AN

INDUSTRIAL VOCATIONAL TRAINING

REPORT ON
UREA PLANT
AT

GUJARAT NARMADA VALLEY FERTILISERS

AND CHEMICALS LIMITED,
BHARUCH.
13/05/2019 to 15/06/2019
PREPARED BY:-
DEEP C. KANERIYA
(2016033800117781)

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND
ENGINEERING MSU-BARODA.
 A VOCATIONAL TRAINING REPORT ON
UREA
AT

(Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers and Chemical limited)

Submitted By:-
Harsh J. Kothari
16BCH153
(01/03/2019 to 30/04/2019)

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NIRMA UNIVERSITY

1
 Acknowledgement

I would to acknowledge my gratefulness to Gujarat Narmada Fertilizers and Chemicals

Limited, for allowing me to work out this project and providing all the facilities needed throughout.

I would like to thank Dr. J.P. Ruparelia (HOD, chemical dept. ,Nirma University) and my
guide Dr. Leena Bora for their constant help and guidance throughout.

It was not possible to carry out the training without drawing upon the help of large number of
source. I would like to record here out the in-directs to those individuals whose co-operation has
made it possible to complete this project work.
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to
Mr. S.T. Sharma(Sr manager),
Mr.H.K.Parekh (Training Officer),
Mr. H.V.Dave ( chief manager),
Mr. P.R.Patel (Shift Engineer),
Mr. Sandeep Shah (Senior shift Engineer),
Mr. Nikunj Shah (Sr shift engineer),
Mr. V.R. Kayasth (Sr. manager)
for constant encouragement during the whole period of training.

I would like to this opportunity to express my heart feat gratitude to all the shift engineers and panel
operators for allowing me to work under their guidance. I am greatly indebted to them for their
invaluable support, constructive and consistent endeavours during the course of this training.

Also I would like to thank all the operators and shift in charges for guiding me throughout the training
period with their excellence and experience in the field.

YOURS SINCERELY
DEEP KANERIYA

2
 PREFACE

Industrial training is part of our technical course and gives a face to all theoretical knowledge we
gain in classroom. We get to have a virtual experience of the processes, methods, objects and
phenomenon which used to be just an imaginary picture in our mind. It also gives an exposure to the
environment of the industries and workshops which are virtual components of our professional life.

The principle objective of the training report is to get details about the operational process and
conditions which are carried out in the industry and more about the equipment used to be exposed to
training in some kind of an industry or other to enhance one’s knowledge.

This report includes my training experience at Gujarat Narmada valleys Fertilizers

and Chemical Limited, so that the reader can get brief idea about the industry.

I extend my gratitude to all the persons who directly and indirectly helped me during the
course of my industrial training and knowledge about the plant.

3
 Contents

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO GNFC .......................................................................................................... 11

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 11

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
1.3 Company policy ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4 Vision ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Mission ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6 Key Business Areas ................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
1.7 GNFC technology partners .................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.8 GNFC Plant location. ............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
1.9 KEY PRODUCTS PROFILE:- ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.10 Introduction to training centre ............................................................................................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER 2 FIRE & SAFETY ............................................................................................................................... 20

2.1 FIRE......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.1. What causes a fire to start? ................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2..2 THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE EXTINCTION .................................................................................................................................... 21
2.2.1 STARVATION ................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
2.2.2 COOLING ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
2.2.3 SMOTHERING ............................................................................................................................................................................... 21

2.3 Classes of Fires ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 22

2.3.1Rules for Fighting Fires........................................................................................................................................................................ 23
2.4 Personal Protective Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................. 23

CHAPTER 3 EMERGENCY,WORK PERMIT & FIRST AID TO THE INJURED ...................................... 27

CHAPTER 1 EMERGENCY ................................................................................................................................... 27

1.1 Emergency in Industry ........................................................................................................................................................................... 27

1.2 Types of Emergency ............................................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.3 Level of emergency ................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
1.4 Emergency activities ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28
1.4.1 Pre Emergency Activities ................................................................................................................................................................. 29
1.4.2 Activities During Emergency ........................................................................................................................................................... 29
1.4.3 Post Emergency Activities ............................................................................................................................................................... 29

5
1.5 Assembly points ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.5.1 role of persons manning assembly points ..................................................................................................................................... 30
1.5.2 ASSEMBLY POINTS LOCATION ................................................................................................................................................ 31
1.5.3 EMERGENCY CONTROL LOCATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 31
1.5.4 EMERGENCY CONTROL ROOM CONTAINS ........................................................................................................................... 31

1.6 On hearing of Emergency siren ............................................................................................................................................................. 32

1.6.1 Emergency Siren Tone ..................................................................................................................................................................... 32

1.7 Wind Indicator Locations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 32

1.8 Important contact number ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 2 WORK PERMIT ............................................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 3 FIRST AID TO INJURED................................................................................................................ 38

3.1 Role of first aider .................................................................................................................................................................................... 38

3.2 First aid technics ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 First aid checklist .................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
3.4 How to put on a bandage........................................................................................................................................................................ 43
3.5 How to bandage a hand .......................................................................................................................................................................... 44
3.6 How to bandage a sprain ........................................................................................................................................................................ 45
3.7 Workplace first aid kit ........................................................................................................................................................................... 45

CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO UREA .......................................................................................................... 47

4.1 HISTORY AND IUPAC NAME OF UREA ......................................................................................................................................... 47

4.2 UREA IN DETAIL ................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
4.3 UREA PRODUCTION CAPACITY ..................................................................................................................................................... 48
4.4 CAPACITY AND COMPETITORS ..................................................................................................................................................... 48
4.5 MARKET VALUE ................................................................................................................................................................................. 50
4.6 TECHNOLOGY PROVIDERS: Snamprogetti .................................................................................................................................... 50
4.7 APPLICATIONS OFUREA .................................................................................................................................................................. 51

CHAPTER 5 SELECTION OF PROCESS ...................................................................................................... 53

5.1 RAW MATERIAL SPECIFICATION ................................................................................................................................................. 53

5.2 AVAILABILITY OF RAW MATERIALS .......................................................................................................................................... 53
5.3 RAW MATERIAL CONSUMPTION AND SUSTAINABILITY ...................................................................................................... 53
5.4 COST OF RAW MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................................................. 54
5.5 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET ............................................................................................................................................... 54

6
 5.5.1 Physical and chemical properties of ammonia ................................................................................................................................. 54
5.5.2 Physical and chemical properties of carbondioxide ......................................................................................................................... 54
5.5.3 MSDS OF PRODUCT (UREA) ....................................................................................................................................................... 54

5.6 Alternate technologies ............................................................................................................................................................................ 58

5.6.1 Synthetic Production ........................................................................................................................................................................ 58
5.6.2 Commercial production .................................................................................................................................................................... 58
5.6.3 Process in general ............................................................................................................................................................................. 58
5.6.4 VARIOUS PROCESSES FOR MANUFACTURING OF UREA................................................................................................... 60

5.7 SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................................... 61

5.8 Effect of process variable: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 64
5.8.1 Effect of NH3/CO2 ratio: .................................................................................................................................................................. 64
5.8.2 Effect of H2O/CO2ratio : ................................................................................................................................................................. 64
5.8.3 Effect of temperature and pressure: ................................................................................................................................................. 64
5.8.4 Residence time: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
5.8.5 Biuret in urea:................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
5.8.6 Effect of residence time/temperature: ............................................................................................................................................. 65
5.8.7 Effect of ammonia: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 66

5.10 DETAILED PROCESSDESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................................................ 67

5.11 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM ............................................................................................................................................................ 71

CHAPTER 6 MATERIAL BALANCE ................................................................................................................... 72

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................. 72

6.1.1 REACTION AND CONVERSION ................................................................................................................................................. 72

6.2 MATERIAL BALANCE OF EACH EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................................... 72

6.2.1 material balance on reactor .............................................................................................................................................................. 73
6.2.2 Material balance over HP section ................................................................................................................................................... 73
6.2.3 Material balance over MPsection ..................................................................................................................................................... 74
6.2.4 Material balance over LPsection ...................................................................................................................................................... 75
6.2.5 Material balance over vacuum section ............................................................................................................................................ 75
6.2.6 Material balance over prilling section ............................................................................................................................................. 76

CHAPTER 7 ENERGY BALANCE ........................................................................................................................ 77

7.1 IDENTIFICATION OF EQUIPMENTS WHERE HEAT TRANSFER IS OCCURRING. ........................................................... 77

7.2 CALCULATION FOR ENERGY BALNCE OF EACHEQUIPMENT ............................................................................................ 77
7.2.1 Energy balance over reactor ............................................................................................................................................................. 78

7
 7.2.2 Energy balance over HP section...................................................................................................................................................... 79
7.2.3 Energy balance over MP section ...................................................................................................................................................... 80
7.2.4 Energy balance over Lpsection ........................................................................................................................................................ 82
7.2.5 Energy balance over vacuumsection ................................................................................................................................................ 83
7.2.6 Energy balance over priling section ................................................................................................................................................. 84

CHAPTER 8 PLANT UTILITIES .......................................................................................................................... 85

8.1 DEMINERALIZING WATER PLANT .............................................................................................................................................. 86

8.2 COOLING WATER SYSTEM............................................................................................................................................................. 87
8.3 COOLING TOWER ............................................................................................................................................................................... 88

CHAPTER 10 QUESTION ANSWER.................................................................................................................... 93

CHAPTER 11 CONCLUSION ............................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

8
 Chapter-1 Introduction to GNFC
1.1 Introduction

Figure -1.1 GNFC view

• GUJARAT NARMADA VALLY FERTILIZER & CHEMICAL LTD (GNFC) is a

join sector enterprise promoted by the GOVERNMENT OF GUJARAT& GUJARAT
STATE FERTILIZER &CHEMICAL LTD (GSFC) .it was set up in BHARUCH,
GUJARAT in 1976. Located at Bharuch in an extremely prosperous industrial belt,
GNFC draws on the resources of natural wealth of the land as well as the industrially
rich reserves of the area.

• GNFC started its manufacturing & marketing operation by setting up in 1982 one of
the world largest single – STREAM AMMONIA-UREA FERTILIZER
COMPLEXES. Over the next few years GNFC successfully commissioned different
projects – in fields as diverse as CHEMICAL, FERTILIZER & ELECTRONICS.

• GNFC today has extended its profile much beyond fertilizer through a process of
horizontal integration .CHEMICALS / PETROCHEMICALS, ENERGY SECTOR,
ELECTRONICS/ TELECOMMUNICATIONS & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
form ambitions &challenging additions to its corporate portfolio .GNFC view towards
expansion &diversification.

11
1.2 Production & Capacity Utilization

TABLE 1.1: Production & Capacity Utilization

Production for Capacity
Products
Year 2013-14 Utilization

Ammonia 608,279 136.54

Urea 696,428 109.35

Concentrated Nitric Acid 53,504 107.01

Methanol-II 145,347 77.27

Formic Acid 20,492 204.93

Acetic Acid 155,236 155.24

Weak Nitric Acid-1 291,183 117.65

Ethyl Acetate 52,088 104.18

Nitrobenzene (NB) 57,881 122.50

Ammonium Nitro phosphate (ANP) 188,865 132.54

Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) 44,348 31.12

Aniline 40,473 115.64

TDI- Toluene Di-isocynate 16,317 116.55

12
1.3 Company policy

13
1.4 Vision

“To be a technology driven environmentally responsible joint sector

company manufacturing fertilizers, commodity, and specialty chemicals
maintaining highest standards of operational excellence and innovation for
creating sustainable value for all stakeholders.”

1.5 Mission

•Be the leading provider of chemicals and agriculture inputs through adoption of
state of the art technologies and business processes.
•Have a firm commitment to quality, environment, health and safety.
•Enrich human resources and promote teamwork, innovativeness and integrity.
•Achieve sustainable economic growth based on corporate excellence driven by
ethical business practices, professionalism, dynamism and social responsibility.

1.6 Key Business Areas

Fertilizers:

• Urea
• Ammonium nitro phosphate
• Calcium ammonium
nitrate Chemicals:

• Ammonia
• Methanol
• Acetic acid
• Formic acid
• Methyl Formate
• Weak nitric acid
• Ammonium nitrate [melt]
• Aniline
• Toluene Di-isocynat
• Nitrobenzene

14
1.7 GNFC technology partners

Sr. No. GNFC-Technology Partners

1 Linde AG , Germany
2 BASF , Germany
3 Snamprogetti , Italy
4 Kemira OY , Finland
5 Fntrust , USA
6 Texaco , USA
7 Haldor Topsoe , Denmark
8 ICI , UK
9 Plinke , Germany
10 BP Chemicals , UK
11 TOYO Fngineering , Japan
12 Du Pont, USA
13 M/S. Lurgi Germany
1.8 GNFC Plant location.

Figure 1.2 GNFC Overview

15
 1.9 KEY PRODUCTS PROFILE:-

Product Capacity Technology Use

MTPA Suppliers
AMMONIA 4,45,000 M/s Linde A In the manufacture of Product,
G, Germany; Ammonium Nitrophosphate,
Texaco, USA Weak Nitric acid
;
BASF, Germ
any;
Haldor Tops
UREA 6,36,000 oe, Denmark Convenient for foliar applicati
on on plant canopy, Equally eff
Snamprogetti ective for all kinds of solids an
, Italy d crops
METHANO
L 1,60,000 Acetic Acid, Formaldehyde, Pe
(99.85%) (available fo ntaerythritol, DMT, TAME, M
r sale) ICI,UK. Prod TBE, Chloromethanes, Methyl
Country’s la uct conforms Amines, Pharmaceuticals and
rgest capacit to highest pur other intermediate etc.
y ity grade of U
S Federal AA
METHYL F 3000 As a raw material in the manuf
ORMATE (available fo acture of Di Methyl Formamid
(92-97%) r sale) Kemira OY, e, in Pharmaceuticals and Meta
Finland l Foundries. As a fumigant and
Larvicide for Tobacco, in orga
nic synthesis and in formulatio
n of Synthetic Flavours. Used
as a cellulose Acetate Solvent f
or Anisotropic Cellulose Fibers
Spun in a
modified Dry Spinning process

FORMIC A 16,000 Coagulant in obtaining rubber

CID (85%) (available fo from latex, Fixing of Dyes in l
r sale) Kemira OY, eather and textile industries, Int
Country’s la Finland ermediate in the manufacture o
rgest capacit High quality f basic drugs etc.
16
 y Formic Acid
produced thr
ough Methyl
ACETIC A 1,40,000 Formate rout In the manufacture of Acetic A
CID (GLAC (available fo e nhydride, Vinyl Acetate Mono
IAL-99.85% r sale) mer(VAM), Purified Terepthal
) Country’s la M/s B.P.Che ic Acid(PTA), Mono Chloro A
rgest capacit micals, UK. cetic Acid, Acetates and Diket
y The only man enes derivative
ufacturer in c
WEAK NIT 40,000 ountry to em In the manufacture of fertilizer
RIC ACID( (available fo ploy Methan s, Ammonium Nitrate and othe
WNA- 61.5 r sale) ol route r Explosives, Glyoxal, Chemic
%,68%,72 al salts, Dyes & Dye intermedi
%,25%) M/s UHDE, ates, H-Acid, Drugs, Nitrobenz
Germany ene, other Nitro derivatives and
pickling of steel etc.

CONENTR 20,000 In the manufacture of Dyes, dy

ATED NIT (available fo e intermediates, Drugs, Nitrobe
RIC ACID( r sale) nzene, Aniline, Nitrochloroben
CNA-98.5% zenes, Nitro Toluenes, TDI and
) M/s Plinke, other Nitro derivatives, Pestici
Germany des etc.
1,42,000
Basal application during sowin
AMMONIU g time
M NITROP
HOSPHAT 1,42,500
E BASF, Germ In all upland crops, especially
any commercial and cash crops, to
CALCIUM avoid soil acidity and alkalinity
AMMONIU 45,000
M NITRAT (available fo Widely used in the manufactur
E r sale) UHDE, Ger e of Fertilizers like calcium A
many mmonium Nitrate and Ammon
AMMONIU ium Nitro Phosphate, Explosiv
M NITRAT es, Pharmaceuticals, Pyrotechn
E (MELT-8 ics, herbicides, and Insecticide
5%) M/s. UHDE, s, as absorbent, Ingredient of Fr
Germany eezing mixture, Nutrient for A
ntibiotics and Yeast
17
 40,000 In the manufacture of dyes, dye
(available fo intermediates, rubber chemica
r sale) ls and applications in photogra
Country’s la phic chemicals, pharmaceutica
rgest single s l products, pesticides, insectici
ANILINE (9 tream plant c des, herbicides etc.
9.9%) apacity
M/s Du Pont,
17,000 USA
(available fo
r sale) Major raw material for manufa
The only pro cturing flexible
ducer in Sou Polyurethane Foam which find
th East Asia s use in mattresses, pillows, qui
lts, automobile seats, linings, a
TOLUENE coustics, insulation, coating, ad
DI 2,000 hesives, sealants and elastomer
-ISOCYAN (available fo M/s Du Pont, s
ATE (TDI 8 r sale) USA
0:20) Dyes & Dye intermediates, pha
rmaceuticals, pesticides etc.

NITROBEN
ZENE (99.7 M/s Chematu
%) r Engineering
AB Sweden

1.10 Introduction to training centre

GNFC has a full fledged training and development faculty for human resourses ,which is equipped
with audio-vishual system ,computer laboratoryand conference room.
In gnfc training , training centre is most part of training. Manager of training centre is Mr S T SHARMA
(Sr. manager)and training officer id Mr. H K PAREKH . They give extremlly high training to student
. there is big auditorium for safety training. there is also classroom for student. This type of
infrastructure is not see in other company.All the trainees undergo an expert safety lecture

18
 beforeentering the plant. All trainees are provided identity card during training period and attendance is
taken so that trainees wprk can br recorded.nobody is allowed to enter in plant without safety helmet
Which can get training?
- B.tech student
- diploma student
- I.T.I student
- Fire and safety student
- person who join the company

19
 CHAPTER 2 FIRE & SAFETY
2.1 FIRE

➢
Fire is a Rapid Chemical Reaction when material is heated to its ignition Temperature and surrounded by Oxygen.

➢
Fire is a Violently Advanced Process involving Two or More Flammable Object which gives Lights & Heat.

➢
Three things must be present at the same time to produce fire:

• Enough OXYGEN to sustain combustion

• Enough HEAT to reach ignition temperature
• Some FUEL or combustible material
Together, they produce the CHEMICAL REACTION that is fire
Take away any of these things and the fire will be extinguished

2.1. What causes a fire to start?

There are numerous different things that can cause a flame to ignite. Here are just a few ways:

2.1.1 Electricity
Electrical fires can be extremely dangerous, because they are unlike other fires. They need to be put out with
carbon dioxide, because it is nonconductive. Electrical fires are caused when the electrical circuits in a

20
 house or any other building are overloaded, causing the appliances to spark and set alight any
surrounding fuel. Fires caused by lightning strikes are also classified as electrical fires. This is
because obviously lightning is electricity, so when it strikes any fuel, it sets it alight because the heat
is so intense.

2.1.2 Chemical Leakages

Chemical fires can break out in situations where there are flammable chemicals which are
vulnerable to a flame, such as in a science laboratory. But they can also happen involving chemicals
that can be found in your own home, such as turpentine, floor cleaners, insect sprays etc. Also, more
commonly in places such as a garage or tool shed. For example, if you were to use equipment
involving a flame such as a welder, around an open or spilt can of a substance such as wood varnish
or lawn mower petrol, it could easy cause a fire due to the flammability of the chemical.

2.1.3 Friction

If you were to rub two dry sticks together for a certain amount of time, the heat generated
between the two sticks would eventually cause them to ignite. This method is called friction. For
example, when a comet or meteor enters the atmosphere, it burns up due to friction against the air. Also,
when you rub your hands together on a cold day, you are creating frictional heat. Another way is when
you strike a match on the sandpaper on the side of the box, the heat caused by the friction reacts with the
chemical substance on the tip of the match, causing it to ignite.

2..2 THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE EXTINCTION

2.2.1 STARVATION

• Starvation is achieved by removal of the fuel burning in the fire. Sometimes combustible material can be
removed such as by shutting off gas valves or fuel flows.

2.2.2 COOLING

• The most commonly used firefighting medium is water. Water absorbs heat from the fire and cools the fuel
to a temperature where it no longer produces flammable vapors.

2.2.3 SMOTHERING

• By excluding the oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere, the fire will be extinguished.

21
2.3 Classes of Fires

• CLASS ‘A’ (Combustible Solids): These are fires involving solid material of an organic nature, namely
carbon compounds such as wood, paper, cloth, etc. They are the most common class of fire.

