BRM Unit IV

Syllabus
• Sampling: Basic Concepts: Defining the Universe, Concepts
of Statistical Population, Sample, Characteristics of a good
sample. Sampling Frame (practical approach for
determining the sample frame expected), Sampling errors,
Non Sampling errors, Methods to reduce the errors, Sample
Size constraints, Non Response.
• Probability Sample: Simple Random Sample, Systematic
Sample, Stratified Random Sample, Area Sampling &
Cluster Sampling.
• Non Probability Sample: Judgment Sampling, Convenience
Sampling, Purposive Sampling, Quota Sampling &
Snowballing Sampling methods.
• Determining size of the sample – Practical considerations in
sampling and sample size, sample size determination
 Defining the Universe,
• A population can be defined as including all
people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough time or
money to gather information from everyone
or everything in a universe(population), the
goal becomes finding a representative sample
(or subset) of that population.
 Sampling Frame
• In statistics, a sampling frame is the source
material or device from which a sample is
drawn. It is a list of all those within a
population who can be sampled, and may
include individuals, households or
institutions.
 Characteristics of Good Sample
• (1) Goal-oriented
• (2) Accurate representative of the universe
• (3) Proportional
• (4) Random selection
• (5) Economical
• (6) Practical
• (7) Actual information provider
 Characteristics of Good Sample
(a) Sample design must result in a truly
representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a
small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic
bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence
 Sampling errors
• Systematic bias and Sampling error
• A systematic bias results from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size. At best the causes responsible for
these errors can be detected and corrected.
 Sampling errors
• Reasons for Systematic Error
– Inappropriate sampling frame
– Defective measuring device
– Non-respondents
– Indeterminancy principle
– Natural bias in the reporting of data
 Sampling errors
• Sampling errors are the random variations in
the sample estimates around the true
population parameters.
• Sampling error decreases with the increase in
the size of the sample, and it happens to be of
a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population.
 Methods to reduce the errors,
• Measurement and control of errors:
• Consistency checks
• Sample check
• Post-census and post-survey checks
• External record check
• Quality control techniques
• Study or recall error
• Interpenetrating sub-samples
 Methods to reduce the errors
• At planning stage, all potential non-sampling
errors are listed and steps taken to minimise
them are considered.
• If data are collected from other sources,
question procedures adopted for data
collection, and data verification at each step of
the data chain.
• Critically view the data collected and attempt to
resolve queries immediately they arise.
• Document sources of non-sampling errors so
that results presented can be interpreted
meaningfully.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
(i) Type of universe
(ii) Sampling unit
(iii) Source list
(iv) Size of sample
(v) Parameters of interest
(vi) Budgetary constraint
(vii) Sampling procedure
 Sampling Method

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster Snowball

Multistage
 Probability and Non Probability
Sampling
• All the items under consideration
in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population
• With probability samples each Sampling Method

element has a known probability Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

of being included in the sample Simple Random Convenience

but the non-probability samples Systematic Sampling Quota

do not allow the researcher to
determine this probability. Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Simple Random
• This type of sampling is also known as
chance sampling or probability sampling
where each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of
the possible samples, in case of finite
universe, has the same probability of
being selected.
• For example,
– if we have to select a sample of 300 Sampling Method

items from a universe of 15,000 items, Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

then we can put the names or numbers
of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper Simple Random Convenience

and conduct a lottery. Using the random

Systematic Sampling Quota
number tables is another method of
random sampling. Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Systematic Sampling
• In some instances the most
practical way of sampling is to
select every 15th name on a list,
every 10th house on one side of
a street and so on. Sampling of
this type is known as systematic
sampling. An element of
randomness is usually Sampling Method

introduced into this kind of Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with Simple Random Convenience

which to start. Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Stratified Sampling
• If the population from which a sample is to
be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample. In this
technique, the population is stratified into
a number of non overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample
items are selected from each stratum. If
the items selected from each stratum is Sampling Method

based on simple random sampling the Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

entire procedure, first stratification and
then simple random sampling, is known as Simple Random Convenience
stratified random sampling.
Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or
the clusters rather than individual elements
for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some
departmental store wishes to sample its
credit card holders. It has issued its cards to
15,000 customers. The sample size is to be
kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of
15,000 card holders could be formed into
100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three
clusters might then be selected for the Sampling Method
sample randomly. The sample size must
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
often be larger than the simple random
sample to ensure the same level of accuracy Simple Random Convenience
because is cluster sampling procedural
potential for order bias and other sources of Systematic Sampling Quota
error is usually accentuated.
Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Multistage Sampling
• This is a further development of the
idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage
sampling the first stage may be to
select large primary sampling units
such as states, then districts, then Sampling Method

towns and finally certain families Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

within towns. If the technique of Simple Random Convenience
random-sampling is applied at all
stages, the sampling procedure is Systematic Sampling Quota

described as multi-stage random Stratified Judgmental

sampling.
Cluster

Multistage
 Convenience Sampling
• Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive
or non-probability sampling. This sampling
method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the
universe. When population elements are
selected for inclusion in the sample based on
the ease of access, it can be called convenience
sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data
from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed
number of petrol stations and may conduct Sampling Method
interviews at these stations. This would be an
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
example of convenience sample of gasoline
buyers. At times such a procedure may give Simple Random Convenience
very biased results particularly when the
population is not homogeneous. Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Quota sampling
• In stratified sampling the cost of taking
random samples from individual strata is
often so expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the
interviewer’s judgment. This is called
quota sampling.
• The size of the quota for each stratum is
generally proportionate to the size of that Sampling Method

stratum in the population. Quota sampling Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples Simple Random Convenience

generally happen to be judgment samples Systematic Sampling Quota

rather than random samples.
Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Judgemental Sampling
• In judgmental sampling the
researcher’s judgement is used for
selecting items which he considers
as representative of the
population.
• For example,
– a judgement sample of college
students might be taken to secure
reactions to a new method of Sampling Method

teaching. Judgement sampling is Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

used quite frequently in qualitative
research where the desire happens Simple Random Convenience

to be to develop hypotheses rather Systematic Sampling Quota

than to generalize to larger
populations. Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Sample Size Determination
• Size of the sample should be determined by a
researcher keeping in view the following points:
– Nature of universe
– Number of classes proposed
– Nature of study
– Type of sampling
– Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level
– Availability of finance
 Sample Size Determination
• Other considerations:
– Nature of units,
– Size of the population,
– Size of questionnaire,
– Availability of trained investigators,
– The conditions under which the sample is being
conducted,
– The time available for completion of the study
• Please refer to the page number 174 – 180 of
the CR Kothari Book.