INTRODUCTION TO MILLING

Milling is the process of cutting away material by feeding a work piece past a rotating multiple

tooth cutter. The cutting action of the many teeth around the milling cutter provides a fast

method of machining. The machined surface may be flat, angular, or curved. The surface may

also be milled to any combination of shapes. The machine for holding the work piece, rotating

the cutter, and feeding it is known as the Milling machine.

CUTTING AND FEED MOVEMENTS

Milling is a forming operation whereby chips are removed using a cutting tool known as a

"milling cutter". This has several cutting edges laid out around its axis of rotation, and is

subjected both to a rotational movement and a feed motion. This type of operation is carried out

on what is called a milling machine.

CUTTING PARAMETERS

A milling operation is characterised by the following parameters:

ap: Axial engagement of the tool, also known as the axial pass depth in mm.

ae: Radial engagement of the tool in mm.

N: Rotational speed in rev min−1.

vc: Cutting speed in m min−1.

fz: Feed per tooth in mm tooth−1.

vf: Feed rate in mm min−1.

Q: Material removal rate in cm3 min−1

TOOL PATH

The trajectory of a milling cutter tooth through the material follows a cycloidal curve.
CHIP THICKNESS

It is important to take into account the maximum chip thickness (hmax). Indeed, this may be less

than the feed per tooth (fz) and may produce a too small chip thickness (minimum chip size)

which leads to a cutting fault.

Remark: the minimum acceptable chip thickness cannot be defined as a general rule: it is a

function of the material being machined, the type of milling cutter used, the quality of the

sharpening and the geometry of the tool.

DIRECTION OF ROTATION

The way the milling cutter works has a significant impact on machining quality. There are two

methods:

 Climb milling

 Conventional milling.

In most cases, it is preferable to use climb milling.

POWER

The cutting power, Pc is a factor that it is important to determine, especially for the rough

machining of aluminium. It makes it possible:

To choose a machine with a power output suited to the work being done. To achieve cutting

conditions that allow the power of the machine to be used to obtain the best possible material

removal rate, while taking into account the tool's mechanical resistance.

When choosing a machine, one must also take into account the admissible torque for large

diameter tools, as well as the available speed and feed ranges.

These factors will enable us to choose the machine with which it will be possible to carry out the

milling operation in the most effective way possible.

Q: Material removal rate in cm3 min−1

K: coefficient - specific cutting power in W

Power
cm−3 min−1

Pc: cutting power in kW

ω: angular speed in rad s−1

Torque C: torque in N m

with
N: rotational speed in rev min−1

The coefficient K is a function of the material being machined, the type of operation and the feed

used. Values for K are given in the table below:

Remarks:

1. K = 17 W cm−3 min means that for a material removal rate of 1000 cm3 min−1, the power

required will be 17 kW.

2. In the case of a worn tool, the power required at the spindle can exceed the power

required for a new tool by 30%. The value for K will therefore vary by the same

proportion.

3. This formula produces a power calculation that is precise enough for most industrial

applications. In the first approximation, neither the influence of the tool's geometry and

material nor the specific characteristics of the material being machined are taken into

account.

TOOL GEOMETRY

The choice of tool for a milling operation is dependent on several criteria:

 The shape of the part to be produced

 The type of alloy

 The range: Rough, finish

 The characteristics of the machine

 The quantity of parts (price)

Aluminium alloy milling operations can be classified into two categories of application:
  Where the volume of material to be removed is very high (e.g.: aeronautical parts, die

holders).

 Where the machining time (chip-to-chip time) is short but the number of different

operations is high (e.g.: automotive).

The overall geometry of the tool bears a direct relation to the application:

 Polycrystalline diamond insert milling cutters with a diameter of 80 mm allow surfacing

operations to be conducted at very high cutting speeds.

 The monolithic design (the milling cutter body and attachment are coupled) of the tool

creates greater rigidity, thus allowing high material removal rates when producing

aeronautical parts. The number of teeth is limited on this type of tool to favour the

evacuation of chips.

 Similarly, the solid carbide milling cutter has just two teeth, to favour the evacuation of

chips. In general, these milling cutters are used with diameters of less than 20 mm

(cost/removal rate/tool life economic criterion)

As well as overall geometry, other criteria must be taken into consideration for the milling of

aluminium alloys:

 Cutting angles

 The geometry of inserts

 Tool materials

 Coatings

CUTTING ANGLES

The geometric definition of a milling cutter involves a large number of angles. For an insert

cutter, the main angles are:

* the tool cutting edge angle. Κr

* the radial angle. γf

* the axial angle. γp

* the clearance angle. α

The angles are given for inserts fitted to the body of the tool, because the geometry of the insert

must always be added to that of the milling cutter body.

(The symbols and terminologies for the tool's parts are defined by the ISO 3002/1 and NF E 66-

502 standards).
Recommendations for cylindrical cutters with detachable carbide inserts, for use with light

alloys.

TOOL CUTTING EDGE ANGLE

Influence on chip thickness: hmax = fz × sin Κr

 Κr = 90° to cut a straight shoulder

 30° < Κr < 75° for surfacing

 Usually Κr = 45° (reduction in chip thickness, predominant axial force Fa and attenuation

of vibrations)

Influence on forces

When the angle of attack, Κr increases:

 The radial load, Fr increases proportionally.

 And ap stays the same, the contact area (between the part and the insert) is reduced.
  And the feed rate stays the same, chip thickness increases.

RADIAL AND AXIAL ANGLES

Combination of the axial cutting angle and the radial cutting angle

Axial/radial +/- +/+ -/-

combination
advantages Chip formed and Chip formed effectively Very good insert resistance

removed effectively.
Axial removal
Good insert resistance
disadvantages   Low cutting edge Considerable forces

resistance Chip removal

Materials All materials: Versatile Light alloys Cast iron (use of inserts

machined made from a brittle grade

of material)

* The combinations +/- and +/+ are the most commonly used.

CLEARANCE ANGLE
The clearance angle creates a space between the tool and the part.

 the clearance angle prevents friction between the flank of the tool and the part.

 the clearance angle favours the cutting edge sharpness required for the milling of

aluminium alloys.

INSERT GEOMETRY

In general, carbide manufacturers offer inserts that are specifically designed for the cutting of

aluminium: a very positive cutting angle, with high sharpness (sharp edge).

The shape and dimensions of the inserts are coded according to ISO 1832-1991 standard.

GENERAL METHOD FOR CHOOSING SUITABLE PARAMETERS

The choice of cutting parameters is dependent on numerous criteria:

 Productivity

 Surface condition

 Cost of the part

 Machine characteristics

 Part/machine/tool rigidity

The selection method takes these criteria into account, together with the adjustment of the

following parameters:

 Forces / power

 Cutting speed

 Feed

 Engagements

 Machining direction

 Lubrication

 Range / strategies

 Vibrations

 Balancing

Limitation of power

The notion of power required at the spindle is an essential parameter of rough machining, as it

allows the machining method to be selected or the operating conditions to be altered depending
on the power available on a given machine. It must be noted that the required cutting power that

has been calculated added to the no-load power at the same rotational speed must be less than the

machine's available power.