• CLASS ‘B’ (Combustible Liquids): Fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids such as, organic liquids,
oil, paint, fat, thinners, etc.
• CLASS ‘C’ (Combustible Gases): This class of fire involves gases in either vapor or liquefied form,
either as a spillage of the liquid or leak of vapor. Methane, hydrogen, acetylene, propane, butane, etc.
are examples of likely fuels.
• CLASS ‘D’ (Combustible Metals): Fires involving metals such as magnesium, aluminum, sodium or
potassium, certain organometallic compounds such as alkyl lithium and Grignard reagents.
• CLASS E: ELECTRICAL FIRE

Most fire extinguishers will have a pictograph label telling you which types of fire the extinguisher is
designed to fight.
For example, a simple water extinguisher might have a label like this…
• Types of Fire Extinguishers
• Different types of fire extinguishers are designed to fight different classes of fire.

The 4 most common types of fire extinguishers are

• Water Type (APW)
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Dry Chemical (ABC, BC, DC)
• FOAM Type

22
2.3.1Rules for Fighting Fires

The final rule is to always position yourself with an exit or means of escape at your back before you
attempt to use an extinguisher to put out a fire.
In case the extinguisher malfunctions, or something unexpected happens, you need to be able to get
out quickly. You don’t want to become trapped.

2.4 Personal Protective Equipment

The safety of the plant is of utmost important as if the plant is safe, so are people working
in the plant safe. Safety first should be the main motto of any running plant. There are various inbuilt
parameters also known as logic which controls the unsafe parameters automatically.
Various parameters are predefined and if any running value or operating value exceeds,
these parameters then tripping takes place. The logics are inter-linked with these tripping parameters.
The function of the logic is that depending on which other parameters are going to be affected by the
exceeding parameter, it takes decision on its own and brings about shutdown of the affecting
23
 parameters through interlocking. Thus the exceeding parameter never does harm the safety of the plant
as logic takes care of the same.
The above mentioned logics are primary safety measures but if these safety measures fail then
there are various safety valves attached with various equipment’s which act as the last resort. To fight in
the plant there are extinguishers installed at various locations kept safe in glass panes provided with the
hammer. These are primary firefighting equipment’s which act as first aid to prevent fire.

Fire water distribution network is provided throughout the plant as a part of international
standard of fire safety and protection. Crude Methanol tank and product Methane tanks have been
provided with water sprinkler system. There is a backup of fire department for controlling any
emergency in the plant. The fire calling system is provided in the plant at various locations.

1. Head Protection:
Head protectors are hard hats, caps, helmets made of aluminum, PVC, fiberglass, laminated plastic
or vulcanized rubber. They may be fitted with breakers for fixing welding marks, protective faces screen
or lamp. The hats and caps are provided with replaceable hardness, which provides sufficient clearance
between the top of the head and shell. Soft caps and hoods are also used for protection against heat,
sparks, and other dangerous material and are made up of appropriate materials.

2. Eye and Face Protection:

Eye injuries can be caused by dust, flying particle, splashes and harmful radiations. Eye protectors are
safety spectacles, mono goggles, impact goggles, wilding goggles, foundry goggles, chemical goggles,
and gas tight goggles, face shield, etc.

24
 3. Ear Protection:

Noise level above 90 DBA is hazards if human body is expose to it for more than 8 hrs per day or 48 hrs per
week. It may cause deafness, loss of efficiency, irritation, and also loss of hearing, noise level can measure by a
Noise Average Meter or a Noise Dose Meter, ear plug or ear muffs reduce to at 25 to 49 DBA ear plug is made of
plastic, rubber, of polyurethane foam. Earmuffs coves external ear and provides better attenuation than earplug.

4. Body Protection:

Body protectors are coats, aprons, overall jackets and complete head to toe protective suits. Nature of
potential hazard, degree of hazard involved and nature of activities of the earner are important in the selection of

25
safety clothing. Although complete coverage of the body and legs are not needed in many cases, unnecessary safety
clothing may hamper the efficiency of the wearer.

5. leg protection
For leg protection we use safety shoes. In safety shoes in frount of it it have steel type curve so what ever
thing fall on frount of foot it protect leg by injury.

26
 CHAPTER 3 EMERGENCY,WORK PERMIT & FIRST AID TO THE
INJURED
CHAPTER 1 EMERGENCY

Emergency is defined as any situation which presents a threat to safety of persons or property.

1.1 Emergency in Industry

Emergency (in industry) can be defined as one or more emergencies, which can:
➢
Affect one or several plants.
➢
Cause serious injury to the person
➢
Result in extensive damage to the property

1.2 Types of Emergency

1. Social :- civil disturbance,war,riots

2. Man made :-Industrial accidenr ,fire ,explosion,heavy leakage/spillage of chemicals,collapse of
infrastructure
3. Natural calamities:- Earth quake,cyclone,flood,forest fire,volcanic eruptions,tsunami
Manmade emergency in industry are:
• Fire
• Explosion
• Gas leakage
• Those arising out of abnormalities in operation, maintenance, start-up / shut down, failure of
27
 equipment & use of nonstandard material.
• Road accidents involving hazardous / toxic / radioactive / corrosive chemicals.
• Sabotage (An intentional damage.)

1.3 Level of emergency

LEVELS OF EMERGENCY CAN BE CLASSIFIED IN THREE CATEGORIES.

Level – 1 --- The emergency which is containable within the same plant premises.

Emergency may be due to:

➢
Small spot fire in the Plant.
➢
Low toxic gas release / small hydrocarbon leakage.
➢
Collapsing of small equipment’s/Line failure.

Level – 2 -- The emergency, which is containable within the factory premises.

Emergency may be due to:

➢
Big fire in Factory Premises/Fall of Structure/ Failure of Line, Vessel etc.
➢
Medium scale Explosion.
➢
Heavy leakage of Toxic / Flammable gas for short duration /Heavy leakage of hydrocarbon.

In this case upstream/downstream plants may be affected and may require shut down.
Level – 3 --- Likelihood of cloud formation of toxic and/or flammable gases and drifting of such cloud
affecting to the general public.

Emergency may be due to:

➢
Explosion in high-pressure vessel containing toxic / flammable material.
➢
Heavy leakage of toxic material or corrosive fumes for a long duration, from pipeline or Storage tanks.
➢
Fire/Explosion in storage areas causing heavy radiation/fire balls etc.

Levels of emergency can change / aggravate, if timely actions are not taken.

➢
On Site Emergency Plan deals with measures to prevent and control emergencies within the factory and not affecting outside public or environment.
➢
Off Site Emergency Plan deals with measures to prevent and control emergencies affecting public and the environment outside the premises.

➢
Ultimate controller is district collector.

1.4 Emergency activities

1. Pre Emergency Activities

2. Activities During Emergency
3. Post Emergency Activities
28
 1.4.1 Pre Emergency Activities
➢
Preparation of Emergency plan.
➢
Check-list of available resources.
➢
List of Key persons.
➢
Risk assessment report.
➢
Emergency organization.
➢
Emergency control centre.

1.4.2 Activities During Emergency

➢
Informing about emergency.
➢
Plant isolations / Shut down.
➢
Traffic control.
➢
Firefighting / gas controlling.
➢
Communication.
➢
Evacuation.

1.4.3 Post Emergency Activities

• All clear signal.

• List of injured / dead persons.
• Clearing and repair.
• Liaisoining with Press.
• Rehabilitation.

What to do where emergency occurs…

• Try to extinguish the fire with available the equipment, if you can.
• You must know the escape routes.
• You must know to operate fire alarm and how to use first aid firefighting equipment’s.
• Do not use lift as means of escape.
• Do not run, this tends to cause panic.
• Do not get panicky, Move to safe area.
• Take fast actions to prevent or minimize incidents.
• Do not loiter unnecessarily.
• Inform visitors to move safe location in company premises.
29
 • If you have no role to play move out of the area.
• Reach to the safer assembly point by seeing wind direction.
• Do not approach to emergency site as spectators.
• Do not engage communication channels (Phone etc.) Unnecessarily.
• Do not approach control centre unnecessarily for inquiry unless you are required.
• Proceed in orderly manner to the safe assembly point when you are instructed to do so.
• Do not spread unauthentic information.
• Evacuate all persons of your neighbouring offices / depts.
• Ensure that emergency exits are utilized and there is no stampede while going downstairs.

• Key personnel / M /SM/ CM/ AGM of respective Dept. should take the charge of evacuation of respective
areas as well as to take the charge of assembly points.
• Wait for instruction & be attentive.
• Personal safety and rescuing injured should be taken on priority.
• Inform All SICs, Panel / Field staff for emergency & for partial or total S/D depending upon the severity.
• Give priority to personnel safety and plant safety while taking decision.
• Inform on PA system for stoppage of all Hot work / cold work and evacuate the site.
• Send concerned and additional operating people to the site and/ or their sections.
• Inform to M / SM / CM / AGM / GM / ED depending upon the severity.
• Inform Effluent Control Unit.

• Direct all operations within affected area for safety of personnel and to minimize losses to the property,
environment.
• Give information / guide to Fire Team, Rescue Team, Medical Team, Emergency Team.
• Make available proper / required PPEs for field persons.
• Try to rescue affected persons immediately - Minimize damage to the plant.

• Instruct Upstream / Downstream units for emergency actions in their plants including isolations, shut downs
etc.

1.5 Assembly points

1.5.1 role of persons manning assembly points

➢
On getting information or hearing siren, they will reach / remain at the assembly point & contact SMC / IC.
➢
Arrange to record names of employees / worker / visitors & departments persons / Casualties assembled there & transfer them to other safe places, as
advised by the SMC.

30
➢
If nominated assembly point in-charge does not reach assembly point the senior most employee available will take charge of
assembly point in-charge.

1.5.2 ASSEMBLY POINTS LOCATION

Table 1.5.2 assembly point

1.5.3 EMERGENCY CONTROL LOCATIONS

➢
LEVEL-1 Plant Control Room / Fire Control Room
➢
LEVEL-2 Plant Control Room / Fire Control Room
➢
LEVEL-3 Emergency Control Centre

1.5.4 EMERGENCY CONTROL ROOM CONTAINS

a. List of telephone numbers (external and internal).

b. Plan of factory site, showing the assembly points location of plants / storages / works in relation with
surrounding community.
c. Incident command structure and a list of key personnel and essential persons.
d. Copy of the emergency action plan.
e. List of details giving resources availability and contact phone nu
1.6 On hearing of Emergency siren

Non concerned persons shall follow safe route for evacuation. They will rush towards nearby safe
assembly points watching the wind direction.
Key / Essential Personnel shall report to respective control room.

1.6.1 Emergency Siren Tone

FIRE .... Whaling sound for three minutes (Ten second sound and Ten seconds break)
GAS LEAK .... Whaling sound for six minutes (Five sec on and Five sec off)
TREMORS / EARTH QUAKE .... Whaling sound for ten minutes (Fifteen second sound and
Fifteen second break)
ALL CLEAR ........Continuous sound for three minutes.
TESTING ........ Continuous sound for two min.

1.7 Wind Indicator Locations

1. Raw water Plant (Top of wash tank)

2. HYCO Plant (Top of cold box)
3. HYCO Plant (CO2 Absorber Top floor)
4. Incinerator Top
5. TDA / MTD Plant (Top floor)
6. TDI Plant
7. Chlorine Scrubber (Top floor)
8. Toluene tank (Top)
9. Pipe rack (MRS East)
10. Pipe rack (Process control room North)
11. Pipe rack (Q.C. North)
12. 5 Cell Cooling tower (CL2 Tonner West)

32
1.8 Important contact number

Tablr 1.8contact namber

CHAPTER 2 Work permit

All jobs within the GNFC complex will be carried out through permit to work system. All

permits must be retained at work site for inspection. All instructions stipulated in the permit
must be strictly followed. The relevant permit shall be obtained from Officer / Engineer-In-
Charge.

1. PERMIT TO WORK
For carrying out any job, a written permission to work is required.
2. SAFETY PERMIT
For all hot jobs, such as welding, gas cutting, grinding, lighting of any open fire, Safety

33
 Permit shall also be obtained in addition to permit to work.
3. VESSEL ENTRY PERMIT / (SAFETY PERMIT)
For all jobs requiring entry in to confined space or vessels, tank, pit etc vessel entry
permit shall also be obtained in addition to permit to work.

4 WORKING AT HEIGHT / SCAFFOLDING:

All efforts shall be put to prevent fall from heights by proper approaches,
scaffoldings, platform, ladders safety-nets, safety belts with life lines/hoists/lifts etc.
(a) By advance planning a safe procedure must be prepared by the concerned
contractors talking-up the job at height in consultation with the Supervising Engineer
In-charge/Manager In-charge/Dept., Fire & Safety Department & Plant Area Incharges.
Thus prepared safe procedure should be implemented.
(b) Work permit system shall be followed rigorously in all cases/all jobs in operating
areas as per the normal work permit system.
(c) Permit shall be renewed at the beginning of every-shift, as per the normal procedure.
(d) No person shall be allowed to work at height without work permit in any are of the
factory, except clearly defined new project areas, If they have been specifically and
permitted, however, in case of such new project sites, all precautions mentioned
herewith must be followed without fail.
(e) Erection & use of proper type of scaffolding as recommended by I.S.:3696, I.S.:4014,
I.S.:4912 and other relevant codes. Scaffoldings shall be with white platforms, toeboards,
railing etc. provide proper approach access and escape.
(f) In case of suspended scaffoldings double suspensions shall be ensured. Provide
approach and escape from platforms.
(g) Use of safety Belts with life line anchored with the firm support shall be ensured.
Suitable anchorage lines should be made for tie-up Life Line, if required.
(h) While working on roofs fragile roofs top safe walk-ladder shall be used along with
Safety Belts/ Safety Nets. Work permit is essential such jobs.
(i) Provision of proper approaches to platform/workplace, including use of mechanized
equipment like crane shall be made.
(j) Ladders can be used for proper approach with firm support & ladders of adequate
strength & size.
(k) Covering of pits, sumps, cutouts made for erection, cutouts/opening formed, due to
removal of structure/ vessels/equipments shall be ensured. Railing also should be
34
done. Toe guards should be provided.
(l) All structure openings/floor openings posing fall hazards shall also be covered with
adequate strength.
(m) Safety Belts & safety Nets also shall be used while working at height. Safety Nets
shall be used when ladders/scaffolds, suspended Plat-forms, Temporary floors or
safety Belts are impractical or these facilities do not remove the hazards of fall.
(n) Efficient inspection & maintenance of scaffoldings/ladders/safety belts & other fall
protection equipments shall be done by the Concerned Supervisors Scaffoldings are
checked before every-use.
(o) No job shall be taken-up near the moving dangerous machines which pose fall risk
as well as entanglement.
(p) Adequate Training & Education shall be imparted to all work-Men, for working at
height as well as in use of Personal Protective Equipments.
(q) Safety Helmets which can protect Head Injury, against falling Objects fit firmly shall
be used.
(r) Working at height should be avoided in adverse weather conditions. Work site should
be properly illuminated.
(s) The erection, alteration or dismantling of scaffolds shall be carried out by Competent
workmen posing adequate experience of such work and under the immediate
supervision of a competent person.
(t) Scaffolding shall be provided for workmen for all works that cannot safely as can be
done safely from ladders. When a ladder is used, an extra workman shall be
engaged for holding the ladder and if the ladder is used for carrying materials as well,
suitable footholds and handholds shall be provided on the ladder and the ladder shall
be given an inclination not steeper than 1 in 4 (1 horizontal & 4 vertical).
(u) Scaffolding or staging above the ground or floor, swing or suspended from an
overhead support or erected with stationary support shall have a guard/rail properly
attached.
(v) Working platform, gangways and stairways should be so constructed that they
should not sag unduly or unequally.
(w) Every opening through which any person is liable to fall in the floor of a building or in
a working platform shall be provided with suitable means to prevent the fall of
persons or materials by providing suitable fencing or railing whose minimum height
35
shall be 3'.
(x) Safe means of access shall be provided to all working platforms and other working
places. Every ladder shall be securely fixed.
(y) All scaffolding shall be properly maintained and inspected by a competent
person monthly, since exposure to weather conditions likely to affect their strength
or stability.
(z) Adequate precautions shall be taken to prevent danger from electrical equipments.
(aa) No materials on any of the site of work shall be so stacked or placed as to cause
danger or in convenience to any person or public.
(bb) The contractor shall also provide all necessary fencing and lights to protect the
workers and staff from accidents.
(cc) When work has to be done on elevated places, towers, roofs, pipe racks & other
lofty positions where plat-forms & other fall guards are not there, use of SAFETY
BELT is compulsory. Safety Nets will prove very helpful in case somebody
slipped from height.
5 INFULENCE OF ALCOHOL OR DRUGS:
It is absolutely prohibited for any person to work while under the influence of alcohol or
drugs.
6 HORSEPLAY:
Horseplay in any form is strictly forbidden.
7 CONTRACTOR'S BARRICADES:
A) Contractor shall erect and maintain proper barricades required in connection with his
operation to guard or protect.
(i) Excavations
(ii) Hoisting areas
(iii) Areas adjudged hazardous by contractors and Company's officers.
(iv) Company's existing property liable to damage by contractor's operations, in
the opinion of Officer / Engineer-In-Charge.
(v) Contractor's employees shall become acquainted with Company's
barricading practice and shall respect the provisions thereof.
8 EXACAVATION AND TRENCHING
All work below ground-level is dangerous. Excavation work usually indicates the
commencement of work, but sadly, it can become the termination of life for an employee.
36
Anyone or combination of the following can cause accident.
b. Unknown soil structure,
c. Lake of care in unstable soil,
d. Inadequate protection,
e. Poorly secured protection,
f. Lake of care, during weather changes,
g. Insufficient inspection &
h. Inexperience supervisors and work force.
To avoid accident, we must try to eliminate the causes by talking precautions like-
EXCAVATION
• The line contractor shall ensure that no excavation work shall be carried out without
the issue of an excavation permit.
• For excavation over one matter in depth an entry to confined space permit shall be
required in restricted areas, because of the potential for flammable and or toxic
gases and oxygen deficiency.
• Any buried cables or pipelines unexpectedly encountered during excavation work
shall be reported immediately to engineer and work shall cease.
• Shoring shall be rigid and without holes or opening, and be properly braced with
support structure.
• The shoring of every excavation where men are to work shall be examined each day
by contractor’s representative named on the excavation permit.
9 DANGER AT EXCAVATION EDGES
• No load, plant or equipment should be placed or moved near the edge of any
excavation where it is likely to cause the collapse of the side of the excavation.
EXCAVATION BARRIERS
• Excavation in which persons are working and into which a person is liable to fall shall
be suitably or protected by barrier. If the excavation is to remain open after dark,
warning lights shall be placed around the excavation to warn others of its presence.
• The contractors shall be responsible for the provision of all barricades, roping off and
the provision of flashing lights as is required for the safety of persons and vehicles.
i) Excavated earth must not be dumped within five feet. The further the better.
ii) Passages/Bridges across trenches should be provided with hand rails & toe board.
iii) Entry permit should be obtained while entering a pit with a depth of more than one
37
 meter.
iv) No pit should be left unguarded / uncovered. Provide proper barriers around the pit
when persons are not working in it. Red illuminated signal should be displayed so that
nobody goes near the pit during dark hours.
v) Only limited person should be allowed to enter in pit for digging or dumping of
excavated earth when digging is going on. Two works should not be carried out
simultaneously. Also before starting digging or dumping proper tools should be used
during digging & dumping operation.
vi) Proper arrangement of ladder should be made to enter into the pit.
vii) No work, however, small should be under taken / started without obtaining valid work
permit from the concerned department.
viii) Confined space entry should be done only by valid entry permit from the Engineer-incharge.
ix) Proper approaches/scaffoldings/ladders etc. must be provided to avoid falls.
x) All Persons employed in operation trucks/ tractors and other material handling
equipments must have valid license.
10 DEMOLITION:
i) Before any demolition work is commenced and also during the process of the work
all roads and open area adjacent to the work site shall either be closed or suitably
protected or barricaded.
ii) No electric cable or apparatus, which is liable to be a source of danger, or a cable or
apparatus used by the operator, shall remain electrically charged.
iii) All practical steps shall be taken to prevent danger to persons employed, from risk of
fire or explosion or flooding.
xi) No floor or other part of the building shall be so overloaded with debris or materials
so as to render it unsafe.

CHAPTER 3 FIRST AID TO INJURED

3.1 Role of first aider

First aid is the help given to someone who is injured or ill, to keep them safe until they can get more
advanced medical treatment by seeing a doctor, health professional or go to hospital.
The role of a first aider is to give someone this help, while making sure that they and anyone else involved
are safe and that they don’t make the situation worse.

