AS CHEMISTRY NOTES

1.3 Formulae, equations and amounts of substances

Atoms are made up of Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

 An atom is the smallest particle of any element that retains the chemical properties
of the element
 All substances are made out of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible
 The mass and charge of the atom’s subatomic particles are really small, so relative
mass and relative charge are used instead

Subatomic particle Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/2000 -1

 Electrons - circle around the nucleus in orbitals. The orbitals take up most space of
the atom
 Nucleus
- Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus
- The diameter of the nucleus is really tiny compared to the whole atom
- The nucleus is where you find the protons and the neutrons

Elements

 A substance that contains only one type of atom

 A substance that cannot be broken down (by chemical means) into anything simpler

Molecules

 Two or more atoms chemically bonded together (can be atoms of the same element
e.g. Br2 or different elements e.g. H2O)

Compounds

 Two or more elements chemically bonded in a fixed ratio

 A compound is a substance formed by two or more elements which have chemically
reacted with each other

Ions have different numbers of protons and electrons

 If an atom loses or gains electrons it is no longer an atom. It is called an ion. An ion

has a full shell of outer electrons. An ion has an electrical charge
 Negative ions (anions) have more electrons then protons
  Positive ions (cations) have more protons then electrons

The Empirical formula and Molecular formula

 A molecular formula tells you how many atoms of each element there are in a
molecule of the compound
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole ratio number of elements in the
compound

Balancing ionic equations and molecular equations

 Sodium hydroxide + Magnesium chloride Sodium Chloride + Magnesium Hydroxide

2NaOH (aq) + MgCl2 (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (s)
 This is a molecular equation, because it shows the complete formula of every
substance. Both reactants dissolve in water to form ions, so an ionic equation gives
more of a accurate picture:
2Na+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)  2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Mg (OH)2 (s)
 The sodium ions and chloride ions appear in exactly the same way on each side of
the equation. Ions like this are often called spectator ions, and can be left out of the
equation. This produces the simpler overall ionic equation:
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Mg(OH)2 (s)

Relative atomic masses of atoms are compared to Carbon-12

 The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of the atoms (taking into
all of its isotope as their abundance) of the element relative to 1/12 the mass of one
carbon-12 atom
 There are two isotopes of chlorine 35Cl and 37Cl. If they had the same abundance, the
Ar would be 36. But 35Cl has a 75 percent abundance and 37Cl has a 25 percent
abundance. This means that for every 100 atoms, 75 have a relative isotopic mass of
35 and 25 have a relative atomic mass of 37
 The Ar is calculated as follows:
Amount of substance

 Amount of substance is the number of moles of that substance (measured in moles)

 The Avogadro constant is the number of carbon atoms exactly in 12 grams of the
carbon-12 isotope. Its value is 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
 One mole of a substance is the amount of that substance that contains 6.02 x 10 23
particles of that substance

Number of moles= Number of particles you have

Number of particles you have in a mole

Molar mass is the mass of one mole

 The molar mass of a substance is the mass (in grams) of one mole
 Molar mass is just the same as the relative molecular mass, Mr

Number of moles= mass of substance

molar mass
Parts Per Million is used for really small quantities (gases in the atmosphere, water
pollution, exhausts)

 Parts per million (ppm) is used for measuring concentration of material present in

small quantities, such as pollutants in the air or in water supplies
 Xenon makes up only 0.000 009% of the atmosphere. Numbers this small are a pain
to work with
 This is why another type of measurement is used- parts per million ppm
 If there’s 0.000 009 parts of xenon in every one hundred parts of air, you can
multiply both quantities by 10,000 to make the quantity large enough to work with
 ppm= mass of component/ mass of solution x106

In a Solution the Concentration is measured in mol dm-3

 The concentration of a solution is how many moles are dissolved per 1dm 3 of
solution
 A solution that has more moles per dm3 is more concentrated. A solution that has
fewer moles per dm3 is less concentrated

Number of moles= Concentration x volume of solution (in dm3)

 To find concentration in g dm-3= amount of solute (grams)/ volume of solution (dm3)

Reacting mass equations

  First , write a balanced equation for the reaction
 Use the equation amount of substance= mass/molar mass
 Worked example: Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide required to reaction with
1.23 g silicon dioxide
Equation: SiO2 + NaOH Na2SiO3 + H2O
1. Amount of SiO2 = 1.23/60.01= 0.0205 mol
2. Amount of NaOH= 0.0205 x 2= 0.0205 mol
3. Mass of NaOH= 0.0410 x 40.0= 1.64 g
 Follow the route

Gas volume calculations

 One mole of gas occupies 24 dm3 at 25°C (298 K) and 1 atmosphere pressure
1. For reactions where a gas is produced from a solid or a solution follow:

 For step 1 use the relationship: moles of A= mass of A/molar mass of A

 For step 3 use the relationship: volume of gas= no. of moles x molar volume (24dm 3)
 Worked example: Calculate the volume of carbon-dioxide evolved at r.t.p. when 7.8
g of sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated. The molar volume of a gas is 24dm 3 at
the temperature and the pressure of the experiment
Equation: 2NaHCO3  Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 (g)
1. Amount of NaHCO3= 7.8/84.0= 0.09286 mol
2. Amount of CO2= 0.09286 x 0.5= 0.0464 mol
3. Volume of CO2= 0.0464 x 24 dm3 mol-1= 1.1 dm3
2. For calculations involving gases a shortcut can be used. The volumes of the two
gases are in the same ratio as their stoichiometry in the equation
 Worked example: What volume of oxygen is needed to completely burn with
15.6cm3 of ethane?
Equation: 2C2H6 (g) + 7O2 (g)  4CO2 (g) + 6H20 (l)
Calculation:

Percentage yield
  The yield of a reaction is the actual mass of the product obtained
 There are many reasons why the theoretical yield is not achieved
Some of the product may be lost during the purification procedure
Reversible reactions may not go to completion
Some of the products may react in an unexpected way
 The theoretical yield is the maximum amount obtainable if all the reactants are
converted into products
 First calculate, the theoretical yield from the equation using the reacting mass
method as above (page 4)
 Then the % yield

Atom economy

 Atom economy is a measure of the proportion of reactant atoms that become part
of the desired product in the balanced equation
 Atom economy=

High atom economy is better for profits and the environment

 It is important for sustainable development and for economical reasons to use

reaction with a high atom economy
 Pretty obviously, if you’re making lots of waste, that’s a problem
 Reactions with low atom economy use up resources very quickly. At the same time,
they make lots of waste materials that have to be disposed of somehow. That tends
to make these reactions unsustainable- the raw materials will run out and the waste
has to go somewhere
 For the same reasons, low atom economy reactions aren’t usually profitable. Raw
materials are expensive to buy, and waste product can be expensive to remove and
dispose of responsibly
 Sustainable development involves balancing the need for economic development,
decent standards of living and respect for the environment, so that resources are
available for future generations