CHOICE OF OPERATING CONDITIONS

Cutting speed parameter

The choice of cutting speed vc allows the rotational speed N to be determined based on the

following parameters:

 type of alloy being machined

 type of milling cutter (geometry)

 type of cooling (external, pressurised central)

 tool material (grade and coating)

 characteristics of the operation: rough, finish, part rigidity.

and according to the following constraints and limitations:

 characteristics of the machine: power, maximum rotational speed, rigidity

 safety: limitation of rotational speeds as a result of machine unbalance (balancing).

 techno-economic manufacturing criteria:

o quality: shape, precision, surface condition.

o part cost: a value that depends on the cost of the tool, the size of the production

run and the tool life (resistance to wear) and therefore on the cutting parameters

selected.
When milling aluminium alloys, the cutting speeds used are high >>500 m min−1. In general, for

high-speed machining, machines are run at maximum rotational speed , except in the event of

vibration problems, power limitations or spindle lifetime issues.

Feed rate parameter

The feed rate Vf is selected based on the chosen feed per tooth fz, depending on the following

parameters:

 type of alloy being machined

 type of milling cutter (geometry)

 type of cooling (external, pressurised central)

 tool material (grade and coating)

 characteristics of the operation: rough, finish, part rigidity.

and according to the following constraints and limitations:

 characteristics of the machine: power, maximum feed rate.

 techno-economic manufacturing criteria:

o quality: shape, precision, surface condition.

o part cost: a value that depends on the cost of the tool, the size of the production

run and the tool life (resistance to wear) and therefore on the cutting parameters

selected.
Engagement parameter

The engagements ap and ae are selected according to the following parameters:

 type of alloy being machined

 type of milling cutter (geometry)

 type of cooling (external, pressurised central)

 tool material (grade and coating)

 characteristics of the operation: rough, finish, part rigidity.

and according to the following constraints and limitations:

 characteristics of the machine: power, rigidity.

 techno-economic manufacturing criteria:

o quality: shape, precision, surface condition.

o part cost: a value that depends on the cost of the tool, the size of the production

run and the tool life(resistance to wear) and therefore on the cutting parameters

selected.

INTRODUCTION TO CUTTING TOOLS

Cutting is the separation of a physical object, or a portion of a physical object, into two portions,

through the application of an acutely directed force. An implement commonly used for cutting is
the knife or in medical cases the scalpel. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of

cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with

sufficient force. Cutting also describes the action of a saw which removes material in the process

of cutting.

Cutting is a compressive and shearing phenomenon, and occurs only when the total stress

generated by the cutting implement exceeds the ultimate strength of the material of the object

being cut. The simplest applicable equation is stress = force/area: The stress generated by a

cutting implement is directly proportional to the force with which it is applied, and inversely

proportional to the area of contact. Hence, the smaller the area (i.e., the sharper the cutting

implement), the less force is needed to cut something.

"Cutting" may also refer to a method used in plant propagation. It involves cutting a part of the

plant - typically a healthy shoot - with any sharp and sterile device, and then placing the removed

part in water, where it grows roots before transplanting into potting soil. Some cuttings do not

require water but are able to grow immediately in vermiculite or potting soil.

CUTTING TOOLS

A cutting tool (or cutter) is any tool that is used to remove material from the workpiece by

means of shear deformation. Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools.

Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping, plaining and similar operations, and remove

material by means of one cutting edge. Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools.

Grinding tools are also multipoint tools. Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic

single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip.
Cutting tools must be made of a material harder than the material which is to be cut, and the tool

must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting process. Also, the tool must

have a specific geometry, with clearance angles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the

workpiece without the rest of the tool dragging on the workpiece surface. The angle of the

cutting face is also important, as is the flute width, number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In

order to have a long working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds and feeds

at which the tool is run.

TYPES

Linear cutting tools include tool bits (single-point cutting tools) and broaches. Rotary cutting

tools include drill bits, countersinks and counterbores, taps and dies, milling cutters, and reamers.

Other cutting tools, such as bandsaw blades and fly cutters, combine aspects of linear and rotary

motion.

CUTTING TOOL INSERTS

Cutting tools are often designed with inserts or replaceable tips (tipped tools). In these, the

cutting edge consists of a separate piece of material, either brazed, welded or clamped on to the

tool body. Common materials for tips include tungsten carbide, polycrystalline diamond, and

cubic boron nitride. Tools using inserts include milling cutters (endmills, fly cutters), tool bits,

and saw blades.

MATERIALS

To produce quality parts, a cutting tool must have three characteristics:

  Hardness — hardness and strength at high temperatures.

 Toughness — toughness, so that tools don’t chip or fracture.

 Wear resistance — having acceptable tool life before needing to be replaced.

Cutting tool materials can be divided into two main categories: stable and unstable.

Unstable materials (usually steels) are substances that start at a relatively low hardness point and

are then heat treated to promote the growth of hard particles (usually carbides) inside the original

matrix, which increases the overall hardness of the material at the expense of some its original

toughness. Since heat is the mechanism to alter the structure of the substance and at the same

time the cutting action produces a lot of heat, such substances are inherently unstable under

machining conditions.

Stable materials (usually tungsten carbide) are substances that remain relatively stable under the

heat produced by most machining conditions, as they don't attain their hardness through heat.

They wear down due to abrasion, but generally don't change their properties much during use.

Most stable materials are hard enough to break before flexing, which makes them very fragile.

To avoid chipping at the cutting edge, most tools made of such materials are finished with a

sightly blunt edge, which results in higher cutting forces due to an increased shear area. Fragility

combined with high cutting forces results in most stable materials being unsuitable for use in

anything but large, heavy and stiff machinery.

Unstable materials, being generally softer and thus tougher, generally can stand a bit of flexing

without breaking, which makes them much more suitable for unfavorable machining conditions,

such as those encountered in hand tools and light machinery.

 Tool material Properties

Unstable. Very inexpensive. Extremely sensitive to heat.

Considered obsolete today although it is still found in non-

Carbon steel intensive applications such as hand operated tools (e.g. reamers

and taps). Hardness up to about HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges

possible.

Unstable. Inexpensive. Retains hardness at moderate

temperatures. The most common cutting tool material used

High speed steel (HSS)
today. Used extensively on drill bits and taps. Hardness up to

about HRC 67. Sharp cutting edges possible.

Unstable. Moderately expensive. The high cobalt versions of

high speed steel are very resistant to heat and thus excellent for

machining abrasive and/or work hardening materials such as

HSS cobalt
titanium and stainless steel. Used extensively on milling cutters

and drill bits. Hardness up to about HRC 70. Sharp cutting edges

possible.

Stable. Expensive. Somewhat fragile. Despite its stability it

doesn't allow for high machining speed due to low hardness. Not
Cast cobalt alloys
used much. Hardness up to about HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges

possible.