38
If you think someone needs your help, these are the seven things you need to do as a first aider:
1. Assess the situation quickly and calmly:
• Safety: Are you or they in any danger? Is it safe for you to go up to them?
• Scene: What caused the accident or situation? How many casualties are there?
• Situation: What’s happened? How many people are involved and how old are they? What do you think the
main injuries could be?
2. Protect yourself and them from any danger:
• Always protect yourself first - never put yourself at risk
• Only move them to safety if leaving them would cause them more harm
• If you can’t make an area safe, call 999/112 for emergency help
3. Prevent infection between you and them:
• Wash your hands or use alcohol gel
• Wear disposable gloves
• Don’t touch an open wound without gloves on
• Don’t breathe, cough or sneeze over a wound or a casualty
4. Comfort and reassure:
• Stay calm and take charge of the situation
• Introduce yourself to them to help gain their trust
• Explain what’s happening and why
• Say what you’re going to do before you do it
5. Assess the casualty:
• If there’s more than one casualty, help those with life-threatening conditions first
• Start with the Primary Survey and deal with any life-threatening conditions
• Then, if you’ve dealt with these successfully, move on to the Secondary Survey
6. Give first aid treatment:
• Prioritise the most life-threatening conditions
• Then move on to less serious ones
• Get help from others if possible
7. Arrange for the right kind of help:
• Call 999/112 for an ambulance if you think it’s serious
• Take or send them to hospital if it’s a serious condition but is unlikely to get worse
• For a less serious condition call 111 for medical advice (in England)
• Suggest they see their doctor if they’re concerned about a less serious condition
39
 • Advise them to go home to rest, but to seek help if they feel worse
• Stay with them until you can leave them in the right care.

3.2 First aid technics

defibrillator (AED)
An AED (automated external defibrillator) is a device that gives the heart an electric shock when
someone’s heart has stopped (cardiac arrest).
You can use an AED on children over one year old and adults.
Ambulances have them on board, but using an AED in the minutes before an ambulance arrives can double
someone’s chances of survival. So it is up to bystanders quickly to find the nearest defibrillator.

Many public places keep an AED as part of their first aid equipment, including shopping centres, train
stations, airports, offices and schools. AEDs come in a small portable plastic box and are stored in
noticeable green casing with a green sign above.
If you don’t have access to an AED then you should call 999 or 112 for help and do ordinary resuscitation
(CPR) until the ambulance and AED arrives.
• Then place the second pad on their left side, just below the armpit. Make sure you position the pad
lengthways, with the long side in line with the length of the their body
• Once you’ve done this, the AED will start checking the heart rhythm. Make sure that no-one is touching
the person. Continue to follow the voice and/or visual prompts that the machine gives you until help
arrives.
Resuscitation (CPR)

When someone looks like they’re asleep but they’re unable to respond to noise or body contact, it’s likely
they’re unresponsive.
Unresponsiveness can last for a few seconds (e.g. fainting), or for a long time. It’s often brought on
by serious illness or injury (often a head injury), or from taking alcohol or other drugs.
You need to deal with someone who is unresponsive and breathing differently from someone who is
unresponsive and not breathing (see below).
The treatment is also different for babies (under one year), children (one year up to puberty) and adults.

40
3.3 First aid checklist

In an emergency situation you may have to act quickly, so it’s important to be familiar with your first aid
kit and know what to use for different injuries.
All workplaces, leisure centres, homes and cars should have a first aid kit. They are usually in a green or
red box or bag that’s marked with a white cross, and should be easy to find.
Triangular bandages: Triangular bandages are large triangular shaped pieces of cloth. You can fold a
triangular bandage to use as either a bandage or sling, or, if sterile, as a dressing for large wounds
and burns.
Protective items:
• Disposable gloves: Using disposable gloves reduces the risk of infection between you and someone
you’re helping. If they’re available, always wear gloves whenever you dress wounds or deal with any
body fluids or waste
• Face shields or pocket masks: These are designed to prevent infection when you give rescue breaths.
Other items:
• Cleansing wipes, alcohol free wipes: To clean the skin around the wound
• Gauze pads as dressings: To use as padding, or as swabs to clean around wounds
• Sticky tape (adhesive tape): To hold dressings in place or to hold the loose end of bandages
• Pins and clips: To fasten the loose end of bandages
• Scissors, shears and tweezers: To cut sterile pads, bandages or sticky tape to the right length. You can
also use them if you need to cut someone’s clothing, so that you can get to a wound, for example.
Useful extras:
• Use kitchen film or clean plastic bags: To dress burns and scalds
• Use alcohol gel: To clean your hands if you can’t find any water to use
For outdoors:
• Use a blanket: To keep someone warm and protect them from the cold
• Use survival bags: To keep someone warm and dry in an emergency
• Use a torch: To help you see when it gets dark and to attract attention or make others aware that you’re
there
• Use a whistle: To help attract attention and get help
For the car, in case of road accidents:
• Warning triangle: Put this on the road to warn other drivers to slow down
• Wear a high visibility jacket: To make sure drivers can see you and reduce the risk of you getting hurt as

41
 well

How to put on a dressing

You should always cover a wound with a dressing to help prevent infection. Dressings also help stop
bleeding by putting pressure on the wound.
Below are instructions for putting different types of dressing on a wound. For more information on using
bandages to hold a dressing in place, control bleeding, and support a limb see how to put on a bandage.
Which dressing to use:
• For large wounds, use a pre-packed sterile wound dressing with a bandage attached, if you have one
• Otherwise, use a sterile pad and secure it with sticky tape. You could also use any clean, non-fluffy
material, like a cloth scarf
• For small cuts or grazes you can use a plaster (adhesive dressing).
Things to remember:
• If possible, always use disposable gloves to protect yourself and the person you’re trying to help
• The pad needs to cover the skin at least a few centimetres around the wound
• Never touch the part of the dressing that will be in contact with the wound
• If blood seeps through the first bandage, don’t remove it – instead, place another dressing over the top
• If blood seeps through the second dressing, take off both dressings and apply a fresh dressing – make sure
you put firm pressure on the wound to help stop the bleeding.
How to put a sterile wound dressing on a limb:
• First, take the bandage out of the wrapper and unwind it until you get to the dressing pad – but be careful
not to touch the part of it that touches the wound
• Then hold the bandage on each side of the dressing pad and place the pad directly on the wound
• Start by winding the short end of the bandage once around the limb to hold the dressing in place
• Then wind the other longer end of the bandage around the limb until it covers the whole pad – leave the
short end of the bandage hanging free so you can use it to tie a knot
• To hold the bandage in place, tie the two ends together directly over the pad to keep firm pressure over the
wound – any knot will do, but use a reef knot if you know how to
• Once you’ve tied the bandage, you’ll need to check the circulation in the hand or foot beyond where you’ve
tied it – press the fingernail or skin beyond the bandage until it goes pale and then let go. If the colour
doesn’t come back within two seconds, the bandage is too tight so you’ll need to loosen it and retie it.
How to put on a sterile pad:
• Hold the dressing or pad by the edges and place it directly on the wound
42
 • Use sticky tape to hold the pad in place
• If you need to keep pressure on the wound to control the bleeding, use a rolled up bandage.
How to put on a plaster:
• First remember to clean and dry the skin around the cut. Unwrap the plaster and hold it by the protective
strips on the back, with the pad facing downwards
• Peel back the strips enough so the pad is showing and place the pad on the wound
• Carefully pull away the strips and then press down the edges of the plaster.

3.4 How to put on a bandage

You can use a bandage to hold a dressing in place, to control bleeding, to support a limb and stop it
moving, and to raise an injured limb to reduce swelling.
There are two main types of bandage:
• Roller bandages: use these to hold dressings in place and to support injured limbs, particularly for ankles,
knees, wrists or elbows.
• Triangular bandages: use these as large dressings, as slings to support a wrist, arm or shoulder injury, or
folded as a broad-fold bandage to stop a limb from moving.
If you can’t find a bandage, then you can always improvise by using a piece of clothing or material. For
example, you could fold a headscarf diagonally in half to make a triangular bandage for a sling.
How to put on a bandage:
If someone’s hurt themselves and you need to apply a bandage, below are the key things to remember.
• Reassure them and explain what you’re going to do before you start.
• Make them comfortable by helping them sit or lie down in a comfortable position.
• Support the injury by holding the limb carefully, or ask them or someone else to help.
• Start bandaging from the front and from the side of the body or limb that’s injured.
• Apply bandages firmly but not so tightly that it restricts their circulation.
• Generally, wrap the bandage using spiral turns working from the inside to the outside of the limb
• For joint injuries, make diagonal turns in a figure-of-eight above and below the joint. See below for
specific techniques.
• To immobilise a limb, make a broad-fold bandage: lay a triangular bandage flat on a clean surface, fold it
in half horizontally so the point touches the base, and then fold it in half again.
• Leave fingers and toes peeking out, if possible, so you can press them to check circulation afterwards.
• Use pins or tape to fasten roller bandages, otherwise, tuck the bandage in as securely as you can.
• Use reef knots to tie triangular bandages: right over left and under, then left over right and under.
43
 • Check their circulation: Once you’ve finished, check for circulation, by pressing one of their finger or
toe nails for five seconds until it goes pale. If the colour doesn’t come back within two seconds, the
bandage is too tight so you’ll need to loosen it and do it again. Check their circulation every ten
minutes.
Specific bandage techniques for joints:
The most common types of injury are in the joints, which can seem a bit tricky but are easy if you know
how, so make sure you know these three main techniques:
• How to bandage a hand or wrist injury.
• How to bandage an ankle, knee or elbow injury.
• How to make a sling.

3.5 How to bandage a hand

You can bandage a hand to hold a dressing in place, or to support a sprained or strained wrist. If the
bandage is to provide support, you need to wrap it either side of the injury too, to give enough
support for the whole area.
What you need to do
• To bandage someone’s hand, use a roller bandage.
• Start by putting the end (tail) of the bandage on the inside of their wrist, below the bottom of their thumb,
and wrap the bandage straight around their wrist, twice.
• Then, wrap the bandage from the inside of their wrist, diagonally across the back of their hand up to the
nail of their little finger, straight across underneath their fingers, and diagonally back across the back
of their hand to the outside of their wrist.
• Pass the bandage under their wrist and repeat the diagonal over the back of the hand, across the fingers and
back again, so the tips of their fingers are still peeking out.
• Keep going in the same way, bandaging diagonally across the hand like a figure-of-eight, but each time,
only cover about two thirds of the previous layer, so that with each new layer you’re covering a third
of new skin. Make sure you leave the tips of their fingers peeking out though.
• Once you’ve covered the whole hand, wrap the bandage straight around the wrist a couple of times, and
then fasten the end using a safety pin or sticky tape or by tucking it in.
• As soon as you’ve finished, check their fingers for circulation, by pressing a finger nail for five seconds
until it goes pale. If the colour doesn’t come back within two seconds, the bandage is too tight so
you’ll need to loosen it and do it again. Their hand could keep swelling after you’ve bandaged it, so
keep checking their circulation every ten minutes.
44
3.6 How to bandage a sprain

If someone’s sprained a joint, like an ankle, knee or elbow, you can use a bandage to support the limb. To
make sure you give the right kind of support, bend the joint slightly and then wrap the bandage in a

figure-of-eight. You need to wrap it either side of the injury too, to give enough support for the
whole area.
(For this example we’re going to describe how to wrap an ankle, but you can use the same method to
bandage an elbow or knee).
What you need to do
• To bandage someone’s ankle, use a roller bandage
• First, you need to hold the ankle in a comfortable position, with the joint slightly bent
• Start by putting the end (tail) of the bandage on the inside of their ankle. Pass the bandage over and
around to the outside of the ankle, and go round one and-a-half times, so that the tail end of the
bandage is firmly covered and won’t come loose
• Then make a figure-of-eight around the joint, wrapping the bandage diagonally above and then below the
joint
• Keep going with the figure-of-eight, but each time, only cover about two thirds of the previous layer, so
that with each new layer you’re covering a third of new skin
• Once you’ve done this several times, wrap the bandage straight around the ankle a couple of times, and
then fasten the end using a safety pin, sticky tape or by tucking it in
• As soon as you’ve finished, check their toes for circulation, by pressing their big toe nail for five seconds
until it goes pale. If the colour doesn’t come back within two seconds after you stop pressing, the
bandage is too tight so you’ll need to loosen it and do it again. Their ankle could keep swelling after
you’ve bandaged it, so keep checking their circulation every ten minutes.

3.7 Workplace first aid kit

The contents of your first aid kit should be guided by your first aid needs assessment.
A basic workplace first aid kit should include:
• Plasters: Used for small cuts and grazes
• Dressings: Used to apply pressure to larger wounds and help to stop bleeding
• Bandages: Used to support joints, hold dressings in place, put pressure on wounds and to stop swelling

45
• Disposable gloves: Used to reduce the risk of infection
• Face shields or pocket masks: Used to prevent infection when you give rescue breaths
• Cleansing wipes, alcohol free wipes: Used to clean the skin around the wound
• Adhesive tape: Used to hold dressings or the loose end of bandages in place
• Pins and clips: Used to fasten the loose end of bandages
• Scissors or tweezers: Used to cut bandages or sticky tape or someone’s clothing if you need to get to a
wound

Current health and safety guidelines advise employers to use risk assessment to help decide on the first
aid provision required. This risk assessment can be matched to one of the BS 8599-1 standard kits.
To find out what first aid kit you need for your workplace, use our
Our range of workplace first aid kits, including a travel size kit, all conform to the standard BS 8599-
1:2011. Motor Vehicle First Aid Kits
Having a first aid kit while travelling in a car or any other vehicle can be a lifesaver. It can be crucial in the
event of a road crash or more minor first aid issues, such as cuts, scrapes and burns.
BS 8599-2 is the British Standard for motor vehicle first aid kits and was launched in February 2014. This
standard aims to improve safety for all UK motorists. It ensures vehicles have a first aid kit which is
the right size for the vehicle and the number of passengers.

46
 CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO UREA

4.1 HISTORY AND IUPAC NAME OF UREA

Urea is one of the most important chemical in use today - as a fertilizer and industrial raw
material.
It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesized from inorganic starting
materials, in 1828 by Friedrich Wohler, who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with
ammonium sulfate.

Fig 4.1 Prof. Friedrich Wohler

This discovery prompted Wohler to write triumphantly to Berzelius:
"I must tell you that I can make urea without the use of kidneys, either man or dog. Ammonium
cyanate is urea."
It is found in mammalian and amphibian urine as well as in some fish. Birds and reptiles
excrete uric acid, comprising a different form of nitrogen metabolism that requires less water.
In 1828 like many major discoveries in science , it was accidental. Friedrich Wohler was trying
to make ammonium cyanate by mixing ammonium chloride with silver cynate.

AgNCO + NH4Cl → NH4NCO + AgCl

But when he examined the resulting crystals closely, the compound he got did not behave
like ammonium cyanate should. The crystals behaved like the ones Hilaire Rouelle had got – urea
• IUPAC name : Di amino methanal

47
 Fig 4.2 Chemical structure of urea

Fig 4.3 Urea granules

• Other names: Carbamide

• Chemical Name: Carbonyl diamide
• Chemical Formula:(NH2)2CO

4.2 UREA IN DETAIL

Urea is highly soluble in water and is, therefore, an efficient way for the human body to expel
excess nitrogen. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water, it is very soluble, and, thus, is also a
good fertilizer.
The urea molecule is planar and retains its full molecular point symmetry, due to
conjugation of one of each nitrogen's P orbital to the carbonyl double bond. Each carbonyl
oxygen atom accepts four N-H-O hydrogen bonds a very unusual feature for such a bond type.
This dense (and energetically favorable) hydrogen bond network is probably established at the
cost of efficient molecular packing. The structure is quite open, the ribbons forming tunnels with
square cross-section.

4.3 UREA PRODUCTION CAPACITY

➢
IN INDIA: approx. 22.5 million tons
➢
IN WORLD: approx. 202 million tons

4.4 CAPACITY AND COMPETITORS

Table 4.1 domestic capacity and competitors of urea

48
 INSTALLED
NAME OF THE PLANT CAPACITY 2011-12 2012-13 2013-1
4

PublicSector

BVFCL:Namrup-II 240.0 77.6 60.7 79.2

BVFCL:Namrup-III 315.0 251.8 128.5 230.4

MFL:Chennai 486.8 440.5 405.7 436.0

NFL:Bhatinda 511.5 511.4 537.5 514.8

NFL:Nangal-II 478.5 478.7 514.5 474.0

NFL:Panipat 511.5 511.6 488.3 512.9

NFL:Vijaipur-I 864.6 899.9 865.9 878.5

NFL:Vijaipur-II 864.6 866.6 937.9 949.6

RCF:Thal 1706.8 1832.3 1903.3 1782.3

RCF:Trombay-V 330.0 0.0 0.0 306.8

Total (Public Sector) 6309.3 5870.4 5842.3 6164.

5

Co-Operative Sector

IFFCO:Aonla-I 864.6 875.7 986.8 1000.3

IFFCO:Aonla-II 864.6 989.3 1018.1 1000.3

IFFCO:Kalol 544.5 544.5 559.7 601.4

IFFCO:Phulpur 551.1 629.9 662.6 722.6

IFFCO:Phulpur-Expn 864.6 924.3 840.5 1000.2

KRIBHCO:Hazira 1729.2 1739.7 1743.2 1799.6

Total (Co-Operative Sector) 5418.6 5703.4 5810.9 6124.

4

Private Sector

CFCL:Gadepan-I 864.6 1004.4 909.8 1019.5

CFCL:Gadepan-II 864.6 995.5 1008.3 1011.2

49
 GNFC:Bharuch 636.0 670.4 592.3 601.7

GSFC:Vadodara 370.6 240.8 236.3 281.4

IGCL:Jagdishpur 864.6 880.3 1068.6 1095.9

KSFL:Shahjahanpur 864.6 913.2 864.3 972.7

MCF:Mangalore 380.0 379.6 379.3 379.6

NFCL:Kakinada-I 597.3 757.2 768.9 757.0

NFCL:Kakinada-II 597.3 597.2 609.1 723.2

SFC:Kota 379.0 380.9 395.5 382.1

SPIC:Tuticorin 620.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

TCL:Babrala 864.6 1069.7 1023.8 1231.7

ZIL:Goa 399.3 395.4 412.4 387.3

Total (Private Sector) 8302.5 8284.6 8268.6 8843.3

Grand Total: 20030.4 19858.4 19921.8 21132.2

4.5 MARKET VALUE

As we all know, the price of any product won‘t remain same as time passes. Similarly, the
prices of urea have decreased over the period of years with the efforts and plans created by
government. Market price of urea is Rs. 6/kg-subsidized rate for neem coated urea, And technical
grade urea’s cost is varying regularly as per international market, current prize of technical grade
urea is RS. 25/kg.

4.6 TECHNOLOGY PROVIDERS: Snamprogetti

Although there are several processes currently used for the manufacture of urea, the
underlying principle for all the processes is same.
The two main reactions involved are:
1) CO2 + 2NH3 ↔ NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4 Kcal/gmmol
2) NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H= + 6.3 Kcal/gmmol

Undesirable side reaction taking place is:

50
 2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3 (Biuret)
Both 1st & 2nd reactions are equilibrium reactions. The 1st reaction almost goes to
completion at 175-178°C & 155-160 atms. The 2nd reaction (decomposition reaction) is slow and
determines the rate of the reaction. Unconverted CO2& NH3, along with undecomposed carbamate,
must be recovered and re-used. This is a troublesome step. The synthesis is further complicated by
the formation of a dimer called biuret,NH2CONHCONH2, which must be kept low because it
adversely affects the growth of some plants. Snamprogetti and stamicarbon both are technology
providers available for production of urea.

4.7 APPLICATIONS OFUREA

4.7.1 Agricultural use

More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen-release
fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use.
Therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient. Urea is used as a
nitrogen-release fertilizer, as it hydrolyses back to ammonia and carbon dioxide, but its most
common impurity, biuret, must be present at less than 2%, as it impairs plant growth. It is also used
in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Its action of nitrogen release is due to the
conditions favoring the reagent side of the equilibriums, which produce urea. Inirrigated crops, urea
can be applied dry to the soil, or dissolved and applied through the irrigation water. Urea will
dissolve in its own weight in water, but it becomes increasingly difficult dissolve as the concentration
increases. Dissolving urea in water is endothermic, causing the temperature of the solution to fall
when urea dissolves.

4.7.2 Industrial use

Urea has the ability to form 'loose compounds', called clathrates, with many organic
compounds. The organic compounds are held in channels formed by inter penetrating helices
comprising of hydrogen-bonded urea molecules. This behavior can be used to separate
mixtures, and has been used in the production of aviation fuel and lubricating oils. As the
helices are interconnected, all helices in a crystal must have the same 'handedness'. This is
determined when the crystal is nucleated and can thus be forced by seeding. This property
has been used to separator mixtures.

51
4.7.3 Laboratory use

Urea is a powerful protein denaturant. This property can be exploited to increase the
solubility of some proteins. For this application, it is used in concentrations up to10MG. Urea
is used to effectively disrupt the noncovalent bonds in proteins. Urea is an ingredient in the
synthesis of urea nitrate. Urea nitrate is also a high explosive very similar to ammonium
nitrate; however it may even be more powerful because of its complexity. Urea reacts with
alcohols form urethanes. Urea reacts with malonicesters to make barbituricacids.

