Beams

https://pollev.com/hafizahramli629
Layout
 Resistance of cross-section
 Cross-section classification
 Bending
 Shear
 Bending and axial force
 Restrained beam design example
 Buckling resistance
 Lateral torsional buckling (LTB)
 Design example
Resistance of Cross-section
Behaviour of bending elements – local
buckling
 Plate elements (flange or web) may buckle locally before the
beam can develop a fully plastic section:
M < Mpl, Rd
 Local buckling is defined as failure by instability of one or
more plate elements in compression.
 For a beam under positive bending (sagging), the top flange
and the upper web portion are subjected to compression.
 Hence, these elements are prone to local buckling if the
elements are slender.
Behaviour of bending elements – local
buckling
Cross-section classification
 Eurocode 3 (and BS 5950) account for the effects of local
buckling through cross-section classification.

 The classifications :

EC3 BS5950
Class 1 Plastic
Class 2 Compact
Class 3 Semi-compact
Class 4 Slender
Definition of 4 classes
Eurocode 3 defines four classes of cross section:

Moment
Class 1
Mpl
Mel Class 2

Class 3

Class 4

Deformation
Definition of 4 classes
 When the lateral support to the compression flange is adequate, the lateral
buckling of the beam is prevented and the section flexural strength of the beam
can be developed.
 The strength of I-sections depends upon the width to thickness ratio of the
compression flange. When the width to thickness ratio is sufficiently small, the
beam can be fully plastified and reach the plastic moment, such section are
classified as compact sections (Class 2).
 However, provided the section can also sustain the moment during the
additional plastic hinge rotation till the failure mechanism is formed. Such
sections are referred to as plastic sections (Class 1).
 When the compression flange width to thickness ratio is larger, the
compression flange may buckle locally before the complete plastification of the
section occurs and the plastic moment is reached. Such sections are referred to
as semi-compact sections (Class 3).
 When the width to thickness ratio of the compression flange is sufficiently
large, local buckling of compression flange may occur even before extreme
fibre yields. Such sections are referred to as slender sections (Class 4).
Factors affecting local buckling

 The factors that affect local buckling (and

therefore the cross-section classification)
are:
 Width/thickness ratios of plate components
 Element support conditions
 Material strength, fy
 The bending stress distribution
Cross-section classification
 Table 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1 gives the limiting values of
width-to-thickness ratios of the plate elements.

 A plate element is Class 4 (slender) if it fails to meet the

limiting values for a class 3 element.

 The classification of the overall cross-section is taken as

the highest (least favourable) of the constituent
elements.
Compressed widths c
Definition of compressed widths – flat widths:
c

Rolled c Rolled

Welded c
Welded

(a) Outstand flanges (b) Internal compression parts

Limits on slenderness e.g. c/t ≤ 9ε

ε = 235 / fy
Internal compression parts
Note: All webs of UB
and UC in S275
steel satisfy Class 1
Outstand flanges
Note:

1)All UB’s in
S275 steel are
Class 1
2)All UC’s are
Class 1 or 2
Angles and tubular sections
Class 4 cross-sections
 For class 4 (slender) cross-
sections, reduced (effective)
cross-section properties must
be calculated.

 Effective width formulae for

individual elements are
provided in EN 1993-1-5.
BENDING
Behaviour of bending elements – in
plane bending
 When the beam is adequately supported against lateral
buckling, the beam failure occurs by yielding of the material
at the point of maximum moment. The beam is thus capable
of reaching its plastic moment capacity under the applied
loads. Thus the design strength is governed by yield stress and
the beam is classified as laterally supported beam.
Bending

The design value of the bending

moment MEd at each cross-section
should satisfy:

Cross-section check
MEd ≤ Mc ,Rd (In-plane bending)
Cross-sections in bending

 Class 1 & 2 cross-sections:

