Kinematics of Machinery

Unit-I
1. Define the terms: kinematic Link, Resistant body, kinematic pair, kinematic chain &
Mechanism
Kinematic Link: part of a machine that moves relative to some other part. It must be a
‘Resistant body’
Resistant Body: a body/ object that is capable of transmitting required force with
negligible deformation
Kinematic Pair: Two links when in contact with each other form a pair. If the relative
motion between them is completely or successfully constrained then the pair is called
as a Kinematic Pair.
Kinematic Chain: when the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link
is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion
Mechanism: when one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is called as a
mechanism
2. Explain ‘Transmission Angle’ and ‘Mechanical Advantage’
Transmission Angle: The angle between the coupler & the follower in a mechanism
Mechanical Advantage: is the ratio of the output torque to the input torque in a
mechanism
3. Define, ‘Degrees of Freedom (movability)’ and give the DOF for a cam with roller
follower.
Degree of Freedom: is the number of independent parameters required to define the
position of a system, in our case, a chain.
A cam with roller follower has two degrees of freedom
4. How many DOF a 4 bar mechanism has? Prove using Kutzbach
criterion A 4 bar mechanism has only one DOF.
The Kutzbach criterion for DOF having plane motion is: no. of DOF,n=3(l-1)-2j-h,
where, j= number of binary joints (lower pairs), h= number of higher pairs, l= number
of links. In the absence of higher pair the equation becomes, n=3(l-1)-2j. In a 4 bar
mechanism, there is no higher pair, l=4 and j=4. Hence, number of freedom, n= 3(4-1)-
2(4)=9-8=1.
5. Define ‘Inversion of a Mechanism’
Inversion of a mechanism is the method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing
different links in a kinematic chain.
6. State the Grubbler’s criterion for planer mechanisms
Grubbler’s criterion for planer mechanisms is applicable for one degree of freedom
without any higher pair. It states that ,” For a planer mechanism with one degree of
freedom and no higher pairs , the condition to be satisfied is : 3l-2j-4=0, where j=
number of binary joints (lower pairs) and l= number of links, ”.
7. Explain completely constrained motion , incompletely constrained motion &
successfully constrained motion
Completely constrained motion: motion between a pair is limited to a definite
direction only
In-Completely constrained motion: motion between a pair can take place in more than
one direction
Successfully Constrained motion: constrained motion is not completely by itself, but
by some other means (external force).
8. Explain the terms, ‘Lower pair’ and ‘Higher Pair’
Lower pair: Links have a surface contact when relative motion takes place. Eg. Sliding
pairs, turning pairs, screw pairs
Higher pair: Links have line or point contact when relative motion takes place. The
motion between two elements is partly turning & partly sliding. Eg. Cam & follower,
gear drives.
9. Enumerate the difference between a machine & a structure
Machine: is a device that receives energy and transforms in to some useful work. Links
have relative motion between them and transmits both force & motion
Structure: is an assembly of a number of resistant bodies (members) having no
relative motion between them. It transmits forces only
10. List out the inversions of ‘four bar chain’, ‘Single Slider Crank Chain’ and ‘Double Slider
Crank Chain’.
Inversion of a four bar chain: beam engine, coupling rod of a locomotive, Watt’s
straight line indicator mechanism
Inversion of ‘Single Slider Crank Chain’: pendulum pump or bull engine, oscillating
cylinder engine, rotary IC engine, crank & slotted link quick return mechanism,
Whitworth quick return mechanism
Inversion of ‘Double Slider Crank Chain’: elliptical trammel, scotch yoke mechanism,
Oldham’s coupling
11. What are the types of links?
Rigid Links: links do not undergo any deformation while transmitting the motion,
which is not practically possible.
Flexible Links: Links partly deforms without affecting the force transmission
significantly. Examples are, Rope, Belt, Chain (they transmit only Tensile forces)
 Fluid Links: Force transmission is through the fluid by pressure or compression only.