Cemented carbide Stable. Moderately expensive. The most common material used

in the industry today. It is offered in several "grades" containing

 different proportions of tungsten carbide and binder (usually

cobalt). High resistance to abrasion. High solubility in iron

requires the additions of tantalum and niobium carbides for steel

usage. Its main use is in turning tool bits although it is very

common in milling cutters and saw blades. Hardness up to about

HRC 90. Sharp edges generally not recommended.

Stable. Moderately inexpensive. Chemically inert and extremely

resistant to heat, ceramics are usually desirable in high speed

applications, the only drawback being their high fragility.

Ceramics are considered unpredictable under unfavorable

Ceramics conditions. The most common ceramic materials are based on

alumina (aluminium oxide), silicon nitride and silicon carbide.

Used almost exclusively on turning tool bits. Hardness up to

about HRC 93. Sharp cutting edges and positive rake angles are

to be avoided.

Cermets Stable. Moderately expensive. Another cemented material based

on titanium carbide (TiC). Binder is usually nickel. It provides

higher abrasion resistance compared to tungsten carbide at the

expense of some toughness. It is far more chemically inert than it

too. Extremely high resistance to abrasion. Used primarily on

turning tool bits although research is being carried on producing

other cutting tools. Hardness up to about HRC 93. Sharp edges

 generally not recommended.

Stable. Expensive. Being the second hardest substance known, it

is also the second most fragile. It offers extremely high

resistance to abrasion at the expense of much toughness. It is

generally used in a machining process called "hard machining",

Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
which involves running the tool or the part fast enough to melt it

before it touches the edge, softening it considerably. Used almost

exclusively on turning tool bits. Hardness higher than HRC 95.

Sharp edges generally not recommended.

Stable. Very Expensive. The hardest substance known to date.

Superior resistance to abrasion but also high chemical affinity to

iron which results in being unsuitable for steel machining. It is

Diamond used where abrasive materials would wear anything else.

Extremely fragile. Used almost exclusively on turning tool bits

although it can be used as a coating on many kinds of tools.

Sharp edges generally not recommended.

CONSTRUCTION

Cutting tools that rotate often have the following features:

Flute 

A recessed portion of the tool's cross-section that conveys chips away from a cutting edge

as the tool rotates. In the common twist drill, two flutes are usually provided, one for
 each cutting edge. Taps and end mills may have up to six or more cutting edges and

flutes.

MILLING CUTTER

Milling cutters are cutting tools used in milling machines or machining centres. They remove

material by their movement within the machine (eg: a ball nose mill) or directly from the cutters

shape (a form tool such as a Hobbing cutter).

FEATURES OF A MILLING CUTTER

Milling cutters come in several shapes and many sizes. There is also a choice of coatings, as well

as rake angle and number of cutting surfaces.

 Shape: Several standard shapes of milling cutter are used in industry today, which are

explained in more detail below.

 Flutes / teeth: The flutes of the milling bit are the deep helical grooves running up the

cutter, while the sharp blade along the edge of the flute is known as the tooth. The tooth

cuts the material, and chips of this material are pulled up the flute by the rotation of the

cutter. There is almost always one tooth per flute, but some cutters have two teeth per

flute. Often, the words flute and tooth are used interchangeably. Milling cutters may have

from one to many teeth, with 2, 3 and 4 being most common. Typically, the more teeth a

cutter has, the more rapidly it can remove material. So, a 4-tooth cutter can remove

material at twice the rate of a 2-tooth cutter.

 Helix angle: The flutes of a milling cutter are almost always helical. If the flutes were

straight, the whole tooth would impact the material at once, causing vibration and
 reducing accuracy and surface quality. Setting the flutes at an angle allows the tooth to

enter the material gradually, reducing vibration. Typically, finishing cutters have a higher

rake angle (tighter helix) to give a better finish.

 Center cutting: Some milling cutters can drill straight down (plunge) through the

material, while others cannot. This is because the teeth of some cutters do not go all the

way to the centre of the end face. However, these cutters can cut downwards at an angle

of 45 degrees or so.

 Roughing or Finishing: Different types of cutter are available for cutting away large

amounts of material, leaving a poor surface finish (roughing), or removing a smaller

amount of material, but leaving a good surface finish (finishing). A roughing cutter may

have serrated teeth for breaking the chips of material into smaller pieces. These teeth

leave a rough surface behind. A finishing cutter may have a large number (4 or more)

teeth for removing material carefully. However, the large number of flutes leaves little

room for efficient swarf removal, so they are less appropriate for removing large amounts

of material.

 Coatings: The right tool coatings can have a great influence on the cutting process by

increasing cutting speed and tool life, and improving the surface finish. Polycrystalline

Diamond (PCD) is an exceptionally hard coating used on cutters which must withstand

high abrasive wear. A PCD coated tool may last up to 100 times longer than an uncoated

tool. However the coating cannot be used at temperatures above 600 degrees C, or on

ferrous metals. Tools for machining aluminium are sometimes given a coating of TiAlN.

Aluminium is a relatively sticky metal, and can weld itself to the teeth of tools, causing
 them to appear blunt. However it tends not to stick to TiAlN, allowing the tool to be used

for much longer in aluminium.

 Shank: The shank is the cylindrical (non-fluted) part of the tool which is used to hold

and locate it in the tool holder. A shank may be perfectly round, and held by friction, or it

may have a Weldon Flat, where a grub screw makes contact for increased torque without

the tool slipping. The diameter may be different from the diameter of the cutting part of

the tool, so that it can be held by a standard tool holder.

TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS

Slot, end mill, and ballnose cutters

End mill

End mills (middle row in image) are those tools which have cutting teeth at one end, as well as

on the sides. The words end mill are generally used to refer to flat bottomed cutters, but also

include rounded cutters (referred to as ball nosed) and radiused cutters (referred to as bull nose,

or torus). They are usually made from high speed steel (HSS) or carbide, and have one or more

flutes. They are the most common tool used in a vertical mill.
Slot drill

Slot drills (top row in image) are generally two (occasionally three or four) fluted cutters that are

designed to drill straight down into the material. This is possible because there is at least one

tooth at the centre of the end face. They are so named for their use in cutting keyway slots. The

term slot drill is usually assumed to mean a two fluted, flat bottomed end mill if no other

information is given. Two fluted end mills are usually slot drills, three fluted sometimes are not,

and four fluted usually are not.

Roughing end mill

Roughing end mills quickly remove large amounts of material. This kind of end mill utilizes a

wavy tooth form cut on the periphery. These wavy teeth form many successive cutting edges

producing many small chips, resulting in a relatively rough surface finish. During cutting,

multiple teeth are in contact with the work piece reducing chatter and vibration. Rapid stock

removal with heavy milling cuts is sometimes called hogging. Roughing end mills are also

sometimes known as ripping cutters.

Ball nose cutter

Ball nose cutters (lower row in image) are similar to slot drills, but the end of the cutters is

hemispherical. They are ideal for machining 3-dimensional contoured shapes in machining

centers, for example in moulds and dies. They are sometimes called ball mills in shop-floor

slang, despite the fact that that term also has another meaning. They are also used to add a radius

between perpendicular faces to reduce stress concentrations.