 Class 3 cross-sections:
Wel ,min f y
M c , Rd = M el , Rd =
γM0

 Class 4 cross-sections:
Weff ,min f y
M c , Rd =
γM0
Section moduli W
 Subscripts are used to differentiate between the plastic,
elastic or effective section modulus

 Plastic modulus Wpl (S in BS 5950)

 Elastic modulus Wel (Z in BS 5950)
 Effective modulus Weff (Zeff in BS 5950)

 The partial factor γM0 is applied to all cross-section

bending resistances, and equal 1.0.
SHEAR
Shear
 When the shear capacity of the beam is exceeded, the ‘shear
failure’ occurs by excessive shear yielding of the gross area of
the webs. Shear yielding is very rare in rolled steel beams.

Shear yielding near support

Shear
 Thin and deep web subjected to large shear force is
vulnerable to shear buckling
 Web buckling could occur before the full shear capacity
 Diagonal buckles, resulting from the diagonal compression
associated with the web shear will form
 Shear resistance
The design shear resistance of a cross-section is denoted by
Vc,Rd and may be calculated based on a plastic (Vpl,Rd) or an
elastic distribution of shear stress.

V Ed ≤ Vc , Rd Shear check
Plastic shear resistance Vpl,Rd
The usual approach is to use the plastic shear resistance
Vpl,Rd

The plastic shear resistance is essentially defined as the

yield strength in shear multiplied by a shear area Av:

A v (fy / 3 )
Vpl,Rd =
γ M0

≈ 0.6 fy
Shear areas Av
 Shear areas Av are given in clause 6.2.6(3).

 Rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web:

Av = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf but ≥ ηhwtw

 Rolled channel sections, load parallel to web:

Av = A – 2btf + (tw + r)tf

 Rolled RHS of uniform thickness, load parallel to depth:

Av = Ah/(b+h)

 CHS and tubes of uniform thickness:

Av = 2A/π
Definition of terms
 A is the cross-sectional area
 b is the overall section breadth
 h is the overall section depth
 hw is the overall web depth (measured between flanges)
 r is the root radius
 tf is the flange thickness
 tw is the web thickness (taken as the minimum value if
the web is not of constant thickness)
 η = shear area factor =1.0 (EC3-1-5)
Elastic Shear Resistance Vc,Rd
 For verifying the design elastic shear resistance Vc,Rd:
 The maximum design shear stress should satisfy:

where

( )
τ Ed ≤ f y / 3 / γ M 0

VEd S
τ Ed =
It
 This check is only applied to unusual sections, or plasticity
is to be avoided
Shear buckling
The resistance of the web to shear buckling should also be
checked, though this is unlikely to affect cross-sections of
standard hot-rolled proportions.

Shear buckling need not be considered provided:

hw ε
≤ 72 for unstiffened webs
tw η

235
where ε = ; η = 1.0 (from UK NA)
fy
Shear resistance example
Determine the shear resistance of a rolled channel section 229x89
in grade S 275 steel loaded parallel to the web.

b
z h = 228.6 mm
b = 88.9 mm
t
w tw = 8.6 mm
h y y tf = 13.3 mm
r r = 13.7 mm
A = 4160 mm2
tf
z

Section properties for 229x89 rolled channel section

Shear resistance example
For a nominal material thickness (tf = 13.3 mm and tw = 8.6
mm) of less than or equal to 16 mm the nominal values of
yield strength fy for grade S 275 steel (to EN 10025-2) is found
from Table 3.1 to be 275 N/mm2.