52
 CHAPTER 5 SELECTION OF PROCESS
5.1 RAW MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

Raw materials for urea production are ammonia and carbon dioxide. These raw materials
are easily available as the company produces them itself in ammonia & ASGP plant, whose
product is ammonia and vent gases include carbon dioxide which is used to produce urea.
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a colorless
gas with a characteristic pungent smell. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional
needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either
directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals and is
used in many commercial cleaning products. Although common in nature and in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous in its concentrated form.

Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is a colorless and odorless gas vital to life on Earth.
This naturally occurring chemical compound is composed of a carbon atom covalently double
bonded to two oxygen atoms. Carbon dioxide exists in Earth’s atmosphere as a trace gas at a
concentration of about 0.04 percent (400 ppm) by volume. Natural sources include volcanoes,
hot springs and geysers and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids.
Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers and lakes,
in ice caps and glaciers and also in seawater. It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural
gas.

5.2 AVAILABILITY OF RAW MATERIALS

As the company has a ammonia plant as well which releases off carbon dioxide gas as vent gas
as well, both ammonia and carbon dioxide can be directly obtained from the nearby ammonia
& ASGP plant through pipelines.

5.3 RAW MATERIAL CONSUMPTION AND SUSTAINABILITY

The company produces 1930 MT/day of urea (in the normal conditions production rate almost
2200 MTD) through complex total recycle process. Therefore, 1310 kg of carbon dioxide per MT of
urea and 998kg of ammonia per MT of urea is required if we consider the conversion to be 61%.
The company is very well known for its ammonia plant and produces lot more ammonia
than is required for production of urea. So, there is no chance for shortage of ammonia.

53
5.4 COST OF RAW MATERIALS

Cost of raw material is unavailable as all the raw materials are used from within the
company

5.5 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET:

5.5.1 Physical and chemical properties of ammonia

• Boiling point: -28ºF at 1 atm

• Specific gravity: 0.682 at -28ºF
• Percent volatile: 100% at 212ºF
• Appearance and odor: colorless liquid with pungent color
• Critical temperature: 271.4ºF
• Liquid density: 38.00lb/ft2 at 70ºF
• Freezing point: -108ºF
• Vapor pressure: 114psig 70ºF
• Solubility in water: 86.9 pounds at 32ºF
• Critical pressure: 111.5atm

5.5.2 Physical and chemical properties of carbondioxide

• Appearance, odor and state: Colorless and odorless. A slightly acid gas.It is felt by some to have
a slight pungent odor and bitingtaste.
• Molecular weight: 44.01
• Gas density (at 70 ºF (21.1 ºC) and 1 atm): 0.1144 lb/ft3(1.832 kg/m3)
• Vapor pressure (at 70 ºF (21.1 ºC)): 838 psig
• Specific gravity (Air =1): 1.522
• Specific volume (at 70 ºF (21.1 ºC) and 1 atm): 8.74 ft3 /lb (0.5457 m3 /kg)
• Boiling point: -109.3 °F (-78.5 °C)
• Triple point (At 60.4 psig): -69.9 °F (-56.6 °C)
• Solubility in water (Vol./Vol. at 68 F (20 ºC)): 0.90

5.5.3 MSDS OF PRODUCT (UREA)

1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION

➢
PRODUCT NAME: Urea

54
 ➢
PRODUCT NUMBER: EC-605
➢
CHEMICAL NAMES/ Carbamide resin; Isourea; Carbony diamide;
➢
DESCRIPTION: Carbonyldiamine

2. COMPOSITION / INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Component % Comp CAS # EINECS # TLV (units)
Urea 100 57-13-6 200-315-5 10mg/m3, 8 hr TWA
3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION

• APPEARANCE AND ODOR:- White crystals or white powder.

• EMERGENCY OVERVIEW: - immediate hazard causes irritation to skin, eyes, and respiratory
tract. urea is harmful if swallowed or inhaled.
• emergency overview - chronic hazard warning long-term exposure to high airborne concentrations
can lead to protein metabolism. disturbances, moderate emphysema, and chronic weight loss,
potential health effects
• INHALATION:- Causes irritation to the respiratory tract.
• INGESTION:- Causes irritation to the garstro intestinal tract.
• SKIN:-Causes irritation to the skin.
• EYES:- Cause irritation to the eyes.
• SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 0F OVEREXPOSURE INHALATION: Symptoms may include
coughing, shortness of breath. May be absorbed into the bloodstream with symptoms similar to
ingestion.
• INGESTION:-Symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. May also cause headache,
confusion and electrolyte depletion.
• SKIN:- Symptoms include redness, itching, and pain.
• EYES:- Redness, itching and pain.
• CARCINOGENICITY: Not listed as a carcinogen by NTP or IARC.
• MUTAGENICITY: No information found.
• REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY: No information found.
• TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: No information found.
• ROUTES OF ENTRY: Ingestion and inhalation.
• TARGET ORGAN STATEMENT: Supersensitive individuals with skin or eye problems, kidney
impairment or asthmatic condition should have physician's approval before exposure to urea dust.
4. FIRST AID MEASURES
• INHALATION: Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Call a physician.
• INGESTION:Induce vomiting immediately as directed by medical personnel. Never give anything
by mouth to unconscious person. Call a physician.
• SKIN:Immediately flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical attention. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly
clean shoes before reuse.
• EYES: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least fifteen minutes, lifting lower and
upper eyelids
occasionally. Get medical attention immediately.
5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES

55
 • FLASH POINT: N.A
• FLAMMABLE LIMITS: N.A
• FLASH POINT METHOD: N.A
• AUTOIGNITION TEMPERATURE: N.A
• EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:Use media appropriate to the primary cause of fire.
• PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT:In the event of a fire, wear full protective clothing and
NIOSH-approved self-contained breathing apparatus with full facepiece operated in the
pressure demand or other positive pressure mode.
• HAZARDOUS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS:Urea decomposes upon heating and can form
products including ammonia, oxides or nitrogen, cyanuric acid,
cyanic acid, biuret, carbon dioxide.
• UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS:Not considered an explosion hazard.
• NFPA CODES: Health: 1 Flammability: 0 Reactivity: 0
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
• STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN CASE MATERIAL IS RELEASED OR SPILLED: Ventilate area.
Sweep up and containerize for reclamation or disposal. Vacuuming or wet sweeping may be
used to avoid dust dispersal.
• WASTE DISPOSAL METHOD: Disposal must be made in accordance with applicable federal,
state, and local regulations
PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS:
Wear appropriate protective equipment as specified in section 8.
7. HANDLING AND STORAGE
• HANDLING: Avoid contact and inhalation. Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing. Wash
thoroughly after handling.
• STORAGE: Keep in a tightly closed container, stored in a cooled, dry, ventilated area. Protect from
physical damage. Isolate from incompatible materials (section 10).
• STORAGE TEMPERATURE: Room Temperature
• DISPOSAL: Observe all national, state, and local regulations regarding disposal.
8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS / PERSONAL PROTECTION
• AIRBORNE EXPOSURE LIMITS:
Component: Urea
ACGIH Threshold Limit Value (TLV): 10 mg/m3, 8-hour TWA
OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): not available
• ENGINEERING CONTROLS: A system of local and/or general exhaust is recommended to keep
employee exposures below the Air born Exposure Limits. Local exhaust ventilation is generally
preferred because it can control the emissions of the contaminant atits source.
• RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: For conditions of use where exposure to the dust or mist is
apparent, a full-face dust/mist respirator may be worn. For emergencies or instances where
the exposure levels are not known, use a full-face positive-pressure, air supplied respirator.
• EYE PROTECTION: Safety glasses
• SKIN PROTECTION: Wear impervious protective clothing, including boots, gloves, lab coat, apron
or coveralls, as appropriate, to prevent skin contact.
• OTHER CONTROL MEASURES: N.A.
9. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Boiling Point Decomposes Evaporation Rate No data found.
• Melting Point 132-135C (270-275F) Solubility in Water Very soluble.
• Vapor Pressure No data found. PH 7.2 (10% in water) mm Hg
56
 • Vapor Density No data found.
• Specific Gravity 1.32 @ 20C Air = 1 (H20 = 1)
• % Volatile by Volume 0
10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY
• STABILITY: This product is stable.
• CONDITIONS TO AVOID: Incompatibles.
• HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: Urea decomposes upon heating and can form
products including ammonia, oxides or nitrogen, cyanuric acid, cyanic acid, biuret, carbon
dioxide.
• HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: Will not occur.
• INCOMPATIBLES: Urea reacts with calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite to form the
explosive nitrogen trichloride. It is incompatible with sodium nitrite, gallium perchlorate, strong
oxidizing agents (permanganate, dichromate, nitrate, chlorine), phosphorus penta
11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION
• PRODUCT LD50 VALUES: Urea Oral Rat LD50 (mg/kg): 8471
• Urea Dermal Rabbit LD50 (mg/kg): N.A.
• COMPONENT CANCER LIST STATUS: NTP Carcinogen Component Known Anticipated
IARC Category
12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
When urea is released to soil, this material will hydrolyze into ammonium in a matter of days to
several weeks. When released into the soil, this material may leach into groundwater. When released
into water, this material may biodegrade to a moderate extent. When released into water, this material
is not expected to evaporate significantly. This material has an experimentally determined
bioconcentration factor (BCF) of less than 100. This material is not expected to significantly
bioaccumulate. When released into the air, this material is expected to be readily degraded by reaction
with photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals. When released into the air, this material is expected
to have a half-life of less than 1 day.
13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
Observe all national, state, and local regulations regarding disposal.
14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION
D.O.T.
• Proper Shipping Name: Not regulated.
• Hazard Class: N.A.
• UN Number: N.A.
• Packing Group: N.A.
• I.A.T.A.: Item is not prohibited or restricted as per IATA.
• Proper Shipping Name: Not regulated.
• Hazard Class: N.A.
• UN Number: N.A.
• Packing Group: N.A.
• I.M.O.:- Proper Shipping Name: Not regulated.
• Hazard Class: N.A.

57
 • UN Number: N.A.
• Packing Group: N.A.
15. REGULATORY INFORMATION
UNITED STATES
• Hazardous Label(s): N.A.
• Safety phases: S 24/25 Avoid contact with skin and eyes
• Risk phases: R 36/37/38/60
16. OTHER INFORMATION
NFPA CODES: Health: 1 Flammability: 0 Reactivity: 0

5.6 Alternate technologies

5.6.1 Synthetic Production

Urea is a nitrogen-containing chemical product that is produced on a scale of some

100,000,000tonsperyearworldwide.Foruseinindustry,ureaisproducedfromsynthetic ammonia and
carbon dioxide. Urea can be produced as prills, granules, flakes, pellets, crystals, and solutions.More
than 90% of world production is destined for use as a fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content
of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in
commonuse(46.4%).Therefore,ithasthelowesttransportationcostsperunitofnitrogen nutrient.Urea is
highly soluble in water and is, therefore, also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions (in
combination with ammonium nitrate: UAN), e.g., in 'foliar feed' fertilizers.Solid urea is marketed as
prills or granules. The advantage of prills is that, in general, they can be produced more cheaply than
granules, which, because of their
narrowerparticlesizedistribution,haveanadvantageoverprillsifappliedmechanically to the soil.
Properties such as impact strength, crushing strength, and free-flowing behaviour are, in particular,
important in product handling, storage, and bulk transportation.

5.6.2 Commercial production

Urea is commercially produced from two raw materials, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. Large
quantities of carbon dioxide are produced during the manufacture of ammonia from coal or from
hydrocarbons such as natural gas and petroleum-derived raw materials. This allows direct synthesis
of urea from these raw materials.

5.6.3 Process in general

Ammonia & CO2 are compressed separately and fed to the high pressure (180 atms) which
must be water cooled due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction. A mixture of urea,
58
ammonium carbamate, H2O and unreacted ( NH3 +CO2) is produced. This liquid effluent is let down
to 27 atms and fed to a special flash-evaporator containing a gas-liquid separator and condenser.
Unreacted NH3, CO2& H2O are thus removed & recycled. An aqueous solution of carbamate-urea is
passed to the atmospheric flashdrum

Where further decomposition of carbamate takes place. The off gases from this step can
either be recycled or sent to NH3 processes for making chemical fertilizer. The 80 % aqueous urea
solution can be used as it is, or sent to a vacuum evaporator to obtain molten urea containing less
than 1 % water. The molten mass is then sprayed into a prilling tower. To avoid formation of biuret
and keep it less than 1 %, the temperature must be kept just above the melting point for processing
times of 1-2 seconds in this phase of the operation.
THE VARIABLES THAT AFFECT THE REACTIONS ARE:
1) Temperature: Process temperature (185C) favours equilibrium yield at a given pressure (180
atm). The conversion of ammonium carbamate to urea gradually increases as the temperature
increases. However, after a particular temperature, depending upon the pressure, the conversion
suddenly drops with further increase in temperature. The pressure corresponding to this
temperature which is usually in the range of 175-185°C, is known as the decomposition
pressure which is about 180atm.

2) Pressure:Themainreactionissufficientlyslowatatmosphericpressure.However,it starts almost

instantaneously at pressure of the order of 100 atm and temperature of 150°C. There is reduction in
volume in the overall reaction and so high pressure favors the forward reaction. This pressure is
selected according to the temperature to be maintained & NH3:CO2ratio.
3) Concentration: Higher the concentration of the reactants, higher will be the forward reaction
according to the law of mass action. CO2being the limiting reagent higher NH3:CO2 ratio favors
conversion. Since, dehydration of carbamate results in urea production, lesser H2O:CO2 ratio favors
conversion. Water intake to the reactor should therefore be minimum.
4) Residence time: Since, urea reaction is slow and takes about 20 mins to attain equilibrium,
sufficient time is to be provided to get higher conversion. Reactor is designed to accommodate this
with respect to the other parameters of temperature, pressure and concentration.
5) Biuret formation: A problem faced during manufacture of urea is the formation of biuret during
the production of urea. It is not a desirable substance because it adversely affects the growth of some
plants. Its content in urea should not be more than 1.5 % by weight.
2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3 (Biuret)
59
5.6.4 VARIOUS PROCESSES FOR MANUFACTURING OF UREA

The urea synthesis reactor always contains unreacted carbamate& more or less excess
ammonia, depending upon the composition of the feeds. This poses the practical problem of
separating the unreacted material from the urea solution & of reutilizing this unreacted material.
Depending upon the method of reutilization of the unreacted material, the commercial urea synthesis
processes are divided into the following main categories:
Once-through urea process: The unconverted carbamate is decomposed to NH3& CO2 gas by
heating the urea synthesis reactor effluent mixture at low pressure. The NH3& CO2 gas is separated
from the urea solution and utilized to produce ammonium salts by absorbing NH3, either in sulfuric
or nitricacid.
Once through urea process : In this process liquid NH3 is pumped through a high pressure
plunger pump and gaseous CO2 is compressed through a compressor up to the urea synthesis reactor
pressure at an NH3 to CO2 feed mole ratio of 2/1 or 3/1. The reactor usually operates in a temperature
range from 175 to 190ºC. The reactor effluent is let down in pressure to about 2 atm and the
carbamate decomposed and stripped from the urea-product solution in a steam heated shell & tube
heat exchanger.
The moist gas, separated from the 85-90 % urea product solution, & containing about 0.6
tons of gaseous NH3 per ton of urea produced is usually sent to an adjacent ammonium nitrate or
ammonium sulfate producing plant for recovery. An average conversion of carbamate to urea of
about 60 % is attained. Excess heat is removed from the reactor by means of a low-pressure steam-
producing coil in an amount of about 280,000 cal/Kg urea produced.
Solution recycle urea process: The NH3& CO2 gas recovered from the reactor
effluentmixtureeitherinoneorinseveralpressurestagedecompositionsectionsis absorbed in water and
recycled back to the reactor in the form of an ammoniacal aqueous solution of ammonium
carbamate.
Internal carbamate recycle urea process: The unreacted carbamate& the excess ammonia are
stripped from the urea synthesis reactor effluent by means of gaseous hot CO2 or NH3 at the reactor
pressure, instead of letting the reactor effluent down to a much lower pressure. The NH3& CO2 gas,
thus recovered at reactor pressure, is condensed and returned to the reactor by gravity flow for
recovery.

60
 5.7 SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY

5.7.1 Toyo-Koatsu process (Total Recycle Process)

Urea is synthesized in Urea reactor under reaction condition of 175ºC&156kg/cm2g, from CO2,
liq. NH3 and recycle carbamate. Urea synthesis reactor is lined with titanium. The reaction product
leaving Urea reactor consists of Urea, water, ammonium carbamate& excess ammonia.
Urea reactor effluents are let down to an intermediate pressure through a letdown valve and
then passes through a decomposer. The solution pressure is further letdown and solution is sent to
low pressure carbamate decomposer. Overhead gases from the decomposer are absorbed in the
respective absorber namely, high pressure absorber cooler, high pressure absorber, Low pressure
absorber & off gas condenser and finally recycled back to Urea synthesisreactor.
The mixture from the reactor expanded to 18.5 atm enters the upper part of High pressure
decomposer (H.P.D.) where the flashed gas is separated and the liquid is heated in the reboiler of
High pressure decomposer. The overhead gas from H.P.D. goes to High pressure absorber cooler.
The bottom solution from H.P.D. Expanded at 3.5 atm & enters low pressure decomposer (L.P.D.)
The operation of L.P.D is similar to that of H.P.D. A small amount of CO2 gas is injected at the
bottom of L.P.D.Which acts as a stripping agent fixes the excess.
NH3 released in this decomposer. Almost all the excess NH3 and ammonium carbamate are
separated from the solution which flows to gas separator (G.S.) The overhead gas from L.P.D. is sent to
low pressure absorber. The remaining very small amount of NH3 and CO2are removed completely by
pressure reduction in upper part of Gas Separator and by heating in lower part of Gas Separator (G.S.).
The overhead gases, NH3, CO2& water vapour are completely condensed and/or absorbed in the offgas
absorbing system. The Urea solution leaving the lower part of G.S. Contains approx. 73% Urea & then,
sent to crystallization section. The crystallization consists of crystallizer which is divided into two parts,
the upper part is vacuum- evaporator and the lower part is a crystallizer. The Urea solution is first filtered
to remove any contaminants & flows directly to the lower part of crystallizer. Crystals that are formed in
a vacuum crystallizer are centrifuges Urea crystals are separated from mother liquor & dried in fluidizing
dryer. The mother liquor from centrifuges flows down to mother liquor tank. A certain amount of mother
liquor is recycled to recovery section and finally sent back to reactor where the biuret is converted back to
urea in the presence of excess ammonia. Dry crystals are raised to prill tower top while passing through
pneumatic conveyor and fed to melter by screw conveyors. The molten urea then flows through
distributor& falls down the prilling tower, being prilled& cooled by the upcoming air which comes from
the blower through fluidizing bed. The prilled Urea coming from the bottom of the tower is screened in
trammel to remove oversize prills& then

61
stored in bulk storage. The Toyo Koatsu process was popular during sixties and early seventies. The
process has quite few variations & the latest variant is more economical in utilities than earlier ones.
Currently more plants based on stripping process are being constructed & ToyoKoatsu process is
losingground.
5.7.2 Stripping process
Efforts to find some additional driving force beyond the usual addition of heat and reduction in
pressure to decompose carbamate from Urea reactor effluents have met with great success. In this
process decomposition of ammonium carbamate is done at the synthesis pressure by using either CO2
(Stami-Carbon stripping process) or NH3vapour (SNAM Progetti Stripping Process) in a falling film type
decomposer normally called stripper. The reactor effluents are allowed to fall through the stripper tubes in
the forms of liquid film from the top while the stripping agent is introduced from the bottom which
travels upwards. Medium pressure steam condensing on the shell side of the stripper supplies heat for
decomposition of ammonium carbamate. Currently SNAM Progetti Process does not require injection of
ammonia vapours at stripper bottom. Only higher mole ratio of NH3/CO2 is maintained in the reactor. At
higher mole (NH3/CO2) ratio, ammonia liberated in stripper is adequate to carry out stripping effectively.
Since the reactor stripper condenser system operates at nearly same pressure, it is possible to feed recycle
carbamate either by gravity flow which however necessitates the installation of carbamate condenser at a
much higher elevation so as to give the required head or to use a recycle ejector using a part of the feed
reactants as a motive fluid. SNAM Progetti was the first to develop use of such recycle ejector & locate
condensers at ground level. Since a major portion of unconverted carbamate is decomposed and recycled
to reactor at syn. Pressure, load on downstream decomposition and recovery section is comparatively
much less resulting into lower utility consumption. Further since the synthesis pressure for the stripping
process is lower, it is possible to employ steam driven centrifugal carbon dioxide compressor which has
lower maintenance and operation cost. In both SNAM Progetti and Stamicarbon Stripping Processes low
pressure steam is generated in carbamate condenser which has resulted in lower consumption of steam
and coolingwater.
5.7.3 Stamicarbon stripping process:
In the reactor, Operating at 155-158atm (g) with temp. of 175-180ºC and at an overall
NH3/CO2ratio of 3.2, apart of the incoming NH3 and CO2 is reacted to form ammonium carbamate
which together with the incoming carbamate already formed in the high pressure (H.P.) Condenser, is
partly converted in to Urea & water. Reactor effluent is stripped with fresh CO2 at synthesis pressure
in aspecially developed stripper with external heat supply. In the stripper, the bulk of non-converted
carbamate is decomposed and also the bulk of the excess NH3
is vaporized. The resulting gases, NH3& CO2 are recycled to H.P. Condenser. Freshliq.NH3 and
62
recycle carbamate from downstream low pressure recovery system are fed in to the H.P. Condenser.
Ammonium Carbamate is formed in the H.P. Condenser. Exothermic heat of reaction of carbamate
formation is recovered a slow pressure steam which is used in the Urea manufacturing process. This
carbamate and condensed gas together are fed to the reactor where urea is formed. The stripped Urea
solution (still containing small quantities of NH3& CO2) is let down to 2 to 5 atm (g) pressure in a
rectification column where required heat is provided in are circulation heater. Resulting gases

from rectification column are removed and condensed in a low pressure carbamate condenser. 70% Urea
solution from the recovery section is stored in a Urea solution tank and is then concentrated by evaporation
in two stages. The molten Urea containing approx. 0.2% water from the second evaporator is pumped to
the top of the prill tower where it passes in to a rotating prill bucket. Prills formed in prill tower are collected
at the base and prill tower scrapper transfers the prills into the prill tower conveyor. Besides the Urea
processes mentioned above there are several other processes for direct synthesis of Urea such as: Chemico
Process, Monticatini Process, CPI allied and Norsk hydro processetc.
Theory of stripping:
The theory of stripping is based on Henry‘s law. The concentration of a component in
solution while in equilibrium with vapour phase, is directly proportional to the partial
pressureofthecomponentinthevapourphase.Bychangingpartialpressureofa component,
concentrationofsolutecanbechanged.Thiscanbeillustratedasfollows.Letusassumethat A & B are
twocomponents.
CA: Concentration of Comp. A in solution. CB: Concentration of Comp. B in
solution. Partial Pressure of the respective comp. of the solution. P: Total pressure.
P = P A + PB
In stripper we introduce excess ammonia, along with reactor effluent. This ammonia is
released as vapour by heating in the stripper. This ammonia vapour increases partial pressure of
ammonia over the solution. As the total pressure remains same, partial pressure of CO2 reduces to a
lower value. In accordance with Henry‘s law, ammonium carbamate decomposes to increase partial
pressure of CO2 in vapour phase to approach equilibrium concentration. Stripping action is thus
carried out and heat of decomposition is supplied from an external source by condensation of
medium pressure steam. Partial pressure of either of the components can be changed and this will
result in the decomposition of carbamate.

