UNIT - I: Building Material

1.Qualities of good brick :

1. The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and bright.
2. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3. The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
4. The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact
structure free from voids.
5. The brick should not absorbs water more than 20% by weight, for first class bricks and 22% by
weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for a period of 24 hours.
6. The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface, when it is
scratched with finger nail.
7. The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about
one meter.
8. The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
9. The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salt when
allowed to dry in shade.
10. No bricks should have the crushing strength below 5.50 N/mm 2.

2.Water Absorption Test on Bricks

Water absorption test on bricks are conducted to determine durability property of bricks such as degree
of burning, quality and behavior of bricks in weathering. A brick with water absorption of less than 7%
provides better resistance to damage by freezing. The degree of compactness of bricks can be obtained by
water absorption test, as water is absorbed by pores in bricks.

The water absorption by bricks increase with increase in pores. So, the bricks, which have water
absorption less than 3 percent can be called as vitrified. This test provides  the percentage of water
absorption of bricks and procedure of the same is discussed below.

 Apparatus:A sensitive balance capable of weighing within 0.1% of the mass of the specimen and
ventilated oven.
Specimen: Three numbers of whole bricks from samples collected for testing should be taken.

Procedure of Water Absorption Test

1. Dry the specimen in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105 °C to 115°C till it attains
substantially constant mass.
2. Cool the specimen to room temperature and obtain its weight (M1) specimen too warm to touch
shall not be used for this purpose.
3. Immerse completely dried specimen in clean water at a temperature of 27+2°C for 24 hours.
4. Remove the specimen and wipe out any traces of water with damp cloth and weigh the specimen
after it has been removed from water (M2).

Calculation of Water Absorption of Bricks

Water absorption, % by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water in given by the formula,
The average of result shall be reported.

Result
Water absorption of the given bricks = ………….%

Water Absorption Values for Bricks

When tested as above, the average water absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight up to class 12.5
and 15% by weight for higher class.

3.Compressive Strength test for bricks

Compressive strength test on bricks are carried out to determine the load carrying capacity of
bricks under compression with the help of compression testing machine. Bricks are generally
used for construction of load bearing masonry walls, columns and footings. These load
bearing masonry structures experiences mostly the compressive loads. Thus, it is important to
know the compressive strength of bricks to check for its suitability for construction.

Compressive Strength Test on Bricks

Apparatus
Compression testing machine, the compression plate of which shall have ball seating in the
form of portion of a sphere center of which coincides with the centre of the plate.

Compressive Strength Test on Brick using Compression Testing Machine

Specimens
Three numbers of whole bricks from sample collected should be taken. The dimensions
should be measured to the nearest 1mm.

Sampling of Bricks
Remove unevenness observed the bed faces of bricks to provide two smooth parallel faces by
grinding. Immerse the bricks in water at room temperature for 24 hours, then remove the
specimen and drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature.

fill the frog and all voids in the bed faces flush with cement mortar (1 cement, 1 clean coarse
sand of grade 3mm and down). Store it under the damp jute bags for 24 hours filled by
immersion in clean water for 3 days. Remove and wipe out any traces of moisture.

Procedure of Compressive Strength Test on Bricks

1. Place the specimen with flat face s horizontal and mortar filled face facing upwards
between plates of the testing machine.
 2. Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 (140 kg/cm2) per minute till failure
occurs and note maximum load at failure.
3. The load at failure is maximum load at which the specimen fails to produce any further
increase in the indicator reading on the testing machine.
Calculation
Compressive Strength of Bricks = Maximum Load at Failure (N)/Average area of bed face
(mm2)
The average of result shall be reported.

Range Calculation
Maximum compressive strength =

Contact area =

Maximum expected load =

The range to be selected is …………………

Result
Average compressive strength of the given bricks =………….. N/mm2
Specifications of Bricks
Speciation of Common Clay Building Bricks
Dimensions: The standard size of clay bricks shall be as follows

Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm)

190 90 90

190 90 40

Classification of Bricks based on Compressive Strength

The common burnt clay shall be classified on the basis of average compressive strength as
given in table.

