRAINED AIR AND DISPERSING AGENTS
Air is entrapped naturally ia concrete during the mixing process, Experience has shown that if sit
is entrained artificially using air-entramning agents the quantity of mixing Water required to produce a
given consistency will be reduced. The entrained air reduces friction between the particles and
lessens the need for water as a lubricant, Dispersing agents break the surface tension in water bubbles
and accomplish some of the same effects as ait-entraining agents.
Among the many products commercially available are PDA-Prote:
sirentraining agent. The Protex Company has provided Tables 1.10(a), (6), (c) and () in order to
sing pgept and Protex 8 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS ICHAP. 1
Table 1.9 Approximate Mixing Water Requirements for Slumps and Maximum Sizes of Aggregates
Slump. Gat Water, gals. per.cu. yd. (L/m*) of concrete. “|
& (10) 149) 1025)" 14.G8) 2.64) 306) _6 452)
‘Unit water téguirement without admixture
1-25-51) 41205) 37(185) 350175) 33165) 31C155) 290125) 771135)
344 (76-102) 45(225) 40/200) 38(190) 36(180) 34(170) 32(160) 301150)
5-6 (127-152) 48(240) 42(210) 40(200), 28(190) 36(180) 34(170) 32(160)
Approximate amt
of entrapped air, | 3 SEULAG: 1 os 03a
water requirements for
1-2 (25-51) 39195) 35(175) 33165) 31458) 290845) 270:
25(125)
3-4(76-102) | 43215) sa{190) a6(180) 34170) 32(160) 30(150) 24(140)
$-0(121-152) | 43(225)° (200) 38(190) 36(180) 34(170) 32(460) 30¢150)
Recommended avg.
total air, % Boe se Se 3
Table 1.10%)
Required compresdve trength—200 pal (14 MPa)
Coeticieat of variiion—15%
Maximum sie apgregate—1}" (98 mm)
3-4" (70-100 mm) Slum 5-6 (127-152 mm) Sham
vercent | Required £ aa : Se
ef toss | Devin | wo] Plain PDA Praia PDA
‘above | sirengit, | G/S
Bese | eae Water CF [water CF | Waer CF | Waer CF
ov sy lay sr| ox sx | ay sv
7 | zwas) [sis] 3-41 | 2 37 | 8 as] 30
wm | asc) | as | 36 42s] 3 38 | as 45 | as a0
wo | mai} so | 36 4s | 2 40 | 38 47s | 34 2s
oo | sion) | ras 3 so | 3 44 | ae 52s] 3. 47
Maximus size aperegate—i" (19 mam)
70 zso(is)| 87s] 4 46 | 30 41 48 B 435
sw | xo | ss | 4 475 | 3 42] 2 49 | 33 as
oo | xanar|-so | 4 so | 3 45 | 2 sas) 28 a7:
90 sia) | 7as| 40 ss | ws so | 2 se | 38
show the results of experiments with airemirained voncrete and non-air-entrained conerete. The
tables provide data pertaining to the water-cement ratio (W/C), gallons of water per sack of cement
(G/S), gallons per cubic yard (G/Y) and the cement factor (CF) in sacks of cement per cubic yz
concrete. (1 gal/sack ~3.7851/sack; 1 gal/cu. yd. =4.95L/m™; 1. sack/eu. yd:
for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting and Placing Concrete” (AC1-304-73). The unit water contents
are derived from local job experience. © MATERIALS AND’ COMPONENTS _
‘Table 1.1906)
~_ =Required conbpressive strength —2500 psi (17 MPa)
Coefiient of variation—15%
Maximum se iguegate—11" G8mm)
*[3-# 102 mim) Slump $6" (27-152 min) Slump
Piain PDA
Waser OF | Woer cr cr
GIY sly] Giy Sy sly,
22 38 «AD 44]
5 3 wes 45
1s 32 38 53 47
625 2 386 345,
Maximum size ageregate—3" (19 mm) K
70, IS 36 a sa ® 49
80 aug 36 a 56.) 3 50
cu 125 36 “a 38 8 $3)
9 6.25, 36 es 67 61
i al/sack= 3. 78S LIER; Ugo 8 = 495 Lis
Table 1,10)
‘Required compressive strength—3000 psi 21 MPa)
“Coefficient of varition—15%
Maximum size aggregate—1}" (8 inm)
sark/oa. yd, = 1.31 sacks/m*, Based on 94 1b (43 kg) per sack.
