CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

1.1 John Locke: The Empiricist Educator

John Locke (1632–1704), an English physician and philosopher, supported
the important political changes that gave England a more representative
government. He attacked Plato’s idealist epistemology of innate ideas,
emphasizing instead that ideas arose from sensation.
Locke opposed King James II, who wanted to be England’s absolute ruler.
James was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In his The
Second Treatise of Government, in 1689, Locke argued that the political
state was founded on a contract between the people and the government,
which ruled by the consent of those who had established it. He asserted
that all persons possessed inalienable rights of life, liberty, and property. 1
Locke’s philosophy contributed to the concepts of representative
government and checks and balances among a government’s legislative,
executive, and judicial branches. Thomas Jefferson and other founders of
the American republic borrowed many of Locke’s ideas.
Locke’s theory implied that citizens should establish their own
government and elect their own leaders. To do this intelligently and
responsibly, they had to be educated. This idea of civic education became
a significant principle of the nineteenth-century American common-school
movement and remains a major responsibility of public schools.

Principles of Teaching and Learning

Locke’s An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, published in 1690,
examined how we acquire ideas.2 He held that at birth the human mind is
a blank slate, a tabula rasa, empty of ideas. We gradually acquire
knowledge about the world from information our senses bring to us.
Simple ideas become compound ideas as we combine them, and these in
turn become more complex through comparison, reflection, and
generalization.
Although Locke’s emphasis on the senses resembled realism, his
philosophy of empiricism, which asserted that all human ideas were
based on sensation, went beyond Aristotle, Comenius, and other realists.
Its emphasis on sensation links empiricism to induction, the logic of
arriving at explanations or hypotheses by observing phenomena. Further
developers of Locke’s emphasis on learning from the environment were
Rousseau and Pestalozzi, and also Dewey, who declared the scientific
method—testing hypotheses by experimentation—the best approach for
teaching and learning. In fact, Locke’s empiricism was a forerunner of
pragmatism, a philosophy discussed in the chapter on Philosophical Roots
of Education.
1
2
1.2 Herbert Spencer: Utilitarian Education
(born April 27, 1820, Derby, Derbyshire, England—died December 8,
1903, Brighton, Sussex), English sociologist and philosopher, an early
advocate of the theory of evolution, who achieved an influential synthesis
of knowledge, advocating the preeminence of the individual over society
and of science over religion. His magnum opus was The Synthetic
Philosophy (1896), a comprehensive work containing volumes on the
principles of biology, psychology, morality, and sociology. He is best
remembered for his doctrine of social Darwinism, according to which the
principles of evolution, including natural selection, apply to human
societies, social classes, and individuals as well as to biological species
developing over geologic time. In Spencer’s day social Darwinism was
invoked to justify laissez-faire economics and the minimal state, which
were thought to best promote unfettered competition between individuals
and the gradual improvement of society through the “survival of the
fittest,” a term that Spencer himself introduced.
utilitarianism yo͞o˝tĭlĭtr´ēənĭzəm, yo͞otĭ˝– [key], in ethics, the theory that
the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its usefulness in
bringing about the most happiness of all those affected by it.
Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism, which advocates that those
actions are right which bring about the most good overall. Jeremy
Bentham identified good consequences with pleasure, which is measured
in terms of intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity,
and extent. John Stuart Mill argued that pleasures differ in quality as well
as quantity and that the highest good involves the highest quality as well
as quantity of pleasure. Herbert Spencer developed an evolutionary
utilitarian ethics in which the principles of ethical living are based on the
evolutionary changes of organic development. G. E. Moore, in his Principia
Ethica (1903), presented a version of utilitarianism in which he rejected
the traditional equating of good with pleasure. Later in the 20th cent.,
versions of utilitarianism have been propounded by J. J. C. Smart and R. M.
Hare.

1.3 John Dewey: Learning Through Experience

was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer
whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. He is
regarded as one of the most prominent American scholars in the first half
of the twentieth century.
The overriding theme of Dewey's works was his profound belief in
democracy, be it in politics, education, or communication and journalism.
As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan,
"Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my
mind synonymous." Known for his advocacy of democracy, Dewey
considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—to be
major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage
experimental intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that complete
democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also
by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished
by communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter
being accountable for the policies they adopt.
Dewey's thoughts on education, originally published in his 1938 work
Experience and Education, analyzed both traditional and progressive
education. Traditional education's focus was more on curriculum and
heritage, defining a student's learning path for them; a progressive
education focused on the student's interest rather than that of the
instructor or subject. In Dewey's opinion, neither of these schools of
thought were enough. Dewey believed that traditional education was too
strict and progressive education too spontaneous. He believed that
traditional education left little regard for the learner's interests and
progressive education was too individualized.