Calculation of number of particles

  Number of molecules=moles x Avogadro constant
 Number of ions=moles x Avogadro constant x number of those ions in the formula
 Worked example: Calculate the number of carbon-dioxide molecules in 3.3 g of CO 2
Answer:
Amount of CO2= 3.3/44.0= 0.075 mol
Number of molecules= 0.075 x 6.02 x 1023= 4.5 x 1023
 Worked example: Calculate the number of sodium ions in 5.5g of Na 2CO3
Answer:
Amount of Na2CO3= 5.5/106.0= 0.0519 mol
Number of Na+ ions= 0.0519 x 6.02 x 1023 x 2= 6.2 x 1022

Finding and confirming and equation

Pg 23

How to calculate the empirical formula and molecular formula

Salts can be hydrated
  All solid salts consist of a lattice of positive and negative ions. In some salts, water
molecules are incorporated in the lattice too (it’s called water of crystallisation)
 A solid salt containing water of crystallisation is hydrated
 For example, hydrated copper sulphate has five moles of water for every mole of the
salt. So its formula is CuSO4.5H2O

Double salts

 Double salts are crystals that contain two different salts in a 1:1 ratio. Ammonium
iron (II) sulphate, (NH4)2Fe(SO)4.6H2O is a double salt because it has two cations
 Preparation:
1. Add mass of iron fillings to excess warm sulphuric acid and stir till they have
reacted. You’ve now got iron (II) sulphate solution
2. Add just enough ammonia solution to react completely with the iron
3. Leave the solution to evaporate- blue green crystals of the salt will form. Some
solution will remain
4. Collect the crystal by filtering, then was them using distilled water
5. To dry crystals, press them between two pieces of filter paper to absorb as much
water as possible

Percentage yield of the double salt

Pg15

1.4 Energetics
Chemical reactions often have Enthalpy Changes

 When chemical reactions occur bonds are broken or formed- this causes a change in
energy
 The enthalpy change, ∆H is the measure of the transfer of energy into or out of
reacting system at a constant pressure. The units of ∆H are kJ mol-1
 ∆Hreaction= the sum of ∆Hformation of products – the sum of ∆Hformation of reactants

Reactions can either be Exothermic or Endothermic

 An exothermic reaction gets hot, so that heat is then given out to the surroundings.
For all exothermic reactions ∆H is negative. This means that chemical energy is being
converted into thermal (heat) energy. (oxidation)
 The heat in one such pack comes from the oxidation of iron an exothermic reaction.
A damp mixture of iron fillings with salt and charcoal is contained in a perforated
bag. The bag is activated by breaking the seal, allowing the oxidation reaction to take
place, speeded up by the presence of the salt and charcoal.
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g)  2Fe2O3 (s)
 An endothermic reaction gets cold, so that heat is then taken in from the
surroundings. For all endothermic reactions ∆H is positive. (photosynthesis)
 Cold packs for treating sports injuries by gaining heat from your body. One type uses
the endothermic reaction that happens when ammonium nitrate and water are
mixed
NH4NO3 (s)  NH4+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
 Enthalpy Profile diagrams show you how the enthalpy (energy) changes during
reactions

Standard conditions and standard states

  You write ∆H° to show that elements were in their standard states and that the
measurements were under standard conditions
 Enthalpy changes are affected by temperature and pressure- using standard
condition means that everyone can know exactly what the enthalpy change is
describing
 Standard conditions are:
1. A pressure of 1 atmosphere (100kPa)
2. A temperature of 25°C (298 K)
3. Solutions if any, at a concentration of 1.00 mol dm-3
4. Substances at their most stable state e.g. carbon as graphite not
diamond, water at 298K as a liquid

There are different types of ∆H depending on the reaction

 Standard enthalpy change of reaction, ∆Hr, is the enthalpy change when the
reaction occurs in the molar quantities shown in the chemical equation, under
standard condition in their standard states

 Standard enthalpy change of formation, ∆Hf is the enthalpy change, under standard
conditions when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their
standard states. The enthalpy change of formation of an element (in its stable state)
is zero e.g. ∆Hf for ethanol is the enthalpy change for the reaction:

 Standard enthalpy change of combustion, ∆Hc is the enthalpy change, under

standard conditions when one mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen
e.g ∆Hc for ethanol is the enthalpy change for the reaction:

 Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation, ∆Hneut is the enthalpy change, under

standard conditions, when an acid and a base undergo a neutralisation reaction to
form one mole of water e.g. ∆Hneut of sulphuric acid, by sodium hydroxide solution, is
the enthalpy change for the reaction:

 Standard enthalpy change of atomisation, ∆Hat, is the enthalpy change when 1 mole
of gaseous atoms is formed from the element in its standard state, e.g.

Pg 20
Experimental results always include errors
  Systematic errors are repeated every time you carry out the experiment, and always
affect your result in the same way. They’re due to the experimental set up, or
limitations of the equipments
 Experimental problems with the calorimetry generally:
Some heat will be absorbed by the container, rather than going towards
heating up the water
Some heat is always lost to the surroundings during the experiment (however
well you insulate the container)
 Experimental problems with flammable-liquid calorimetry:
Some combustion may be incomplete- which will mean less energy will be
given out
Some of the flammable liquid may escape by evaporation (they’re usually
quite volatile)
 Random errors always happen. The best way to deal with them is to repeat you
experiment, and take an average of all the readings (except anomalies)
 The calorimeter is used to determine the energy change during a reaction accurately
is known as a bomb calorimeter
 However good the insulation, some heat is transferred to the surroundings which
adds, an element of inaccuracy and unreliability to results. This heat loss can be
estimated and corrections can be calculate to compensate for it

Pg 38 edexcel

Hess’s Law- the Total Enthalpy Change is independent of the route taken
 Hess’s law states that:
The total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken
 i.e. the total enthalpy change of a reaction will always be the same, no matter which
route is taken

pg 22 cgp
 Pg 23 cgp

Breaking bonds: Bond enthalpy

  Bond enthalpy is the energy required to break a bond between two atoms in a
gaseous molecule
 Bond enthalpy (Bond dissociation enthalpy), E, is the energy required to break one
mole of bonds of the same type in gaseous molecules under standard conditions
(298 K, 100 kPa)
 Consider hydrogen, which has an H-H bond:
H-H (g)  H (g) + H (g) ∆H° = +436