3-4" (36-102 mm) Stump
5-6" (127-152 mm Stump
we Pisin
1s 5 =
ae ‘Water = CF | Water CF co
ox [ow siv sry
0 7 2 Sa | 4B
80 6.5 2 ee eee
0 525 2 ee ee ee
0 85 2 aso | 62
__ Masiinam size aggregate —¥" (9 min) ,
7 7.0 Fi cd 42 60 54
80 675 36 2 635 58
36 635 36 a 6 6a
* 35 36 276 63
“TpatFeack = 3. 7RS Liezek; bgalfeu yah = 4957) 1 cacklcs. yl = 181 cacksfn® Based on O41 (Ska) per sack MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS
__ Required compressive sirength—3500 pai (24 MPa)
Coetfciant of variation 15%
~ Maximum size aggregate—14" (38 mm)
Percent
of Tests,
abore
Reg. Str.
Sa" (16102 ms) Slump
5:6 (37-152 mm) Stump
Plain
‘Water CF
Ssse
S8aeg
Maximum size aggregate—2* (19 mm)
PDA,
“Water CF
SY | -GY__siv
oa | a Sas
635] 3h 55
66 | 3 5
so | 36 “70
a er
70 | 38 6.36
13] B66
ass] 35° 79.
A gal/sack=3.765 Liseeh; 1 gal/eu.yl.=4.95 L/m 1 soek/cu,yd.= 1.31 sacks/m?, Based on Mb (Ske) per Sack,
a eapaiansee mans
‘Maximum
size of
aggregate,
‘a. (mm)
Agaregate, Ib per t-sack batch ~
Approximate
sacks of cement*
Gravel or
crushed
“stone
Aron blast
furnace
slag
$3)
29)
15)
G8)
2651)
BR RRR RRR ERE
OFF On> Ow> Owe OUD
170
190
205
25
245
258
Coal
275
230
20
300
345
330
380
15
165
180
195
215
* Baiod:on Sib (/3ikg) per sack. One sack ev. je = 1.31 scka in®. CHAP. 1] MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 1
APPROXIMATE METHODS FOR MIX DESIGN FOR CONCRETE
The scientinic methods presented for design of concrete using the trial batch method cannot
always be followed because of the lack of iralaed personel and equipment. When such is the case, a
conservative method is available: The proportions shown in Table 1.11, although not precise, will
prove to be satisfactory fer small work and for work at locations where the more scientific process
cannot Be ised,
Fig, 1-1:shows the usual range in proportions of materidils used in concrete. These ranges can be
used as a guide for concrete mix-design.
Pee sateen
teh esas cote te
‘il bmall segrpats.
3 F
at
Mix B is the starting point. [f the mix appears to be under-sanded, change to mix A, If the mix is
overssanded, change to mix C. Invall cases the mixes refer to dry materizls and there’ must be
adjustments for water in the aggregates.
‘The water-cement ratio may be obtained from Table 1.3 fora given strength of concrete.
WATER IN THE AGGREGATES
The weter-coment ratio must be carefully preserved if the sesulls are to be reproducible from one
batch to another. For this reason, free water in the aggregates must be considered: as part of the
xing water. Since the free water varies trom time to time in « given stock pile of agerepates, it is
necessary to determine the free water content scveral times each day, with the added water adjusted
accordingly. A definite procedure is available for determining the free water in the aggregates.
A representative sample of aggregates is weighed. The surféces of the particies are then dried to
a satwrated-surface dry state in an oven or pan, or by pouring aleohol on the aggregates and se
afire. The dried aggregates are then weighed. ‘The percentage moisture (by weight or density of the
agerceate) is obtained using the equation
000, — Wp) (Hp, (22)
in which p—peroitage of moistuie by dry weight or density, w,,=wet weight or density of the
material, and w,, = dry weight or density of the material. The pereentage of surjace wateris deducted
from the total water required itt order to obtain the desired water-cement ratio.