1.4 George Counts: Building a New Social Order

Progressive educator, sociologist, and political activist, George S. Counts
challenged teachers and teacher educators to use school as a means for
critiquing and transforming the social order. Perhaps best known for his
controversial pamphlet Dare the School Build a New Social Order? (1932),
Counts authored scores of scholarly works that advanced the social study
of education and emphasized teaching as a moral and political enterprise.
His work on schooling and society continue to have relevance to
contemporary dilemmas in education.
Counts was born and raised in Baldwin, Kansas. His family was Methodist
and, by his own account, imparted strong ideals of fairness and
brotherhood. Counts earned his B.A. from Baker University, the local
Methodist school, in 1911 with a degree in classical studies. After
graduating, he was employed as a high school math and science teacher,
an athletic coach, and principal before beginning postgraduate studies in
education at the University of Chicago in 1913, at the age of twenty-four.
After receiving a Ph.D. degree with honors, Counts taught at Delaware
College, now the University of Delaware (1916–1917) as head of the
department of education. He taught educational sociology at Harris
Teachers College in St. Louis, Missouri (1918–1919), secondary education
at the University of Washington (1919–1920), and education at Yale
University (1920–1926) and at the University of Chicago (1926–1927). For
nearly thirty years, Counts taught at Teachers College, Columbia
University in New York (1927–1956).
1.5 Theodore Brameld: Social Reconstructionism
Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld (1904-1987) was a leading educational
philosopher of the 20th century. As an American educator and educational
philosopher, Brameld was best known as the founder of Social
Reconstructionism. In reaction to the realities of World War II, he
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology
and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using
technology and human compassion (Philosophical Perspectives). Brameld
dedicated his efforts to employing schools as agents for social change.
Brameld’s works include: Ends and Means in Education (1950), Patterns of
Educational Philosophy (1955), Philosophies of Education in Cultural
Perspective (1955), Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of Education
(1956), Cultural Foundations of Education (1957), Education and the
Emerging Age (1961), Education as Power (1965), The Use of Explosive
Ideas in Education (1965), The Climactic Decades (1970), Patterns of
Educational Philosophy (1971), The Teacher as World Citizen (1976), and
Tourism as Cultural Learning (1977). The objective of this writing is to
present a brief synopsis of Theodore Brameld's educational philosophy
and his relevance to education.
Brameld founded the educational philosophy of Social Reconstructionism
which emphasized the addressing of social questions and a quest to
create a better society and worldwide democracy (Philosophical
Perspectives). Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that
emphasizes social reform as the aim of education.

1.6 Paulo Freire: Critical Pedagogy

There are times when you read and the ideas expressed in that reading
are so revealing that they remain engraved in your heart and in your mind
forever, and that happened to me with the educational philosophy of the
Brazilian expert on issues of education: Paulo Freire.

This influential twentieth-century education theorist pointed out that:

"Study is not measured by the number of pages read in a night, nor by the
number of books read in a semester. Studying is not an act of consuming
ideas, but of creating and recreating them", and later he would go deeper
into this same conception: "Knowledge does not lie in 'accumulating
knowledge', but in learning through critical awareness.
Two decades later, on May 2, of his death in São Paulo, Brazil, since he
died in 1997, one continues to question and rethink the educational
methods that are still used in the world and Freire’s proposal in that
respect.
His pedagogical thinking continues in our day and calls the educational
systems to a relevant transformation.
Critical pedagogy - a system proposed by the eminent Brazilian teacher -
has been considered today to be the new path of pedagogy, one in which
the two parties involved are invited to build society from the awareness of
social problems, which we live daily and they directly and indirectly affect
the classrooms.

1.7 The Professional Teacher

A professional teacher is someone who teaches as their profession. They
are educated specifically in methods of teaching, and they hold a
certification.
I my observation, the word “professional” is usually not used—it is
understood. In some circle’s teachers aren’t given the same amount of
respect as other professionals, so the word professional might be used as
a reminder that teachers have had specific training and certification that
qualifies them for their position.
Another possible reason to use the word “professional” is to differentiate
between someone with specific qualifications and someone who works
with children. Many daycares call employees teachers, but these
employees may or may not have credentials of a professional teacher.

1.8 Professional Attributes

- Control knowledge base of teaching and learning and use of this
knowledge to guide the science and art of his teaching and practice.
- Repertoire of best teaching practice and can Use this instruct in
classrooms and to work with adults in the school setting.
- Disposition and skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in
reflective, collegial, and problem-solving manner.
- View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and
skills for working towards improving his/her own teaching schools.

1.9 Personal Attributes

Positive
- think positively and enthusiastically about people and what they are
capable of becoming.
Communicative
- shares with others in a manner that encourages affective two-way
communication
Dependable
- honest and authentic in working with others
Personable
 - establishes and maintains positive mutual working relationship
Organized
- make efficient use of time and moves planned and systematic
direction
Committed
- demonstrates commitment for students and the profession and is
self-confident poised and personally in control of situations.
Motivational
- enthusiastic with standards and expectations for students and self.
Compassion
- caring, empathetic and able to respond to people at a feeling level.
Flexible
- willing to alter plants and directions in a manner which assist people
in moving toward their goals.
Individual
- perceptive sees each student as a unique and valuable individual.
Value based
- focuses upon the world and dignity of human beings.
Creative
- versatile, innovative, and open to new ideas.
Patient
- deliberate in coming to conclusion.
Sense of humor
- knows how to take the tension out of tight situations.

2.0 The Learning Environment

1. The students ask the questions—good questions
This is not a feel-good implication, but really crucial for the whole learning
process to work.

The role of curiosity has been studied (and perhaps under-studied and

under-appreciated), but suffice to say that if a learner enters any learning
activity with little to no natural curiosity, prospects for meaningful
interaction with texts, media, and specific tasks are bleak. (Interested
in how to kill learner curiosity in 12 easy steps?)
Many teachers force students (proverbial gun to head) to ask questions at
the outset of units or lessons, often to no avail. Cliché questions that
reflect little understanding of the content can discourage teachers from
“allowing” them. But the fact remains—if students can’t ask great
questions—even as young as elementary school—something, somewhere
is unplugged.