Reactions are all about breaking and making bonds

 Breaking bonds is an endothermic process. This is because we are putting in energy

to overcome the force of electrostatic attraction in the bond (∆H is positive)
 Making bonds is exothermic, as energy is released when bonds are formed (∆H is
negative)
 In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new bonds is greater
than the energy needed to break existing bonds
 If an endothermic reaction, the energy need to break existing bonds is greater that
the energy released from forming new bonds
 In ionic bonding, positive and negative ions are attracted to each other. In covalent
molecules, the positive nuclei are attracted to the negative charge of the shared
electrons in the covalent bond
 Bond enthalpies can also help you predict which bonds will break first in a reaction,
and how easy it is to break the bond. The higher the bond enthalpy, the more energy
is needed to break the bonds, and the less likely it is to break in a reaction
 Bonds with a relatively low bond enthalpies are the easiest and therefore usually the
first bonds to break
 A reaction that involves breaking bonds with relatively low bond enthalpies is more
likely to take place at room temperature than a reaction between molecules held by
bonds with high bond enthalpies. This is because less energy is needed from the
surroundings to break the reactant bonds
Pg24

Average bond enthalpies are not exact

 Mean bond enthalpy- the mean value of the bond dissociation enthalpy of a
particular bonds over a wide range of different compounds
 There isn’t just one bond enthalpy value between two particular types of atmos. For
example in water (H2O) there are two O-H bonds
  The energy required to break the first O-H bond is not the same as the energy
required to break the second:
H-O-H (g)  H (g) + O-H (g) ∆H° = +502 kJ mol-1
O-H (g) O (g) + H (g) ∆H° = +427 kJ mol-1
 The first bond is in a molecular environment in which two O-H bonds exist, and more
energy is required to break this bond. The second O-H bond is in a changed
environment, and clearly this has an effect on its bonds energy (extra electron
repulsion)
 The mean bond enthalpy= (502+427)/2= +464 kJ mol-1
 The data book says the bond enthalpy of O-H is +463 kJ mol-1. It’s a bit different
because it’s an average for a much bigger range of molecules, not just water

Pg 10 get the grade

You can use Bond enthalpies in Hess’s law cycle

 Pg 23 cgp

1.5 Atomic structure and the periodic table

Definitions
  The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of the atoms (taking
into all of its isotope as their abundance) of the element relative to 1/12 the mass of
one carbon-12 atom
 For a compound, the relative formula mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses
of all the atoms in the chemical formula. For a molecular (covalent) compound this is
referred to as the relative molecular mass
 The relative mass of an isotope (its relative isotopic mass) is the mass of one atom
of that isotope compared to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12

Measuring the relative atomic mass of an atom using a mass spectrometer

 Atoms are too small to measure their mass directly by weighing. However, an
instruments called the mass spectrometry provides an answer
1. Vaporisation- The sample being measured must be in the gaseous state for its
particles to move through the machine. The sample is injected into the mass
spectrometer and is first vaporised using an electrical heater
2. Ionisation- The vapour is bombarded with high-energy electrons, which
collide with atoms of the sample. They knock one or more electrons out of the
atoms within the sample particles to form positive ions. Because the particles
are now charged they can be accelerated in an electric field
3. Acceleration- The positive ions are accelerated by an electric field
4. Velocity selector- They are passed through a velocity selector, which makes
sure they are all travelling at the same velocity. This means any differences in
the effect of the magnetic field will be due the different mass or charges of the
ions not their speeds
5. Deflection- The ions enters a magnetic field, which deflects them. The amount
they are deflected depends on the mass of the ion and the charge on it.
Heavier ions are deflected less than lighter ions, and ions with a small positive
charge are deflected less than ions with a bigger positive charge. The magnetic
field is slowly increased. At any particular setting of the magnetic field, only
ions with a particular mass/charge will make it to a detector- any other ions
will be deflected to much or too little to pass through
6. Detection- The detector detects how many ions pass through the machine at
each magnetic field setting and each setting of the velocity selector. A mass
spectrum is produced. It show how many ions of each mass: charge ratio there
are in the sample

Pg 52 edexcel and page 26 cgp

Ionisation is the complete removal of an electron from an atom

 Ionisation is an endothermic process since work must be done on an electron in

order to overcome the attractive force between it and the nucleus
 The amount of energy need to remove an electron from an atom is known as the
ionisation energy
 The energy needed to remove one electron from an atom is called the first ionisatio
energy:
The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous
atoms to form one mole of ions with a single positive charge
 First ionisation of oxygen:
O (g)  O+ (g) + e- 1st ionisation energy= +1314 kJ mol-1
 The lower the ionisation energy , the easier to form an ion

The factors affecting ionisation Energy are:

 Nuclear charge- The more protons there are in the nucleus, the stronger the positive
therefore the electrons are more strongly attracted by the nucleus. This is the reason
why the ionisation energy increases as each successive electron is removed
 Distance- Attraction falls off very rapidly with distance, an electron close to the
nucleus will be much more strongly attracted than one further away. Notice that
there is a large jump in the energy required to remove the third electron. This is
because we are breaking into the second shell which is closer to the nucleus (Mg)
 Shielding- as the number of electrons between the outer electrons and the nucleus
increase, there is an increase in shielding. This means that the outer electron are less
strongly attracted to the nucleus

There are trends in the first ionisation energies

  The first ionisation energies of elements down a group of the periodic table
decreases. As each element down the group has an extra electron shell meaning an
increase in shielding and distance. Therefore reduce the attraction between the
nucleus and outer electron making it easier to remove
 The first ionisation energies of elements across a period generally increase

Successive ionisation energies involve removing additional electrons

 Each time you remove an electron, there’s a successive ionisation energy

 The second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons
from 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form 1 mole of gaseous 2+ ions
O+ (g)  O2+ (g) + e- 2nd ionisation energy= +3388 kJ mol-1

Pg 31 cgp

First ionisation energies of elements (2,3,3) pattern

Electron shells are Made up of Sub-Shells and Orbitals

 Each shell is given a number called the principle number called the quantum number
  Quantum mechanics also tells you that each shell may contain a number of sub-
shells. This sub-shells are described by the letters: s, p, d, f, g

Shell Sub-shells
1 1s
2 2s, 2p
3 3s, 3d, 3p
4 4s, 4d, 4p, 4f
 Shell 1 is the closest to the nucleus, therefore required the most energy to remove
electrons within this shell. Within a shell, the sub-shells have different energies. With
electron in the lowest energy sub-shells being closer to the nucleus:
s (lowest energy) < p < d

Orbitals have characteristic shapes

 Each type of sub-shell contains one or more orbitals. An orbital is the region where
the electrons are most likely to be found. Orbitals in the same sub-shell have the
same energy

Sub-shell No. of Maximum

orbitals electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
F 7 14

 s orbital are spherical. p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped. The three p orbits are at
right angle to one another

 As with the s orbital, the size of p orbitals increases with the principal quantum
number, so a 3p orbital is large than a 2p orbital

Pg 29 cgp
 Pg 28/29 cgp

The Periodic Table arranges Elements by proton numbers

  The modern periodic table arranges the elements in order of their atomic number
 Vertical columns are called groups and horizontal rows are called periods
 All elements within a group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell-
so they have similar properties
 The modern periodic law states that:
The properties of the elements are a function of their atomic numbers
 Elements in the s block have outer electron in the s sub shells, those in the p block
have outer electrons in the p sub-shells
 The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of electrons in
its highest energy level
 A periodic property is a physical or chemical property of elements that changes
gradually as you move across a period, and the gradual change is repeated in each
period