Examples are, Hydraulic Jack, Hydraulic Brake, Hydraulic Presses
12. Classify the kinematic pairs based on relative motion between them
Sliding pair: one link slides over the other. Eg. Cylinder & piston
Turning pair: two links revolve about a fixed axis. Eg. Cycle wheel
Rolling pair: one link rolls over the other link. Eg. Ball & roller
bearings Screw pair: both links use screw threads. Eg. Bolt & Nut
Spherical pair: one link (spherical shaped) turns or swivels about other fixed link. Eg.
Joy stick, ball & socket joint
13. State the Grashof’s law for a four bar mechanism
“The sum of the shortest and longest links cannot be greater than the sum of the
remaining two link lengths, if there is to be continuous relative motion between two
links”. That is, s+l ≤ p+q, where, l-longest link, s- shortest link, p and q are remaining
two links.

Unit-II
1. What do you mean by ‘Rubbing velocity’
It is the velocity in a pin joint with which the pin in one link moves with respect
to other. If ω1 represents the angular velocity of link no. 1 & ω 2 represents the angular
velocity of link no.2, then the rubbing velocity in a pin having a radius of ‘r’= (ω 1 + ω2 )
r, if both links rotate in opposite direction and rubbing velocity= (ω 1 - ω2 )r, if both
links rotate in same direction, ω1 > ω2.
2. How to represent the direction of linear velocity of any joint on a link with respect to
another point on the same link?
The direction of linear velocity of a joint on a link with respect to another point on the
same link is perpendicular to the line joining the points.
3. What is the magnitude of linear velocity of a point B on a link AB, relative to A?
The magnitude of linear velocity of a point B on a link AB which rotates with angular
velocity ω, relative to A is: vBA= ωBA x AB.
4. What do you mean by Coriolis component of acceleration? Write the expression for
the same.
When a point on one link is sliding along another rotating link (the point is called as
the ‘Coincident Point’) such as a quick return motion, there is an additional
component of acceleration to be considered called as the Coriolis component of
acceleration.
c
The value is, a = 2ωv. (ω- Angular velocity of sliding link.eg. Slotted lever, v- linear
velocity of coincident point).
5. What are the two components of acceleration? Write the expressions.
(a) Normal or Centripetal or Radial component of acceleration (acts parallel to the
2
link): ω x link length.
(b) Tangential component of acceleration (acts perpendicular to the link): α x link
length. Where, ω is the angular velocity & α is the angular acceleration.
The total acceleration is the vector sum of radial & tangential components of
accelerations.
6. What type of links will have only radial, only tangential and both radial & tangential
components of acceleration?
If the angular velocity is uniform, then, only radial component will be there.
The link which moves in a linear direction, will have only linear, that is, tangential
component of acceleration.
The links that do not rotate with uniform angular velocity (that is, angular
acceleration, α will be considered) will have both radial and tangential components of
acceleration.
7. How the direction of the Coriolis component of acceleration is determined?
The direction is just opposite to the direction of the linear velocity of the sliding
member, eg, the slotted lever.
8. Name two mechanisms, one without Coriolis component and the other with Coriolis
component of acceleration
The Oldham’s coupling will not have the Coriolis component.
The Crank & Slotted lever and Whitworth Quick return mechanisms have Coriolis
component.
9. Define ‘Instantaneous Centre’, ‘Centrode’ and ‘Instantaneous Axis’
It is the centre of rotation of a moving body which goes on changing from one instant
to other. Number of instantaneous centres=n(n-1)/2; n-Number of links.
The locus (path) of all such instantaneous canters is known as the ‘Centrode’.
A line drawn through an instantaneous centre & perpendicular to the plane of motion
is called the ‘Instantaneous Axis’
10. Define the terms ‘Space centrode’ and ‘Body centrode’
The locus of the instantaneous centre in space during a definite motion of the body is
called as the Space centrode.
The locus of the instantaneous centre relative to the body itself is known as Body
centrode.
11. Explain the Kennedy’s theorem or three centre theorem
If three bodies move relative to each other, they have three instantaneous canters
and they lie on a straight line.