QUANTITY OF CONCRETE OBTAINED
The quantity of concrete or yield of a trial batch is used to predict the quantity of concrete to be
obtained from the job mix. The yield is predicted using the absolute volume method to obtain the
absolute volume of each of the coniponent materials (jc. gravel, sand, cement and Water) using the
equation
V, = (weight of loose material) /(SG)(w,) (12) 2 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS icHap. 1
absolute volume of material, ft° (m’); SG=specific gravity of the material; and
of water (62.4 Ib/ft° or 1000 kg/m'),
MAKING, CURING AND TESTING SPECIMENS
Making Cylinders
Test cylinders are made using the trial batch method in order to obtain the true strength of the
manufactured material, The cylinders are also used during construction torinsure that the strength of
the concrete is maintained at the desired level.
The fresh concrete is placed in a cylindrical mold in 3 layers. Bach layer is rodded 25 times, The
concrete is troweled smooth at the top surface and the ojlinder allowed to air cure for 24 hours, after
which it is placed in a damp room under controlled humidity and temperature to age for 28 days.
After the curing period has elapsed, the cylinders are tested in a testing machine to determine the
compressive strength /:, the modulus of elasticity Ez, and often the complete stress-strain diagram.
Dimensions of test cylinders (and cubes) are discussed under Compressive strength of concrete,
age 1. It should be mentioned here that the Canadian Standards recognize a method that predicis
the 28 day strength after the concrete is only. one day in place. The cylinders are boiled in waier and.
then tested for compressive strength. Empirical equations predict the 28 day strength within about
10 percent, plus or minus,
G
12 Cylinders
Proper curing of specimens is vitally important (© the strength of the concrete. Moist curing is the
most desirable method; as shown in Fig. 1-2,
‘Temperature of curing also affects concrete strength, as seen from Fig 1-3, since strength
and other desirable properties of concrete improve more rapidly at normal temperature than at low
temperatures
fe ee
5 a eel owe
z wee ete
: a == Fa
p= meres
5
ic aes ip
cH
oll
4
Age att
Fig. 12. Effects of Moist Curing on the Strength of Concrete
days Aa at test, days
é \ :
Fig: 1-2. Effects of Temperature on the Strength uf Concrete =
= 7 a = = S
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS a =
‘The compression stress-strain diagram provides the most important single factor for use in
deriving equations. for designing structural clements of reinforced concrete. ‘The stress-strain
diagrams are plotied data obtained from the 28 day tests of concrete cylinders. During the
Josding: process,, loads ia pounds (kilograms) and the corresponding strains in inches per inch
(mm/mm) are recorded. The loads are transformed into direct stresses (P/A):and the stress-strain
diagram is then plotted. ~ * :
Fig. 14 shows a series of typical stress-strain diagrams obtained using different strengths of
. :
fixso a
fat
Strain, ini, (mea /enm)
ig. 1-4” Typical Stres-Strafn Diagrams for Concrete 4 ‘ MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS (CHAR.
‘The stress-strain diagrams for concrete indicate three distinct ranges:
(1) The initial range, which i very nearly linear. ai 2
_ @) The intermediate range, in which there is incteasing curvature, ultimately reaching a point
< : ‘of maximum stress, fl.
@) The fil range, in which strain continues to increase while the load-carrying capacity
lecreases.
_ Fig. 15 presents the usually accepted plot of the siressstrain diagram for concrete subjected to
~. axial load and flexure which was developed statistically. Certain properties of the curve must be
* described: ie
(2) The tengent to the curve at its origin is called the initial tangent modulus of elasticity, E.,,
psi (MPa), z. ;
(Q) A line drawn from the origin to a point on the curve at which f. =0.45f2 is called the secant
modulus of elasticity, E,,, psi (MPa).
(3) For low strength concrete &., and £,, differ widely. For high strength concrete there is
practically no difference between the two values.
(4) For lightweight aggregate concrete the initial slope is somewhat less than that for aormal -
‘weight concrete. ‘The maximum stress occurs for larger strain values for lightweight
conerete when f! is the same for both types of concrete.
(5) Definitions: init strain in the concrete for any stress, f-
train corresponding to. maximum stress, f{.
timate strain at rupture
Strain, «, infin. aa/mm)
Fig. LS. Steess-Strain Dingram
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE
Jn general practice the secant modulus of elastcty is usuelly used and is simply referred 10 9 E.