2. Questions are valued over answers

Questions are more important than answers. So it makes sense that
if good questions should lead the learning, there would be value placed on
these questions. And that means adding currency whenever possible—
grades (questions as assessment!), credit (give them points—they love
points), creative curation (writing as a kind of graffiti on large post-it
pages on the classroom walls), or simply praise and honest respect. See if
you don’t notice a change.
3. Ideas come from a divergent sources
Ideas for lessons, reading, tests, and projects—the fiber of formal learning
—should come from a variety of sources. If they all come from narrow
slivers of resources, you’re at risk of being pulled way off in one direction
(that may or may not be good). An alternative? Consider sources like
professional and cultural mentors, the community, content experts
outside of education, and even the students themselves. Huge shift in
credibility.

And when these sources disagree with one another, use that as an
endlessly “teachable moment,” because that’s what the real world is like.

4. A variety of learning models are used

Inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, direct instruction, peer-to-
peer learning, school-to-school, eLearning, Mobile learning, the flipped
classroom, and on and on—the possibilities are endless. Chances are,
none are incredible enough to suit every bit of content, curriculum, and
learner diversity in your classroom. A characteristic of a highly-effective
classroom, then, is diversity here, which also has the side-effect of
improving your long-term capacity as an educator.

A learning environment is a diverse platform where users engage and

interact to learn new skills. While learners can learn in an array of
settings, the term refers to the more preferred and accurate alternative to
the traditional classroom. The term does not pass on a traditional or
limited connotation such as a room full of desks and a chalkboard.

Components and Importance of an Effective Learning Environment

Developing an engaging and positive learning environment for learners,
especially in a particular course, is one of the most creative aspects of
teaching. Typically, the focus is either on the physical learning
environments (institutional) like lecture theaters, classrooms, or labs; or
on different technologies that are used to develop online learning
environments.

However, the learning environment is an expression that is a lot broader

than these components. The term comprises of:

Learners’ characteristics;

Learning and teaching goals;

Activities that support learning;

Assessment strategies that drive and measure learning;

A culture that directly infuses a learning environment.

Typically, social, physical, psychological or cultural factors involved in a

learning environment deeply affect the learners’ learning capabilities. If
the learning atmosphere is not conducive to gaining new knowledge or
skills, it will be hard for learners to remain engrossed or interested.

For example, stress significantly affect the cognitive functioning. When

you combine stress with learning processes, the negative thoughts
outweighs the positive ones. Such learners find the learning environment
more like a threat to their self-esteem than a platform to improve or learn
new skills. To overcome this, the instructors hold the responsibility to
incorporate an arsenal of strategies that would inoculate learners against
the negative attitude by providing enough positive experiences.

This integration of strategies in the learning/teaching approach will

counteract the negative and help students in getting out of the negative
spiral. When a learner feels appreciated, accepted and see him/her as an
important and contributing part of a learning environment only then
he/she can improve, learn with an open mind, accept and appreciate
viewpoints and solve problems earnestly.
Nevertheless, a learning environment is a great attribute to the success of
the learner. It offers a positive ambiance to feel motivated and engaged.
An ideal learning setting encourages the interaction with
learners/instructors and eventually establishes a sense of support.

What Are The Factors That Make A Positive Learning Environment?

Following are the prime factors that contribute to establishing an effective
and positive learning environment. Let’s discuss some of the most
important factors.

Establish a supportive learning culture

Each member of the learning community should have the feeling of
connectedness. They must feel that they are contributing to the overall
environment while being a bigger and important part of a supportive
learning culture.

For this, a proper support system or mentorship program should be

developed that would provide them the required assistance whenever
needed. The idea can also be supported by creating online discussion
forums or online platforms where learners can gather and discuss various
topics.

Learners can use these platforms to provide support to fellow members,

to address concerns, and to express their ideas and opinions about some
topic. Nevertheless, the modern learning platforms offer online training
and ongoing education through resources that can be accessed and used
by the learners on their own time.

Address Learners’ Needs

Just like adults, learners also have some psychological needs for order and
security, love and belonging, competence and personal power, novelty
and freedom and even fun. It is important to meet these needs at all times
and to help learners progress and be taught with a positive attitude.

Any learning environment, where instructors accommodate these intrinsic

needs, learners tend to be happier and more engaging. There are less
behavioral incidences than otherwise and this fulfilling learning
atmosphere help learners in developing the right learning attitude while
establishing positive relationships with peers.
Keep it Positive
Learners respond far better to praise than punitive measures.
Appreciation is the key to motivation, unlike humiliation, that is highly
discouraging. Learners appreciate the freedom to express their opinions;
similarly, the opinions of their peers also play a crucial role in defining
their learning attitude.

That is exactly why actions like harassment or teasing are the number one
cause for learners to drop out from the course rather than labeled as ‘dull’
or ‘stupid’ in front of others. While it is important to express opinions, it is
also vital to remain positive rather than assault.

However, the best way to cut down this negative behavior, in a

professional learning environment, is to start correcting the behavior
without highlighting the names of the ones making mistakes.