 Unit-III
1. What do you mean by ‘High Speed Cam’?
The cams that operate at high speeds are called High Speed Cams. They have low
stiffness and large mass or resonance and the acceleration of the follower will be
of several times the acceleration due to gravity.
2. What is a cam? What are the different types of cam?
A cam is a rotating machine element that transmits reciprocating or oscillating
motion to another element, a follower.
Types: Radial or Disc cam, Cylindrical Cam, Wedge Cam, Spiral Cam, Tangent Cam,
Circular Arc Cam
3. Define a Tangent cam
It is a type of cam in which the flanks of the cam are straight & Tangential to the
base and nose circles.
4. What are the different types of motions of a follower?
(i) Uniform motion (ii) Simple Harmonic Motion(SHM) (iii) Uniform
Acceleration & Deceleration or Parabolic motion (iv) Cycloidal motion
5. Define pressure angle with respect to a cam
It is the angle between the direction of the follower and a normal to the pitch
curve.
The greater the pressure angle, the higher will be the side thrust. The angle can be
reduced by either increasing the cam size or by adjusting the follower offset. For
low speed cams, the angle is 45 degrees maximum and for translating follower 30
degrees maximum.
6. Define ‘undercutting in cam’. How it occurs?
The cam profile must be a smooth, continuous curve without any loop. If the
curvature of the pitch curve is too sharp, then the part of the cam shape will be
lost and therefore the required cam motion cannot be achieved. Such a cam is said
to be undercut.
It occurs when attempting to achieve higher lift with less cam rotation using a
smaller cam.
7. How can we prevent undercutting in cams?
By (i) decreasing follower lift (ii) increasing cam rotation angle (iii) increasing the
cam size (base circle)
8. Give the different types of followers used in a cam mechanism
Knife edge follower, roller follower, mushroom flat edge follower, spherical faced
follower
9. Distinguish between a radial & cylindrical cam
 Radial Cam: The cam is a disc type. The follower reciprocates or oscillates in a
direction perpendicular to the cam axis.
Cylindrical Cam: The cam is cylindrical in shape. The follower reciprocates or
oscillates in a direction parallel to the cam axis.
10. Compare the knife edge, roller and mushroom follower of cam
Knife edge follower: used in low speed cams. The wear rate is high at the point of
contact
Roller follower: used where more space is available. The operation is smooth with
less vibration. Used in gas engine valves, oil engine valves, aircraft engine valves.
Mushroom follower: used where the space is limited. Used in automobile inlet &
exhaust valves.
11. Important radial cam nomenclature:
Base circle: smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile
Cam profile: the surface of the cam that comes in contact with the follower
Trace point: is the reference point on the follower to trace the cam profile. In case
of a knife edge follower, the sharp end point is the trace point and in case of a
roller follower the centre of the roller is the trace point
Pitch curve: is the path of the tracing point
Prime circle: is the smallest circle drawn tangent to the pitch curve
Pitch point: is the point on the pitch curve at which the pressure angle is the
maximum
Pitch circle: is the circle passes through the pitch point & concentric with the base
circle
Lift or stroke or throw: is the maximum displacement of the follower from the
base circle of the cam
Angle of ascent or out stroke angle: the angle of rotation of the cam from the
position when the follower begins to rise till it reaches its highest position.
Angle of descent or return stroke angle: the angle of rotation of the cam from the
highest position when the follower begins to come down till it reaches its original
position.
Angle of dwell: is the angle of cam rotation during which the follower remains
stationary at its highest or lowest position.
12. Velocity & acceleration for different follower motions.
Type of motion Max. Velocity Max. Acceleration
2 2
Uniform acceleration and 2ωs/ θ 4 ω s/ θ
deceleration
2 2 2
Simple Harmonic Motion πωs/2 θ π ω s/ 2 θ
2πω2s/ θ
Cycloidal motion 2ωs/ θ 2
 Uniform Velocity ω (ds/dθ) ω (dV/dθ)

θ - to be replaced by θ o for outward stroke & by θ R for return

stroke. ω- angular velocity of cam
s- stroke or lift of the follower
13. Also, remember the shapes of displacement curves, velocity & acceleration curves
for all three follower motions. That is, uniform acceleration & deceleration, SHM
and Cycloidal motion.