‘Numerous experimental equations have been proposed for obiaining the value of E,, One of the
‘most recent empirical equations was presenied by Pauw and was adopted by the ACI Code
Committee. This equation represents 2 modification of Pauw’s equation which was obtained from
statistical conrelation of test data. ;
‘The modifiéd equation adopted by the ACT Code Committee is
BaF GoW VID (a3) CHAP. 1) MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 15
Donsity of concrete, w,,kar/m®
Pa x 10°
Medulus of elasticity,
© Density of sonereto,wg35/R2 ‘
Fig. 1-6 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
in which £, ~ modulus of clasticty, Ib/in2 (MPa); w. = density of the'conerete t/t’ (ke/m"); and
{ Sultimate strength of the concrete, Ib/in’ (MPa):
Fig. 1-6 shows the modulus. of elasticity for various concrete strengths and densities. The
modulus of elasticity £, is used extensively in the working stress design method (altemate design
‘method) in almost every phase of design. The modulus is used for deflection and stability calculations
in both the alternate design method and the strengti design method.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
In order to derive equations for the design of reinforced concrete structural elements it is
necessary to describe the stress-strain function mathematicilly. After establishing an equation for the
stresses in the corloree, itis only necessary to integrate the equation to obtain the magnitude and
point of application of the total compression force.
Fig. 1-7 illustrates the various stages of development of the stress-strain function as the loads are
increased. Selection of a design method depends on which slage to be used as a basis of
proportioning the structural elements
Fig. 1-7(q) is used in the working stress design method, limiting f, to # maxi
The diagram is consitered to be linear, and the relationship hetween the elastic moduli of sicel aad
concrete is used fo transform the steel into equivalent concrete. The modular ratio is n= F,|
Fig. 1-1(¢) is used in the strength design method, using 0.85/% as the maximum stress. This
based on'etperimental data, using statistical methods for correlation. 16 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS [CHAP 1
@ Oy © @ o
Strain Stress
Fig. 17
In general practice an equivalent rectangular siress-block (¢) is used to approximate the effects of
the true ultimate stress-strain diagram. The limits of the block are defined so as to provide a total
force in compression identical to that developed by the true diagram ‘and to locate the force at its
true point of application.
‘The 1983 ACI Code permits the’ use of any mathematical expression for describing the
stress-strain diagram, providing the resulting equations will be in general agreement with comprehen-
sive test results. The rectangular stress block fulfils these requirements.
‘TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
‘The tensile strength of plain conerete is rather. small compared to the compressive strength, and
tension in the concrete ig always neglected in design practice. It is important, however, to give some
consideration to the tensile strength with regard to combined stresses which cause diagonal tension
failure,
et cine tis bea iad ie obtaining the tensile strength of concrete in past years. A
method has been developed for obtaining a measure of the tensile strength, calied the split-cylinder
test: Standard coneretc cylinders arc loaded along the sides until the cylinder splits. The stress at
which splitsing occurs is designated as the split cylinder strength, fy. This value is used to determine a
design factor
Pa hylNTe (14)
‘This factor is used in connection with shear stresses in concrete design 10 guard against
iagonel tension feilure.
REINFORCING STEEL
Steel reinforcing for concrete consists of bars, wires and welded wire fabric, all of which are
‘manufactured in accord with ASTM specifications. The most important properties of reinforcing stect
(1) modulus of elasticity, E., psi (MPa)
(2) tensile strength, psi (MPa)
(3) Yield point siress, f,, pst (MPa)
(4). steel grade designation (yield strength)
(5) size or diameter of the bar or wire.
Fig, 1.8 illustrates properties (1), (2) and (3), Tables 1.12 and 1.13 provide information
pertaining to properties (4) and (5) CHAP. 1] MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS
Strain, in./in-tmm/me)
Fig. 1.8 Stress Strain Diagram for Reinforcing Steel
17,
The stress-strain diagram is idealized by assuming that stress is constant in the plastic region anc
equal to f, +
The yield point is established by drawing a line parallel to the elastic region at some offset
therefrom, usually about 0.002 in./in, (mm /m)-
The idealized stress-strain diagram consists of an elastic portion 4nd a'parely plastic portion; i.e.
a sloping line and a horizontal line.