Provide Feedback
Feedback is the great way to connect with learners and to set their
learning efforts in the right direction. Feedback is vital for learners as it
helps them in tracking their progress and in changing their learning
strategy accordingly. It helps them recognize their weak areas while
improving the developed skills.

A feedback informs the learners where they are missing the mark and
what is needed to be done. A feedback is not only a key to motivate the
learner but this timely and consistent feedback ensures an interactive
learning environment. It keeps learners involved and allows them to keep
going while mounting a feeling of purpose and belonging.

Celebrate Success
In addition to feedback and appreciation, another way to establish a
positive and effective learning environment is to celebrate the learners’
success. This could be anything from a shout out to a big reward. When
learners’ achievements are recognized and shared by the instructors with
other learners, it creates a sense of achievement and fosters healthy
learning behavior.

Instructors can easily take out some time on a weekly basis to recognize
each student for any of the specific accomplishment. This could also be
done in the form of group activities or collective assignments or projects.
In addition to the celebration, it is also important to discuss the processes
or strategies used by the learner to achieve the objective. This will also
act as a guide for others to use the same learning strategy and to improve
their performance in the same manner.

Safety
A good learning environment offers a safe platform for learners. Before
you can expect learners to succeed academically, they should also feel
safe both mentally and physically. While most of the schools take physical
safety measures, not many learning platforms consider the mental safety
of the learners.

Safety in a learning environment goes beyond physical well-being. In

order to maintain a safe learning environment, learners must feel
supported, welcomed, and respected.

But many learning platforms and their codes of conduct don’t always
consider or support the positive climate. For instance, strict disciplinary
practices like suspensions negatively impact the morale of the learners
and hamper their performance or likelihood of improvement.

Hence, building a positive learning environment is more about

maintaining a healthy culture where the expectations are well
communicated and learners are fully aware of the code of conduct.

Employ Interactive Games and Activities

An effective learning platform is the one that establishes strong
interactions and promotes collaborative learning culture. This means that
it is imperative for instructors to maintain positive relationships with the
learners while also ensuring healthy association among the learners.

This can be done by using the best way of encouraging group activities.
Introduction of non-competitive games and activities break down the
cliques within a learning environment. This also assists the new and shy
students to have a sense of belonging.

Such activities promote communication and collaborative working

environment and establish cooperative learning structures.
There are hundreds of proven group activities and games that can be
introduced as classroom activities. These fun activities make learners
interested in attending the class and help them learn and progress in a
friendlier environment.

The Final Words

When you establish a learning environment, keeping these important
factors in mind, it helps in developing a thriving learning culture. A
positive learning environment is the one where learners feel involved and
responsible for their learning while being comfortable enough to fully
participate in group and individual activities.

Needless to say, when educators foster positive learning culture, learners

are more likely to have the higher motivation that leads to better and
more promising learning outcomes.

2.1 The Physical Condition of a Classroom

The physical environment of a classroom should be fostering as it plays a
major role in moulding students’ behaviour and creating a happy learning
atmosphere. A conducive learning environment provides conditions that
make a student easy to do their work along with promoting their social,
mental, physical and emotional well-being. This study was conducted with
an objective to understand the importance of physical environment of a
classroom and its relationship to mental well-being of the students. The
study mainly focused on the physical conditions (temperature, hygiene,
air circulation, lighting, acoustics, interior design, etc). The results showed
that almost all the schools were not having proper physical conditions in
and around the classrooms. This strongly showed an indication that the
designers should take proper care while designing physical conditions of
any learning environment as these play a major role in moulding the
student’s behaviour and learning capacity, mainly the mental health.

2.2 Facilitative Learning Environment

A Facilitative Learning Environment Learning Environment consist of
Physical, Psychological and Socio Environment where teaching and
learning takes place in most effective and productive manner. The
Physical Environment consists of physical condition of the classroom,
arrangement of the furniture, seating arrangement, and the classroom
temperature and lightning. As it is well explained that students loved to
learn especially when the environment during the lesson will already
clean, lighted, ventilated, quite classroom, and spacious enough to move.
The Psychological Climate includes the safety of the students in the hand
of the school and the teacher. On how they respect for diversity, the
engagement between student and the school, the social support of the
adults and the social support of the parents to their students through
leadership with other learners. And lastly, the Teaching and learning. In
facilitating the learners, teachers must know how students comfortable
with the environment and how students act and interact with other people
inside the learning environment. It is the environment who can help
learners and teachers more comfortable and have a good ambiance for
them to learn to each other. According to Pine and Horne (1990)
described the learning environment that facilitates learning. It is an
environment:
•Which encourages people to be active- a psychological classroom which
supportive learnings engages in the learning process. Such as the
activities from the classroom who made by the learners through their
learning progress.
•Which promotes and facilities the individual’s discovery of the personal
meaning of idea- it means that it is not imposed by the teacher rather
than by the learners through their experiences considering the
uniqueness of individuals.
•Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of
learning- Every learner is unique. Whereas, learners have the different
ability and skills might not the same as others, therefore, find something
that can be relate to the common uniqueness of the learners.
•In which difference is good and desirable- there is respect for diversity.
To be different does not mean to be deficient. Where, as a teacher, you
are able to know and adapt the environment you have and think of what
will be the advantages and disadvantages for them to make more creative
more than they expect.
•Which consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes-
Learners feel at ease and learn beast when mistake are welcome because
they recognize as part of the learning process. As it is very well said that,
there is nobody’s perfect in this world but let you be perfect for it will
build self-confidence.
•Which tolerates ambiguity- this leads to openness to ideas and prevents
teachers and learners alike to be judgmental.
•In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-
evaluation—the makes evaluation less threatening. The learners are not
alone when he evaluates learning. He is with a group. His or her progress
is seen against his or her targets not against the performance of his or her
classmates.
•Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self-
People feel at ease and so aren’t be afraid to be transparent.

CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

2.1 Education in the Primitive Society
In its long march to the present, humankind developed skills of creating,
sustaining, and transmitting culture. These cultural survival skills, which
have persisted from prehistoric times to the present, became the basis of
formal schooling. Preliterate persons faced the problem of survival in an
environment that pitted them against natural forces, animals, and other
hostile human beings. To survive, human beings needed food, shelter,
warmth, and clothing. In order to transform a frequently hostile
environment into a lifesustaining one, humankind developed life skills that
eventually became cultural patterns.
For the culture of a particular group to continue, that culture must be
transmitted from the group’s adults to its children. As the children learn
the language, skills, knowledge, and values of their society, they inherit
the culture. The earliest patterns of education involved (1) tool or
instrument making, (2) the mores of group life, (3) and language learning.
As toolmakers, humans created instruments for their protection and for
food gathering. Clubs, spears, bows and arrows, pottery, sleds and other
instruments were means of gaining control over the environment.
Whenever and wherever parents taught their offspring to make and use
spears to catch fish or kill animals, informal educational forces were
operating.
Primitive humans found scurity in group life, based on kinship and tribal
patterns. Group life provided greater efficiency in gathering or growing
food, in building shelters, and in protecting group members against
enemies. Life in the human group was educational as children observed
and learned from the older members of the group. Children were
deliberately instructed in specialized tasks and roles by their parents,
tribal storytellers, and priests. Over time, many of the patterns of group
life became moral behavioral codes that were ritualized ways of dealing
with the environment.
Important among the human being’s powers was the ability to use
abstract thought. As toolmakers, human beings could fashion and
manipulate instruments; as abstract thinkers, they could create, use, and
manipulate symbols. Through gestures, sounds, and words, they could
communicate symbols. Through gestures, sounds, and words, they could
communicate with each other. When these symbols were expressed in
signs, pictographs, and letters, human beings created a written language
and made the great leap to literacy. Humanity’s powers to abstract,
conceptualize, and communicate in oral and written language had
tremendous educational consequences. Education involved an emphasis
on language learning as children participated, in the songs, stories, and
ritual that formed the group’s cultural inheritance.

2.2 Key Periods in Educational History

Historical Educational Curriculu Agents Influences on
Group or Goals m Western
Period Education
Primitive To teach Practical Parents, tribal Emphasis on
societies group skills of elders and the role of
7000 B.C.- survival hunting, priests informal
5000 B.C. skills; to fishing, education in
cultivate food transmission of
group gathering; skills and
cohesiveness stories, values
myths,
songs,
poems,
dances
Greek To cultivate Athenian: Athens: Athens: The
1600 B.C.- civic reading, private concept of the
300 B.C. responsibility writing, teachers and well-rounded,
and identity arithmetic school; liberally
with city- , drama, Sophists: educated
state; music, philosophers person; Sparta:
Athenian: to physical Sparta: the concept of
develop well- education military the military
rounded , teachers, drill state
person literature, sergeants
Spartan: to poetry
develop Spartan:
soldiers and drill,
military military
leaders songs and
tactics
Roman 750 To develop Reading, Private Emphasis on
B.C. – A.D. sense of writing, schools and ability to use
450 civic arithmetic teachers; education for
responsibility , Laws of schools of practical
for republic Twelve rhetoric administrative
and then Tables, skills; relating
empire; to law, education to
develop philosoph civic
administrativ y responsibility
e and
military skills
Arabic A.D. To cultivate Reading, Mosques; Arabic
700- A.D. religious writing, court schools numerals and
1350 commitment religious computation;
to Islamic literature; re-entry of
beliefs; to scientific classical
develop studies materials on
expertise in science and
mathematics medicine
, medicine
 and science
Medieval To develop Reading, Parish, Establishing the
A.D. 500- religious writing, chantry and structure,
A.D. 1400 commitment, arithmetic cathedral content and
knowledge , liberal schools; organization of
and ritual; to arts; universities; the university
reestablish philosoph apprenticeshi as a major
social order; y, p; knighthood institution of
to prepare theology; higher
persons for crafts; education; the
appropriate military institutionalizati
roles tactics on ion and
and preservation of
chivalry knowledge
Renaissanc To cultivate Latin, Classical An emphasis on
e A.D. a humanist Greek, humanist literary
1350- A.D. who was classical educators and knowledge,
1500 expert in the literature, schools such excellence and
classics poetry, as lycée, style as
Greek and art gymnasium, expressed in
Latin; to Latin classical
prepare grammar literature; a
courtiers for school two-track
service to system of
dynastic schools
leaders
Reformatio To cultivate Reading, Vernacular A commitment
n A.D. a sense of writing, elementary to universal
1500- A.D. commitment arithmetic schools for education to
1600 to a , the masses; provide literacy
particular catechism classical to the masses;
religious , religious schools for the origins of
denominatio concepts the upper school systems
n; to and ritual; classes with
cultivate Latin and supervision to
general Greek; ensure
literacy theology doctrinal
conformity

2.3 The History of the Philippine Educational System

Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development

from the pre-Spanish times to the present. In meeting the needs of the
society, education serves as focus of emphases/priorities of the leadership
at certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race.
As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured,
and devoid of methods. Children were provided more vocational training
and less academics (3 Rs) by their parents and in the houses of tribal
tutors.