Shear resistance is determined according to clause 6.2.6

A v (fy / 3 )
Vpl,Rd =
γ M0
Shear resistance example
Shear area Av
For a rolled channel section, loaded parallel to the web, the
shear area is given by:

Av = A – 2btf + (tw + r)tf

= 4160 – (2×88.9×13.3) + (8.6+13.7)×13.3
= 2092 mm2

2092 × (275 / 3 )
Vpl,Rd = = 332000 N = 332 kN
1.00
For the same cross-section BS 5950 (2000) gives a shear
resistance of 324 kN.
 Bending and Axial Force

Cross-section checks similar to BS 5950, including

a simplified linear interaction, as below:

NEd My,Ed Mz,Ed

+ + ≤ 1
NRd My,Rd Mz,Rd

More economic alternative for Class 1 and 2 in calculating the

reduced plastic moment resistance MN,Rd.
Bending and Axial Force
 For major axis bending, no reduction of plastic moment
resistance if:

Axial force less than ¼ the total

and N Ed ≤ 0.25 N pl , Rd axial capacity

0.5hw t w f y Axial force less than ½ the web

N Ed ≤
γ M0 capacity

BS 5950 has no such provision

Bending and Axial Force
 For larger NEd values, the reduced major axis plastic
moment resistance:

where: M N , y , Rd = M pl , y , Rd
(1 − n ) ≤ M pl , y , Rd
1 − 0.5a
and

N Ed N Ed 0.5hw t w f y
n= ≤ 0.25 n= ≤ = 0.5a
N pl , Rd N pl , Rd γ M 0 (Af y / γ M 0 )

hw t w
a= ≤ 0.5
A
 Bending and Axial Force
Major (y-y) Axis
N Ed
n=
n 1− n N pl , Rd
my =
1.0 1 − 0.5a
M N , y , Rd
my =
Linear interaction M pl , y , Rd
n = 0.5a
≤ 0.25
hw t w
my a=
1.0 A
Bending and Axial Force
 In minor axis bending, no reduction of plastic
moment resistance if:
hwt w f y Axial force less than the web
N Ed ≤ capacity
γM0
or
N Ed hw t w f y
n= ≤ =a
N pl , Rd γ M 0 (Af y / γ M 0 )

where hw t w
a=
A
BS 5950 has no such provision
Bending and Axial Force
Minor (z-z) Axis
N Ed
n
n−a
2 n=
1.0 mz = 1 −   a = N pl , Rd
h t w w

 1− a  A

Linear interaction M N , z , Rd
mz =
M pl , z , Rd

mz
1.0   n − a 2 
M N , z , Rd = M pl , z , Rd 1 −   
  1 − a  

n=a
Bending and Axial Force
 For bi-axial bending:
 Use simple linear interaction, or
 Sophisticated convex interaction:

α β
 M y , Ed   M z , Ed 
For UB and UC,
  +  ≤1
 M N , y , Rd   M N , z , Rd 

α = 2, β = 5n ≥ 1
Serviceability
Excessive serviceability deflections may impair the
function of a structure, for example, leading to
cracking of plaster, misalignments of crane rails,
causing difficulty in opening doors, etc.

Deflection checks should therefore be performed

against suitable limiting values.

From the UK National Annex, deflection checks

should be made under unfactored variable actions
Q k.
Serviceability
Vertical deflection limits
Design situation Deflection limit
Cantilevers Length/180
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish Span/360

Other beams (except purlins and sheeting rails) Span/200

Purlins and sheeting rails To suit cladding

Horizontal deflection limits

Design situation Deflection limit

Tops of columns in single storey buildings, except
Height/300
portal frames
Columns in portal frame buildings, not supporting
To suit cladding
crane runways
In each storey of a building with more than one storey Height of storey/300
Restrained beam example
The simply supported 610×229×125 UB of
S275 steel shown below has a span of 6.0 m.
Check moment resistance, shear and
deflections.
Dead load = 60 kN/m
Imposed load = 70 kN/m

6.0 m

Beam is fully laterally restrained

Restrained beam exercise
b
z
h = 612.2 mm
b = 229.0 mm
tw tw = 11.9 mm
tf = 19.6 mm
d y y r = 12.7 mm
h
A = 15900 mm2
r Wy,pl = 3676×103 mm3
tf Iy = 986.1×106 mm4
z

610×229×125 UB
Restrained beam exercise
For a nominal material thickness (tf = 19.6 mm and tw
= 11.9 mm) between 16 and 40 mm nominal values of
yield strength fy for grade S275 steel (to EN 10025-2) is
265 N/mm2.