Trends in the periodic table

 The atomic radius generally decreases across a period: as you move across a period
the nuclear charge becomes increasingly positive as the number of protons in the
nucleus increases. Although the number of electrons also increases, the outer
electrons are all I the same shell. This means that they are attracted more strongly to
the nucleus, thus reducing the atomic radius across a period
 The atomic radius generally increases down a group: the outer electron enter new
energy levels passing dong a group, so although the nucleus gains positive protons,
the electrons are both further away and screened by more electron shells. As a
result they are not held so tightly and the atomic radius increases

Periodic trends in ionisation energy

 Ionisation energy generally increases across a period- it becomes harder to remove

an electron. This is the result of an increasing positive nuclear charge across the
period without the addition of any electron shells to screen the outer electrons. The
atomic radius gets smaller and the electrons are held more firmly, so it required
more energy to bring about ionisation. Noble gases have the highest ionisation
energy due to their stable electronic structure therefore are relatively unreactive
 Ionisation energy generally decreases down a period- it becomes easier to lose an
electron

Pg33
Pg 34 gcp and page 77 edexcel
1.6 Bonding
Ionic Bonding

Ions have different numbers of protons and electrons

 If an atom loses or gains electrons it is no longer an atom. It is called an ion. An ion

has a full shell of outer electrons. An ion has an electrical charge
 Negative ions (anions) have more electrons then protons. They are called anions
because they are attracted to the anodes (positive electrode)
 Positive ions (cations) have more protons then electrons. They are called cations
because they are attracted to the cathodes (negative electrode)

Ionic bonding is when ions are stuck together by electrostatic attraction

 Ionic compounds are usually formed when metals bond to non-metals

 Oppositely charge ions are formed, which are held together by an extremely strong
electrostatic force of attraction. This force is call the ionic bond
 Ionic bonding can be thought as the net electrostatic attraction between the ions

Ionic crystals are giant lattices of ions

 The lattice structure of a particular ionic compound is the arrangement of the ions in
a way that maximises the attractive forces between the oppositely charges ions and
minimises the repulsion between the similarly charged ions
 The forces exerted by the ions in a giant lattice act equally in all directions, holding
the ions together tightly
 Giant lattices of ions from ionic crystals
 Forces between ions of an ionic crystal depends on charge and size of ions:
The larger the charge, the stronger the force of attraction
The smaller the sum of atomic radii, the stronger the force of attraction
 In sodium chloride the Na+ and the Cl- ions are packed together in a cubic structure

Pg36 cgp

Ions are smaller than atoms for metals but larger for non-metals

 The ionic radius is the radius of an ion in a crystals

 The radius of a positive (metal) ion is smaller than the element’s atomic radius
because the remaining electrons are more strongly attracted to the positive nucleus:
The positive charge of the nucleus is greater than the negative charge in the
electron cloud
 The outer electron shell is emptied so the new outer shell is closer to the
nucleus and there’s less electron shielding
 Negative (non-metals) ions are larger than the atom that formed them because the
additional charge means all the electrons are bound less tightly to the nucleus:
The negative charge is greater in the electron cloud, which means there’s
greater repulsion between the electrons and the electron cloud expands a
bit
 Negative ions are larger than positive ions and increase in size as charge increases

The size of an ion depends on its atomic number and charge

 The ionic radius increases down a group of the periodic table, as the atomic number
increases. This is because the number of electron shells increase
 Isoelectronic ions are ions of different atoms with the same number of electrons
 The ions N3-, O2-, F-, Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ are Isoelectronic, they all have the same
electron structure (2,8)
 The ionic radius of a set of isoelectronic ions decreases as the atomic number
increases. This is because the number of electrons stay the same, but the number of
protons increases meaning that the electrons are attracted to the nucleus more, so
the ionic radius decreases

Dot and cross diagrams

 Cations are groups 1, 2, 3 and the Anions are groups 5,6, and 7 have the electron
configuration of a noble gas. Ions of the d-block metals do not have noble gas
electron configurations

Cgp pg 35

The theory of ionic bonding fits the evidence from physical properties

 The physical properties of ionic compounds provide evidence for the existence of
ions
 They have high melting points- tells you that the atoms are held together by a
strong attraction (model fits the evidence)
 They are soluble in water but not in non-polar solvents- this tells you that the
particles are charged. The ions are pulled apart by polar molecules like water, but
not by non-polar molecules (model fits the evidence)
  Ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity when they’re solid- but they do when
molten or dissolved. (as the ions are free to move around and conduct charge) This
supports the idea that there are ions, which are fixed in position by strong ionic
bonds in a solid, which care unable to move to conduct electricity. When the ionic
compound melts or is dissolved in water, the attraction between the ions is
overcome (ionic bonds are disrupted) and the ions are free to move and conduct
electricity

There are different kinds of evidence for the existence of ions

 The electron density map of an ionic crystal shows that there are spaces between
the ions where the density of electrons is zero. This shows that the atoms have no
shared electrons- the bonding electrons have moved from one atom to another
 The bigger the ion the more electrons it has and the brighter the spots it produces.
By analysis of the positions and intensities of the spots, experts can work out of the
charge density (electrons per cubic nanometre) of the electrons
 This diffraction of X-rays is clear and repeatable pattern is further evidence of the
presence of ions in crystals
 Migration of ions on wet filter paper is evidence for the presence of ions:
When you electrolyse a green solution of copper (II) chromate (VI) the filter
paper turns blue at the cathode and yellow at the anode
Copper ions are blue in solution and chromate ions are yellow. Copper
chromate solution is green because it contains both ions
When you pass a current through the solution, the positive ions move to the
cathode and the negative ions move to the anode
 This demonstration of electrolysis shows the presence of ions in solution

The formation of the lattice involves a release of energy- lattice energy

 The ∆Hlat, is the enthalpy formation of one mole of an ionic compound from its
gaseous under standard conditions
 Lattice energies are negative (exothermic) because they relate to forming the lattice
(this releases energy)
 The electron affinity is the energy change when mole of ions is formed from one
mole of atoms:
First electron affinity is the energy change per mole for the addition of one
electron to a gaseous atom to from a singly charge negative ion
Second electron affinity is the energy change per mole for the addition of an
electron to a singly charged negative gaseous ion

Born-Haber cycles can be used to Calculate Lattice Energies

  Born-Haber cycles show enthalpy changes when a solid ionic compound is formed
from its elements in their standard states. They show two routes- direct and indirect
 The direct way to from sodium chloride from its elements is the standard enthalpy of
formation. The indirect route involves adding up all the enthalpy changes