‘The modulus of elasticity of ieinforei
United. States, mai
bars is consideréd 16 be 29,000/000 psi (200 000 MPa),
Reinforcing bars are manufactured as plain. or deformed bars, Deformed bars have: risbed
projections which grip the concrete in order to provide better bond between the two materials. In the
bars are always deformed.’ Plain bars are used for spirals and ties in columns.
Practices differ in other countries, depending on the availability of deformed bars
Formerly, bars were manufactured. in boil round and square shapes, In modern practice;
however, square bars are- not used In place of the square bars, -ega‘valent round bars. ase
manufactured.
Bars arc no-longer designated by diametér or side dimension as in the past, Bar numbers are
used in modem practice. For bars up to No: 8,-selative 10 U.S. customary units, the-aumher
_soincidés with-the number of eights of an inch in the bar dismeter; for large? bars the number’ are
used merely for designation purposes. For metic (SI) reinforcing burs, there is no correspondence
between size number and diameter
‘Table 1.12,
Table 1.13
ASTM STANDARD REINFORCING BARS
|ETRIC REINFORCING BARS
178 ome | maine | PES
L 785 | 113) 100
ze 16.0| 200
2.355 | 19.5| 300
3.925 | 252] 500
5.495 | 29.9) 700
7.850 | 35.7| 1000
[71 0 | 11.775 | 43.7| 1500
we, [IL [iat [156 14430 19.625 | 56.4| 2500
vis Ag 1693 [2.25 1532
13g | 48 1360 | 2257 | 400 | 799 8 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS: [CHAP.
Tables 1.12 and 1.13 indicate the sizes, numbers and various properties of cutrently usec
reinforcing bars; Table 1.13 has been provided by the Reinforcing Stel Institute of Canada,
The bars listed in Tables 1.12 and 1.13 are used primarily for main reinforcement in beams
slabs, columns, footings, walls and other structural elements, Bar sizes Nos. 3, 4 and 5 (10M, 15M)
are often used for spirals and laeral res in columns and as stirrups in beams. Spiral bars are usually
plain, without deformations.
Reinforcing steel rods having diameters less than 1” (6 mm) are referred to as wires, and the sizes
are designated by the AW & $ yage number.
BENDING OF REINFORCING BARS FOR ‘STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
"Peso
Fig 19
Reinforcement is usually placed in the tension zone since the concrete is assumed to be incapable
of resisting tension. Bars are, however, also often used in the compression zone. It is economical to
use bent-up bars in such cases, Further, in order to anchor the bars properly to resist bond stresses,
hooks are often provided at the ends of bars as shown in Fig. 1.10. Bars must be embedded properly
in order to provide anchorage. Bending or trussing of bars is often used to accomplish this purpose.
Ties or spirals ate always used in columns to hold the main vertical bars in place and to confine
Tongitudinal bars. Stirrups are oftén wed in beams to hold the longitudinal steel in place, but
most important function of stitups is 0 resist diagonal tension stzesses. ‘The concrete acting alone
cannot always resist all of the shear stress which is pesent, thus the stirrups are uscd.
Fig. 1-10 shows typical examples of bar bending for various purposes
Numerous shapes of bent bars are used, Some are used so frequently that pattern numbers have
been standardized. Bent bars are therefore often called for by pattern number, indicating the various
‘center to center dimensions in @ tabular form.
Radi of bend have been standardized and are specified in the AC Code. The bend radii and
extensions are usually specified in terms of the diameter of the size bar being bent, with minimum
‘extensions beyond the bead being specified.
Bars should be bent cold in a fabricating plant. Bending bars.on the job is usually not permitted
except in special cases. Under no circumstances should a bar be heated since this introduces residual
stresses into the bar. Torches should never be used to cut bars to the desired length. Bending of bars
Which have been partially embedded in conerete is prohibited except when the enginect states that
such bars may be bent,
Standard hooks consist of one of the following:
(a) A 180 degree tum plus an extension of at least 4 bar diameters. The extension must be at
least 2} in, (64mm) long.