Design UDL = (1.35×60) +(1.5×70) = 186 kN/m

MEd = 186×62 / 8 = 837 kNm

VEd = 186×6 / 2 = 558 kN
Restrained beam exercise
Cross-section classification (clause 5.5.2):

ε = 235 / fy = 235 / 265 = 0.94

Outstand flanges (Table 5.2, sheet 2)

cf = (b – tw – 2r)/2 = 95.85 mm

cf / tf = 95.85 / 19.6 = 4.89

Limit for Class 1 flange = 9ε = 8.48 > 4.89

∴ Flange is Class 1
Restrained beam exercise
Web – internal part in bending (Table 5.2, sheet 1)

cw = h – 2tf – 2r = 547.6 mm

cw / tw = 547.6 / 11.9 = 46.0

Limit for Class 1 web = 72 ε = 67.8 > 46.0

∴ Web is Class 1

Overall cross-section classification is therefore Class 1.

Restrained beam exercise
Bending resistance of cross-section (clause 6.2.5):

Wpl,y fy
Mc ,y,Rd = for Class 1 and 2 sections
γ M0

3676 × 10 3 × 265
= = 974 × 10 6 Nmm
1 .0

= 974 kNm > 837 kNm

∴ Cross-section resistance in bending is OK.
Restrained beam exercise
Shear resistance of cross-section (clause 6.2.6):

A v (fy 3)
Vpl,Rd =
γ M0

For a rolled I section, loaded parallel to the web, the shear

area Av is given by:

Av = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf (but ≥ ηhwtw)

η = 1.0 (from UK NA to EN 1993-1-5)

Restrained beam exercise
hw = (h – 2tf) = 612.2 – (2×19.6) = 573.0 mm

Av = 15900 – (2×229×19.6) + (11.9 +[2×12.7])×19.6

= 7654 mm2 (but ≥ 1.0×573.0×11.9 = 6819 mm2

7654 × (275 / 3 )
∴ Vpl,Rd = = 1215000 N = 1215 kN
1.00

Shear buckling need not be considered provided:

hw ε
≤ 72 for unstiffened webs
tw η
Restrained beam exercise
ε
Limit : 72 = 72 × (0.92 / 1.0) = 66.2
η

Actual hw / t w = 573.0 / 11.9

= 48.2 ≤ 66.2

∴ no shear buckling check required

1215 > 558 kN ∴ Shear resistance is OK.

Restrained beam exercise
Check deflections under unfactored
imposed load (UK National Annex)

5 wL4 5 × 70 × 6000 4
w= = = 5.70 mm
384 EI 384 × 210000 × 986.1× 10 6

Assume deflection limit = L/200 = 30 mm

Beam OK for bending, shear and

deflections.
Design of fully restrained beam
 1) Propose a section
 2) Cross-section classification
 3) Determine the bending resistance
 4) Determine the shear resistance
 5) Deflection check: actual deflection< deflection limit
Buckling Resistance
•Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that member
bending resistance must be verified:

MEd ≤ Mb ,Rd Member buckling check

Lateral torsional buckling

Lateral torsional buckling is the member

buckling mode associated with slender beams
loaded about their major axis, without
continuous lateral restraint.

If continuous lateral restraint is provided to the

beam, then lateral torsional buckling will be
prevented and failure will occur in another
mode, generally in-plane bending (and/or
shear).
Compression flange
begins to buckle out of
plane, whereas the
tension
flange tries to keep the
member straight.
Bracing on the
compression flange
makes it more difficult
to fail.
Video on The Behavior of
Unrestrained Steel Beams

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eiSlahyM
5s8&feature=youtu.be
Methods of Bracing Compression Flange
Lateral torsional buckling

Can be discounted when:

• Minor axis bending

• CHS, SHS, circular or square bar

• Fully laterally restrained beams

•Non-dimensional slenderness:
λLT < 0.2 (or 0.4 in some cases)
Lateral torsional buckling resistance
Checks should be carried out on all
unrestrained segments of beams (between
the points where lateral restraint exists).