Slab mill

HSS slab mill

Slab mills are used either by themselves or in gang milling operations on manual horizontal or

universal milling machines to machine large broad surfaces quickly. They have been superseded

by the use of carbide-tipped face mills which are then used in vertical mills or machining centers.

Side-and-face cutter

Side and face cutter

The side-and-face cutter is designed with cutting teeth on its side as well as its circumference.

They are made in varying diameters and widths depending on the application. The teeth on the

side allow the cutter to make unbalanced cuts (cutting on one side only) without deflecting the

cutter as would happen with a slitting saw or slot cutter (no side teeth).

Involute gear cutter

Involute gear cutter – number 4:

 · 10 diametrical pitch cutter

 · Cuts gears from 26 through to 34 teeth

 · 14.5 degree pressure angle

There are 8 cutters (excluding the rare half sizes) that will cut gears from 12 teeth through to a

rack (infinite diameter).

Hob

Hobbing cutter

Aluminium Chromium Titanium Nitride (AlCrTiN) coated Hob using Cathodic arc deposition

technique

These cutters are a type of form tool and are used in hobbing machines to generate gears. A cross

section of the cutters tooth will generate the required shape on the work piece, once set to the

appropriate conditions (blank size). A hobbing machine is a specialised milling machine.

Face mill
Carbide tipped face mill

A face mill consists of a cutter body (with the appropriate machine taper) that is designed to hold

multiple disposable carbide or ceramic tips or inserts, often golden in color. The tips are not

designed to be resharpened and are selected from a range of types that may be determined by

various criteria, some of which may be: tip shape, cutting action required, material being cut.

When the tips are blunt, they may be removed, rotated (indexed) and replaced to present a fresh,

sharp face to the workpiece, this increases the life of the tip and thus their economical cutting

life.

Fly cutter

A fly cutter is composed of a body into which one or two tool bits are inserted. As the entire unit

rotates, the tool bits take broad, shallow facing cuts. Fly cutters are analogous to face mills in

that their purpose is face milling and their individual cutters are replaceable. Face mills are more

ideal in various respects (e.g., rigidity, indexability of inserts without disturbing effective cutter

diameter or tool length offset, depth-of-cut capability), but tend to be expensive, whereas fly

cutters are very inexpensive.

Woodruff cutter
Woodruff key cutters and keys

Woodruff cutters are used to cut the keyway for a woodruff key.

Hollow mill

Hollow milling cutters, more often called simply hollow mills, are essentially "inside-out

endmills". They are shaped like a piece of pipe (but with thicker walls), with their cutting edges

on the inside surface. They are used on turret lathes and screw machines as an alternative to

turning with a box tool, or on milling machines or drill presses to finish a cylindrical boss (such

as a trunnion).

Dovetail cutter

A dovetail cutter is an endmill whose form leaves behind a dovetail slot.

BULL NOSE END MILLS

Bull nose cutters are applied in milling flats and sides. Their distinguishing feature is a radius on

the edges that allows the cutter better heat distribution when end milling.

Even a radius of 0.5 mm provides significant strength over a square shoulder end mill.

 Use in materials up to 54 HrC

 PVD coating available

  Larger diameters can be used with small corner radii

 Use in cores and cavities

 Semi-finishing and finishing

 Straight sides and corner radii.

INTRODUCTION TO P20 HOT WORK TOOL STEEL

Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be

made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion,

their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated

temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is generally used in a heat-treated state.

With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully

controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The manganese content is often kept low to

minimize the possibility of cracking during water quenching. However, proper heat treating of

these steels is important for adequate performance, and there are many suppliers who provide

tooling blanks intended for oil quenching.

Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of grade depends

on, among other things, whether a keen cutting edge is necessary, as in stamping dies, or whether

the tool has to withstand impact loading and service conditions encountered with such hand tools

as axes, pickaxes, and quarrying implements. In general, the edge temperature under expected

use is an important determinant of both composition and required heat treatment. The higher

carbon grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting tools, etc.
Tool steels are also used for special applications like injection molding because the resistance to

abrasion is an important criterion for a mold that will be used to produce hundreds of thousands

of parts.

Physical Properties Metric

Density 7.81 g/cc

Mechanical Properties Metric

Hardness, Brinell 290 - 341

Tensile Strength, Ultimate 1010 MPa

Tensile Strength, Yield 800 MPa

Modulus of Elasticity  205 GPa

Compressive Yield Strength  850 - 1000 MPa

Charpy Impact   5.02 - 10.0 J

Thermal Properties Metric

CTE, linear  12.6 µm/m-°C

Specific Heat Capacity  0.460 J/g-°C

Thermal Conductivity   29.0 W/m-K

Component Elements
Metric
Properties

Carbon, C  0.370 %

Chromium, Cr  2.0 %

Manganese, Mn  1.40 %

Molybdenum, Mo 
0.2
0%

Nickel, Ni  1.0 %

Silicon, Si  0.30 %

Sulfur, S  <= 0.010 %

INTRODUCTION TO CAD AND PRO/ENGINEER

Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and drafting

(CADD), is the use of computer technology for the process of design and design-

documentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer.
CADD software, or environments, provide the user with input-tools for the purpose of

streamlining design processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes.

CADD output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining operations. The

development of CADD-based software is in direct correlation with the processes it seeks to

economize; industry-based software (construction, manufacturing, etc.) typically uses vector-

based (linear) environments whereas graphic-based software utilizes raster-based (pixelated)

environments.

CADD environments often involve more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of

technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as

materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific

conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves,

surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including

automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,

prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for

special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power

of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using

techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic

importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry,

computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.
The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called computer-

aided geometric design (CAGD).

Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting

systems to 3D solid and surface modellers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow

rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle,

even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematic

modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD — computer-aided design and

drafting.

CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types

of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial

structures (hospitals and factories).

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical

components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design

and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of

manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects.

CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided

technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened

design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen, print it out and

save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.

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Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire Benefits:

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exceed product quality goals

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 Pro ENGINEER can be packaged in different versions to suit your needs, from

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INTRODUCTION TO FEA

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz

method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate

solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R.

W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis.

The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for

specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is

able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to

manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify

the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be

used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition.

There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D

modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a

relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however,
produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers

effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous

algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear

systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-

linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material

all the way to fracture.

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh

is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure

will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the

material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will

receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience

little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested material,

fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that

from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors

is what carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements.

Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple

parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of

stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material then vary with the

amount of deformation as in.

Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact.

Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in

turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.

Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the

effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack

propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance

of the material.

Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or

structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to

constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

Results of Finite Element Analysis

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by showing

problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within.

This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would

accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.

In practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three principal steps:

1. Preprocessing: The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which the

geometry is divided into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected at

discrete points called nodes." Certain of these nodes will have fixed displacements, and

others will have prescribed loads. These models can be extremely time consuming to

prepare, and commercial codes vie with one another to have the most user-friendly
 graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather tedious chore. Some of these

preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element

analysis can be done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting-and-design

process.