The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the

Spanish colonization. The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish
Missionaries. Education was religion-oriented. It was for the elite,
especially in the early years of Spanish colonization. Access to education
by the Filipinos was later liberalized through the enactment of the
Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of at
least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the
responsibility of the municipal government; and the establishment of a
normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits.
Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory.
Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and controlled.

The defeat of Spain by American forces paved the way for Aguinaldo’s
Republic under a Revolutionary Government. The schools maintained by
Spain for more than three centuries were closed for the time being but
were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The
Burgos Institute in Malolos, the Military Academy of Malolos, and the
Literary University of the Philippines were established. A system of free
and compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos
Constitution.

An adequate secularized and free public school system during the first
decade of American rule was established upon the recommendation of the
Schurman Commission. Free primary instruction that trained the people
for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft
Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Chaplains and non-
commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the
medium of instruction.

A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the

Philippine Commission by virtue of Act No. 74. The implementation of this
Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission
authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines
600 teachers from the U.S.A. They were the Thomasites.

Institutions, school of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and

commerce and marine institutes were established in 1902 by the
Philippine Commission. In 1908, the Philippine Legislature approved Act
No. 1870 which created the University of the Philippines.

The Reorganization Act of 1916 provided the Filipinization of all

department secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction.
Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in
1942. The Philippine Executive Commission established the Commission of
Education, Health and Public Welfare and schools were reopened in June
1942. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese – sponsored Republic created
the Ministry of Education. Under the Japanese regime, the teaching of
Tagalog, Philippine History, and Character Education was reserved for
Filipinos. Love for work and dignity of labor was emphasized. On February
27, 1945, the Department of Instruction was made part of the Department
of Public Instruction.

In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94, the Department of

Instruction was changed to Department of Education. During this period,
the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to
the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.

In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by virtue of

Proclamation 1081 and the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 y
virtue of P.D. No. 1397. Thirteen regional offices were created and major
organizational changes were implemented in the educational system.

The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of Education, Culture and
Sports which later became the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports in 1987 by virtue of Executive Order No. 117. The structure of
DECS as embodied in EO No. 117 has practically remained unchanged
until 1994 when the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and 1995
when the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
were established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree
technical-vocational programs, respectively.

The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report provided the

impetus for Congress to pass RA 7722 and RA 7796 in 1994 creating the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and
Skills Development Authority (TESDA), respectively.

The trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to basic

education which covers elementary, secondary and nonformal education,
including culture and sports. TESDA now administers the post-secondary,
middle-level manpower training and development while CHED is
responsible for higher education.

In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of

Basic Education Act, was passed transforming the name of the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to the Department of
Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field offices (regional offices,
division offices, district offices and schools). RA 9155 provides the overall
framework for (i) school head empowerment by strengthening their
leadership roles and (ii) school-based management within the context of
transparency and local accountability. The goal of basic education is to
provide the school age population and young adults with skills,
knowledge, and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive and
patriotic citizens.

DEPED MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE

To carry out its mandates and objectives, the Department is organized

into two major structural components. The Central Office maintains the
overall administration of basic education at the national level. The Field
Offices are responsible for the regional and local coordination and
administration of the Department’s mandate. RA 9155 provides that the
Department should have no more than four (4) Undersecretaries and
four (4) Assistant Secretaries with at leas one Undersecretary and one
Assistant Secretary who are career service officers chosen among the
staff of the Department.

In 2015, the Department underwent a restructuring of its office functions

and staffing. The result of which was the Rationalization Plan for the new
organizational structure. Details of the new structure are further explained
in DO Series 2015 No. 52, also known as the New Organizational
Structures of the Central, Regional, and Schools Division Offices of the
Department of Education.

At present, the Department operates with four (4) Undersecretaries in

the following areas:

 Curriculum and Instruction

 Finance and Administration
 Governance and Operations
 Legal and Legislative Affairs

Four (4) Assistant Secretaries are assigned in the following areas:

 Curriculum and Instruction

 Finance and Administration
 Governance and Operations
 Legal and Legislative Affairs
Supporting the Office of the Secretary (OSEC) at the Central Office are the
different strands, services, bureaus, and divisions.
There are five (5) strands under OSEC:
 Curriculum and Instruction
 Finance and Administration
 Governance and Operations
 Legal and Legislative Affairs
 Strategic Management
Five (5) attached agencies:
 Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Council
 National Book Development Board (NBDB)
 National Council for Children’s Television (NCCT)
  National Museum
 Philippine High School for the Arts
Three (3) coordinating councils:
 Adopt-a-School Program (ASP) Coordinating Council
 Literacy Coordinating Council (LCC)
 Teacher Education Council (TEC)

At the sub-national level, the Field Offices consist of the following:

 Seventeen (17) Regional Offices, and the Autonomous Region in

Muslim Mindanao (ARMM*), each headed by a Regional Director (a
Regional Secretary in the case of ARMM).
 Two hundred twenty-one (221) Provincial and City Schools Divisions,
each headed by a Schools Division Superintendent. Assisting the
Schools Division Offices are 2,602 School Districts, each headed by
a District Supervisor.