Lateral
Lateral Lateral restraint
restraint restraint

Lcr = 1.0 L

Beam on plan
Factors affecting lateral torsional
buckling
a) Location of the applied load
• If the load is applied at a location above the shear
centre of a section it is more susceptible to lateral
torsional buckling than if the load was applied
through the shear centre.
• Applying the load at a location below the shear
centre of a section reduces the susceptibility of
the section to the effects of lateral torsional
buckling.
• When the load is applied above the shear centre
it is known as a destabilising load, with loads
applied at or below the shear centre called non-
destabilising loads.
Factors affecting lateral torsional
buckling
b) The shape of the applied bending moment
• The buckling resistance for a section subject to a uniform
bending moment distribution along its length is less than the
buckling resistance obtained for the same section subjected to a
different bending moment distribution.
• Factors are included in design guidance to allow for the effect
of different bending moment distributions.
c) End support conditions
• Buckling moment increases when more restraint is given to the
section.
• Effective lengths were considered when determining the
slenderness of a section to account for the effect of end
restraint on lateral torsional buckling.
Section Slenderness
The slenderness of a section is used in design
checks for lateral torsional buckling. The
following factors affect the slenderness of a
section:
• Length of the beam
• Lateral bending stiffness of the flanges
• Torsional stiffness of the section
Section Slenderness
• The elastic critical moment (Mcr) is used as the basis for
the methods given in design codes for determining the
slenderness of a section.
• The elastic critical moment (Mcr) is similar to the Euler
(flexural) buckling of a strut in that it defines a buckling
load.
• Euler bucking defines the axial compression that will cause
a strut to fail in elastic flexural buckling
• The elastic critical moment that defines the moment that
will result in failure due to elastic lateral torsional buckling
of a beam.
Section Slenderness
The Elastic critical buckling (Mcr) and Euler buckling (PE)
Buckling Moment
• The buckling moment of a section is affected by plasticity. Therefore
the buckling moment resistance (Mb) cannot be greater than the
plastic moment (Mpl) of the section.
• The buckling moment resistance for different sections:
• Very slender sections fail elastically by excessive lateral
torsional buckling at an applied moment close to Mcr,
• Intermediate slender sections fail inelastically by excessive
lateral torsional buckling at applied moments less than Mcr,
• Stocky sections will attain their full plastic moment (Mpl) with
negligible lateral torsional buckling
LTB in EC3:1-1
The design guidance requires a reduction factor (χLT)
to be applied to the moment resistance of the cross
section to give the lateral torsional buckling moment
resistance (Mb,Rd). χLT is determined from a factor
(φLT) and the non-dimensional slenderness factor ( ).
The expression given for λLT is:

λLT

Wy f y
λ LT =
λLT

Mcr
Elastic critical buckling moment , Mcr
under uniform moment
For typical end conditions, and under uniform
moment the elastic critical lateral torsional
buckling moment Mcr is:
0 .5
π EIz
2
 Iw L cr GIT 
2
Mcr ,0 =  + 2 
L cr
2
 Iz π EIz 
G is the shear modulus
IT is the torsion constant
Iw is the warping constant
Iz is the minor axis second moment of area
Lcr is the buckling length of the beam
Mcr under non-uniform moment
Numerical solutions have been calculated for a
number of other loading conditions. For uniform
doubly-symmetric cross-sections, loaded through
the shear centre at the level of the centroidal axis,
and with the standard conditions of restraint
described, Mcr may be calculated by:

0 .5
π EIz2
 Iw L cr GIT 
2
Mcr = C1  + 2 
L cr
2
 Iz π EIz 
C1 factor – end moments

For end moment loading C1 may be approximated

by the equation below, though other
approximations also exist.