2. Analysis: The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite element

code itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic

equations

Kijuj = fi

where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal points. The

formation of the K matrix is dependent on the type of problem being attacked, and this

module will outline the approach for truss and linear elastic stress analyses. Commercial

codes may have very large element libraries, with elements appropriate to a wide range of

problem types. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many problem types can be

addressed with the same code, merely by specifying the appropriate element types from

the library.

3. Postprocessing: In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore

through reams of numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and stresses at

discrete positions within the model. It is easy to miss important trends and hot spots this

way, and modern codes use graphical displays to assist in visualizing the results. A

typical postprocessor display overlays colored contours representing stress levels on the

model, showing a full field picture similar to that of photo elastic or moiré experimental

results.
INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package.  Finite Element

Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of

user-designated size) called elements. The software implements equations that govern the

behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how

the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated, or graphical forms. 

This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system far too

complex to analyze by hand.  Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their

geometry, scale, or governing equations. 

ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering Department at

many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics

and Chemistry departments. 

ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or processes in a

virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual prototyping.  

With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize the product

long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the

cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure

that users are able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it

electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

Generic Steps to Solving any Problem in ANSYS:

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution domain, (2) the

physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical properties. You then solve the

problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main difference is an extra step called

mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex model into small elements that

become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below describes the processes in

terminology slightly more attune to the software.

Build Geometry

Define Material Properties

Generate Mesh

Apply Loads

Obtain Solution

Present the Results

INTRODUCTION TO TAGUCHI TECHNIQUE

• Taguchi defines Quality Level of a product as the Total Loss incurred by society due to

failure of a product to perform as desired when it deviates from the delivered target

performance levels.

• This includes costs associated with poor performance, operating costs (which changes as

a product ages) and any added expenses due to harmful side effects of the product in use

Taguchi Methods
  Help companies to perform the Quality Fix!

 Quality problems are due to Noises in the product or process system

 Noise is any undesirable effect that increases variability

 Conduct extensive Problem Analyses

 Employ Inter-disciplinary Teams

 Perform Designed Experimental Analyses

 Evaluate Experiments using ANOVA and Signal-to noise techniques

Defining the Taguchi Approach

• Noise Factors Cause Functional Variation

• They Fall Into Three “Classes”

– 1. Outer Noise – Environmental Conditions

– 2. Inner Noise – Lifetime Deterioration

– 3. Between Product Noise – Piece To Piece Variation

• The Point Then Is To Produce Processes Or Products The Are ROBUST AGAINST

NOISES

• Don’t spend the money to eliminate all noise, build designs (product and

process) that can perform as desired – low variability – in the presence of

noise!
 • WE SAY:

ROBUSTNESS = HIGH QUALITY

• TO RELIABLY MEET OUR DESIGN GOALS MEANS: DESIGNING QUALITY IN!

• We find that Taguchi considered THREE LEVELS OF DESIGN:

– level 1: SYSTEM DESIGN

– level 2: PARAMETER DESIGN

level 3: TOLERANCE DESIGN

SYSTEM DESIGN:
 • All About Innovation – New Ideas, Techniques, Philosophies

• Application Of Science And Engineering Knowledge

• Includes Selection Of:

– Materials

– Processes

– Tentative Parameter Values

Parameter Design:

• Tests For Levels Of Parameter Values

• Selects "Best Levels" For Operating Parameters to be Least Sensitive to Noises

• Develops Processes Or Products That Are Robust

• A Key Step To Increasing Quality Without Increased Cost

Tolerance Design:

• A "Last Resort" Improvement Step

• Identifies Parameters Having the greatest Influence On Output Variation

• Tightens Tolerances On These Parameters

• Typically Means Increases In Cost

Selecting Parameters for Study and Control

 • Select The Quality Characteristic

• Define The Measurement Technique

• Ennumerate, Consider, And Select The Independent Variables And Interactions

• Brainstorming

• Shainin’s technique where they are determined by looking at the products

FMEA – failure mode and effects analysis

Preliminary Steps in Improvement Studies

• To Adequately Address The Problem At Hand We Must:

1. Understand Its Relationship With The Goals We Are Trying To Achieve

2. Explore/Review Past Performance compare to desired Solutions

3. Prepare An 80/20 Or Pareto Chart Of These Past Events

4. Develop A "Process Control" Chart -- This Helps To Better See The Relationship between

Potential Control And Noise Factors

• A Wise Person Can Say: A Problem Well Defined Is Already Nearly Solved!!

ROBUST DESIGN – THE TAGUCHI PHILOSOPHY

Overview

• Taguchi Design of Experiments

 • Background of the Taguchi Method

• The Taguchi Process

Taguchi Design of Experiments

• Many factors/inputs/variables must be taken into consideration when making a product

especially a brand new one

– Ex. Baking a new cake without a recipe

 The Taguchi method is a structured approach for determining the ”best” combination of

inputs to produce a product or service

– Based on a Design of Experiments (DOE) methodology for determining

parameter levels

 DOE is an important tool for designing processes and products

– A method for quantitatively identifying the right inputs and parameter levels for

making a high quality product or service

 Taguchi approaches design from a robust design perspective

• Products and services should be designed to be inherently defect free and of high quality”

– Meet customers’ expectations also under non-ideal conditions

• Disturbances are events that cause the design performance to deviate from its target

values

• Taguchi divide disturbances into three categories

 – External disturbances: variations in the environment where the product is used

– Internal disturbances: ware and tare inside a specific unit

– Disturbances in the production process: deviation from target values

• A three step method for achieving robust design (Taguchi)

– Concept design

– Parameter design

– Tolerance design

• The focus of Taguchi is on Parameter design

1. Concept Design

– The process of examining competing technologies for producing a product -

Includes choices of technology and process design

– A prototype design that can be produced and meets customers’ needs under ideal

conditions without disturbances

2. Parameter Design

– The selection of control factors (parameters) and their “optimal” levels

 The objective is to make the design Robust!

– Control factors are those process variables management can influence.

 Ex. the procedures used and the type and amount of training

 Often a complex (non-linear) relationship between the control factors and

product/design performance

– The ”optimal” parameter levels can be determined through experimentation

3. Tolerance Design

– Development of specification limits

 Necessary because there will always be some variation in the production

process

 Taguchi fiercely advocates aiming for the target value not just settle for

“inside the specification limits”!

– Occurs after the parameter design

– Often results in increased production costs

 More expensive input material might have to be used to meet

specifications

Background of the Taguchi Method

• Introduced by Dr. Genichi Taguchi (1980)

– Comparable in importance to Statistical Process Control (SPC), the Deming

approach and the Japanese concept of TQC

• Unique aspects of the Taguchi method

– The Taguchi definition of quality

– The Taguchi Quality Loss Function (QLF)

– The concept of Robust Design

– The Taguchi definition of quality

– Ideal quality refers to a target value for determining the quality level
 – Ideal quality is delivered if a product or service tangible performs its intended

function throughout its projected life under reasonable operating conditions

without harmful side effects

– Ideal quality is a function of customer perception and satisfaction

– Service quality is measured in terms of loss to society

• The traditional definition is ”conformance to specifications”

The Taguchi Quality Loss Function

• The traditional model for quality losses

– No losses within the specification limits!