63
5.8 Effect of process variable:

Carbamate formation takes place with liberation of heat and Urea formation takes place with
absorption of heat. The former reaction is rapid and the latter is slow. The equilibrium conversion to
Urea will be favoured under the following conditions.
➢
Higher NH3 concentration.
➢ ➢
Less H2Oconcentration.
➢
HigherTemperature.
➢
HigherPressure. Increased
ResidenceTime.
5.8.1 Effect of NH3/CO2 ratio:

Theoretical ratio of NH3/CO2 is 2. But in this condition Urea yield is only around 43.44% at 170
atm and 155ºC. This low yield can be improved by changing NH3/CO2ratio. When the excess ratio of
NH3 is increased to 320%, Urea yield will change from 43.44% to 85.2%. On other hand when the excess
ratio of CO2is changed from 0 to 300%, Urea yield will increase only from 43.44% to 46%. The effect of
excess CO2 is very small. Moreover, in the CO2rich conditions, the solution becomes very corrosive. In
general, almost all the Urea Plants are operated under NH3/CO2 ratio around 2.5 to5.0.

5.8.2 Effect of H2O/CO2ratio :

Water is a product of Urea formation. One mole of water is formed when one mole Urea is
produced, Presence of excess water shifts the equilibrium reaction in reverse direction and yield of
Urea is poor. However water has to be added for recycling unconverted NH3 and CO2 back to
Reactor. Lower the amount of water in reactor, higher is the yield of Urea. Too low water
concentration in Low pressure recover section results in higher carbamate concentration and this
causes pumping problem and clogging in piping system. Excess water in reactor also reduces
effective volume for Urea formation and additional energy is required to get rid of this water. Study
shows that presence of one mole of excess water per mole of carbamate reduces equilibrium yield of
Urea tohalf.

5.8.3 Effect of temperature and pressure:

As per Le chatelier‘s principle higher pressure favourscarbamate formation. At the operating

condition carbamate formation is almost instantaneous and reaction tends to completion provided
reaction heat is removed simultaneously. Lower temperature favourscarbamate formation, being an
exothermic reaction. In case of Urea formation, higher temperature is favourable because the reaction
is endothermic. The relation is such that when temperature increases, the conversion increases
proportionally. Maximum equilibrium conversion is achieved at around 196 to 200ºC.
64
 pressure is totally dependent on the temperature at which conversion takes place. Urea conversion
takes place in Liquid phase. So, equilibrium pressure becomes increasingly higher when the
temperaturerises.

5.8.4 Residence time:

Urea conversion reaction is slow and takes 20 minutes to attain equilibrium. Considering the
slowness of the reaction, urea reactor is so designed that residence time should be more than 20
minutes. Higher residence time favours equilibrium conversion and normally reactors are designed
for residence time of 30 minutes to one hour depending upon other operating parameters. 68% Urea
conversion takes place with residence time of 30 minutes at a mole ratio of 4:1 and temp. of 188ºC.
Where as to achieve 60% conversion with a mole ratio of 2.8: 1 at 181ºC a residence time of 55
minutes is required. Residence time in Urea reactor plays an important part on equilibrium conversion.
Where operating parameters including mole ratio are not favourable for a good yield, higher residence
time compensate to some extent to achieve a better yield. But this is done by providing higher reactor
volume which increases capitalinvestment.

5.8.5 Biuret in urea:

A problem facing every Urea manufacturer is the formation of biuret during the production
process. It is not a desirable substance as it is toxic to the plants. It should not exceed 1.5% in Urea as
per Fertilizer Control Order.
When urea solution is heated in the absence of ammonia, an objectionable ingredient called
Biuret is formed according to the following reaction: 2NH2CONH2 -----------------> NH2- CONH -
CONH2 + NH3
UREA BIURET AMMONIA
The formation of biuret is favoured by higher temperature, higher concentration of Urea
solution, low ammonia content & higher residence time.

5.8.6 Effect of residence time/temperature:

Experiment shows that with more residence time, Urea solution at elevated temperature,
Biuret formation increases considerably. If pure Urea is kept at 140ºC for 20 minutes, 1.5% Biuret is
formed. This increases to 4% if residence time is raised to 60 minutes. Temperature has got
favourable effect of Biuret formation. Higher Temperature produces more Biuret. Experimental
results are shown in the graphs which clearly show more Urea is converted to Biuret if temperature is
kept more. The effect is on pure and dry Urea. Concentration of Urea has also distinct effect of Biuret
formation. If the above experiments are carried out on diluted Urea solution in water, Biuret
formation reducesconsiderably.

65
 5.8.7 Effect of ammonia:

A comparison of the rate of Biuret formation in Urea melts at 140ºC When in contact with air
or in an ammonia atmosphere of 1 atm is shown in the graph. Under these conditions the biuret
formation is only about 60% as great in the presence of ammonia as in air. Biuret is formed in all
Urea processing steps. Variables favouring biuret formation in various processing steps are high
temperature, low ammonia and low water concentration such as evaporation and prilling steps and
Decomposition system. In general, biuret formation is accelerated rapidly when temperature exceeds
110ºC. Higher percentage of biuret is harmful for the plants especially for foliar spray, where urea
should have biuret content of 0.3% max. Where Urea is used for animal feed as a supplement for
protein in western countries, higher biuret content is not harmful. Technical grade urea for the
manufacture of resins also demands lower biuret content. Concentration prilling route gives biuret
content varying from 0.6 - 1% depending upon the type of evaporators, their location and layout of
pipe routing. Vacuum crystallization prilling route gives biuret content varying from 0.2 to 0.35%.
Hence, snamprogetti process was selected for total recycle and complete utilisation of raw materials.

66
 5.10 DETAILED PROCESSDESCRIPTION

STEPS : 1) Urea Synthesis and high pressure recovery

2)Urea purification and low pressure recovery
3) Urea concentration
4) Urea prilling
5) Waste Water Section

1) UREA SYNTHESIS AND HIGH PRESSURE RECOVERY:

Liquid Ammonia and gaseous carbon dioxide react to form ammonium carbamate (Reaction and the
portion of ammonium carbamate dehydrates to form urea and water (Reaction 2) in the reactor at
synthesis pressure and temperature.
Reactions :
2NH3+CO2 NH2COONH4 ΔH = 38.1 Kcal/gmmol
NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2+H2O ΔH = - 7.1 Kcal/gmmol.
The first reaction is fast and instantaneous reaction while the second reaction is slow and it
determines the reactor volume. The conversion of CO2to Urea depends on various factors like the
ratio of the various reactants, the operating temp. and residence time in the reactor. The Mole ratio of
ammonia to carbon dioxide is around 3.6 to 1. The Mole ratio of water to carbon dioxide is around
0.67 to 1. The heat developed in the formation of carbamate is higher than the heat absorbed during
the dehydration of same to urea. This excess heat is enough to maintain the reactor temp. at 190ºC.
The reactor volume is determined so as to have a residence time of about 45 minutes at full capacity.
The liquid ammonia coming from NH3 plant (at 11ºC) is taken in the ammonia receiver tank, where
liquid ammonia condenses the ammonia entrained by inerts.From ammonia receiver tank, it is
pressurised to about 23 atm pressure by means of centrifugal pump (booster pump) to feed ammonia
to high pressure reciprocating pumps. Part of ammonia from pump discharge is also sent to medium
pressure absorber as reflux. Ammonia pump discharge liquid ammonia at 240 atm pressure to feed it
to reactor. Before entering the reactor it is used as driving fluid in the carbamate ejector where
thecarbamate coming from the bottom of the carbamate separator is sucked and entered to reactor.
The liquid mixture of NH3 and carbamate enter the reactor, where it reacts with compressed carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide drawn at urea from ammonia plant at 2.5atm

67
 pressure and about -10ºC temperature, enters to centrifugal compressor and leaves at about 160 atm
pressure. The pressurisedCO2passes through compressor delivery drum and then enters to reactor. A
small quantity of air is added to the carbon dioxide at the compressor first stage suction in order to
passivate the stainless steel surface, the protecting it from corrosion due to the reactants and reaction
products damaging activity. The reaction products leaving the reactor flow to the steam heated falling
film Bi-Metallic stripper .Passivaion air (40Nm3/hr) is added at stripper bottom to protect the bottom
cone from corrosion. The stripper operates at essentially the same pressure as the reactor. The
mixture is heated as it flows down the falling film exchanger. The heat of carbamate decomposition is
supplied by 26 ata saturated steam supplied at the shell side of the stripper. The off gases from the
stripper and recovered solution from the medium pressure absorber are taken to the high pressure
cabarmate condensers where the total mixture except, few inerts, is condensed and taken to carbamate
separator from which it is recycled back to the reactor by means of ejector.
. From the top of the carbamate separator, uncondensed gases containing inerts and little quantity
of NH3 and CO2 are sent to medium pressure decomposer holder for passivation of tubes.Inthe high
pressure carbamate condenser, heat of condensation is utilised to generate LP steam at 4.5 atm
pressure.
UREA PURIFICATION AND LOW PRESSURE RECOVERY:
Urea purification takes place in two stages at decreasing pressure
asfollows: I)Stage at 18 ata pressure (MP Section)
II.) Stage at 4.5 ata pressure (LPSection)
The expanded (18.8 kg/cm2abs) urea solution, coming from the stripper bottom enters Pre MP
decomposer at the bottom and leave it at around 148ºC at the top with upflow mood. Required
decomposition heat is supplied by Low intermediate Pressure Steam coming from steam Ejector at 165ºC
and 6.5 Kg/cm2 (abs).From this ejector, it is taken to medium pressure separator at a pressure of 18 ata
and enters the medium pressure decomposer (falling film type). This is divided into two parts.

Top separator where the flashed gases are removed before the solution enters the tube bundle.
Decomposition section where the residual carbamate is decomposed and the required heat is supplied
by means of 26 ata steam condensate flowing from the stripper (with some amount of live steam
added to the condensate). Originally, inert gases coming from the top of the carbamate separator were
sent to the bottom of this decomposer to passivate decomposer

68
 Tubes by the oxygen content in it. Now, carbamate separator offgases are diverted to holder offgas line &
thus bypassed stripper totally. A small quantity of air is put to separator bottom topassivate tubes. The
NH3 and CO2 rich gases leaving the top separator are sent to the medium pressure condenser where they
are partially condensed in aqueouscarbamate solution coming from the LP recovery section. The heat of
condensation is removed by cooling water. Tempered water circuit having two hot water circulation
pumps is provided to keep cooling water (34 - 38ºC) at the medium pressure condenser inlet.The solution
from stripper enters to the medium pressure absorber which is having four bubble cap trays and performs
CO2 absorption and NH3rectification. For this, liquid ammonia from pump discharge (part) is taken as
‗reflux‘ to top of the first tray which eliminates residual CO 2&

H2O. The solution from bottom of column is recycled to high pressure loop through high pressure
reciprocating pumps .NH3with inert gases leaving the column is condensed in the ammonia
condenser and sent to tank.The inert gases with residual ammonia contents are sent to inert wash
tower where water is fed from top to absorb gaseous NH3. From the bottom of washing tower,
ammonical solution is recycled back to the medium pressure absorber.The solution from MP
decomposer holder is taken to low pressure separator at 4.5 ata pressure and enters to the low
pressure decomposer. In this section the residual carbamate is decomposed and the required heat is
supplied by means of 4.5 ata LP steam.The gases leaving the top separator are sent to the low
pressure condenser where they are condensed in an aqueous carbamate solution coming from the
waste water treatment section. The condensed solution is collected in tank and from here the
carbamate solution is recycled back tot he medium pressure condenser . The inert gases from the top
is washed in the low pressure inert washing tower before going to blow-downstack.
UREA CONCENTRATIONSECTION:
The solution leaving the low pressure decomposer bottom with about 70% Wt of urea is
expanded to 0.34Kg/cm2(abs) and enters Top Seperator where the released flash gases are extracted
before the solution enters the tube bundle. The necessary heat to get 85% urea
solutionconcentrationintheVacuumPre-concentratorisprovidedcondensingintheshellthe gases coming
from Medium pressure Seperator after mixing with the carbonate solution coming from pump.The
liquid drawn from the holder is sent to 1st evaporator by Urea solution pumps.The 1st vacuum
separator system is operating at 0.3atm pressure where the solution is concentrated to 95% urea. This
solution is again fed to 2nd vacuum separator which is operating at 0.03 ata pressure where it is
concentrated to 99.7%
UREA PRILLING:
The melted urea leaving the second vacuum separator is sent to the prillingbucket by means of a
centrifugal pump. The urea coming out from the bucket in the form of drops come in contact with cold
69
 air and it gets converted into solid urea prills.The solid prills collected on the prilling tower bottom is
sent to Bagging Plant for packing through beltconveyors.
WASTE WATERSECTION:
The water containing NH3, CO2& Urea coming from vacuum system is collected in waste
water tank and pumped to distillation tower by centrifugal pump.Beforeentering the top of the
column the solution is preheated in evaporator by means of solution coming out from column
reboiler. Then the solution is fed to the top of distillation tower where NH 3 and CO2 are partly
removed from this solution. The partly stripped solution is then drawn from the bottom of the top
tower and sent to hydrolyser through pump. It is preheated in evaporator by hydrolyser outlet stream
before entering to hydrolyser. Urea contained in the solution is hydrolysed to NH3 and CO2 in
hydrolyser at 20 ata pressure and 200 deg. C temp. The heat is supplied by 26 ata steam in reboiler.
The hydrolysed solution is then fed to top of the bottom tower.In the bottom column, NH3and CO2
are stripped by means of vapour produced in the reboiler which is fed by 4.5 ata LP steam. The
vapour coming from the top of tower and hydrolyzer is condensed in condenser and condensed
carbamate solution is collected in accumulator. By means of centrifugal pump, part of this solution is
fed to tower top as a refulx. The remaining solution is fed to the low pressure condenser for
condensation of LP section off gases.The treated water containing only traces of ammonia and urea
after cooling in condenser is sent to effluent treatment plant.Small quantity of air is put at the bottom
of the tower and hydrolyzer to passivate the tower, hydrolyzer and overhead condenser. From tank,
the inerts are released by vent valve to blow downstack.

70
5.11 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Figure 5.2 process flow diagram of urea plant

71
 CHAPTER 6 MATERIAL BALANCE
6.1 INTRODUCTION

In any chemical process industry, chemical reactions are always involved in the manufacturing of
product from raw materials. The raw materials are fed as the input to the system and the product comes
out at the output. The balancing of inputs and outputs gives information regarding following factors
1) The amount accumulated inside the reactor.
2) Accounts for the losses invent.
3) The amount of raw material un-reacted during the reaction.
4) The percentage of back reaction taking place in case of reversible reactions ,etc.
Material Balance calculations are governed by the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS.
The general equation of mass balance is as follows:
Input - Output = Accumulation
Thus material balance calculation aids to estimate the Raw Material requirement and the laboratory analysis
of the input and output streams around each of the equipment can be used to find the individual
flowrates of the components present in thestream.