Pg 84

Born-Haber cycles can Show why some Compounds don’t Exist

  If lot of energy is released during the formation of a compound, the compound is
nice and stable- doesn’t want to break up again
 Some compounds either don’t form in the first place, or else they break up very
quickly to from more stable elements or compounds. For example, NaCl is found all
over the place, but you never get NaCl2. Here’s why:
The Born-Haber cycle for NaCl gives a negative enthalpy of formation- the
formation of NaCl from its elements is an exothermic process- energy is
released overall. So the NaCl is stable
However, to from NaCl2, you need to form Na2+ ions
Therefore a second electron would have to be removed from the sodium.
This electron would have to come from an inner shell and so a huge amount
of energy required. Therefore there is a high second ionisation energy
Even though, the lattice energy for NaCl2 would be more exothermic than
that of NaCl, this is not enough to compensate for the large endothermic
second ionisation energy. Thus the ∆Hf of NaCl2 would be highly endothermic
and so it is not formed i.e. it’s energetically unfavourable- not stable
 Similarly, MgCl2 is more stable than either MgCl3 or MgCl:
MgCl3 can’t exist because the large endothermic third ionisation makes the
∆Hf positive
With magnesium, the second electron comes from the outer shell and so the
second ionisation energy is only slight more endothermic than the first. This
is compensated for by the greater lattice energy of MgCl 2 compared to MgCl
MgCl and MgCl2 both have negative enthalpies of formation, so both
compounds can from. However, more energy is released by forming MgCl 2,
so MgCl2 is more stable, so if any MgCl forms in a chemical reaction, it
immediately disproportionates to from MgCl and Mg. 2MgMgCl2 + Mg

Theoretical lattice Energies are based on the Ionic Model

 Two ways of calculating lattice energy:

Experimental way- using experimental enthalpy values in a Born-Haber
Cycle
Theoretical way- doing some calculations based on the purely ionic model of
a lattice
 To work out“theoretical” lattice energy, you assume that all the ions are spherical
and have their charge evenly distributed around them- a purely ionic lattice. Then
you work out how strongly the ions are attracted to another based on their charges,
the distanced between them and so on. That gives you a value for the energy change
when the ions form the lattice

Comparing lattice energies can tell you “How ionic” an Ionic Lattice is

Pg 42
Polarisation of Ionic bonds leads to covalent character in ionic

 Polarisation is when ionic bonds can be distorted by the attraction of the positive
cation for the outer electrons of the negative anion
 If distortion is great, it may lead to a chare cloud that begins to resemble a covalent
bond
 Magnesium halides have more covalent character in their ionic bonds than sodium
halides because Mg2+ is smaller and has a bigger charge (therefore higher charge
density, so it can pull electrons towards itself a bit, polarising the bond
 The greater the charge density of the cation the poorer the match between the
experimental and theoretical values for lattice energy

Small cations are very polarising and large ions can be polarised easier

 The polarising power depends on the charge density, and in turn this depends on
both the ionic radius and its charge. All ionic bonds have a degree of covalency due
to polarisation
 Small cations with a large charge are very polarising because they have a high
charge density- the positive charge is concentrated in the ion. So they have a
stronger attraction for the outer electrons of the anion
  Large anions are polarised more easily because their electrons are further away
from the nucleus. So the electrons on large anions can be pulled away more easily
towards the cations High negatively charged ions are polarised more easily, as the
outer electrons are held more loosely by the positively charged nucleus)
 If a compound contains a cation with a high polarising ability and an anion which is
easily polarised, some of the anion’s electron charge cloud will be dragged towards
the positive cation. If the compound is polarised enough, a partially covalent bond is
formed
 When the difference of electronegative is smaller between the ions- the bonding
contains a degree of covalent character. Less attraction between the oppositely
charged particles and more electron sharing. When big-ionic bonding

Pg 43

Covalent Bonding

 Many elements don’t form ionic compounds. Therefore use another method to
achieve a noble gas configuration- electron sharing (Covalent bonding)
 Molecules are held together by covalent bonds, which are strong
 A covalent bond is the electrostatic attraction between the two nuclei for a shared
pair of electrons

Covalent “Dot and Cross” diagrams

 A single covalent bond consists of a pair of shared electrons, with each atom
supplying one electron
 A dative covalent bond consists of a pair of shared electrons, with both electrons
supplied from one atom
 A double bond consists of two shared pairs of electrons, each atom supplying two of
the electrons

Pg 44- 45
Covalent bonds can from Giant Molecular structures

 Covalent substances may be:

 Giant atomic- diamond, graphite and quartz (SiO2)
Simple molecular- for example I2 and many organic substances
Non-crystalline- for example, polymers such as polyethene
 In a giant atomic solid, the particles are atoms that are held together by strong
covalent bonds
 Giant atomic structures form distinctive atomic crystals
 Giant molecular structures have a huge network of covalently bonded atoms
 One of the best know of these is diamond, with carbon atoms held together by
covalent bonds
 The crystals are very hard, with a high melting demonstrating the great strength of
the covalent bonds

Pg 90 edexcel

Silicon-dioxide has a tetrahedral arrangement

 Silicon dioxide is a giant molecular structure

 Each silicon atoms covalently bonds with four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement to from a big crystal lattice

Pg 44

The properties of Giant atomic structures provide evidence for covalent bonds

 They are all insoluble in polar solvents like water, which shows that they don’t
contain ions. It requires a lot of energy to break the covalent bonds before the atoms
can move into the liquid
 They from hard crystals with very high melting points. This is down to the their
network of very strong covalent bonds- ( require a lot of energy to break them)
  They don’t conduct electricity. all their bonding electrons are used to form covalent
bonds, and they contain no charged particles (exception- graphite due to its
delocalised electrons within its sheets of atoms)

Metallic bonding

 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity

 The structure of a metal is a giant regular lattice of positive ions in a sea of
delocalised electrons. These delocalised electrons come from the outer shell of the
metal atoms- this leaves a positive metal ion
 Metallic bonding is the strong force of attraction between the positive ions and sea
of delocalised electrons that surrounds them
 The smaller the radius of the metal ions, the stronger is the bond and the higher is
the melting point

The model of metallic bonding can be used to explain the properties of metals

1. Malleable (hammered in the shape) and ductile (drawn into wire)- Our model
suggest that there are no bonds holding the specific ions together therefore the
positive metal ions can move (slide over each other) within the sea of electrons, and
wherever they move are still surrounded by a sea of negative electrons
2. High melting and boiling point temperatures- The simple model of metallic bonding
seems to provide an explanation of this, with a lattice of positive ions held tightly
together by negatively charged electrons. The strong attraction between the positive
ions and the negative electrons means a lot of energy is required to separate them
The number of delocalised electrons per atom affects the melting point. The
more there are, the stronger the bonding will be and the higher the melting
points. Mg2+ two delocalised electrons per atom, so it has got a higher
melting point that Na+, which only has one. Mg is also harder
The size of the metal ions also affects the melting points, because it affects
the ion’s charge density. The higher the charge density, the strong the
bonding and the higher the melting point
3. Conducting electricity – The model of metallic bonding explains this because the
delocalised electrons are free to move through the lattice under the influence of
electric field i.e. the delocalised electrons can carry current
4. High thermal conductivity – The model of metallic bonding with positive ions and a
sea of delocalised electrons explains this. The delocalised electrons move easily and
so can transmit kinetic energy rapidly though the lattice. When heated, the electrons
move rapidly from the areas of high temperature that have high kinetic energy,
towards the cooler regions of the metals, transferring their energy to other electrons
as they go
5. Insoluble- metals are insoluble, except in liquid metals, because the strength of
metallic bonds
 Pg 47