• The Taguchi loss function

– the quality loss is zero only if we are on target

The Taguchi Process

 1. Problem Identification

– Locate the problem source not just the symptom

2. Brainstorming Session

– Attended at least by project leader/facilitator and workers involved in the process.

Other participants may include managers and technical staff

– The purpose is to identify critical variables for the quality of the product or

service in question (referred to as factors by Taguchi)

• Control factors – variables under management control

• Signal factors – uncontrollable variation

– Define different factor levels (three or four) and identify possible interaction

between factors

– Determine experiment objectives

 • Less-the-better – keep the level of defectives as close to zero as possible

• Nominal-is-best – Outcome as close to target as possible

• More-the-better – max number of units per time unit or lot without

defects

3. Experimental Design

– Using factor levels and objectives determined via brainstorming

– Taguchi advocates off-line-experimentation as a contrast to traditional on-line or

in-process experimentation

– Care should be taken to selecting number of trials, trial conditions, how to

measure performance etc.

4. Experimentation

– Various rigorous analysis approaches like ANOVA and Multiple Regression can

be used but also simpler customized methods are available

5. Analysis

– The experimentation provides ”best” levels for all factors

– If interactions between factors are evident Þ Either ignore or run a full factorial

experiment

6. Conforming Experiments
 – The results should be validated by running experiments with all factors set to

”optimal” levels

The Taguchi Approach to DOE

• Traditional Design of Experiments (DOE) focused on how different design factors affect

the average result level

• Taguchi’s perspective (robust design)

– variation is more interesting to study than the average

– Run experiments where controllable design factors and disturbing signal factors

take on 2 or three levels.

• For each combination of the design variables a number of experiments are run covering

all possible combinations of the signal variables.

– Can estimate average effects and the variation different design factor levels imply

– choose factor levels that minimize the sensitivity against disturbances

• From every trial series we can obtain an average result level and a measure of the

variation, si, i=1,2, … ,9. These values can then be used as a basis for choosing the

combination of factor levels that provides the most robust design.

 Levels of Individual results
disturbing factors
Factor
Experiment
1 2 3 4
-1 -1 -1 Y11
1 -1 -1 -1 -1 Y12
2 -1 0 0 0 -1 1 1
1 -1 1 Y13 ( Y1 , s1 )
     Y14
1 1 -1
    
    
-1 -1 -1 Y21
-1 1 1 Y22
Y23 ( Y2 , s2 )
1 -1 1
9 1 1 0 -1 1 1 -1 Y24

LITERATURE SURVEY
PAPER 1 - Modeling of the Influence of Cutting Parameters on the Surface Roughness,

Tool Wear and Cutting Force in Face Milling in Off-Line Process Control by Dražen

Bajić* – Luka Celent – Sonja Jozić, University of Split, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,

Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, Croatia

ABSTRACT

Off-line process control improves process efficiency. This paper examines the influence of three

cutting parameters on surface roughness, tool wear and cutting force components in face milling

as part of the off-line process control. The experiments were carried out in order to define a

model for process planning. Cutting speed, feed per tooth and depth of cut were taken as

influential factors. Two modeling methodologies, namely regression analysis and neural

networks have been applied to experimentally determined data. Results obtained by the models

have been compared. Both models have a relative prediction error below 10%. The research has

shown that when the training dataset is small neural network modeling methodologies are

comparable with regression analysis methodology and can even offer better results, in which

case an average relative error of 3.35%. Advantages of off-line process control which utilizes

process models by using these two modeling methodologies are explained in theory.

PAPER 2 - OPTIMIZATION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN FACE TURNING

OPERATION IN MACHINING OF EN-8 by K. Adarsh Kumar, Ch.Ratnam, BSN

Murthy, B.Satish Ben, K. Raghu Ram Mohan Reddy

ABSTRACT
Surface finish is one of the prime requirements of customers for machined parts. The purpose of

this research paper is focused on the analysis of optimum cutting conditions to get lowest surface

roughness in facing by regression analysis. This present paper presents an experimental study to

investigate the effects of cutting parameters like spindle speed, feed and depth of cut on surface

finish on EN-8. A multiple regression analysis (RA) using analysis of variance is conducted to

determine the performance of experimental measurements and to it shows the effect of cutting

parameters on the surface roughness. Multiple regression modeling was performed to predict the

surface roughness by using machining parameters. The investigation of influence of cutting

conditions in facing operation of EN-8 in this paper. Machining was done using cemented

carbide insert. The objective was to establish correlation between cutting speed, feed rate and

depth of cut and optimize the turning conditions based on surface roughness. These correlations

are obtained by multiple regression analysis (RA).

PAPER 3 - Effect of machining conditions on MRR and surface roughness during CNC

Turning of different Materials Using TiN Coated Cutting Tools – A Taguchi approach by

H. K. Dave, L. S. Patel, H. K. Raval

ABSTRACT

This paper presents on experimental investigation of the machining characteristics of different

grades of EN materials in CNC turning process using TiN coated cutting tools. In machining

operation, the quality of surface finish is an important requirement for many turned work pieces.

Thus, the choice of optimized cutting parameters is very important for controlling the required
surface quality. The purpose of this research paper is focused on the analysis of optimum cutting

conditions to get the lowest surface roughness and maximum material removal rate in CNC

turning of different grades of EN materials by Taguchi method. Optimal cutting parameters for

each performance measure were obtained employing Taguchi techniques. The orthogonal array,

signal to noise ratio and analysis of variance were employed to study the performance

characteristics in dry turning operation. ANOVA has shown that the depth of cut has significant

role to play in producing higher MRR and insert has significant role to play for producing lower

surface roughness. Thus, it is possible to increase machine utilization and decrease production

cost in an automated manufacturing environment.

PAPER 4 - Optimization of surface roughness in CNC end milling using response surface

methodology and genetic algorithm by B. Sidda Reddy, J. Suresh Kumar, and K. Vijaya

Kumar Reddy

ABSTRACT

Pre-hardened steel (P20) is a widely used material in the production of moulds/dies due to less

wear resistance and used for large components. In this study, minimization of surface roughness

has been investigated by integrating design of experiment method, Response surface

methodology (RSM) and genetic algorithm. To achieve the minimum surface roughness optimal

conditions are determined. The experiments were conducted using Taguchi’s L50 orthogonal

array in the design of experiments (DOE) by considering the machining parameters such as Nose

radius (R), Cutting speed (V), feed (f), axial depth of cut (d) and radial depth of cut(rd). A
predictive response surface model for surface roughness is developed using RSM. The response

surface (RS) model is interfaced with the genetic algorithm (GA) to find the optimum machining

parameter values.