Under the supervision of the Schools Division Offices are 62,605 schools,
broken down as follows:

 49,209 elementary schools (38,648 public and 10,561 private)

 13,396 secondary schools (7,976 public and 5,420 private)

2.3.1 Education in the Spanish Era

During the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines (1521–1898), the

different cultures of the archipelago experienced a gradual unification
from a variety of native Asian and Islamic customs and traditions,
including animist religious practices, to what is known today as Filipino
culture, a unique hybrid of Southeast Asian and Western culture, namely
Spanish, including the Spanish language and the Catholic faith.

Spanish education played a major role in that transformation. The oldest

universities, colleges, and vocational schools, dating as far back as the
late 16th century were created during the colonial period, as well as the
first modern public education system in Asia, established in 1863. By the
time Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power,
Filipinos were among the most educated peoples in all of Asia, boasting
one of the highest literacy rates in that continent. Simultaneously, the
knowledge of Filipinos about neighboring cultures receded. During the
early years of Spanish colonization, education was mostly run by the
Church. Spanish friars and missionaries educated the natives and
converted indigenous populations to the Catholic faith.
King Philip II's Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) mandated Spanish
authorities in the Philippines to educate the natives, to teach them how to
read and write in the Spanish language. However, the latter objective was
difficult given the realities of the time. The early friars learned the local
languages to better communicate with the locals. Although by royal
decree the friars were required to teach the Spanish language to the
natives, they realized it would be easier for them to learn the local
languages first, before teaching Spanish to the population.

The Spanish missionaries established schools soon after reaching the

islands and a few decades into the Spanish period, there was no Christian
village without its school, with most children attending.

The Augustinians opened a school immediately upon arriving in Cebú in

1565. The Franciscans arrived in 1577, and they, too, immediately taught
the people how to read and write, besides imparting to them important
industrial and agricultural techniques. The Jesuits who arrived in 1581 also
concentrated on teaching the young. When the Dominicans arrived in
1587, they did the same thing in their first mission in Bataan.

Within months of their arrival in Tigbauan which is in Iloilo province

located in the island of Panay, Pedro Chirino and Francisco Martín had
established a school for Visayan boys in 1593 in which they taught not
only the catechism but reading, writing, Spanish, and liturgical music. The
Spaniards of Arévalo heard of the school and wanted Chirino to teach their
boys too. Chirino at once put up a dormitory and school house (1593–
1594) for the Spanish boys near his rectory. It was the first Jesuit boarding
school to be established in the Philippines.

Cover of Doctrina Christiana

The Chinese language version of the Doctrina Christiana (Christian
Doctrine) was the first book printed in the Philippines in about 1590 to
1592. A version in Spanish, and in Tagalog, in both Latin script and the
commonly used Baybayin script of the Manila Tagalogs of the time was
printed in 1593. The goal to teach the Christian faith to the literate
population. Eventually, the Baybayin script was replaced by the Latin
script, as this became increasingly more useful and widespread.

In 1610, Tomas Pinpin a Filipino printer, writer and publisher, who is

sometimes referred as the "Patriarch of Filipino Printing", wrote his
famous Librong Pagaaralan nang manga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla,
that was meant to help Filipinos learn the Spanish language. The prologue
read:
Let us therefore study, my country men, for although the art of learning is
somewhat difficult, yet if we are persevering, we shall soon improve our
knowledge.

Other Tagalogs like us did not take a year to learn the Spanish language
when using my book. This good result has given me satisfaction and
encouraged me to print my work, so that all may derive some profit from
it.

There were also Latin schools where that language was taught together
with some Spanish, since it was a mandatory requirement for the study of
philosophy, theology and jurisprudence in schools like the University of
Santo Tomás, run by the Dominicans. The Philippine priests and lawyers of
that time, with the exception of the sons and daughters of Spaniards,
Principalías and Ladinos, knew Latin perfectly well because the
educational system was wholly religious.

The friars also opened many medical and pharmaceutical schools. The
study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in
natural history and general chemistry and five years of studies in subjects
such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the end
of this period, the degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was granted.

By the end of the 16th century, several religious orders had established
charity hospitals all over the archipelago and provided the bulk of this
public service. These hospitals also became the setting for rudimentary
scientific research work on pharmacy and medicine, focusing mostly on
the problems of infections diseases. Several Spanish missionaries
cataloged hundreds of Philippine plants with medicinal properties. The
Manual de Medicinas Caseras...., written by Father Fernando de Santa
María, first published in 1763, became so sought after that it was
reprinted on several editions by 1885.

Colegio de Santa Potenciana was the first school and college for girls that
opened in the Philippines, in 1589. It was followed by another school for
women, Colegio de Santa Isabel, that opened in 1632. Other Schools and
Colleges for girls were Santa Catalina, Santa Rosa, La Concordia, etc.
Several religious congregations also established schools for orphaned girls
who could not educate themselves.

2.3.2 Education during the American Regime

Public system of education
Education became a very important issue for the United States colonial
government, since it allowed it to spread their cultural values, particularly
the English language, to the Filipino people. Instruction in English
language, and American history, lead to forming of a national identity and
Filipino nationalism.