1.7 Introductory organic chemistry

About organic chemistry

 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds, except simple ones (carbon-
dioxide, carbon-monoxide and the carbonates)
  An organic compound consists of a chain of one or more carbon atoms and may
contain one or more functional groups

There are loads of ways of representing organic compounds

 General formula- An algebraic formula that can describe any member of a family of
compounds. For all alcohols CnH2n+1OH
 Empirical formula- The simplest ration of atoms of each element in a compound
(cancel the number downs if possible). So ethane, C2H6 has an empirical formula of
CH3
 Molecular formula- The actual number of atoms in each element in a molecule, with
any functional groups indicated. C4H9OH
 Structural formula- shows the atoms carbon by carbon, with the attached hydrogens
and functional groups e.g. CH3CH(OH)CH3- propan-2-ol. It is advisable to show any
double bonds, so the structural formula of ethene is H2C=CH2
 Displayed formula- this shows all the atoms and all the bonds. The displayed
formula of butan-2-ol is:

 Skeletal formula: this is normally used only for large molecules. The carbon skeleton
is shown by zigzag lines, where each end of a line and each angle represents a
carbon atom. The skeletal formula of butan-2-ol is:

The Functional groups and Nomenclature

 Families of organic chemicals can be identified by the possession of a particular

functional group
 A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that is typical of a particular
organic family and which determines the chemical properties of the molecule
 Aliphatic molecules contain straight- or branched chain carbon skeletons

Page 102edexcel
The difference between risk and hazard

 The hazard presented by a substance or an activity is its potential to do harm

 A hazard is anything that cause harm
 Risk is associated with a particular hazard is the change that it will actually cause
harm
  Risk is the change that what you’re doing will cause harm

Using organic chemical can be hazardous

Pg 57 cgp

A Risk assessment can help to make lab work safer

 Before you do anything with chemicals in a lab, you should do a risk assessment. A
risk assessment looks at the hazards of all the reactants, products and procedures
involved in an experiment and consider how to make the risk from them as small as
possible. You can reduce risks by:
Work on a smaller scale e.g. use smaller quantities of chemicals
Take appropriate precautions- eye protection, plastic gloves. Also carry out
experiments that produce dangerous fumes (toxic) in a fume cupboard
Carrying out the reaction using an alternative method that involve less
hazardous substances e.g. safer chemicals or lower concentrations
Changing the conditions under which a reaction takes place e.g. for instance,
lowering the temperature of a reacting mixture will slow the reaction down
 It is impossible to completely get rid of all risk. But the point of doing a risk
assessment is to systematically to minimise the risks

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons

 Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+1 and they occur as both straight and
branched chains. They are hydrocarbons because they only contain hydrogen and
carbon atoms
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that only contain carbon-carbon single bonds.
Every carbon atom forms four single bonds with other carbon atoms. It is impossible
for alkanes to make more than four bonds-saturated
 Cycloalkanes- a ring of carbon atoms with two hydrogens atoms attached to each
carbon atom. Has the formula CnH2n but still are saturated e.g. cyclohexane

Structural isomers have different arrangements of the same atoms

 Structural isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but a
different structural arrangement i.e. different structural formula
 Pg 50

Halogens react with Alkanes, forming Halogenoalkanes

 The alkanes react with chlorine, but only with an input of energy in the form of
sunlight or ultraviolet light
 The light provides the input of energy needed to break the hydrocarbon bonds
 A hydrogen atom is substituted (replaced) by a chlorine or bromine in a
photochemical reaction (a reaction started by UV radiation). This is a free-radical
substitution reaction:
CH4+ Cl2CH3Cl + HCl
CH3Cl +Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCL and so on
 For example chlorine and methane react with ultraviolent light as an input of energy
to form chloromethane and hydrogen chloride
 The reaction mechanism has three stages:
Initiation reaction- free radicals are produced
1. The energy of the UV light causes the Cl-Cl bond to break- this is
photodissociation
2. The bond splits homylitically (equally and each atom gets to keep one
electron-homolytic fission) producing two chlorine free radicals. The atom
becomes a highly reactive free radical, because of its unpaired electron

Propagation reactions- free radicals are used up and created in a chain

reaction. They produce another free radical
1. The chlorine radical (attacks) removes a hydrogen atom from the methane
producing a methyl radical:

2. A methyl radical then removes a chlorine atom from a chlorine molecule:

3. The new Chlorine radical can attack another CH4 molecule, until all the Cl2 or
CH4 molecules are wiped out
Termination reactions (highly exothermic)- free radicals are mopped up.
There are reactions that remove radicals from the system without replacing
them with new ones:
1. If two free radical join together, they make a stable molecule
2. Some products formed will be trace impurities in the final sample. The
presence of ethane is evidence for the mechanism
3. There are heaps of possible termination reactions:

 If the supply of chlorine is limited (i.e. methane is in excess), there will be lots of
chloromethane, hydrogen chloride, and relatively little ethane
 However, if there is a plentiful supply of chlorine (i.e. the chlorine is in excess) then
further substitutions of methane will take place to give di-, tri- and
tetrachloromethane as follows:
  CH3Cl was one of the first anaesthetics to be used for surgical operations

Important definitions that should be learnt so far

 Homologous serious: a series of compound with the same functional group and the
same general formula in which one member differs from the next by CH 2
 Homolytic fission: when a covalent bond breaks and one electron goes to each atom
to form radicals
 Heterolytic fission: when a covalent bond breaks and both electrons go to one atom
resulting in positive and negative charged ions
 Substitution: a reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in one molecule is
replaced by another atom or group of atoms
 Addition: a reaction in which two molecules react together to form a single product
 Free radical: an atom or a fragment of a molecule with an unpaired electron e.g. Cl .
 Electrophile: a species that seeks out electron-rich areas and accepts a pair of
electrons, forming a covalent bond (an electron pair acceptor)- (H +)
 Nucleophile: an electron pair donor. It may be a negative ions or it might be a
molecule with a lone pair of electrons which can be donated to for a bond (Cl -)