PAPER 5 - PREDICTION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN END MILLING WITH

GENE EXPRESSION PROGRAMMING by Yang Yang, Xinyu Li, Ping Jiang, Liping

Zhang

ABSTRACT

Surface roughness has a great influence on the functional properties of the product. Finding the

rules that how process factors and environment factors affect the values of surface roughness will

help to set the process parameters of the future and then improve production quality and

efficiency. Since surface roughness is impacted by different machining parameters and the

inherent uncertainties in the machining process, how to predict the surface roughness becomes a

challengeable problem for the researchers and engineers. In this paper, a method based on gene

expression programming (GEP) has been proposed to construct the prediction model of surface

roughness. GEP combines the advantages of the genetic algorithm (GA) and genetic

programming (GP). By considering GEP as a very successful technique for function mining and

formula found, it should be suitable to solve the above problem. On the basis of defining a GEP

environment for the problem and improving the method of creating constant, the explicit

prediction model of surface roughness can been constructed. To verify the feasibility and

performance of the proposed approach, experimental studies conducted to compare this approach

with some previous works are presented. The experimental results show that the proposed
approach has achieved satisfactory improvement and obtained good results for several

widespread studied problems.

MODELING OF CUTTER AND WORKPIECE ASSEMBLY

Fig – Tool drawn in creo

Fig – Extrude operation

Fig – pattern operation

Fig – Warp operation

 Fig –assembly of cutter and workpiece

2D DRAWINGS

Cutting Tool
Work Piece

ASSEMBLY
 ANALYSIS OF CUTTING TOOL AND WORKPIECE

ASSEMBLY

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Aluminum alloy

Ansys 14.5 → workbench → select engineering data → edit material properties → return to

project → select geometry → right click → import geometry → select required iges file → open

Select modal → right click → edit→ other window will be open

Fig – Imported Model

MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF TUNGSTEN CARBIDE for tool

Density :0.00000158kg/m3

Youngs moduls :550000MPa

Poisson’s ratio :0.24

Select mesh → right click → generate mesh → select sizing → change from course into fine →

select again mesh → right click → generate mesh

Fig - Meshed model

Select static structural >right click on it >Insert> fixed support> select area> Co-ordinate

system>x-Component=0,y-Component=0,z- Component=0>apply.

Fig – Fixed Support

Select static structural → right click → insert → rotational velocity → component → enter e

value → apply
Fig – Rotational Velocity
Tool speed - 2000 rpm

Total deformation

Fig – Total Deformation at 2000 rpm

Stress

Fig – Stress at 2000 rpm

Strain

Fig – Strain at 2000 rpm

Tool speed - 2500 rpm

 Fig – Rotational Velocity

Total deformation
 Fig – Total Deformation at 2500 rpm

Stress
 Fig – Stress at 2500 rpm

Strain
 Fig – Strain at 2500 rpm

Tool speed - 3000 rpm

 Fig – Rotational Velocity

Total deformation
 Fig – Total Deformation at 3000 rpm

Stress
 Fig – Stress at 3000 rpm

Strain
Fig – Strain at 3000 rpm

RESULTS TABLE
 Speed (rpm) 2000 2500 3000
Total deformation (mm) 7.8787e -8 1.231e-7 1.7727e-7
Stress (MPa) 4.7098e-5 7.3591e-5 0.00010597

Strain 2.3066e-10 3.604e-10 5.1898e-10

COMPARISON OF TOTAL DEFORMATION AT DIFFERENT RPM

0
0
TOTAL DEFORMATION(mm)

0
0
0
0 total deformation
0
0
0
0
0
2000 2500 3000
Speed (rpm)
 COMPARISON OF STRESS AT DIFFERENT RPM
1.20E-04

1.00E-04

8.00E-05
STRESS(MPa)

6.00E-05 stress

4.00E-05

2.00E-05

0.00E+00
2000 2500 3000
Speed (rpm)

6.00E-10 COMPARISON OF STRAIN AT DIFFERENT RPM

5.00E-10

4.00E-10
STRAIM

3.00E-10 strain

2.00E-10

1.00E-10

0.00E+00
2000 2500 3000
Speed (rpm)

From the analysis results, the analyzed stress values are less than its yield stress value. So using

these process parameters Spindle Speed, feed rate and depth of cut for machining aluminum

alloy are suitable.

 TAGUCHI PARAMETER DESIGN FOR CNC MILLING

PROCESS

In order to identify the process parameters affecting the selected machine quality characteristics

of CNC milling, the following process parameters are selected for the present work: cutting

speed (A), feed rate (B) and depth of cut (C). the selection of parameters of interest and their

ranges is based on literature review and some preliminary experiments conducted.

Selection of Orthogonal Array

The non-linear relationship among the process parameters, if it exists, can only be revealed if

more than two levels of the parameters are considered. Thus, each selected parameter was

analyzed at three levels. The process parameters and their values are given in table. It was also

decided to study the three – factor interaction effects of process parameters on the selected

characteristics while milling. These interactions were considered between cutting speed and feed

rate (AXB), feed rate and depth of cut (BXC), cutting speed and depth of cut (AXC).

FACTOR PROCESS PARAMETERS LAVEL LEVEL2 LEVEL3

S 1
A CUTTING SPEED(rpm) 2000 2500 3000
B FEED RATE (mm/rev) 300 350 400
C DEPTH OF CUT(mm) 0.3 0.4 0.5

Table – Process parameters and their values

Results

Using randomization technique, specimen was milled and feed and radial forces were measured

with the three – dimensional dynamometer. The experimental data for the feed and radial forces

have been reported in Tables. Feed and radial forces being ‘lower the better’ type of machining

quality characteristics, the S/N ratio for this type of response was and is given below:

Where y1,y2,…..,yn are the responses of the machining characteristics for each parameter at

different levels.

The experimentation is done by specifying process parameters for each job as per L9

orthogonal array using Taguchi technique.

SPINDLE SPEED FEED RATE DEPTH OF CUT

JOB NO.
(rpm) (mm/rev) (mm)
1 2000 300 0.3
2 2000 350 0.4
3 2000 400 0.5
4 2500 300 0.4
5 2500 350 0.5
6 2500 400 0.3
7 3000 300 0.5
8 3000 350 0.3
9 3000 400 0.4
The feed forces are experimentally determined using a dynamometer.

Job no. Feed Force 1 Feed Force 2 Feed Force 3

(N) (N) (N)

1 1621 1835 1896
2 1581 1321 1462
3 1250 1433 1326
4 1435 1490 1560
5 1635 1620 1710
6 1862 1830 1862
7 2500 2561 2632
8 2105 2430 2500
9 1350 1520 1450
The radial forces are experimentally determined using a dynamometer.

Job no. Radial Force Radial Force Radial Force

1 (N) 2 (N) 3 (N)

1 563 549 545
2 515 515 519
3 585 550 556
4 513 525 530
5 554 596 590
6 571 530 506
7 535 541 560
8 576 618 635
9 543 598 620

8 STEPS IN TAGUCHI METHODOLOGY

Taguchi method is a scientifically disciplined mechanism for evaluating and implementing

improvements in products, processes, materials, equipment, and facilities. These improvements

are aimed at improving the desired characteristics and simultaneously reducing the number of

defects by studying the key variables controlling the process and optimizing the procedures or

design to yield the best results. The method is applicable over a wide range of engineering fields

that include processes that manufacture raw materials, sub systems, products for professional and

consumer markets. In fact, the method can be applied to any process be it engineering

fabrication, computer aided design, banking and service sectors etc. Taguchi method is useful for

'tuning' a given process for 'best' results.