6.1.1 REACTION AND CONVERSION

2NH3+CO2 NH2COONH4 + 38.1 Kcal/gmmol

NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2 + H2O - 7.1 Kcal/gmmol.
Conversion of the given reaction is known to be 60.99 %.( as per obtained from the industry)

6.2 MATERIAL BALANCE OF EACH EQUIPMENT

Capacity = 2000MTPD
To produce 83333.33 kg/hr of urea
Molecular weight of urea =60
Molecular weight of carbon dioxide = 44
Molecular weight of ammonia = 17

According to reaction
1 mole of urea needs 1 mole of CO2
Because of the purity and removal of waste urea of wastage of urea, only 99.4% of actual weight is
obtained.
So amount of actual urea is = 83333.33/0.994= 83836.3 Kg
Amount of CO2 = (44/60)*83836.3= 61479.98kg/hr

72
 Conversion is 60.99% (as actual obtained during synthesis)
Therefore,
61479.98/0.6099 =100803.39 Kg/hr of CO2 is required

Conversion for NH3 = (83836.3*2*17)/60 = 47507.23 kg/hr

Total amount of NH3 supplied is = (100803.39*34)/(44*0.6099) = 127715.824 Kg/hr

6.2.1 material balance on reactor

127715.24 Kg/hr NH3 80208.003 NH3

39323.41
100803.39 Kg/hr CO2 REACTOR 25150.89 H2O

83836.3 urea

Conversion is 60.99% Therefore,

Amount of CO2 unreacted = 100803.39 -61479.98 =39323.41 Kg/hr
Amount of NH3 unreacted = 127715.24 – 47507.23 =80208.003 Kg/hr
Amount of urea formed = 83836.3 Kg/hr
Amount of H2O obtained = (18/60)*83836.3 = 251550.89 kg/hr

6.2.2 Material balance over HP section

26588.9 Kg/hr NH3

25741.103 Kg /hr CO2

1619.71 Kg/hr H2O
80208.003 Kg/hr NH3 53619.05 Kg/hr NH3
39323.41 Kg/hr CO2 13582.30 kg/hr CO2

23531.17 Kg/hr water

HP 25150.89 kg/ hr water
83836.6 Kg/hr urea SECTION 83836.3 Kg/hr urea

73
 The hp section is used to increase the concentration of urea by weight
So, Amount of NH3 at bottom = 80208.003*0.6685 = 53619.05 kg/hr
Amount of CO2 at bottom = 39323.41*.34545 = 13582.30 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at bottom = 25150.17*0.9356 = 235313.17
kg/hr Amount of urea at bottom = 83836.3 kg/hr

Amount of NH3 at top =80208.003 -53619.05 =26588.9 kg/hr

Amount of CO2 at top = 39323.41 – 13582.30= 25741.103 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at top = 25150.89-23531.17=1619.71 kg/hr

6.2.3 Material balance over MPsection

47462.71 Kg/hr NH3

24711.16 Kg/hr CO2

5752.15 Kg/hr H2O

58559.86 Kg/hr NH3 11097.09 Kg/hr NH3

28564.51 Kg/hr CO2 MP 3853.351 Kg/hr CO2

30925.53 Kg /hr H2O SECTION 25173.38 Kg/hr H2O

83836.3 Kg/hr urea 83836.3 Kg/hr urea

The Mp section is used to increase the concentration of urea by weight So

Amount of NH3 feed = 53619.05+(80208.003*0.0616)=58559.86 kg/hr
Amount of CO2 feed = 13582.3+(39323.41*0.381) = 28564.51 Kg/hr
Amount of H2O feed = 23531.17+(25150.89*0.294) = 30925.53 kg/hr
Amount of NH3 at bottom =58559.86*.1895 = 11097.09 kg/hr
Amount of CO2 at bottom = 28564.51*.1349 = 3853.35 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at bottom = 30925.53*0.814 = 25173.38 kg/hr
Amount of urea at bottom = 83836.3 kg/hr
Amount of NH3 at top = 58559.86-11097.09=47462.77kg/hr
Amount of CO2 at top = 58564.51-3853.35=24711.16 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at top = 3092525173.38=5752.15 kg/hr
74
 6.2.4 Material balance over LPsection

8323.92 Kg/hr NH3

2804.85 Kg/hr CO2
3436.166 Kg/hr H2O

10097.09 Kg/hr NH3 2773.16 Kg/hr NH3

33853.35 Kg/hr CO2 1048.49 Kg/hr CO2

25173.38 Kg /hr H2O LP 21737.21 Kg/hr H2O

83836.3 Kg/hr urea SECTION 83836.3 Kg/hr urea

The LP section is used to increase the concentration of urea by weight So,

Amount of NH3 at bottom = 11097.09*0.2499 = 2773.16 kg/hr
Amount of CO2 at bottom = 3853.35*0.2721 = 1048.49 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at bottom = 25173.38*0.8635 = 21737.21 Kg/hr
Amount of urea at bottom = 83836.3 kg/hr

Amount of NH3 at top = 11097.09-2773.16 = 8323.92kg/hr

Amount of CO2 at top = 3853.35-1048.49 = 2804.85kg/hr
Amount of H2O at top = 25173.38-21737.21 = 3436.166kg/hr

6.2.5 Material balance over vacuum section

2773.16 Kg/hr NH3

1048.49 Kg/hr CO2
18889.64 Kg/hr H2O

2773.16 Kg/hr NH3 2847.57 Kg /hr H2O

1048.49 Kg/hr CO2 VACUUM
21737.21 Kg /hr H2O 83584.79 Kg/hr urea
83836.3 Kg/hr urea SECTION

The vacuum section is used to increase the concentration of urea by weight So,

75
 Amount of H2O at bottom = 21737.16*.131 = 2847.57 Kg/hr
Amount of urea at bottom = 83836.3*0.997=83584.79 kg/hr
Amount of NH3 at top = 2773.16kg/hr
Amount of CO2 at top = 1048.49 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at top =21737.21-2847.57 = 1889.64 kg/hr
Amount of urea at top to recycle = 83836.3-83584.79 = 251.51 kg/hr

6.2.6 Material balance over prilling section

300.9 Kg/hr urea

2820.51 Kg/hr H2O

2847.57 kg/hr H2O 27.05 Kg/hr H2O

PRILLING
83854.79 Kg/hr urea 83283.88 Kg/hr
SECTION

The Prilling section is used to increase the concentration of urea by weight So,

Amount of H2O at bottom = 2847.57*0095 = 27.051kg/hr

Amount of urea at bottom = 83854.79*0.9964 = 83283.88 kg/hr
Amount of H2O at top = 2847.57-27.051 = 2820.51 Kg/hr
Amount of urea at top for recycle= 83584.79-82283.88= 300.9 kg/hr
7 ENERGY BALANCE
7.1 IDENTIFICATION OF EQUIPMENTS WHERE HEAT TRANSFER IS OCCURRING.

All chemical processes involve certain chemical reactions at particular conditions of

temperature and pressure to produce a desired product. To achieve these conditions of heating or
cooling a stream and for proper functioning of equipment, various entities such as de- mineralized
water, cooling water, chilling water , high pressure, medium pressure, low pressure steam , electricity
etc. are used. These entities are called UTILITIES. Utilities do not take part in the process but they
only make the conditions favorable for anyprocess.
Energy balance is a calculation done to calculate the load on utilities . It is used to calculate the
amount of utilities required by the system to reach optimum conditions. Thus, the load calculation for
cooling water is used to determine the total cooling water requirements and thus used to find the
capacity of cooling tower, size of fans,steam etc. Similarly, the load calculation for steam is used to
determine the capacity ofboiler.
Energy balance requires knowledge of thermodynamics. The heat duty on process side and
utility side is matched in order to calculate the load on the utilities. Proper values of heat capacities,
latent heat of vaporization, latent heat of condensations etc at their respective temperatures are
needed to be incorporated in the calculation.
Different equipments in the company are placed under different sections. Thus we would
consider those equipment or sections for calculating amount of utilities required. These equipments
are:
➢
Reactor
➢
High pressure section
➢
Medium pressure section
➢
Low pressure section
➢
Vacuum section

7.2 CALCULATION FOR ENERGY BALNCE OF EACHEQUIPMENT

2NH3+CO2 → NH2COONH4 ΔH=38.1 Kcal/gmmol

NH2COONH4 → NH2CONH2 + H2O ΔH= - 7.1Kcal/gmmol
CONSTANTS OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS FOR CALCULATION OF CP
(KJ/Kmol.K) Cp = A + B T + C T2+ D T3
77
 COMPONENT A B*103 C*106 D*109

NH3 25.6503 33.4806 3.518 -3.083

CO2 21.3655 64.2841 -41.051 9.799

UREA 30.787 380.377 -1579.997 2421.11

H2O 32.4921 0.0796 13.210 -4.54

7.2.1 Energy balance over reactor

2*108 KJ/hr
1.37*109 KJ/hr
REACTOR

INLET:mole fraction of components

NH3 CO2

0.92 0.07

Taking reference temperature as 0ºC

T= 311.15 K
Heat inlet in NH3 Q1= mCpΔT
=7512.66*36.315*311.15
=1341088996 KJ/hr

Heat inlet in CO2 Q2= mCpΔT

=571.61*40.888*393.15
=28587816.92

Total heat input = 1.37*10^9 KJ/hr

Heat of reaction= -31.32 Kcal/mol
= 43.06*10^7 KJ/hr
Output:

78
 componant Cpat 188oC Molfra
NH3 41.53 0.5612

CO2 43.24 0.106

H2O 34.89 0.166

UREA 107.63 0.166

Cp mix= 51.6 KJ/kmol k

Heat output at top= mCpΔT
= 8406.37*51.6*461.15
= 2-10^8 KJ/hr
Heat required = In + Hr -out
= 1.6*10^9 KJ/hr

7.2.2 Energy balance over HP section

9.98*107 KJ/hr

8
HP
2*10 KJ/hr 155293870.7 KJ/hr
SECTION
Heat input = 2*108 KJ/hr
AT BOTTOM:
Heat output,

componant Cp at 190oC Mol fra.

NH3 41.6 0.511

CO2 43.3 0.05

H2O 108.58 0.211

UREA 34.91 0.226

Cp mix= 54.367
Q out = mCpΔT
= 6167.31*54.367*463.15
= 155293870.7 KJ/hr

79
 AT TOP:

componant Cp at 205oC Mol

(KJ/K fra
mol.k .
)

NH3 42.12 23273 0.69

H2O 35.05 37440 0.04

CO2 43.78 25256 0.26

1

Cp mix = 42.27
mix= 24360.468
Heat output = m( CpΔT + )
= 22239.05(42.77*478.15+24360.468)
= 99806253.3
Heat accmm = out – in
= 99806253.3 +155293870.7-2*108
= 5.51*107 KJ/hr
Steam supplied,
Cp = 1.996 KJ/Kg.k Tin= 345oC T
out = 212 oC
mCp T= 5.51*107
m = 5.51*107/(1.996*(345-212))
m = 207433 K

7.2.3 Energy balance over MP section

1.51*108 KJ/hr

MP
1.55*108 KJ/hr SECTION 9.162*107 KJ/hr

Heat input= 1.55*108

At bottom,

Component Cp at 159oC Mol fra.

80
 NH3 40.52 0.18

CO2 42.27 0.024

H2O 34.62 0.39

UREA 95.80 0.39

Cp mix= 59.95
Q= mCp T
= 3536.141*59.95*(159+273.15)
= 9.162*107 KJ/hr
At top,

componant Cp at140oC (KJ/Kmol.k) Molfra.

NH3 39.86 23273 0.76

CO2 41.60 25256 0.152

H2O 34.48 37440 0.087

Cpmix= 39.66 mix=24783.67

Heat out at top = m(Cp T+ mix)

= 3673.10(39.66*(140+273.15)+24783.67)
= 1.51* 108 KJ/hr

Heat accmm = out – in

= 0.87*108
Steam supplied,
Cp = 1.996 KJ/Kg.k
Tin= 204oC
T out = 168 oC
mCp T= 0.87*108
m = 1.21*106 Kg
81
 7.2.4 Energy balance over Lpsection

1.80*107 KJ/hr

9.1620*107 KJ/hr c LP 7.08*107 KJ/hr

SECTION

Heat input= 9.162*107 KJ/hr

AT bottom,

Component Cp at 138oC Mol fra.

NH3 39.79 0.0584

CO2 41.53 0.0085

H2O 34.44 0.432

UREA 88.36 0.5

Cpmix= 61.73

Q= mCp T
= 2791.853*61.73(138+273.15)
= 7.08*107KJ/hr
At top,

Component Cp at 130oC (KJ/Kmol.k) Mol fra.

NH3 39.51 23273 .0184

CO2 41.25 25256 0.085

H2O 34.87 37440 0.256

Cpmix= 19.57 mix=16381.63

82
 Heat out at top = m(Cp T+ mix)
= 744.287(19.57*(130+273.15)+16381.63)
= 1.8*108 KJ/hr
Heat accmm = out – in
= 0.28*107 KJ/hr
Steam supplied,
Cp = 1.996 KJ/Kg.k
Tin= 142oC
T out = 129 oC
mCp T= 0.28*107
m = 107908.12 Kg

7.2.5 Energy balance over vacuumsection

6.076*107 KJ/hr

VACUUM
7.08*107 kj/hr SECTION 4.9*107 KJ/hr

Heat input= 7.08*107 KJ/hr

AT bottom,

componant Cp at 128oC Mol fra.

H2O 34.35 0.101

UREA 85.41 0.898

Cpmix= 80.167

Q= mCp T
= 1551.27*80.167(128+273.15)

= 4.9*107 KJ/hr
At top,

Component Cp at 136oC (KJ/Kmol.k) Mol fra.

NH3 35.55 23273 .131

83
 CO2 36.75 25253 0.019

H2O 33.50 37440 0.845

UREA 67.20 0.033

Cpmix= 33.76 mix=35165.427

Heat out at top = m(Cp T+ mix)

= 1240.57*(33.76*(136+273.15)+35165.425)

= 6.076*107 KJ/hr
Heat accmm = out – in
= 3.89*107 KJ/hr
Steam supplied,
Cp = 1.996 KJ/Kg.k

Tin= 142oC
T out = 110 oC
mCp T= 3.87*107
m = 609.030*103 Kg

7.2.6 Energy balance over priling section

2.59*107 KJ/h

PRILLING
7
4.09*10 KJ/hr SECTION

Heat input= 4.9*107 KJ/hr

AT top,

componant Cp at 128oC Mol fra.

H2O 33.6 0.001

UREA 68.35 0.998

84
Cpmix= 68.24

Q= mCp T

= 1389.86*68.24*(30+273.15)

= 2.59*107 KJ/hr
Amount of dry air,
mCp T= 2.59*107

m = 1.99*106 Kg/hr

85
 CHAPTER 8 PLANT UTILITIES

The entities that are used to achieve optimum conditions for a process but not taking part in the
process are called UTILITIES. The basic Utilities required for any process are as follows:

1) Low Pressure Steam(LPS)

2) High Pressure Steam(HPS)
3) Medium Pressure Steam(MPS)
4) D.M.Water
5) CoolingWater
6) Instrument air and Plantair
7) Electricity
All these have their particular role to achieve the optimum conditions for a process, heating,
cooling, etc. These streams do not take part in the process. The steam generation section or boiler
house produce steam at various pressures. Cooling tower produces cooling water, and Instrument
and plant air are generated at compressor house. D.M. water is the demineralized water used in
plant to avoid scaling in pipes and tubes. Electricity is drawn from Power house to run the
equipment in the industry. Thus utilities play a major role in the proper functioning of
anyindustry.

8.1 DEMINERALIZING WATER PLANT

Demineralization is the process of removing mineral salts from water by using the ion
exchange process. Cations (+ve charge) such as calcium, magnesium and sodium are removed in
a hydrogen cation exchanger by hydrogen base ion resin H - resin). Anions (-ve charge) such as
sulphates, chlorides etc. and reactive silica etc. are removed in a hydroxyl anion exchanger by
hydroxyl (OH) base ion resins. The Demineralizing plant consists of followingequipment:

1) Strong Acid CationExchanger.

2) Degasingsystem.
3) Weak Base AnionExchanger.
4) Strong Base AnionExchanger.
5) Mixed BedExchanger.
6) Acid and Alkali Handlingsystems.

86
 8.2 COOLING WATER SYSTEM

8.2.1 Processwater
Water is basic requirement for any industry (Big or Small). This water which is available
is seldom used as it is received and requires some treatment, otherwise it will cause problems.

Untreated water contains several impurities such as lower Solubility Dissolved Gases and
Suspended Particulate Matter. These impurities lead to corrosion, scaling and deposit formation
resulting in reduced efficiency of the equipment increased operating cost and unscheduled down
time for repairs and maintenance.

8.2.2 Sources of Water

The sources from which water is available for water supply can be classified as follows:

1. Surfacewater
2. Undergroundwater
Surfacewater- Lakes, streams and river
Underground source - springs, wellwaters
8.2.3 Hard & Soft Water
A simple test for soft water is that it forms lather or foam with soap. Of course the foam does not
have any cleaning properties and hence some industries produce soap which does not form foam even
with softwater.
Hard water is that which contains objectionable amounts of dissolved salts of calcium
and magnesium. These are usually present as bicarbonates, chlorides or sulphates. The salts form
insoluble precipitations with soap i.e. calcium sulphates, carbonate and silicate, which form
clogging scales with low thermal conductivity in boilers. Magnesium silicate and calcium
carbonate may reduce heat transfer in process heatexchangers.

Hardness is usually expressed in terms of the dissolved calcium and magnesium salts calculated
as calcium carbonate equivalent. Hardness of water is divided into two classes.

Typical water analysis parameter

1. pH
2. Total DissolvedSolids
3. TotalHardness
4. CalciumHardness
5. MagnesiumHardness
6. P-Alkalinity
87
 7. M-Alkalinity
8. Chlorides
9. Silica
10. Sulphates
11. Phosphates
12. Iron
13. Turbidity
8.3 COOLING TOWER

Cooling Tower is a familiar sight in all industries. A tower through which water is
circulated to remove the heat generated from various heats generating operations and the hot
water comes back to the Cooling Tower. This water is cooled in the Cooling Tower collected in
the Sump and recirculated, the cycle continues. This is basic definition of CoolingTower.
There are three types of Cooling Towers:

a) Natural Draft : Natural re-circulation of air-cools the hot water

b) Forced Draft : Using a fan, air is forced in the coolingtower
c) Induced Draft : Air is sucked through the water shower using afan

In Urea Plant

1) There are FOUR CELLS in the cooling tower unit. All cells are of cross flow induced
draft type.
2) At the top of each cell big ID fan is installed which draws air from the beneath of fan
and discards it from top. Water is fed up just below the fan. The mass transfer takes
place over wooden grids and fiberscreens.
3) Water enters the tower at 43°C and leaves it at 33°C. Outlet temp. of air is38°C.
4) When air passed through water some amount of water is evaporated and the enthalpy of
evaporation is taken from remaining water which lowers the temp. ofwater.

5) After passing through the tower, cooled water passes through sand filters which are
provided to eliminate dust and waste fromwater.

88
 Figure 8.1 Schematic Diagram of Cooling Tower
8.3.1 Functioning of CoolingTower
Water is lost through the Cooling Tower by evaporation during the process of heat
exchange. Fresh water is added to the cooling tower to make up the losses. Evaporated water
leaving along with air is pure water. While incoming water contains Dissolved Solids and
Suspended matters, etc. Therefore there is always a concentration of Dissolved Solids in the
recirculating Cooling Water due to evaporation. This Solids build up in recirculating water should
not exceed certain limits else deposition in Heat Exchanger may take place. In order to remove
such Dissolved Solids, part of water removed periodically or continuously is known as Blow
down (Bleed Off).
Make up water (M) = Water lost by evaporation (E) + Blow down (B)

8.3.2 Typical Problems in CoolingTower

Scaling
The salts like calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate and calcium phosphate in the
coolingwaterhavereversesolubility,i.e.athightemperaturetheirsolubilitydecreases.This causes
precipitation and scaling in heat exchanger. Cooling water is heated in the heat exchangers
where temporary hardness salts decompose and form scales. Cooling water is
89
 concentrated in the system due to evaporation in tower. Due to concentration, sparingly soluble
salts like calcium sulphate tend to precipitate out and form scales. Thus scale of calcium
carbonate, calcium sulphate and calcium phosphate are often found in the heat exchanger.

Corrosion
Cooling water is corrosive to mild steel, copper, etc. due to higher TDS. More are the
dissolved salts in water more are the corrosiveness. Also various galvanic cells are formed in the
heat exchangers due to differential metal, combination, concentration, temperature, velocities
and stress strain on metal. Corrosion is generally observed all over the cooling system. But it is
more near welding, joints and under thedeposition.
Microbiology
Cooling water is ideal medium for microbiological growth. It provides optimum
temperature, oxygen, nutrient and sufficient surface area for growth. Algae, bacteria and fungus
are commonly found in cooling system. If not controlled in time, microbiological growth can be
plugged heat exchanger and causes corrosion and reduce cooling tower efficiency.

Bacteria
Bacteria are mainly of two types aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobatic secrets certain
enzymes, which form sticky masses, called as slime. Slime can for on heat transfer equipment as
well as on complete pipelines. Slime attracts other suspended particles in water to form deposits,
which is generally called biofouling. Anaerobic bacteria e.g. Desulphovibriodesulphuricans
(sulphate reducing bacteria) contains an enzyme, hydrogenous, enables it to reduce sulphate to
hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide then reacts with elemental iron to form ferrous sulphide.
Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) leads topitting.
Algae
Algae are often visible as green fibrous organisms in internal section of wall and plates
of cooling towers that are wet and exposed to sunlight. Formation of algae on cooling tower
structure causes poor heat removal efficient oftower.
Fungi
Cellulolytic fungi attack fibres of cellulose in wooden cooling towers and can destroy the
structure
Fouling
Fouling of system is mainly due to suspended matter in the cooling water. The suspended
matter comes through make up water and by scrubbing of air born dust in the cooling tower. The
90
 suspended dust, dirt may coagulate and accumulate in heat exchangers. Contaminants like oil,
grease, algae also foul thesystem.

8.3.2.1 Disadvantages due to above problems in Cooling Water Systems

1) Problems of scale, deposition, fouling leads to maintenance cost for frequent cleaning of
heat exchangeretc.
2) Corrosion can damage heat transfer equipment and thereby leads to replacementcost.
3) Frequent unscheduled forced shutdown for cleaning heat exchangers, lines etc. lead to
productionloss.

4) Scale, deposition, corrosion and fouling in cooling water system forced to run the system
at lower cycle of concentration. Hence water consumption ishuge.
5) Energy consumption is more e.g. pumpingcost

91
 CHAPTER 9 Control Valve
• Dynamic Charecteristics

a) Determined By actuator

b) Improper charecteristics may result into poor control pf process, especially fast process, specially fast
processes like pressure, flow control

• Static Charecteristics

a) Valve size
b) Configeration of plug & seat combination

c) Type of actuator

d) Valve Positioner
e) Up Stream & Down Stream

• Types Of Control Valves

a) Globe valve
b) Angle body valve
c) Angle seat piston valve
• Rotary
d) Butterfly valve
e) Ball valve
• Other
f) Pinch valve
g) Diaphragm valve

92
 CHAPTER 10 Question answer

1)What is the capacity of plant?