Average compressive strength of Bricks

Bricks Class Designation
Not less than (N/mm2) Less than (N/mm2)

350 35 40

300 30 35
 250 25 30

200 20 25

175 17.5 20

150 15 17.5

125 12.5 15

100 10 12.5

75 7.5 10

50 5 7.5

35 3.5 5

4.Types of Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. The composition of Ordinary
Portland Cement:
 Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)
 Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

 It is used for general construction purposes.
 It is also used in most of the masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with calcium
hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementations materials when it is finely
divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:
 OPC clinker
  Gypsum
 Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

 PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the seashore,
dam construction etc.
 It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
 As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
 It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.

Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content, it gains
strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement. It’s initial
Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.
Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement
 Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the
construction of pavement.
 It also gives high strength.

Quick Setting Cement

Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting time is 5
minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick Setting Cement:
 Clinker
 Aluminium sulphate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
 The aluminium sulphte increase the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement

 It is used in underwater construction.
 It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
 It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
 Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling

Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat of hydration during setting. Some chemical
composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration. The chemical
composition of low heat cement:
 A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
 A higher percentage (46%) of declaim silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement

 It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind turbine plinths.
 It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
Sulphate Resisting Cement
Sulphet resisting cement is used to resist sulphet attacks in concrete. Due to the lower percentage
of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets reduced.
Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement
 Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 % g/l sulphate
salts respectively.
 Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers, concrete
surface in tidal zone, apron, Building near seacoast.
 Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps, drainage
works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls, breakwaters, tetrapods,
etc.

Blast Furnace Cement

Portland cement clinker and graunlated blast furnace slag are intergrinded to make blast furnace
cement. Maximum 65 percent of the mixture could be comprised by blast furnace slag.
Uses of Blast Furnace Cement
 It is highly sulphate resistant
 Frequently used in seawater construction.

High Alumina Cement

High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminium ore) and ordinary lime
with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of alumina content should not
be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of alumina to the lime between 0.85 to
1.30.
Uses of High Alumina Cement
 It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like workshop,
refractory, foundries etc
 It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.

White Cement
White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of iron oxide
and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not economical for
ordinary work.
Uses of White Cement
 It is usually used in decorative work.
 It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching materials and
terrazzo surfaces.

Colored Cement
To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are grinded with OPC. Types of pigments are selected
according to the desired color.
Uses of Colored Cement
 Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

Air Entraining Cement

It is seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while applying cement increases
resistance to frost action, fire, scaling and other similar defects. Air-entraining cement is a special
type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete.
It is produced by grinding minute air entertaining materials with clinker by adding some resinous
materials e.g. vinsol resin to ordinary portland cement. 
When the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When air-entraining
cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand without cracking concrete. But
this type of cement does not provide high strength in concrete.
Uses of Air-Entraining Cement
 Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
 It also resists Sulphet attack.
 It is used where the de-iceing chemical is used.

Expansive Cement
In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to overcome
shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
There are three types of expansive cement:
1. K Type expansive cement
2. M Type expansive cement
3. S Type expansive cement

K Type expansive cement

Raw materials of these types of cement
 Portland cement
 Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)
 Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

 Lime (CaO).

M Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement
1. Portland cement clinkers
2. Calcium sulfate.

S Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement
1. Portland cement clinkers
2. Calcium sulfate (High amount)
  Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)

Uses of Expansive cement

 It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.
 It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
 In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

Hydrophobic Cement
To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are grinded with water
repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid.  These chemicals form a layer on the
cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process. When cement and
aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and start normal hydration with
some air-entrainment which increases workability.
Uses of Hydrophobic Cement
 Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or other
submerged structures.
 It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnel etc.

5:Composition of Cement and properties (ordinary portland cement)

There are eight major ingredients of cement. The following are the ingredients of cement: 
The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is given below:
 Ingredient Percentage in cement
Lime 60-65

Silica 17-25

Alumina 3-8

Magnesia 1-3

Iron oxide 0.5-6

Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5

Sulfur Trioxide 1-3

Alkaline 0-1

Functions of Cement Ingredients

The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:
1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and aluminates of

calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
 o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o Excessive presence of lime cause cement to expand and disintegrate.

 
2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium
silicate.
o Silica imparts strength to cement.
o Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

 
 
3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.

 
4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. Chemical formula is MgO.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

 
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
o It acts as a flux.
o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

 
6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO 4.2H2O)
o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.

 
7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
o Should not be present more than 2%.
o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.

 
8. Alkaline:

o Should not be present more than 1%.

o Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.
  