C1= 1.88 – 1.40ψ + 0.52ψ2 but C1 ≤ 2.70

where ψ is the ratio of the end moments (defined in

the following table).
C1 factor – transverse loading
C1 values for transverse loading
Loading and support
Bending moment diagram Value of C1
conditions

w
1.132

w
1.285

F
1.365

F
1.565

CL
F F
1.046
= = = =
Eurocode 3
Three methods to check LTB in EC3:

• The primary method adopts the lateral

torsional buckling curves given by equations
6.56 and 6.57, and is set out in clause 6.3.2.2
(general case) and clause 6.3.2.3 (for rolled
sections and equivalent welded sections).
• The second is a simplified assessment
method for beams with restraints in buildings,
and is set out in clause 6.3.2.4.
• The third is a general method for lateral and
lateral torsional buckling of structural
components, given in clause 6.3.4.
Lateral torsional buckling
Eurocode 3 design approach for lateral
torsional buckling is analogous to the
column buckling treatment.

The design buckling resistance Mb,Rd of a laterally

unrestrained beam (or segment of beam) should
be taken as:

fy
Mb,Rd = χLT Wy
γ M1
Reduction factor for LTB
Buckling curves – general case
Lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case
are given below:

1
χLT = but χLT ≤ 1.0
ΦLT + ΦLT
2
− λ2LT

ΦLT = 0.5 [ 1 + αLT ( λ LT − 0.2) + λ2LT ]

Plateau length

Imperfection factor from Table 6.3

Buckling curve selection
For the general case, refer to Table 6.4:

Cross-section Limits Buckling curve

h/b ≤ 2 a
Rolled I-sections
h/b > 2 b

Welded I- h/b ≤ 2 c
sections h/b > 2 d
Other cross-
- d
sections
Imperfection factor αLT
Imperfection factors αLT for 4 buckling
curves:

Buckling curve a b c d

Imperfection
0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
factor αLT
LTB curves
4 buckling curves for LTB (a, b, c and d)
1.2
Reduction factor χLT

1.0 Curve a

Curve b
0.8
Curve c

Curve d
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0.2 Non-dimensional slenderness λ LT
Buckling curves – rolled or equivalent
welded sections case

LTB curves for the rolled or equivalent welded

sections case are given below; Table 6.5 is used to
select buckling curve:
 χ LT ≤ 1.0
1 
χ LT = but  1
χ LT ≤ 2
Φ LT + Φ LT
2
− β λ2LT  λ LT


ΦLT = 0.5 [ 1 + αLT ( λ LT − λ LT ,0 ) + β λ2LT ]

Plateau length
β factor
Recommended
Recommended value = 0.75 value = 0.4
LTB curves
Comparison between general curves and curves for rolled and
equivalent welded sections (I-sections – h/b>2)

1.20
Reduction factor χLT

1.00 General (h/b>2)

Rolled (h/b>2)
0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Non-dimensional slenderness λ LT
 Simplified assessment of λ LT
Don’t panic, you can determine without Mcr:
For hot-rolled doubly symmetric I and H sections
without destabilising loads, λ LT may be conservatively
simplified to:
1 1 λz
λ LT = 0 .9 λ z = 0 .9
C1 C1 λ1

E
λ z = L / iz ; λ 1 = π
fy

As a further simplification, C1 may also be

conservatively taken = 1.0.
Simplified assessment of λ LT

Substituting in numerical values for λ 1 , the

following simplified expressions result.