- 1927 MT
2)What is the R/M of urea plant?
- Liquid ammonia and gaseous co2 and Air
3)What is the form of the product?
- It is granual solid
4)Is there any by product?if what is it name?
- No there are no byproducts
5)Which utilities are required in
plant? - Steam of water, Air
6)How are the names assign to the equipment?
- XX-YZZ-A/B/…
- XX for designation of equipment like P-pump, R-reactor
- Y for digit number (1—99)
- ZZ fot designatews the equipment number for the unit(1—99)
7)What do you mean by ME assign to the equipment?
- It means that the product is been assigned for the exchanger.
8)What are the main steps of urea manufacturing process?
- Urea systhesis and HP recovery
- Urea purificarion and LP recovery
- Urea concentration
- Urea prilling
- Waste Water Treatment
9)Mention the main reactions of
Urea? - 2NH3 + CO2 = NH2CONH4
- NH2CONH4 = NH2CONH2 +H2O
10) What is the temperature of reaction?
➢
180 0C
11) What is the pressure of reaction?
➢
150atm
12) How the heat is supplied to the reactor?
➢
No need to suplly the heat because the reaton is exothermic
13) Is the reaction endothermic or exotheremic??
➢
Exothermic
14) What is the mole ratio of ammonia to CO2?
➢
306 to 1
15) What is the mole ratio of water to CO2?
➢
0.67 to 1
93
16) What is the residence time of reaction?
➢
45 min
17) What is the inert gas?
➢
Inert gas means a nobel gas in the . one of type of non reacting gas 18)
Why we use inert gas in the reactor?
➢
It use generally to avoid unwanted chemical reaction degrading a sample .These undesirable chemical reaction are
oxidation and hydrolusis reaction with oxygen and moisture in air.
19) Which gas are used as inert gas?
➢
Argon and nitrogen
20) How are the inerts produced?
➢ ➢
The inert gas is obtained by fractional distiilation of Air .
Though cryogenic distillation
21) How inert gas used in Food industry?
➢
Food is packed in inert gas to remove Oxygen gas. This prevent bacteria fron growing .It also prevents chemical
oxidation by Oxygen in nomal air.
22) What is the pressure of ammonia before reactor?
➢
23 atm
23) Which pump is used in systhesis of lop of ammonia?
➢
Reciprocating pump
24) Why we used falling film Absober?
➢
Because in Absober decomposition take place
25) Why the Ammonia contain in urea is high?
➢
Because it prevents corrosion on the stainless steel
26) Why do we add a small quantity of air into CO2 1st stage?
➢
Because in order to passivate the stainless steel surface thus protecting it from corrosion due to reactants and reaction
products damaging activity.
27) How much stage place in urea production?
➢2
28) What is the technical provider of plant?
➢
SAIPEM,ITALY
29) Why the top of carbamate seperator is sent to the bottom of decomposer.?
➢
Because to passivate the equipment by Oxygen containit
30) Is the reaction is gase or liquid phase?
➢
Reaction is gas-liquid phase
31) What is boiling point of ammonia?
➢
-32oC
32) How the steam is supplied to the Evopoator?
➢
By means of steam of water.
33) Which material is used to cool the ammonia vapour?
➢
Water
34) What is the function of C-1?
94
➢
CO2 is absorb in aquous carbamate solution and all CO2 id absorbed and NH3 rich solution leaving from the top od
columm.
35) Is this continuous or batch
➢
process? Continuous
36) What is urea plant battery limit?
➢
Boundary of plant is the battery limit of the plant.
➢
37) Which material is used in absorb CO2? Aqueous
Carbamate solution
38) Is the 1st reaction is endothermic or exothermic?
➢
Exothermic
39) Is the 2nd reaction is endothermic or exothermic?
➢
Endothermic
40) How much pressure in the1st medium pressure
➢
decomposer? 18 atm
41) What is decomposer?
➢
The exchanger where urea purification occurs are called decomposer because in these equipment the residual
carbamate decoposition take place.
42) What is the weight fraction of urea Which leaving the 2nd decomposer?
➢
71% wt
43) What is the pressure in 1st vacumm evaporator?
➢
0.3 ata
44) What happen in decomposer?
➢
In decomposer the NH3 and CO2 are stripped from the decomposer. 45)
How ejector are worked?
➢ ➢
It is a device used to suck the gas or vapour from the desired vessel. It create vacumm in the vessel. It
convert pressure energy in to velocity energy by adiabatic expansion.
➢
46) How much pressure should have at the outlet of ejector?
Pressure if higher than LP steam it May up to 10 to 15 time higher.
47) Which type of pump used in industry?
➢
Centrifugal Pump, Reciprocating Pump.
48) Why we use reciprocating in some stage?
➢
Because to achieve the high pressure.
49) Describe the principle of centrifugal pump?
➢
It is device which is used to mechanical energy for transfer of fluid from lower level to higher level. 50) From where liquid ammonia
is taken?
➢
Ammonia plamt
51) From where the steam is taken?
➢
Steam Comes From the boiler plant
52) At which pressure CO2 is come from the urea battery limit?
➢
2.5 atm
53) At which temp. CO2 is come from the urea battery limit?
➢
-100c
95
54) What pressure at the outlet of centrifugal pump?
➢
155 atm
55) What is the capacity of ammonia surge tamk?
➢ 93 m3
56) Where does the CO2 comes to the Urea Plant?
➢
It Comes from the ASGP plant.
57) How the high pre. Generated?
➢
By reciprocating pump
58) What is the capacity of compresser?
➢
550
59) What is the function of medium pre. Absorber?

➢
To absorb the ammonia

60) What happened when temp. of absorber is increase or decrese?

➢
NH3 does not stripped
61) What is the effect of increasing pre. In the absorber columm?
➢
Separation does not effect
62) Which type of control valve used in our plant?
➢
Ball valve , plug valve, butterfly valve, Gate valve
63) What id the range of control valve?
➢
5-20 mA
64) What is the pre. Range of control valve?
➢
0-5 bar
65) Which material used in control valve?
➢
Air
66) Which type of signal applied to control valve?
➢
Electrical signal
67) Which company provide the temper. Sensor or pressure sensor?
➢
Parcol
68) What is the range of temp. sensor?
➢
0-200 C
69) What is the range of pre. Sensor?
➢
0-100 Kg/cm2
70) What the safety precaution is taken to reactor?
➢
Safety valve , relief valve
71) What is the capacity of reactor?
➢
173 m3
72) What is the thickness of reactor?
➢
40 mm
73) Why we use Ammonia Recovery tower?
96
➢
The solution coming from ammonia condenser still contain ammonia vapoue so we use ammonia recovery tower.

74) What do we use to remove the heat from the condenser?

➢
cooling water
➢
75) What is the conn of solution which leaving the 2nd bottom of decomposer?
71% wt
76) What is the concentration of urea plant?
➢
99.7%wt
77) What is the pre. In first vacumm evaporater?
➢
0.3 ata
78)
What is the pre. In 2nd vacumm evaporater?
➢
0.03 ata
79) What is the use of urea?
➢ ➢
56% urea used in solid fertilizer
31% urea used in liquid fertilizer
➢
urea formaldehyde have large use as a plywood adhesive
80) What is various process of urea?
- Snamprogetti ammonia striping process
- Stamicarbon Co2 stripping process
- once through urea process
81) What is the conversion of CO2 ?
➢
60%
82) From which steam is supplied to vacuum evaporater?
➢
M.P.decomposer
83) How the melt urea are sent to the prilling tower?
➢
prilling bucket
84) How the droplet are solidified in tower?
➢
By means of current of air.
85) Which content is solution of waste water treatmeant?
➢
NH3-CO2
86) What the condition of distillation coluum?
➢ ➢
pre. = 5 ata
temp.- 130 oC
87) What is the condition of hydrolyzer?
➢
T= 190oC , P=1805 ata
88) What is pe. Of steam in hydrolyzer?
➢
P=26 atm
89) How the grade of fertilizer is expressed?
➢
Set os 3 number in the order of as a N , P2O5, and K2O
90) What is the biuret?
➢
It is a one type of impurities. 91)
What is the limiting reactant?
97
➢
CO2
92) What is the tempreture of HP section?
➢
T=176o C
93) What is the pressure of top HP loop?
➢
144 Kg /cm2
94) What is the temp. of top HP loop?
➢
192 oC
95) What is the temp. of bottom HP loop?
➢
204oC
96) What is the pre. Of M.P . section?
➢
17.5 Kg/cm2
97) What is the pre. Of evaorater?
➢
0.3 atm
98) What is the pressure in waste water section?
➢
105 Kg/cm2
99) What is the TEMP. in waste water section?
➢
108Oc
➢
100)Write down biuret formation reaction?
2NH2CONH2 = NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
101)Which factor affect biuret formation?
➢
It is favoured by higher temp higher concentration of urea solution, low ammonia content , higher residance time
102)What is role of cooling tower urea plant?
➢
The purpose of cooling tower is to remove the process heat
103)How cooling rate effect the production??
➢
Higher the cooling water TEMP. increase NH3 loses leading to plant load reduction

104)What is the effect of CO2 at reactor bottom temp. ?

➢
Higher CO2 increase bottom temp.
105)What is conversion ?
➢
The mole of NH3 and CO2 converts in to urea is called conversion.
106)What are factor affecting urea conversion?
➢
High pressure , higher NH3/CO@ ratio, low H2O/CO2 ,high residence time
107)What is the highest pressure in plant?
➢
250 Kg/cm2
108)What is the principal of cooling?
➢
Evaporation
109)What is hydrolysis?
➢
Hydrolysis means reaction with water
➢
110)What is limiting reactant in plant?
CO2
111)What is the conversion?
98
➢
60%
112)What are the impurities in urea
➢
plant? biuret
113)What are approach of HE?
➢
The temperature difference between process outlet and cooling water inlet
114)Why passivate air is required in urea plant?
➢
To prevenmt corrosion which will increase the life of equipment.
115)What is net steam conversion?
➢
It is the conversion of all kind of steam into NPSh equivalent steam
➢
116)Carbamate decomposition is favoured at low or high pressuer?
At low pressure
117)Sub Question of (113) Why?
➢
High pressure is favourable in formation of ammonia carbmate From NH3 and CO2
118)What is the free fall height of prilling tower?
➢
7205 meter
119)What is the height of prilling tower?
➢
920 meter
120)What is the dia. Of prilling tower?
➢
24 meter
121)What is the yearly capacity of plani?
➢
636910 MT
122)What is cycle in concetration in cooling tower?
COC:- silica in coolinmg tower circulation water
123)What is the range of cooling tower?
➢
Cooling tower return header temp. – cooling tower water suplly header temp.
124)What is the approach in cooling tower?
➢
Cooling water supply temp – WBT
125)What is the function of steam trap?
➢
To remove condensate from steam pipe line
126)Write urea product Ideal sieve size.
➢ ➢
1 mm to 204 mm :- 96-99%
less than 1 mm :- 1-4%
127)How much quantity of MP saturated steam ?
- 2200MTPD
128)Write the capacity of urea soluton tank.
➢
V-4A:- 160 m3
➢
V-4B:- 369 m3
129)Write prilling tower stack emission
norms. - PT dust :- 50 mg/Nm3
➢
ammonia :- max. 175
mg/Nm3 130)What is type of
➢
reactor. PFR
99
 ➢
131)What is PCV?
Pressure control valve
132)What is PI?
➢
Pressure indicator’
➢
133)What if TI?
Temperature indicator
134)What is capative power plant?
➢
Electricity generator plant?
135)How many Bags are packed in one minutes in urea plany?
➢
15-16bags
136)What is the pH of cooling tower?
➢
7-703
137)What is the turbidity of cooling tower?
➢
15
138)What is turbidity?
➢
Ability to reflect light
139)What is Cl2 content in cooling tower?
➢
0.2-0.5
140)What is the silicxa content in cooling
➢
tpwer? 125
141)What is the difference safety items used during working at Height?
➢
Safety belt with lifeline
142)What is the difference safety items used during vessel entry?
➢
Air line respirator, Blow man breathing apparatus, Gas mask
143)What is the difference safety items used during Hot Work?
➢
Apron , Asbetos suit, Ear muff, Ear plug , Face shield , Gum boot , Gloves , PVC gloves ,
Spark collection provision , safety helmet
➢
144)What is the reason of scaling in E-7?
High process inlet temp. leads to high scaling
145)What is the role of TTD in CO2 turbine?
➢
TTD- Turbine device rotates the shaft at very low rpm during machine shutdown to avoid localized heating of the
rotor
➢
146)What is TTD?
Turbine turning Device
What is ZSS?
➢
Zero speed switch 147)Write
safety aspect of ZSS.
➢
To trip belt in case of no load over load 148)What is
BSS?
➢
Belt sway switch
149)Write safety aspect of BSS?
➢
To trip the belt in case of Belt off centre
100
150)What is PCS?
➢
Pull coard switch
151)Write safety aspect of PCS?
➢
To trip the belt by pulling the cord along the belt in case of any emergency
152)Where ammonia is separated in waste water?
➢
Distillation columm
153)Where urea is separated in waste water?
➢
Hydrolyzer
154)What is the number of distillation
➢
columm? C-2
155)What is TIC?
➢
Temperature indicator controller
156)How much flow in Centrifugal pump?
➢
High flow
157)How much flow in reciprocating
➢
pump? Low flow
158)How much pressure is generated in centrifugsl pump?
➢
low pressure
159)Reciprocating pump used for ?
➢
High pressure ‘
160)In which type of pump have low maintenance?
➢
Centrifugal pump
161)In which type of pump have high maintenance?
➢
reciprocating pump
162)In which type of pump discharge through positive displacement
➢
occurred? Reciprocating pump
163)What used in reciprocating
➢
pump? plunger
164)What is used in centrifugal pump?
➢
Impeller
165)what is reason for high approach in E-10exchanger?
➢
E-10 horizontal Exchanger , so in case of low velocity of cooling water ,fouling occure which results in high approach

166)What is the effect of bucket speed on urea prills?

➢
low bucket speed gives bigger prill size & high bucket speed gives smaller prill size 167)What
is the effect of V-3 Recovery on steam consumption?
➢
steam consumption increase
168)What is the effect of V-3 recovery on prpduction
➢
level? increase
169)Which pump have auto start?
➢
Ammonia pump
170)Why ammonia pump have auto start or stop?
101
➢
To maintain continuous supply of ammonia 171)What
➢
is the limit of ammonia in waste water outlet? 25 ppm
172)What is the limit of urea in waste water outlet?
➢
100 ppm
173)What is the limit of H2S in CO2?
➢
max. 4 ppm
174)What is the limit of methanol in
➢
CO2? 9 ppm
175)What is dia. Of prilling
➢
tower? 24 meter
176)What is effect of prilling tpwer height?
➢
As Height increase dust formation decrease and prill temp decrease
177)What is the limit of biuret?
➢
1.5 %(wT)
178)What is the purity of CO
➢
2? 96%
179)What is the % of H2S on CO2?
➢
1 ppm
180)What is the % of Methanol in CO2?
➢
100 to 200 mg/Nm3
181)What is other impurities in CO2 ?
➢ H2 , Co ,CH4

182)What is the pressure at 1st stage Compression of CO2?

➢
11.5 ata
183)What is the pressure at 2st stage Compression of CO2?
➢
46.5 ata
184)What is the pressure at 3st stage Compression of CO2?
➢
95 atm
185)What is the pressure at 4st stage Compression of CO2?
➢
180 atm
186)What is the temp. at end of !st stage compression of co2 gas?
➢
138 oC
187)what is the temp. at end of 3rd compression of CO2?
➢
160 oC
➢
188)What is the temp at the end of 4th stage of compression of CO2 gas?
- 101oC
189)At what pressure CO2 is coming from ammonia
➢
plant? 2 atm
190)At whtat temp Co2 is coming from ammonia plant?
➢
-16 0C
191)What is the melting point of urea?
102
➢
132.7 oC
192)What is the solubility of urea in water at
➢
20oC? 110 g per 100 g water
193)What is the solubility of urea in nwater at
➢
100oC? 135 g per 100 g water
194)What IS the odor of
➢
urea? odor less
195)What is the Color of urea?
➢
White
196)In Which urea is produced?
➢
solid
197)What is the nature of urea?
➢
non corrosive
198)What is the bulk density of
➢
urea? 0.74 gm/cc
199)What is the heat of fusion of
➢
urea? - 60 cal / gm

200)What is boiling point of ammonia?

➢
-40oC
201)What is the solubility of ammonia at 32
o
➢
F? 86.9 pounds
202)What is the TLV of urea?
➢
10 mg/Nm3
203)At what temp. urea is stored?
➢
Room temp.
204)What is flammable limit if urea?
➢ ➢
Urea is a decomposable material so when the temp goes high urea will be decomposed.
So urea is a non flammable compound
➢
205)What is effect of urea on skin?
Symptoms include redness ,itching ,pain
➢
206)What is effect of urea on eyes?
Redness , itching , pain
➢
207)What is the effect of urea on inhalation?
Couging, shortness of breathe, absorb in blood steam
208)What is the significance of prills temp?
➢
High prills temp. is the indicaton of poor prills quantity in normal condition high prills temp also librate ammonia

209)Why p-8 To MV 9 And MN -10 Circulation is carried out?