6:FINENESS TEST OF CEMENT PROCEDURE AND IMPORTANCE
Fineness of cement is property of cement that indicate particle size of cement and specific surface
area. and indirectly effect heat of hydration. We know that cement hydrates when cement is mixed with
the water and a thin layer are formed around the particle. This thin layer grows bigger and makes cement
particles to separate. Because of this, the cement hydration process slows down. On other hands, cement
smaller particle react much quicker than the larger particle. A cement particle with diameter 1µm will react
entirely in 1 day, whereas the particle with diameter 10µm takes about 1 month.But, there is a side effect of
having too much of smaller particles in cement results in quick setting, leaving no time for mixing, handling
and placing. Therefore to increase the setting time of cement, cement is must be manufactured in a different
range of particle sizes.

Test Method:

AIM:

To determine the fineness of cement by using 90 µm IS sieve as per IS: 4031 (Part 1) –
1996.

APPARATUS:    

90µm IS Sieve,

Weight Balance having capacity 10 mg to 100 g

Nylon or pure bristle brush

PROCEDURE:

1. Collect a sample of cement and rub with your hands. The Fineness test sample should
be free of lumps.
2. Take 100 gm of cement sample and note its weight as W1.
3. Drop 100 gm of cement in 90 µm sieve and close it with the lid.
4. Now, shake the sieve with your hands by agitating the sieve in planetary and linear
movements for 15 minutes.
5. After that take weight the retained cement on the 90 µm sieve as W2.

Fineness = (W2/W1) * 100

 Then after, calculate the percentage of Weight of cement-retained on Sieve.

 Repeat this procedure with three different samples of cement and average the values
for accurate results.

Weight of Cement Weight Cement Sample

Sr.No. Fineness of Cement
Sample Retained on 90µm Sieve

1 100 gm 4.65 4.65 %

 2 100 gm 8.25 8.25 %

3 100 gm 7.95 7.95 %

    Average 6.95 %

Result: The standard cement should have fineness less than 10 % as per IS

Recommendations.

7:Setting time of cement:

When cement is mixed with water, it hydrates and makes cement paste. This paste can be moulded
into any desired shape due to its plasticity. Within this time cement continues with reacting water and
slowly cement starts losing its plasticity and set harden. This complete cycle is called Setting time of
cement.

Initial Setting time of Cement:-

The time to which cement can be moulded in any desired shape without losing it strength is called
Initial setting time of cement

For Ordinary Portland Cement, The initial Setting Time is 30 minutes.

Final setting time of Cement:-

The time at which cement completely loses its plasticity and became hard is a final setting time of
cement.

For Ordinary Portland Cement, The Final Setting Time is 600 minutes (10hrs).

Significance of calculating Initial and final setting time of cement:-

Well, After mixing cement with water, it takes time to place the cement paste in position,   initial
setting time possess a primary role in strength & it is mandated that cement paste or concrete is
placed in position before it crosses initial setting time. i.e.,30mins. And it shouldn’t be disturbed until
it completes Final setting time i.e., 600mins for Ordinary Portland Cement.

Factors that affect initial and final setting time of cement:-

The fineness of cement, the presence of salts in sand, atmospheric conditions. For example, cement
requires a temperature of 27°c to complete Hydration, during winters the climate is low which stops
the hydration and takes a longer time to set harden.

Calculation of Initial and Final Setting time of Cement:-

As Per  IS: 4031 (Part 5) – 1988.  Initial and final setting time of cement is calculated using
VICAT apparatus conforming to IS: 5513 – 1976,
Apparatus Required:-
Weighing balance of 1000g with accuracy 1g and Measuring cylinder of 200ml, VICAT apparatus,
VICAT Mould, Glass plate, the plunger of 10mm dia and Hand Trowel, stop watch

Procedure:-
1. Take 400g of cement and place it in a bowl or tray.
2. Now add water of Start the stopwatch at the moment water is added to the cement. Water of quantity
0.85P.times (Where P is the Standard consistency of cement) is considered.
3. Now fill the mix in Vicat mould. If any excessive paste remained on Vicat mould is taken off by using a
trowel.
4. Then, place the VICAT mould on non porous plate (Glass plate) and see that the plunger should touch
the surface of VICAT mould gently.
5. Release the Plunger and allow it to sink into the test mould.
6. Note down the penetration of the plunger from the bottom of mould indicated on the scale.
7. Repeat the same experiment at different positions on the mould until the plunger should stop
penetrating 5 from the bottom of the mould.
The time period elapsed between the moment water is added to the cement and the time, the needle
fails to penetrate the mould of 5mm when measured from the bottom of the mould, is the initial
setting time of cement.
Now replace the needle (plunger) by the one with an annular attachment. The cement is assmed as
finally set When, upon applying the needle gently to the surface of the test mould, the needle makes
an impression therein, while the attachment fails to do so. The time period between the moment
water is added to the cement and the time at which needle makes an impression on the surface of
the mould, while the attachment fails to do so, is the final setting time of cement.
 