Unit-IV
1. Define the ‘angle of obliquity or pressure angle, φ’
It is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the point of contact
and the common tangent at the pitch point. It can be either 14 1/2 degrees or 20
degrees.
2. Define ‘Length of path of contact’
It is the linear distance from a point where the contact between a pair of tooth begins
up to a point where the contact ends. It is the length of the common normal cutoff by
the addendum circles of pinion & wheel. It equals to the sum of lengths of path of
approach & length of path of recess.
3. What is meant by arc of approach, arc of recess and arc of contact?
Arc of approach: is the part of the arc of contact from the beginning of the
engagement of two teeth to the pitch point
Arc of recess: is the part of the arc of contact from pitch point to the end of the
engagement of a pair of teeth
Arc of contact: is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to
the end of engagement of a pair of teeth and equal to: length of path of contact/cos φ
(=arc of approach + arc of recess)
4. State ‘Law of Gearing’
It states that for obtaining a constant velocity ratio, at any instant, the common
normal at each point of contact should always pass through a fixed point(pitch point),
situated on the line joining the centers of rotation of the pairs of mating gears.
5. What are the two popular gear tooth profiles? Compare them.
The two popular gear tooth profiles are: Involute & Cycloid
Involute: is the profile defined by the locus of a point on a straight line which rolls
without slipping on the circumference of a circle. The variation in centre distance does
not affect the velocity ratio. Pressure angle remains constant throughout the tooth.
Possibility of interference and weaker teeth.
 Cycloid: is the profile defined by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls
without slipping on the circumference of a circle. The centre distance should not vary.
The pressure angle is zero at the pitch point & maximum at the starting and end of
engagement. There is no possibility of any interference & the teeth are stronger.
6. Define ‘interference’ & how to avoid it?
It is the phenomenon that occurs when one tooth tip undercuts the root of its mating
gear tooth.
To avoid interference, (i) the tooth height may be reduced (ii) the pressure angle may
be increased (iii) the radial flank of the pinion may be cut back.
7. Define the term, ‘contact ratio’
It is the ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch. This value gives the
number of pairs of teeth in contact at any instant.
8. Important Gear Nomenclature:
Gear ratio or Velocity ratio: driver gear speed/ driven gear speed = no. of teeth in
driven gear/ no. of teeth in driver gear
Pinion: smallest of two mating gears
Wheel: largest gear of two mating gears
Circular pitch=π x PCD/no. of teeth
Diametrical pitch=no. of teeth/
PCD Module= PCD/ No. of teeth
Pitch circle: is an imaginary circle at which the gear teeth of mating gears have
contact.
Addendum: is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the
tooth
Dedundum: is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of a
tooth
Backlash: is the difference between the tooth space & tooth thickness along the pitch
circle
Face width: is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to the gear axis
9. What do you mean by non-standard gear tooth? Why they are being used?
Various gear tooth parameters like tooth depth, addendum, dedundum have standard
values. The gear tooth obtained by modifying the standard proportions of gear tooth
parameters is known as non-standard gears.
They are being used in order to (i) eliminate undercutting (ii) prevent interference (iii)
maintain good contact ratio (iv) improve the performance with decrease in production
cost
10. Briefly discuss about different gear types.
 Spur gear: the teeth are straight and parallel to the gear axis. They are used to
transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts.
Helical gear: the teeth are in helix form around the gear. The helix angle, α is the angle
between the tooth axis & the plane containing the gear axis. The operation is smooth
with less noise when compared to spur gear.
Herringbone gear: also known as double helical gear, with the teeth having a right and
left handed helix cut on the same blank. In view of double helical teeth, the axial
thrust that exists in an ordinary helical gear is eliminated here.