Crude oil is a mixture of different sized hydrocarbon molecules

 Crude oil is formed from the buried remains of plants and animals- it’s a fossil fuel.
Over millions of years with high temperature and pressure, the remains turn into
crude oil. It is extracted from the ground by drilling and pumping
 Crude oil is made out of mostly alkanes, with some alkenes and alkynes
 Because crude oil is a mixture, the different hydrocarbon molecules aren’t
chemically bonded to one another- so they all keep their original properties, such as
their condensing points
-This means that crude oil can be split up into fractions by fractional distillation

Page 52
Heavy fractions can be “Cracked” to make smaller molecules

 The smaller fractions produced during the fractional distillation of crude oil are in
great demand both as fuels and raw materials for the chemical industry, some of the
heavier fractions are of less use- make 50% of the products
 To meet this demand, the less popular heavier fractions are cracked. Cracking is
breaking long-chain alkanes into smaller hydrocarbons (which can include alkenes). It
involves breaking the C-C bonds
 Cracking (thermal decomposition) is heating long chain alkanes to high temperatures
causing the molecule to split and form shorter-chain molecules. That are more useful
e.g. gasoline
 When alkanes are heated to high temperatures in the absence of air they split into
smaller molecules
Decane Ethene + Octane
C10H22 C2H4 + C8H18
 Producing high temperatures needed to crack the heavy petroleum fractions would
be very expensive. By using catalyst (zeolites) the process can be carried out at a
much lower temperature- It is known as catalytic cracking and is carried out a cat
cracker
 Cracking of ethane produce ethene, important raw material in the chemical industry,
and hydrogen
C2H6 (g) C2H4 (g) + H2 (g)

Page 52

Fuels contain a mixture of types of Alkane

 Most people’s cars run on petrol or diesel, both of which contain a mixture of
alkanes (as well as other hydrocarbons, impurities and additives)
 Some of the alkanes in petrol are straight-chain alkanes e.g. hexane
  Petrol also contains some shorter, branched chain alkanes e.g. 2,3-dimethlybutane,
Cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons. These types of alkanes makes the fuel
burn more efficiently
 Catalytic cracking produces aromatic hydrocarbons. Straight chain alkanes can also
be reformed to make Cycloalkanes and more aromatic hydrocarbons

Alkanes can be reformed into Cycloalkanes and Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes)

 Catalytic reforming is used to modify molecules to suit demand

 In catalytic reforming, straight branched chain alkanes are converted in to arenes
and cycloalkanes (new isomers with branched chains)
 The catalyst used is a bimetallic catalyst- platinum rhodium
 An arene is a ring of hydrocarbons – useful in the chemical industry

Pg 53

Alkanes are used as fuels

 When you burn an alkane in plenty of air, you end up with carbon-dioxide and water.
It’s an exothermic reaction. Alkanes make great fuels, because burning them
releases a lot of energy
Methane’s used for central heating and cooking in homes
Alkanes with 5-12 carbon atoms are used in petrol
Kerosene is used as jet fuel. It’s alkanes have 11-15 carbon atoms
Diesel is made of a mixture of alkanes with 15-19 carbon atoms and is used
as a car fuel

Pg 54-55

Alternatives for crude oil

 Electricity can be generated by nuclear and wind power

 Ethanol powered cars, hydrogen powered cars
 Solar energy can be used to heat water
 Most of the things are set up for crude oil fractions e.g. cars. Its ready available
  Crude oil fractions are often the easiest and cheapest to use
 Crude oil fractions are more reliable e.g. solar power and wind power won’t work
without the right weather conditions

Alternatives fuels are being used

 Ethanol can be produced by fermentation of plants and is used to power cars in the
some places. It’s often mixed with petrol to make a better fuel
Pros- the carbon dioxide is released was taken in as the plant grew, so
it’s carbon neutral
Cons- engines need to be converted before they’ll work with ethanol.
It isn’t widely available
 Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. It’s produced when
microorganisms digest waste material. Biogas is burnt and the energy is used for
cooking, heating, lighting
Pros- waste material is cheap and readily available. Its carbon neutral
Cons-Biogas production is slow in cool weather
 Hydrogen gas can also be used to power vehicles. You get the hydrogen from the
electrolysis of water. The electrical energy can come from a renewable source
Pros- it is very clean- only produces water and heat
Cons – you need a special expensive engine. Hydrogen isn’t widely
available. You need energy from a source, hydrogen is hard to store

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons

 Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n

  Alkene molecules at least have one C=C double covalent bond. Molecules with C=C
double bonds are unsaturated because they can make more bonds with extra atoms
in addition reactions
 Here are a few diagrams of alkenes:

 Compounds with benzene ring structures are called arenes, or aromatic compounds.
All other organic compounds are called aliphatic compounds. Aliphatic molecules
contain straight- or branched- chain carbon skeletons

Alkenes are much more reactive than Alkanes

 In a carbon-carbon single bond (also known as an σ bond) the electron cloud is

symmetrical about the central axis of the molecule. because it lies along the line
joining the two carbon atoms, so the two ends of the ethane molecules are free to
rotate relative to each other
 Each double bond in an alkene is made up of an σ bond and a π bond. The π bond
does not allow rotation around the axis; this has a big effect on its structure and
properties. Rotation is not possible without breaking the π bond
 Because there are two pairs of electrons in the bond, the C=C double bond has a
really high electron density. This makes alkenes pretty reactive
 Also they are reactive due to the attraction of electrophiles to the electron rich π
bond within the double bond. The π bond provides an electron pair to form a new
bond with an electron seeking group (electrophile)
 The π bond is above a below the plane of the nuclei, the bond is more loosely held
by the carbon nuclei than the σ bond and therefore alkenes are more reactive than
alkanes

Eletrophilic addition reactions happen to alkenes

 An electrophile is an electron-deficient species than can form new covalent bond,

using an electron pair provided by the carbon atom. The most common eletrophillic
agent is the proton, H+
 In this reaction, the double bond opens up, and another atom is added to each of its
carbons
  Addition reactions happen because the double plenty of electrons and is easily
attacked by an electrophile (i.e. the double bond is electron rich)
 A couple example of an electrophile:
Positively charged ions, like H+ and NO2+
Polar molecules- the δ+ atom is attracted to places with lots of electrons
 The double bond is also nucleophilic- it’s attracted to places that don’t have enough
electrons

Addition reactions

Reaction of alkenes with hydrogen

 The alkenes do not react with hydrogen under normal conditions of temperature
and pressure
 However, with the presence of a nickel catalyst and a high temperature of around
200 degrees, alkenes undergo an addition reaction with hydrogen to form the
corresponding alkane. The reaction of ethene with hydrogen is an example
Ni
C2H4 + H2 C 2 H6

Alkenes are oxidised by acidified Potassium Manganate (VII)

 The reaction of the alkenes with acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution
involves both addition across the double bond and oxidation (of the double bond)
 If you shake an alkene with acidified potassium manganate (VII), the purple solution
is decolourised. The alkene is oxidised and the products of the reaction are
alkanediols
 For example here’s how ethane reaction with acidified potassium manganate (VII):