(0) A990 degree turn plus an extension of at least 12 bar diameters. 3G eco ad ‘4 90 degree ‘or 135 degree turn pis an exténsion of at least 6 bar
diameters. The sion must be at feast 2} m ng. The inside radius of
‘bend shall be at feast L_hardiameter—~———~ = a
For structural ond intermediate grade steel, bars in the size range No. 6 through No. 11 must have
radius of bend which is not ‘less than 2! bar diameters. For stecl other than st and
intermediate grades, and for bats other than stirrups or ties, the minimum bend ‘t must
‘conform to Table 1.14 or *
SS Reena Tie 115
a a ae
- [eee #12 “OM 6
[ #9, #10, #11 8 7 0M, 35M. a 8 Z
z #14, #18 0 sum | i
The girder is also a T-beam (in shape,.even if not considered so in structural action).
(e) Slab und Pan Joist
(ag Sita en Ine dine
‘Sicbaan ete a rn
Fig. 1-17 Structural Systems ‘Wen te at i edo tee
‘hs ole a Beewena We
(@ Counterfort Wall —
Hig. 1-18 Retaining Walls
Because of their shepe, conditions of connection and purpose in the structure, the various
‘elements act together in receiving and distributing the loads and eventually delivering those loads to
the foundations.
“Types of loads imposed on structures and the method of distribution of those loads are discussed
in Chapters 2 and 3 ss Gravity Loads :
- -" FORCES, SHEAR, MOMENTS. AND REACTIONS i:
NOTATION= = ae - ea
b width of a beam or column, in. (mm) ee: =
C= moment coetficient of w(L')? = y TSS
‘= total depth of a member, in. (mm)
»f=section- moment of inertia, in. (mm*) -
tifiness factor, in.?\(mm?) =~ 7
‘L=any span Jength, usually center-to-center of supports, ft (m)
ng span for two-way slabs, ft (m) so
‘1° dlear span length (average of 2 adjacent spans for negative MZ), tk (m) EL
__ m= atio of short span to long span, two-way slabs
‘ ‘M= bending moment, ft-kips or ft-pounds (KN -m) i
Sta P= any concentrated load, kips or pe it
7 Piz. = live load concentrated load, kips or pqunds (KN)
: Pr, =total load concentrated load, Kips or pounds. (KN)
q=any uniformly distributed load, kips/ft (kN/m) . =
/R=any reaction, kips or pounds (KN) - 3
. Y ‘S=short span length, two-way slabs, ft (a) Be sss x
_W-shear fore -kips or pounds (EN) a hee :
wo any uniformly distributed load, kips/it or kips/ft (KN/m or EN/m?)
pj. uniformly distributed dead toad
w,, = uniformly distributed live load
rg ~ uniformly distiibuted total load
Z srmverchat, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
‘Tne analysis of structures deals with the determination of loads, reactions, shear and bending
moments. Structural design ceals with the proportioning of members to resist the applied forces, The
Sequence involved in creating a structure, chen, involves analysis fist and then design, 3
The 1983 ACI Code requires that analysis be made using the elastic theory, whereas structural
design may be accomplished using either the alternate design method or the.strength design method.
Piealesiises APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS 3
‘There exist methods which provide for an exact mathematical analysis of structures. Sach.
methods ss slope-dellection and moment distribution may always be used to analyze concrete
structures, In some cases it is absolutely necessary to usc the exact methods, In the most common
cases, however, it is sufficiently accurate ta use approximate methods,
- 25 26 GRAVITY LOADS [cHar. 2
‘The 1983 ACI Code contains approximate coefficients for calcilating shears and momeats, which
can be-used when (and only when) specified conditions have been satistied
‘Since exact methods are studied in statically indeterminaie siructurés, a prerequisite to the study
of reinforced concrete, only the approximate methods will be discussed in this text. An exception
cexitts in the case of the cantilever moment distribution method, which is an exact mathematical
method when certain conditions are satisfied.
CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND SLABS
Approximate coefficients of shear and bending moment may be utilized when the following
conditions are satisfied:
(1). Adjacent clear spans may not differ in length by more than 20% of the shorter span.
2) The ratio of live load to dead load may not exceed 3.