Bevel gear: used to connect two shafts whose axes are not intersecting. The teeth are
cut in a blank of truncated cone in shape. If the teeth are straight, it is known as
straight bevel gear and when the teeth are inclined called as spiral or helical bevel
gear.
The spiral bevel gears with curved teeth, but, with a zero degree spiral angle are
known as zerol bevel gears.
Worm and worm wheel: used to transmit power with high velocity ratio between two
non-intersecting shafts, up to 500:1. The angle between the shafts is usually 90
degrees. The worm which is in cylindrical shape, may have a single or a maximum of
four threads. Wheel is an ordinary gear.
Rack and pinion: rack is a straight line gear that meshes with a circular wheel called a
pinion. Rack can also be defined as a gear with infinite radius. The rotary motion can
be converted in to linear motion and vice versa.
11. Define, ‘sliding velocity’.
It is the velocity of one tooth relative to its mating tooth along the common tangent at
the point of contact. It is the product of sum of the angular velocity of pair of gears
and the distance of the point of contact from pitch point. Vs =l(ω1 + ω2).
12. What is the role of ‘idlers’ in gear trains?
Idlers are also gears that are being used in a gear train to (i) change the direction of
rotation of driven gear (ii) to adjust the distance between the driver & driven gears
when they are away from each other.
13. Distinguish between a ‘simple, ‘compound’, ‘epicyclic’, ‘Reverted’ and ‘Non-Reverted
Gear Train’.
Simple gear train: only one gear in a shaft
Compound gear train: there is more than one gear in a shaft. Here, large gear ratio can
be obtained.
Epicyclic gear train: the axes of shafts may also move with respect to a fixed axis. A
typical example is the sun and planet gear system which is equivalent to the solar
system. They are used in the back gear of lathe, differential gear of automobiles, wrist
watches…
 Reverted gear train: the axes of first gear and the last gear are co-axial.
Non- Reverted gear train: the axes of first gear and the last gear are not co-axial.
Example: any simple or compound gear train
14. What are the externally applied torques used to keep the gear train in equilibrium?
(i) Input torque (ii) output torque (iii) holding torque

Unit-V

1. Different nomenclature in friction.

Dry (solid or coulomb) friction: friction that exists between two unlubricated
surfaces
Greasy (skin) friction: the contact surfaces have a minute thin layer of lubricant
between them.
Fluid friction (film or viscous friction): the surfaces in contact are completely
separated by the lubricant
Static friction: is the friction that acts when an object is at rest
Dynamic friction: is the friction that acts on an object in motion
Limiting friction: is the value of frictional force which comes into play, when a
body just tends to move
Rolling friction: exists when one surface rolls over another surface and is less than
sliding friction.
Sliding friction: exists when one surface slides over other surface.
Limiting angle of friction: It is the angle at which the normal resultant reaction R
makes with the normal reaction, RN, when the body just tends to move, the
-1
limiting angle of friction , φ =tan (µ) , where, µ is the coefficient of friction.
Angle of repose (α): is the maximum inclination of a plane at which a body remains
in equilibrium over the inclined plane by the assistance of friction only. It may be
noted that, angle of repose=limiting angle of friction.
2. Define the coefficient of friction.
It is the ratio of the limiting force of friction to the normal reaction between two
bodies.
3. What is the maximum efficiency of a screw jack?
The maximum efficiency is given by, ηmax= (1-sinφ)/ (1+sinφ). φ is the limiting
-1
angle of friction. φ =tan (µ).
4. What is the efficiency of inclined plane?
It is the ratio between the effort without friction and the effort with friction.
5. Explain the terms, ‘overhauling and self locking screws’.
 The effort required to lower the load in a screw jack is, P=W.tan (φ-α). If φ <α,
then, the effort, ‘P’ required to lower the load, ‘W’ becomes negative. In other
words, the load will start moving downward without the application of effort. Such
a condition is known as overhauling of screws (here, η > 50%).