8:Compressive Strength of Cement

This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.

Test Procedure for compressive strength of cement:
(i) The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The proportion is 1:3 which means that (X)
gm of cement is mixed with 3(X) gm of sand.
(ii) The water is added to the mortar. The water cement ratio is kept as 0.4 which means
that (X) gm of water is added to dry mortar.
(iii) The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes with side as
70.6 mm or 76 mm. The moulds are of metal and they are constructed in such a way that
the specimens can be easily taken out without being damaged. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm
cubes, the cement required is 185 gm and 235 gm respectively.
The mortar, after being placed in the moulds, is compacted in vibrating machine for 2
minutes.
(iv) The moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
(vi) The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for
curing.
(vii) The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3 days and
7 days. The testing of cubes is carried out on their three sides without packing. Thus three
cubes are tested each time to find out the compressive strength at the end of 3 days and 7
days. The average value is then worked out. During the test, the load is to be applied
uniformly at the rate of 350 kg/cm2 or 35 N/mm2.
(viii) The compressive strength of cement at the end of 3 days should not be less than
115 kg/cm2 or 11.50 N/mm2 and that at the end of 7 days should no be less than 175
kg/cm2 or 17.50 N/mm2.

9:Functions of Sand in mortar

 Generally, sand is not used in the mortar to increase its strength. Rather it is mainly used as an
inert material to increase the volume of mortar for the economy. 
 Using sand in the right amount can produce cheap mortar without hampering mortar strength.
 Sand subdivides the paste of cementing materials into a thin film which is the basic principle
involved in using all cementing materials.
 Sand offers the requisite surface area for the film of cementing materials to adhere and to spread.
 Sand helps to prevent mortar shrinkage. It also prevents cracking of mortar during setting.
 Well-graded sand increases the density of mortar.
 Sand allows Carbon-Di-oxide from the atmosphere to reach to some depth in case of ft lime
mortars and thereby improves their setting capability. 
 It is also claimed that some chemical reaction takes place between silica (SiO 2) of sand grains and
the constituents of the cementing materials to form a hardened mass. 

10: Mortar Mix proportions for various uses.

Proportion of Cement Mortar

l.
Nature of work Type of mortar
No.

Construction work in
Cement or lime mortar of proportions 1:3,
1. waterlogged areas and
lime being eminently hydraulic lime.
exposed positions

Damp proof courses and

2. Cement mortar proportions 1:2
cement concrete roads

General RCC work such as

Cement mortar of proportions 1:3, the
3. lintels, pillars, slabs, stairs
concrete mix being 1:2:4
etc.

Internal walls and surfaces Lime cinder mortar in proportion 1:3,

4.
of less importance sand is replaced by ashes or cinder.

5. Mortar for laying fire- Fire-resistant mortar consisting of 1 part

 of aluminous cement to 2 parts of finely
bricks
crushed powder of fire-bricks.

Cement mortar of proportions 1:3 or lime

Partition walls and parapet
6. mortar of 1:1. Lime should be moderately
walls
hydraulic lime.

Cement mortar of proportion 1:3 to 1:4 or

7. Plaster work
lime mortar proportion 1:2

8. Pointing work Cement mortar of proportion 1:1 to 1:2

9. Reinforced brickwork Cement mortar proportion 1:3

Stone masonry with best Lime mortar proportions 1:2, lime being
10.
varieties of stones eminently hydraulic lime.

Stone masonry with

Lime mortar of 1:2 or cement mortar of
ordinary stones,
11. 1:6, lime should be eminently hydraulic
brickwork, foundations,
lime or moderately hydraulic lime.
etc.

12. Thin joints in brickwork Lime mortar of 1:3, lime being fat lime.