Taguchi proposed a standard 8: step procedure for applying his method for optimizing any

process,

Step:1: Identify  the  main  function, side  effects,  and  failure  mode

Step:2: Identify  the  noise  factors, testing  conditions,  and  quality  characteristics

Step:3: Identify  the  objective  function  to  be  optimized

Step:4: Identify  the  control  factors  and  their  levels

Step:5: Select  the  orthogonal  array  matrix  experiment

Step:6: Conduct  the  matrix  experiment

Step:7: Analyze  the  data, predict  the  optimum  levels  and  performance

Step:8: Perform  the  verification  experiment and  plan  the  future  action
OPTIMIZATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS USING TAGUCHI

METHOD TO MINIMIZE FORCES

Design of Orthogonal Array

First Taguchi Orthogonal Array is designed in Minitab17 to calculate S/N ratio and Means which

steps is given below:

 Fig – Minitab Environment

Stat – DOE – Taguchi – Create Taguchi Design

3 – Level Design – 3 Factors

 Fig – Taguchi Design

Select Display Available Designs

Fig – Availabe Designs – L9(2-4)

Select Design
 Fig – Selecting L9 – 3*3

Select Factors

Fig – Specifying Factors

 Fig 6.6– Arrangement of L9 orthogonal array for given parameters

MINIMIZATION OF FEED FORCE

Enter feed force values in the table

Fig– Observed Feed Force Values

 Start – DOE – Taguchi - Analyze Taguchi Design – Select Responses

Fig– Selecting Responses

Graphs

Fig – Graphs Signal to Noise Ratio

Analysis

Fig - Analysis

Terms

Fig - Terms
Options

Fig – Options Smaller is better

Storage

Fig - Storage

Table – Results of S/N Ratio

The above table shows the calculated S/N Ratio values for feed force after analyzing in Taguchi.

Fig Graph - Effect of milling parameters on feed forces for S/N ratio
The above graph shows the effect of each parameter Spindle Speed, Feed Rate and Depth of Cut

on the feed forces. By observing, the S/N ratio is maximum at Spindle Speed 2000rpm, Feed

Rate 400mm/min and Depth of Cut 0.4mm.

Fig Graph - Effect of milling parameters on feed forces for Means

Analysis and Discussion

Regardless of the category of the performance characteristics, a greater S/N value corresponds

to a better performance. Therefore, the optimal level of the machining parameters is the level

with the greatest value.

Spindle Speed: - The effect of parameters spindle speed on the feed force is shown above figure

for S/N ratio. The optimum spindle speed is 2000 rpm.

Feed Rate: - The effect of parameters Feed Rate on the feed force is shown above figure S/N

ratio. The optimum Feed Rate is 400 mm/min.

Depth of Cut: - The effect of parameters Depth of Cut on the feed force is shown above figure

S/N ratio. The optimum Depth of Cut is 0.4 mm.

MINIMIZATION OF RADIAL FORCE

Enter radial force values in the table

Fig– Observed radial Force Values

Stat – DOE – Taguchi - Analyze Taguchi Design – Select Responses

Fig– Selecting Responses

Options

Fig – Options Smaller is better

Table – Results of S/N Ratio

The above table shows the calculated S/N Ratio values for radial force after analyzing in

Taguchi.
 Fig Graph - Effect of milling parameters on radial forces for S/N ratio

The above graph shows the effect of each parameter Spindle Speed, Feed Rate and Depth of Cut

on the radial forces. By observing, the S/N ratio is maximum at Spindle Speed 2000rpm, Feed

Rate 300mm/min and Depth of Cut 0.4mm.

 Fig Graph - Effect of milling parameters on radial forces for Means

Analysis and Discussion

Spindle Speed: - The effect of parameters spindle speed on the radial force is shown above

figure for S/N ratio. The optimum spindle speed is 2000 rpm.

Feed Rate: - The effect of parameters Feed Rate on the radial force is shown above figure S/N

ratio. The optimum Feed Rate is 300 mm/min.

Depth of Cut: - The effect of parameters Depth of Cut on the radial force is shown above figure

S/N ratio. The optimum Depth of Cut is 0.4mm.

MAXIMIZATION OF HARDNESS

Enter hardness values in the table

Fig– Observed hardness Values

Stat – DOE – Taguchi - Analyze Taguchi Design – Select Responses

Fig– Selecting Responses

Options

Fig – Options Larger is better

Table – Results of S/N Ratio

The above table shows the calculated S/N Ratio values for hardness after analyzing in Taguchi.
 Fig Graph - Effect of milling parameters on hardness for S/N ratio

The above graph shows the effect of each parameter Spindle Speed, Feed Rate and Depth of Cut

on the hardness. By observing, the S/N ratio is maximum at Spindle Speed 2000rpm, Feed Rate

350mm/min and Depth of Cut 0.4mm.

 Fig Graph - Effect of milling parameters on hardness for Means

Analysis and Discussion

Spindle Speed: - The effect of parameters spindle speed on the hardness is shown above figure

for S/N ratio. The optimum spindle speed is 2000 rpm.

Feed Rate: - The effect of parameters Feed Rate on the hardness is shown above figure S/N

ratio. The optimum Feed Rate is 350 mm/min.

Depth of Cut: - The effect of parameters Depth of Cut on the hardness is shown above figure

S/N ratio. The optimum Depth of Cut is 0.4mm.

 CONCLUSION

Aluminum alloy is considered for milling process which is used in die casting process and the

influence of cutting parameters spindle speed, feed rate and depth of cut on the material is done

using experimentally by Taguchi technique.

The parameters considered are cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. The cutting speeds are

2000rpm, 2500rpm and 3000rpm. The feed rates are 300mm/min, 350mm/min and 400mm/min

and depth of cut is 0.3mm, 0.4mm and 0.5mm. From the analysis results, the displacement and

stress values are less for all speeds. The stress values are very less compared with its yield stress

value. So we can conclude that using aluminum alloy for die casting process is suitable.

Feed force and radial forces are taken experimentally using dynamometer by considering

parameters cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. The optimal values for speed, feed rate and

depth of cut are taken using Taguchi technique.

The optimal settings of various process parameters for CNC machined parts to yield optimal

forces are: Speed – 2000rpm, Feed rate – 400mm/min, Depth of cut – 0.4mm when thrust force

is taken (i.e.) feed force and when torque (i.e.) radial force is taken the optimal values are Speed

– 2500rpm, Feed rate – 300mm/min, Depth of cut – 0.4mm. And when HRD (i.e.) hardness is

taken the optimal values are Speed – 2000rpm, Feed rate – 350mm/min, Depth of cut – 0.4mm
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