If φ >α, then, the effort, ‘P’ (required to lower the load, ‘W’) becomes positive. So,
some effort is required to lower the load. This type of screw is called as self locking
screw (in this case, η < 50%).
6. What are the functions of a friction clutch?
It transmits power by means of friction
It connects or disconnects the power source (engine) from the transmission
system so that the vehicle can be stopped or gear can be changed to change
the speed of the vehicle.
7. What are the two assumptions made while solving clutch problems?
(i) Uniform wear theory- in case of old clutches
(ii) Uniform pressure theory- in case of new clutches
8. What is the difference between a plate clutch, cone clutch and centrifugal clutch?
Plate clutch: friction lined single or multiple flat plates are used. Both uniform
wear & uniform pressure theories are applied.
Cone clutch: friction lined single frustum of cone is used. Both uniform wear &
uniform pressure theories are applied.
Centrifugal clutch: in addition to friction, the principle of centrifugal force is also
applied. Friction lined multiple shoes are used.
9. State the law of belting
It states that the centre line of the belt as it approaches the pulley must lie in a
plane perpendicular to the pulley axis or must lie in the plane of the pulley,
otherwise, the belt will runoff the pulley.
10. Important belt nomenclature
Velocity ratio: ratio between the driver pulley speed to the driven pulley speed
and is equal to the ratio between the driven pulley diameter to the driver pulley
diameter.
Belt slip: is the relative motion between the belt and the pulley. This reduces the
speed of the driven pulley and hence the velocity ratio.
Creep of belt: when the belt passes from the slack side to tight side, a certain
portion of the belt extends and when the belt passes from tight side to slack side,
the belt contracts. Due to this change, there is a relative motion between the belt
& pulley surface which is known as creep.
Centrifugal tension on belt (Tc): while in operation, as the belt passes over a pulley,
due to its own weight, the belt experiences a centrifugal force. This reduces the
 frictional resistance and produces additional tension in the belt. This has no impact
on power transmission.
½
Condition for maximum power transmission: maximum velocity = (Tmax / 3m) ,
and Tmax = 3Tc. where, m-mass of belt per unit length, T max is maximum belt
tension.
V belt: has trapezoidal section, runs in a V-grooved pulley having an angle 30-40
degrees. More power can be transmitted, compact, smooth running with less
vibrations, high velocity ratio is possible. However, cannot be used for longer
distances and not durable.
Wipping in belt: if the centre distance between the pulleys is too long, the belt
starts vibrating in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of belt. This
is called wipping.
Initial belt tension: it is the initial tension provided in the belt when the belt drive
is stationary. This increases the frictional grip between the belt & pulley. Crowning
in pulley: is the process of providing slight downward taper from the centre
towards the ends in the pulley top surface. This increases the frictional resistance
& prevents the slip of the belt from the pulley.
11. Advantages of crossed belt over open belt.
The direction of rotation of both driver & driven pulleys are in the opposite
direction. Also, as the angle of lap is more (180+2α), more power can be
transmitted.
12. List the commonly used brakes.
Hydraulic brakes, electric brakes, mechanical brakes.
Mechanical brakes can be further classified in to (i) block or shoe brake (ii) band
brake (iii) internally expanding shoe brake (iv) vacuum brake
13. What do you mean by a ‘brake’?
It is a device by which the motion of a body can be retarded for slowing down or
bringing it to rest using the concept of friction.
14. Define, ‘self locking brake’ and ‘self energizing brake’
When the frictional force is sufficient to apply the brake with no external force, the
brake is said to be self locking brake.
When the moment due to the applied force adds with the moment due to
frictional force (that is, both are in the same direction), the frictional force helps in
applying the brake and this is known as, self energized brake.
15. Define the term, ‘virtual coefficient of friction’
In case of a V-Belt or Rope drive where a V-Grooved pulley with an angle 2β, the
coefficient of friction considered is (µ.cosee β) instead of µ. The higher value of
(µ.cosee β) is termed as virtual coefficient of friction.