➢
To dislove polymer formed in MV-9 and MV-10 and surrounding walls as polymer are soluble in urea solution
 \
210)Write condensate flushing pressure of LW?
103
➢
8 atm
211)Write condensate flushing pressure of
➢
KW? 165 atm
212)Write condensate flushing pressure of
➢
HW? 30 atm
213)What is block and bleed flushing?
➢
Block and Bleed means the draining arrangement btw the two i/v for safe handling over the equipment
214)What is TLV?
➢
Thresold limit value
215)What is TLV of CO 2?
➢
500 ppm
216)What is TLV OF AMMONIA?
➢
25 ppm
217)What is TLV of CL2?
➢
1 ppm
218)What is TLV of ammonia
➢
carbamate? NA
219)What is short term explosive limit?
➢
STL is the limit upto 15 min which a preson can work in ammonical atmosphere
220)What is STL of ammonia?
➢
35 ppm
221)What is the significance of vapour density from hazaed point nof
➢
view? As vapour density increases , exposure to that chemical increases
➢
222)Where is the change of explosive mixture formation in urea plant?
At Mp section o/L vent gases and at some extent O/L gases
223)What urea concentration at HP section?
➢
33 %
224)What is the conn of E-1?
➢
33 %
225)What is the conn of urea in MP section?
➢
45 %
226)What is urea conn in LP section?
➢
70%
227)What is urea connin pre vaccum evaporater?
➢
85%
228)What is urea conn 1ST Stage vacuum section?
➢
94%
229)What is urea conn 2nd Stage vacuum section?
➢
99.7%
230)What is capacity utilization?
➢
Actual daily production /Budgeted daily prod.
231)What is on steam factor?
104
➢
Actual daily production/ 1927 MTPD
232)What is noise level limit for safe working?
➢
85db
233)Why inter cooler are provided in compresser?
➢
To remove the heat of compresser
➢
234)What is MCL?
Medium central line
➢
235)What is BCl?
Berral central line
236)Which type of compresser used in plant?
➢
steam turbine
237)What is the type of compresser?
➢
Steam turbine, motor
➢
238)What is the surge in compresser?
Discharge gas flow back at suction side
239)Why steam is used for ammonia carbamate decomposition?
➢
Because NH3 and CO2 to ammonia carbamate formation favours at high pressure and low temp
240)What is crushing strength of urea prills?
➢
Resisting capacity of a prill upto which it does not break
➢
241)What is the start up of centrifugal pump? Discharge
valve open after pump start
242)What start up of reciprocating pump?
➢
Discharge valve close after pump start
243)Which criteria is important for selection of
➢
motor? size, rpm, capacity, mounting ,coupling
type, 244)What is purpose of seal test?
➢
To ensure that there are no leakage in plant
➢
245)Which component is used in seal test?
N2, water
246)Why lube oil system is introduced in plant?
➢
To run the compresser smooth
247)Where waste water section out let water is used?
➢
Treated waste water outlet used in Aash handling
unit 248)What is full form of HC?
➢
hand control
What is full form of FS valve?
➢
Hand switch
249)What is the range of HC
➢
valve? 0 to 100%
250)What is the range of Hs valve?
➢
100% open and 100 % close
251)Which parameter are considered for increasing cooling water blow down?
105
➢
Hardness ,Cl2 , pH
252)What is density of urea ?
➢
1.215 Kg/m3\
253)What is over highest daily
➢
production? 2440
254)Why srapper arms cleaning is carried out?
➢
To avoid overleading of the arms due to accumulated lumped urea prills
255)Why asrapper floor cleaning is carried out?
➢
To avoid bumping of the sreapper due to the lumped urea prills
256)Why bucket change over is carried out?
➢
Bucket holes gat choked due to some foregin particales . so the bucket overflows resulting into poor prills quality
257)What is the effect of V-3 level on NPSH Of P-3 pump?
➢
NPSH increases as the V-3 level increses
258)What care is taken before starting P-5 pump?
➢
ammonia vapour is to be vented completely from casing till the drops of liquid comes to avoid cavitation
259)Which equipment is located at highese point?
➢
carbamate separator
260)What the diff. btw titanium and bi – metallic stripper?
➢
bi metallic stripper is high strength then titanium
stripper 261)How much Co2 is required th produce
➢
1800MT urea? 1800*0.76=1368 MT
262)What is urea revamp?
➢
Addition of equipment for better operational flexibility and energy saving
263)What are the diff. btw male and female ferrule?
➢
Male ferrule is inserted in side the end of tube while in female ferrule tube end is inserted in the ferrule
264)What is scaling?
➢
Crystaline growth od an adherent layer of insoluble salt on a surface
265)What is fouling?
➢
Deposition of suspended water insoluble particles on suface
266)What is the capacity of urea plant?
➢
19230MTPD
267)what is name of the process?
➢
snamprogetti process
268)In which place process is
➢
developed? ITALY
269)What is the N2 Content in
➢
product? 46.3%
270)What is the moisture content in
➢
product? 0.3%wt
271)What is biuret content in product?
➢
0.8%wt
106
272)What is the size of
➢
product? 1 mm to 2.4 mm
273)What is % of size if 1 mm to 2.4 mm?
➢
96-99 %
274)What is % of size of less than 1
➢
mm? 1-4 %
275)What is consumption Of NH2 Per tone of urea?
➢
580KG
276)What is consumption Of CO2 Per tone of urea?
➢
760 KG
277)What is consumption Of steam Per tone of urea?
➢
1390Kg
278)What is pressure o HP section?
➢
90 bar
279)What is temp. of HP stream?
➢
500oC
280)What is consumption of process steam per ton of
➢
urea? 998 KG
281)what is the pressure of process stream?
➢
25 bar
282)What is the temp . of process stream?
➢ 25 oC
283)What is electric power consumtion?
➢
47.5 KWH
284)What is KWH?
➢
Kilo Watt hour
285)What is Export utilities?
➢
MP steam , LP steam ,Condensate
286)How much MP stream Export?
➢
1378 KG
287)How much process condensate
➢
export? 740KG
288)How many ppm of NH3 in Waste water?
➢
25 ppm
289)How many ppm of urea in
➢
water? 100 ppm
290)HOW much treated waste water per ton of
➢
urea? 0.53MT
291)How much urea loses?
➢
50 mg/Nm3
292)How much NH3 loses?
➢
50 Kg/hr
107
293)How many H in NH3?
➢3
294)How many moles of urea prodused in reaction?
➢1
295)What is exothermic ractio?
➢
Heat produced during reaction
296)Write chemical formula of ammonia?
➢
NH3
297)How much heat produced in reaction?
➢
38.1 Kcal/ gmol
298)Write chemical formula of carbon dioxide?
➢
CO2
299)Write formula of
➢
urea? NH2CONH2
300)What is the type of
➢
reaction? Addition
301)What is endothermic reaction?
➢
Heat is supplied in reaction
302)What is formula of water?
➢
H2O
303)What is M.W. of water?
➢
H2O
304)How much heat supplied in urea
➢
reaction? 7.1 kcal/gmol
➢
305)What is decomposition?
Relief of gases from solution
306)What other commercial process of
➢
urea? total recycle process
307)What used in total recycle
➢
process? Crystalizer
308)What is process variable?
➢
NH3,H2O, Temp,Pressure ,Resisdance time
309)What is biuret?
➢
One type of impurities
310)What if formula of biuret?
➢
NH2CONHCONH2
311)How many moles of NH3 produced in biuret reaction?
➢1
312)How many moles of urea requied to form biuret?
➢
2
313)What temp ammonia is coming?
➢ 11oC
108
314)What pressure Co2 is
➢
coming? 2.5 atm
315)At what temp. CO2is coming?
➢
-100C
316)What is Wt% of urea after
reaction? 33 %
317)What if WT% if urea after MP
➢
section? 48%
318)What is WT% of urea after LP
➢
section? 70 %
319)What is WT% of urea after vaccum
➢
evaporator? 85%
320)What is the pressure in E-7?
➢
18 atm
321)What is the pressure in LP
decomposer? 4.5 atm
322)What is the pressure in MP decomposer?
➢
18 atm
323)What is the pressure in 1st vaccum evaporater?
➢
0.3 atm
324)What is the pressure in 2nd vaccum
evaporater? 0.03 atm
325)What is the % of urea in 1st vacuum evaporater?
➢
95%
326)What is the % of urea in 2nd vacuum evaporater?
➢
99.7%
327)What is the name of C-1?
➢
MP absorber
328)What is the name of E-
➢
1? stripper
➢
329)What is name of E-10?
ammonia condenser 330)What
➢
is the name of E-14? 1st
vacuum evaporater 331)What
➢
is the name of E-15? 2nd
vacuum evaporater 332)What
is the K-1?
➢
CO2 compresser
➢
333)What is MCL?
Medium central line
 ➢
334)What is BCL?
berral central line
109
335)Where we use BCl?
➢
in compressre 336)Where
we use MCL?
➢
In compresser
337)What is capacity of compresser?
➢
30200 Nm3/hr
338)How much pressure we use MCL?
➢
UP to 100 ata
339)Can we use MCL above 100
➢
ata? No
340)Can we use BCl below 100
➢
ata? NO
341)At how much pressure we can use in BCL?
➢
Above 100 ata
342)What is RPM of
➢
compresser? 11100 rpm
343)What is maximim speed of
➢
compreser? 11907 rpm
344)How much KW of Compresser/
➢
7403
345)What is viscosity of CO2?
➢
0.028 Cp
346)What is cp?
➢
centipoise
347)What type of unit Centipoise?
➢
CGS unit
348)1 cp=_____
➢
10^-3 Kg/m.s
349)What is the compressibility factor for CO2?
➢
0.69
350)What is surging in compreser?
➢
Discharge flow back in suction
side 351)What is density of CO2?
324.69 Kg/m3
352)What gases we use in seal test?
➢
N2
353)Can we use air in seal test?
➢
- NO
354)What is blow down?
➢
To remove the gases in atmosphere
355)What is PCC?
➢
Power control centre
110
356)What is EPB?
➢
Emergency Power Board
357)What is LIC?
➢
Level indicater controller
358)What is FT?
➢
Flow transmitter
359)What is HS?
➢
Hand switch
360)What is tTI?
➢
TEM. INDICATER
361)What company manufacture of instrument in plant?
➢
Parcol 362)What is
TRV?
➢
temp. relief valve
363)What is PSV?
Pressure safety valve
364)What is prilling tower height?
➢
72.5 m 365)What is
HC?
➢
Hand control
366)What is the color code for water?
➢
Green
367)What is color of pipe of
➢
N2? yellow
368)What is the color of pipe of air?
➢
blue
369)What is the color code of pipe of instrument air?
➢
Blue and green
370)Which component representate yelloe
➢
pipe? -Nitrogen
371)Which component represent blue pipe?
➢
Air
372)What is in red pipe indicate?
➢
Fire water
373)What is the color of pipe of fire
➢
water? Red
374)What is battey limit?
➢
Boundary of urea
plant 375)What is DPI?
➢
Diffrential Pressure Indicator
 ➢
376)Why erthing is provided to equipment?
To protect the equipment damage to lighting
111
377)What is the full form of
➢
DCS? Distributed Control
➢
System 378)What is the PLC?
Programmable Logic Control
379)How many input in DCS?
➢1
380)How many output in DCS?
➢
More than one
381)How many input in PLC?
➢1
382)How many output in PLC?
➢1
383)Can we con troll temp by PLC?
➢
NO
384)Can we control Pressure BY PLC?
➢
NO
385)How resisdance time is favoured on biuret?
➢
high
386)How pressure favours formation of Carbamate
➢
formation? High
387)Which principle is used to check favoured condition?
➢
LE chatelier’s
388)What is theoretical Ratio of NH3/CO2?
➢
2
389)At NH3/CO2 =2 What is urea yield?
➢
43.44%
390)At what pressure urea yield is 43.4%
➢
wt? 170 atm
391)At what temp urea yield is
➢
43.44%wt? 155oC
392)What is the ratio of
➢
NH3/CO2? 2.78
393)What is yield of urea in Excess ratio of
➢
NH3/Co2? 85.2%
394)What happened when we used excess
➢
CO2? Yield does not increases
395)How much increase in % of CO2 excess in yield of urea ?
➢
46%
396)What is the product of urea formation ?
➢
water
397)How much mole of water formed in urea reaction?
➢
1
112
398)How many mole of water formed when 1 mole urea is produced?
➢1
399)What is reverse direction in
➢
reaction? reactant formed
400)How effect of excess water in urea yield?
➢
yield is poor
401)What is equilibrium reaction?
➢
No more product will formed
402)How temp favoired in urea formation?
➢
High temp.
403)How temp favours in carbamate formation?
➢
low
404)How cabamate reation in
➢
produced? By exothermic reaction
405)At what temp Maximum equilibrium conversion?
➢
200oC
406)What is the range of temp equilibrim
➢
conversion? 196 to 200 o C
407)Which pressure is totally dependant on the temp at which conversion take place?
➢
Operating
408)Which phase urea conversion take
➢
place? liquid
409)What is effect of pressure whem we increase temp?
➢
Increase pressure 410)How
urea conversion?
➢
Slow process
411)How much time it take to ataain equiliibrim ?
➢
20 minute
412)At what time urea reactor designed? -
More than 20 minutes
413)How residence time favours equilibrium
➢
cinversion? higher
414)How much % urea conversion take place at 30 minute residence time?
➢
68%
415)What is the conversion of urea at 180 oC?
➢
68%
416)What is the mole ratio of 60 %
➢
conversion? 2.8:1
417)What is the conversion of urea at mole ratio is 4
➢
:1? 68%
418)How much residence time in 60% urea conversion?
➢
55 minutes
113
419)Wha is the temp of residence time 55 minute?
➢
180 oC
420)What is the volume of reactor?
➢
173 m3
421)1 m3=____
➢
1000 liter
422)1 atmosphere = _____ bar
➢1
423)At high temp which material is formed?
➢
biuret
424)At what temp 1.5 % biuret is formed?
➢
140oC
425)AT how much residence time 1.5 % biuret is formed?
➢
20 minute
426)How much biuret is formed when residence time is 60 minute?
➢
4%
427)At whichn resisdance time 4% biuret is
➢
formed? 60 minutes
428)Higher temp produces how much
➢
biuret? More biuret
429)How much biuret formed when we used dilute urea solution?
➢
less
430)How much biuret is produced when NH3 is
➢
low? Higher amount
431)What is LPSA?
➢
Laser partical size analyzer
432)What is LPA?
➢
layered process auditing
433)What is HPSA?
➢
Higher partical size analyzer
434)What is HPA?
➢
Industrial instrument
435)What material is used to check seal test in HP section?
➢
water
436)What material is used to check seal test in LP section?
➢
N2
437)Why N2 is used as a seal test material ?
➢
Because N2 does not explosive
438)can we use air as a seal
➢
test? NO
439)Why air is not used as a seal test?
➢
Because it explosive
114
440)How leakage is cheacked in seal test
➢
? Pressure drop
441)What is Pressure drop?
➢
The reduction in pressure gradually
442)What is HS?
➢
Hand Switch
443)What is interlock system in prilling tower?
➢
Solution goes in urea recovery solution tank
444)How much categories of shut down?
➢2
445)What is two categories of shut down?
➢
Normal and emergency Shut down
446)What is effect of change OF Co2 discharge pressure decreasing?
➢
CO2 pressure is controlled by back pressure HP loop
447)What is effect of NH3 Flow is decrease in HP pump?
➢
Temp of reactor rise
448)What is effect of NH3 flow is decrease in HP pump other than temp?
➢
NH3 conversion in reactor decrease
449)What is effect of NH3 flow is rising in HP pump ?
➢
pressure in MP section increase
450)What is length of distillation tower?
➢
36 meter
451)What is diameter of distillation tower?
➢
1.4 meter
452)Why we supply at bottom of stripper?
➢
To protect bottom dome from corrosion
453)Where the prilling bucket is located?
➢
20 meter from top
454)What is scrapper floor?
➢
It is which prills is collected 455)What
is AISI 316 material?
➢
moc of equipment
456)What is turbidity?
➢
the quality of being cloudy,opaque,or thick with suspended matter 457)Have
you seen any leakage in plant?
➢
yes
458)Have you seen leakage in flange?
➢
yes
459)What you seen in leakage of CO2?
➢
a part of leakage is shown as white
460)What is suction pressure of ammonia booster
➢
pump? 16.3 Kg/ cm2
115
461)What is the discharge pressure of ammonia booster
➢
pump? 22.3 atm
462)Have you seen in leakage in CO2?
➢
yes
463)What is the RPM of ammonia booster pum[p?
➢
2950
464)What is the power of ammonia booster
➢
pump? 46 HP
465)1 HP= ___
➢
KW 746
466)In which dimension power is measured?
➢
KW
467)What is pH of cooling water?
➢
7 -7.3
468)What is supply of electrica system in plant?
➢
11 KV
469)What is EPB?
➢
- Emergency panel Board
470)What is HC?
➢
Hand control
471)1 ATM =____ Pa
➢
101325
472)Have you seen any leakage in pipeline?
➢
Yes
473)Can leakage occur from welded joint?
➢
- Yes
474)What happened when Co2 flow FT-101
➢
increases? temp of reactor decrease
475)How many no of tray in distillation tower?
➢
45
476)How many tray in upper section of distillation
➢
tower? 15
477)How many tray in lower section of distillation
➢
tower? 30
478)What ID of distillation tower?
➢
1.4 meter
479)What is height of distillation tower?
➢
36 meter
480)What is the MOC of Distilation
➢
tower? AISI
481)Which material is Packed in C-3?
➢
Saddle type
116
482)Which material is used in ammonia recovery tower?
➢
pall ring
483)What is pall ring?
➢
packing material
484)Which process is used vacuum crystallization for urea ?
➢
Total recycle process
485)How much liq. Ammonia used for one ton of urea
➢
manufactured? 580 Kg
486)How much gases Co2 used for one ton of urea
➢
production? - 760 Kg
487)Which pump is used in ammonia in booster pump?
➢
Centrifugal pump
488)Which mathos is used to design of heat exchanger?
➢
D.Q. kern
489)Have you design
➢
pump? Yes
490)What type of pump you designed?
➢
Centrifugal
491)What you find in pump
➢
design? NPSH, power
492)what is preheater?
➢
- To increase the temp of fliud 493)what
is evaporater?
➢
To convert desirable product from raw material 494)what is the
use of reactor?
➢
To convert desirable product from raw material 495)what is
decomposer?
➢
To remove gases from solution 496)how
we generate vacuum?
➢
By ejector
497)which fluid is flow in ejector?
➢
Drivimg fluid and process fliud
➢
498)what is cavitation?
Vapour is come into casing
➢
499)What is condenser?
To remove latent heat
500)What is cooler?
➢
To remove sensible heat
501)Why cavitation occurred?
➢
suction pressure is below vapour pressure
502)What is vapour pressure?
➢
pressure exert by vapour on the liquid surface
117
503)What happened when vacuum high in evaporater?
➢
chocking of urea solution
504)What happened when vacuum is low in
➢
evaporater? moisture will increase
505)What is distillation?
➢
It is the separation of component from mixture 506)Where we
use distillation?
➢
To separate binary mixture
507)can we use distillation for multicomponent mixture?
➢
Yes
508)What is holder in your plant?
➢
To storage of material
509)What is stripper?
➢
To remove gases from solution 510)What type of flow
occurred in stripper?
➢
counter and parallal flow
➢
511)What is Reynold no.?
Inertial force / viscous force
512)What is nussalt no.?
➢
Heat tran by convection/ Heat tran by conduction?
513)What is grashoff no?
➢
Buyoncy force / viscous force
514)Which material is we use in compressure?
➢
gases
515)What is height of prilling tower?
➢
92.5 meter
516)How many control valve in
➢
plant? 100 nos
517)How many temp measurement instrument in plant?
➢
300
518)How many pressure measurement instrument in plant?
➢
150
519)How many level measurment in plant?
➢
50
520)How many flow measurement device?
➢
50
521)What is supplier of DCS system?
➢
YOKOGAWA corporation – japan
522)What is full form of DCS?
➢
distributed control system
523)What is DCS?
➢
It is control system which is both functionally and geographyically distributed?
118
524)What type of manpower required in DCS system?
➢
Low manpower
525)What is FT?
➢
Flow transmitter
526)What is HS?
➢
Hand switch
527)What is LIC?
➢
level indicator controller
528)Why we used FT?
➢
To measure the flow
529)What is LRC?
➢
level recorder controller
530)Why we use d H2SO4 in cooling water?
➢
To maintain the pH
531)What is the range of pH of cooling water?
➢
7-7.3
532)In which unit we measured capacity of compressyre?
➢
m3/hr
533)How measured of speed of compressure?
➢
By measuring RPM
534)What is capacity of reactor?
➢
170 m3
535)What is effect of ammonia on
➢
eyes? irritation in eyes
536)What is effect of water hammering?
➢
damages the pipeline
537)Why EJ-4 is required/?
➢
It is stem which generate vacuum in MV-10 538)Why water
addition is required in urea plant?
➢
- To absorb ammonia
539)What is meaning of
➢
CD? Close drain
540)What is meaning of SY?
➢
Open drain
541)Where CD water is going?
➢
It goes to V-7
➢
542)Where SY water is going?
It goes to maintsin pH to SR ¾
543)Why earthing is provided at each equipment?
➢
To protect equipment damage due to lighting
544)What is theoretical NH3/CO2 Ratio?
➢
2:1
119
545)What is actual NH3/CO2 ratio?
➢
3.2 :1
546)From where inerts coming with CO2 are vented?
➢
Through MP and LP vents
➢
547)What is meaning of cstr?
Continuous strirred tank reactor
548)What is meaning of PFR?
➢
Plug flow reactor
549)What is meaning of MFR?
➢
Mixed flow reactor
550)Write different type of turbine.
➢
Total condensing , back pressure , Extration , induction
551)Which turbine is used in ures plant?
➢
Back pressure
552)What is different type of steam trap?
➢
Invented bucket , expansion bucket
553)Write diffrenr type of insulation?
➢
Puff , glass wool
554)How many bearing are coming in centrifugal pump?
➢
non driving ene side and dring end side bearing
555)Which parameter are used for measuring current plant
➢
load? FT -101 , And P-10 A/B/C
556)What is highest temp in plant?
➢
510oC
557)Where is highest temp in plant?
➢
In CO2 steam turbine 558)What is
lowest temp in plant?
➢
-16oC
559)Where is lowest temp in plant?
➢
Incoming Co2
560)What is pressure in MV-10?
➢
0.03 atm
561)what is the pressure in MV-9?
➢
0.3 atm
562)Which principle ejector is worked?
➢
Bernoulis
563)What is principle of ejcter?
➢
It states that velocity of fluid increase ita pressure decease 564)What is
viscosity?
➢
Resistance to flow
565)What is pH of cooling water?
➢
7
120
566)What is the use of Cl2 in cooling
➢
water? To kill the bacteria
567)Commercial fertilisers are available mostly in the form of ______________
➢
Granules
568)Ammonia synthesis gas is produced from natural gas by ______________
➢
Steam Reforming
569)Catalyst used in the manufacture of NH3 by Haber's process is finely divided into which material
➢
Iron
570) Red phosphorous is changed into white phosphorous by which process?
➢
Vaporization followed by condensation
571) Molecular formula of Urea is
➢
NH2.CO.NH2
572) Which State Consists of Two gas based fertiliser plants?
➢
Maharashtra and Gujarat
573) From where does the Fertiliser plants get their N2 requirements?
➢
By fractionation of liquified air.
121
 CHAPTER 11 CONCLUSION

This project work is based on the manufacturing of urea.

I have learned that urea is one of the most important products. It is used as a fertilizer which
makes the soil more fertile and provides nutrients to the plants.
Indian government is providing urea at a subsidised rate to farmers. There are various methods to
produce urea, but the company and selected snamprogretti process which is a total recycle process.
Various details of equipments are provided for easy understanding.
Material and energy balances are important part of any chemical industry and through which a
process is selected and the plant is operated.
Utilities are also very important in a chemical industry. An engineer must have the knowledge
about steam and cooling tower.
In every industry, the equipments are labelled with specific codes. These codes must be known
before actually going in the plant.
Designing of equipment is one of the main role of a chemical engineer.
To transport the fluid from one equipment to another, pumps along with pipeline sand
control valves are required. Before going in any industry, safety instructions are given. Every industry
has some safety protocol which everyone present inside the company should follow. Plant location
should be appropriate before setting up the plant. By this statement, I mean plant should be located
where there is continuous supply of water, electricity and where transport and raw material is
easilyavailable.
With the assumed costs of each equipment, we can estimate the cost of plant along with
depreciation. And as a reference to this cost, one can estimate the cost of the actual plant with known
costs of each equipment.
Urea is sold out in the market at subsidized rate of 6Rs/kg, which is neem coated urea, which
prevents the direct spillage of urea in the soil. And Technical Grade Urea (TGU) is sold in the market
at different rate according to raw material’s cost that varying daily accordng to international market.
It’s current average cost is about 25Rs/kg.

122
123