Every child from age 7 was required to register in schools located in their
own town or province. The students were given free school materials.
There were three levels of education during the American period. The
"elementary" level consisted of four primary years and 3 intermediate
years. The "secondary" or high school level consisted of four years; and
the third was the "college" or tertiary level. Religion was not part of the
curriculum of the schools. as it had been during the Spanish period.

In some cases those students who excelled academically were sent to the
U.S. to continue their studies and to become experts in their desired fields
or professions. They were called "scholars", and "pensionados" because
the government covered all their expenses. In return, they were to teach
or work in government offices after they finished their studies. Some
examples of these successful Filipino scholars were Judge José Abad
Santos, Francisco Benitez, Dr. Honoria Sison and Francisco Delgado.

Many elementary and secondary schools from the Spanish era were
recycled and new ones were opened in cities and provinces, among which
there were normal, vocational, agricultural, and business schools. Among
the most important colleges during United States rule were: Philippine
Normal School in 1901 ( Philippine Normal University) and other normal
schools throughout the country such as Silliman University (1901), Central
Philippine University (1905), Negros Oriental High School (1902),St. Paul
University Dumaguete (1904), Cebu Normal School (1915) also a
university at present, Filamer Christian University (1904), Iloilo Normal
School in 1902 (now West Visayas State University) and Zamboanga
Normal School in 1904 (now Western Mindanao State University) ;
National University (1901); University of Manila (1914); Philippine
Women's University (1919); and Far Eastern University (1933). Examples
of vocational schools are: the Philippine Nautical School, Philippine School
of Arts and Trades (1901, now Technological University of the Philippines)
and the Central Luzon Agriculture School. The University of the Philippines
was also founded in 1908.

Schools were also built in remote areas like Sulu, Mindanao, and the
Mountain Provinces, where attention was given to vocational and health
practice.
Thomasites
Volunteer American soldiers became the first teachers of the Filipinos.
Part of their mission was to build classrooms in every place where they
were assigned. The American soldiers stopped teaching only when a
group of teachers from the U.S. came to the Philippines in June 1901. They
came aboard the ship "Sheridan." In August 1901, 600 teachers called
Thomasites arrived. Their name derived from the ship they traveled on,
the USS Thomas.
The original batch of Thomasites was composed by 365 males and 165
females, who sailed from United States on July 23, 1901. The U.S.
government spent about $105,000 for the expedition. More American
teachers followed the Thomasites in 1902, making a total of about 1,074
stationed in the Philippines.

2.3.3 The Commonwealth Period

 The Philippine Commonwealth was the name of the Philippines when

it was controlled by the United States.
 Manuel L. Quezon was the first Filipino head an elected government
in the Philippines.
 All schools should develop moral character, personal discipline and
vocational efficiency.
 Methods used: Memorization, socialized recitation,
 Commonwealth Act No. 586
 This is known as Education Act of 1940. It approved on August 7,
1940 by the Philippine Assembly. Repealed by R.A 896
 The law provided the following:
a) Reduction of seven- year elementary course to six year
elementary course.
b) fixing the school entrance age to seven.
c) National support of elementary education.
d) Compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all children
who enroll in Grade 1.
e) Introduction of double-single session- one class in the
morning and another in the afternoon under one teacher to
accommodate more children.
 Abolished grade seven
 Morning and afternoon
 Class start from June to March instead of July to April.
 A teacher should manage sections.
 Opening should be June-March.
2.3.4 The Japanese Occupation
Philosophy
 Asia for Asians
 Philippines for the Filipinos
 Asia is ONE.
Programs
 Japanese culture and language were offered as compulsory courses
in the schools.
 Japanese culture and language were included in the Civil Service
exams
 Emphasizing vocational education, physical education and Japanese
literature.
Curriculum
 School Calendar became longer
 Summer vacation for students
 Class size increased to 60
 Deleted anti-asian opinions, banned the singing of American
songs, deleted American symbols, poems and pictures.
 Nihongo as a means of introducing and cultivating love for
Japanese culture.
 Social Studies

2.3.5 Post-Colonial Philippines

5
In 1946, the Americans granted independence to the Philippines. It was,
however, not an
absolute independence. It was the beginning of neo-colonialism where
American influence was still present particularly in the Philippine
government’s policies on economics, foreign relations, military, and
education. Aware of the influence of former colonial masters, Filipino
intellectuals started to resist such influence not by the use of arms by the
might of their writings and discourses. They brought into light the
shadows of colonial power lurking in Filipino consciousness. They wanted
the Filipinos to know that they have to search for their identity as nation
by tracing and restoring their genuine culture and tradition, and at the
same time disconnecting from colonial influences. They realized that like
their former masters they can construct discourses to highlight their
nation’s values and truths. These discourses are known as post-colonial.
Post-colonial discourses are discourses that emanate from the
experiences of the colonized people. These are the discourses of the
“minorities,” the “inferior, and the “other.” The discourses of the once
slaves are now challenging that of their former colonial masters. These
discourses are manifestation that the former slaves see themselves as co-
equal of their former masters who once proclaimed that their civilization
and culture are superior. Post-colonial discourses criticize the hegemonic
discourses of the West which justify the normality of “uneven
development and the differential, often disadvantaged, histories of
nations, races, communities, peoples.”
That is why post-colonial discourses are formulated around the issues of
“cultural difference, social authority and political discrimination.” These
include the idea of cultural struggle and cultural power.