3) The loads must be uniformly distributed
Beam and Slab Coefficients
‘When conditions (1), (2) and (3) are satisfied, the following listed approximate formulas which
are stated in the ACI Code may be vsed to determine shear forees and bending moments in
continuous beams and one-way slabs. (A one-way slab is one which cistributes its cad to two end
Supports only. A two-way slab distributes its lead to four supports, one support existing along cach of
the ends and sides.)
For Positive Moment
\ End spans:
A/ If discontinuous end is unrestrained es sede WLI a1
[) If discontinuous end is integral with the support . . 5 (Le (22)
~ Interior spans. ' ‘ 3 a. w(LY 16 (23)
For Negative Moment
4 Negative moment at exterior face of first imterior support
‘Two spans. i (24)
More than two spans. se (LIPO (25)
Negative moment at other faces of interior suppor. wy (26)
Negative moment at face of all supports for (a) slabs with
spars not exceeding 10 it (3m) and (b) beams and_ girders
where the ratio of sum of column stffnesses to beam stiff 2
ness exceeds 8 at each end of the Span.....:.-v---evececeessenee LYNZ (27)
Negative moment at interior faces of exterior supports,
for members built integrally with their supports
Where the support is a spandret beam or girder... 2... .2esc024 W(L'/24 (28)
Where the support is @ column... 5.0. mL (2.9)
Sheer Forces
‘Shear in end members at first interior support
Shear at all other supports -....-..++
LAS W(L')/2 (2.10)
w(Ly/2 (21) Reece to assriae bens col
both sides of the support:
- Integral lat Uieatnce spots ate ‘trate in Fig. 2: 1, Sao and interior : supports are
shown in Fig. 2-2.
‘TWO-WAY SUABS: the yet ey
id = ae
. ‘Tic 1963 ACI Code provided three separate ay fate methods for use ig Contes)
‘and moments in slabs which distribute their lozds to four supports. While these methods are not
given in the text of the {983 ACI Code, the Code permits the use of methods that have proved _
setisfactory over 4 pericd of many years. All three methods of the 1963 ACI Code are diseuseed in
Chapter 13. Two-way systems designed according to the Direct Design Method and the Eguiualant
‘Method of the 1983 ACI Code are covered in Chapter 14,
: shod 2 of the 1963 ACT Code has een used extensively in engineering practice. This method
- fhas been devised considering the dteory of elasticiy and the results of experiments. “The method
applies only when (a) the loads axe uniformly distributed and (b) the ratio of live load to dead
does not exczed
‘The following:10tes relative to the arlalysis of two-way slabs are teproduced irom the ACI Cede: 8 GRAVITY LOADS [cHar. 2
Table 2.1. Moment Coefficients for Two-Way Slabs (Method 2 of 1963 Cods)
Satin =
Vales of Es
Monn iy 090807 06 ] os | at
nat of m
iss
Com tania pe
Negative moment at
Contac ede oss foo | oo | ons | co | oss | ass
Distros Set eee eee| cs fees oe
Postinenonent x mitn | 0025 | ocen | ooae | oon | oom | oo | oms
Case 2— Ore og soins
Nae weer
Cite aoa | oo | aoss | oa | ooe | oss | aoe
Disoninuts edge oat | aoee | ooar | ons: | ooss | aoe | oor:
oskinentrea pn oo | cos | oat7 | oos2 | ones. | oa
ase wo ots conte
Neguve momen a
ce v0 | ac | oo | oon | om | on | ooss
Beamenaes 02s | os | cox | vase | oor | cas | cons
Posive momenta mitinan | 0.257 | oa | ouas | o0ss | oose | ose | oor
Can Ths oc delat
Nepntve momen
Ceniuoes ee oss | 0086 | crs | 00 } oo | aos | ois
Drennan | oo] oa [oan | oms-| aww | ooo
Posie moment ot min | os | cos | ass | coe | cows | core | cove
Cis Foire dss
Reged moat ae
Colona se Ua fear een |) | [a
Discoutimons eee ooas | ose |, 008 | aan | ones | ooss | ooss
Poste moment aemispon | cos | oas7 | ass | ware | aw | ows | o0s0
(C= moment coefficient for two-way slabs as given in ‘Table 2.1
‘m= ratio of short span to long span for two-way slabs
S=longth of shore span for two-way slabs.