Pg 59

 The reaction is another useful test for a double C=C bond, as alkenes will react and
alkanes will not react

Use bromine water to test for C=C double bonds

 When you shake an alkene with orange bromine water, the solution decolourises.
You can use this reaction as a test for C=C bonds
 An addition reaction takes place across the double bond, which is why bromine
water becomes colourless
  Bromine water is a dilute solution- it contains more water molecules than bromine
molecules. The carbocation is more likely to react with H 20 than Br-, so an OH group
adds to the second carbon rather than another Br
 The major product of the reaction is 2-bromoethanol because OH- ions from the
water take part in the reaction as well as Br- ions
 However, some 1,2- dibromoethane is formed as well
Page 130 edexcel

Alkenes undergo Eletrophillic addition with halogens forming di-substituted

halogenoalkanes

 If you mix an alkene with bromine, the bromine adds across the double bond to from
dibromoalkane (bromine goes colourless)
 The ethene undergoes an electrophilic addition reaction with the bromine forming
1,2-dibromoethane
 The Br-Br molecule is partially polarised by the electron-rich π bond. The mechanism
involves an electrophilic attack, follow by a nucleophilic attack on the resulting
carbocation. This is the mechanism reaction of all the halogens with ethene

Pg 58 cgp

...and with Hydrogen Halides to form mono- substituted halogenoalkanes

 The double bond in the alkenes reacts readily with hydrogen halides, producing the
corresponding mono-substituted halogenoalkane
 For example ethene reacts with hydrogen bromide, to from bromoethane
 The first stage of this reaction involves an electrophilic attack on the electron rich-π
bond
  As a result of this attack, one of the carbon atoms in the ethene molecule gains a
positive charge, forming an ion called a carbocation
 The positively charge cation is then open to attack by nucleophiles (positive-charge-
loving species) i.e. the bromide ion formed in the first stage of the reaction attacks
the carbocation, forming a new C-Br bond

Page 58 cgp

Adding Hydrogen Halides to Unsymmetrical Alkenes forms two products

 When HBr is added to ethene- there is only one possible product as it is a

symmetrical alkene
 Propene in contrast is an asymmetrical alkene, with three carbon atoms and only
one double bond
 If you react hydrogen bromide with propene, the electrophilic reaction has two
possible end products. The amount of each product formed depends on how the
stable the carbocation formed in the middle of the reaction
 Carbocations with more alkyl groups e.g. methyl-CH3 are more stable, because the
alky groups feed electrons to the positive charge. The more stable carbocation is
much more likely to form
 The carbocation in (a) is more stable than the alternative in (b), because the two
methyl groups, donate electron density and stabilise the positive charge. So
carbocation (a) tend to be formed in preference
 This means that the major product of the reaction is CH3CHBrCH3 (2-bromopropane),
with less CH3CH2CH2Br (1-bromopropane)

Pg 132 edexcel and pg 58 cgp

Double bonds cannot rotate

  Atoms can’t rotate about the double bond, things can still rotate about any single
bonds in the molecule
 The restricted rotation around the C=C double bond is what causes alkenes to exhibit
E/Z geometric isomerism
 The lack of free rotation around the double bond results in molecules called
geometric isomers
 The double bond also causes alkenes to undergo addition reactions rather than
substitution reactions of alkanes

E/Z isomerism is a type of stereoisomerism

 Stereoisomers have the same structural formula but a different arrangement of the
atoms in space
 Because of the lack of rotation around the double bond, some alkenes can have
stereoisomerism
 Stereoisomers occur when the two double-bonded carbon atoms each have different
atoms or groups attached to them. Then you get an “E-isomer” and a “Z-isomer”
 They often show different physical properties – boiling and melting point
 They occur when the components of the molecule are arranged on different sides
 If two higher property groups are on the same side they are zusammen (together)-
Z-isomer
 If the two higher property groups are across the double bond then they are
entgegen (opposite)- E isomer

E/Z Isomers Can Sometimes Be Called Cis-Trans Isomers

 “cis” means the Z-isomer

 “trans” means the E-isomer
 So E-but-2-ene can be called trans-but-2-ene and Z-but-2-ene can be called cis-but-2-
ene
 But if the carbon atoms both have totally different groups attached to them, the cis-
trans naming system
 The E/Z system keeps on working though. This is because each of the groups linked
to the double-bonded carbons is given an priority
 If two carbon atoms have their “higher priority group” on opposite sides, then it’s an
E-isomer
 If the two carbon atoms have their “higher priority group” on the same side, then it’s
a Z-isomer
  In the E/Z system, Br has a higher priority (atomic number) than F, so the names
depend on where the Br atom is in relation to the CH3 group

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Alkenes join up to form Addition polymers

 The double bonds in alkenes can open up and join together to make long chains
called polymers. The individual, small alkenes are called monomers
 This is called addition polymerisation. For example, poly(ethene) is made by the
addition polymerisation of ethene. It is useful for packaging and utensils
 Ethene, the simples of the alkenes undergoes polymerisation to form poly(ethene).
The double bonds and the carbon atoms of the repeating units link together to form
a long chain

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Biodegradable polymers

 Biopolymers are polymers which are made by modifying natural polymers such as
starch or cellulose
  This is a sustainable, renewable source which uses carbon-dioxide from the
atmosphere during its growing time, reducing the carbon footprint of the
subsequent plastics
 Most polymers made from renewable sources can also be attacked and broken down
by microbes- they are biodegradable
 Also renewable energy sources should be used in the manufacture of polymers, so
the environmental effect is greatly reduced e.g. electricity generated from wind
power

How are plastics recycled?

 Mechanical recycling involves physical changes to the plastics- they may be pelted,
shredded or turned in to granules before use. Has to be done via hand + expensive
 Chemical recycling involves the breakdown of the waste plastic into its monomer
units which can be then used again in the formation of new polymers or in other
reactions in the chemical industry

Energy recovery

 Energy recovery- recovering some of the energy that was put into producing the
polymer e.g. burning waste polymer products, and used the energy released to
generate electricity. this reduces the use of fossil fuels to generate electricity
 Incinerators make sure that any pollutions such as dioxins are not released into the
atmosphere
 Polymers contain a great deal of stored energy so they are a high-energy fuel source.
The heat produced in the incinerators can be used to produce hot water for heating
in combined heat and power systems

The properties of polymers

 The average length of a polymer chain- tensile strength and melting temperature
increase with the length of the chain until 500 units in a chain
 Branching of a chain- highly branched chains tend to have low-tensile strengths, low
melting temperatures and low density
 The presences of intermolecular forces between chains- if there are strong
intermolecular forces between the chains the polymer will be strong and tend to
have a high melting temperature
 Cross-links between chains- make a polymer very rigid, hard and brittle, usually with
a very high melting temperature