S235 S275 S355

C1 may be conservatively taken = 1.0, though

the level of conservatism increases the more
the actual bending moment diagram differs
from uniform moment.
Design procedure for LTB
Design procedure for LTB:

1. Determine BMD and SFD from design loads

2. Select section and determine geometry

3. Classify cross-section (Class 1, 2, 3 or 4)

4. Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr –

depends on boundary conditions and load level

5. Calculate Mcr and Wyfy

Design procedure for LTB
Wy fy
6. Non-dimensional slenderness λ LT =
Mcr
7. Determine imperfection factor αLT

8. Calculate buckling reduction factor χLT

Wy fy
9. Design buckling resistance Mb,Rd = χLT
γ M1
M
10. Check Ed
≤ 1.0 for each unrestrained
portion Mb,Rd
LTB Example
Description

A simply-supported primary beam is required to

span 10.8 m and to support two secondary beams as
shown below. The secondary beams are connected
through fin plates to the web of the primary beam,
and full lateral restraint may be assumed at these
points. Select a suitable member for the primary
beam assuming grade S 275 steel.
LTB Example

General arrangement
LTB Example
Design loading is as follows:

425.1 kN 319.6 kN

A D
B C

2.5 m 3.2 m 5.1 m

Loading
LTB Example
267.1 kN
B
A D
52.5 kN C

SF
477.6 kN

Shear force diagram

B C
A D

BM
1194 kNm 1362 kNm

Bending moment diagram

LTB Example
For the purposes of this example, lateral torsional
buckling curves for the general case will be
utilised. Lateral torsional buckling checks to be
carried out on segments BC and CD. By
inspection, segment AB is not critical.

Try 762×267×173 UB in grade S 275 steel.

LTB Example

b
z h = 762.2 mm
b = 266.7 mm
tw = 14.3 mm
tw tf = 21.6 mm
r = 16.5 mm
y y
h d A = 22000 mm2
Wy,pl = 6198×103 mm3
r Iz = 68.50×106 mm4
tf It = 2670×103 mm4
z Iw = 9390×109 mm6
LTB Example
For a nominal material thickness (tf = 21.6 mm and tw
= 14.3 mm) of between 16 mm and 40 mm the nominal
values of yield strength fy for grade S 275 steel (to EN
10025-2) is 265 N/mm2.

From clause 3.2.6: E = 210000 N/mm2 and G ≈ 81000

N/mm2.
LTB Example
Cross-section classification (clause 5.5.2):

ε = 235 / fy = 235 / 265 = 0.94

Outstand flanges (Table 5.2, sheet 2)

cf = (b – tw – 2r) / 2 = 109.7 mm

cf / tf = 109.7 / 21.6 = 5.08

Limit for Class 1 flange = 9ε = 8.48 > 5.08

∴ Flange is Class 1
LTB Example
Web – internal part in bending (Table 5.2, sheet 1)

cw = h – 2tf – 2r = 686.0 mm

cw / tw= 686.0 / 14.3 = 48.0

Limit for Class 1 web = 72 ε = 67.8 > 48.0

∴ Web is Class 1

Overall cross-section classification is therefore Class 1.

LTB Example
Bending resistance of cross-section (clause 6.2.5):

Wpl,y fy
Mc ,y,Rd = for Class 1 and 2 sec tions
γ M0

6198 × 10 3 × 265
= = 1642 × 10 6 Nmm
1 .0
= 1642 kNm > 1362 kNm

∴ Cross-section resistance in bending is OK.

LTB Example
Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6.3.2.2) – Segment
BC:

MEd = 1362 kNm

fy
Mb ,Rd = χ LT Wy
γ M1
where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sections

Determine Mcr for segment BC (Lcr = 3200 mm)

0 .5
π EIz 2
 Iw L cr GI T 
2
Mcr = C1  + 2 
L cr
2
I
 z π EIz 
LTB Example
For end moment loading C1 may be approximated from:

C1 = 1.88 – 1.40ψ + 0.52ψ2 but C1 ≤ 2.70

1194
ψ is the ratio of the end moments = = 0.88
1362
⇒ C1 = 1.05

0 .5
π 2 × 210000 × 68.5 × 10 6  9390 × 10 9 3200 2 × 81000 × 2670 × 10 3 
Mcr = 1.05 ×  + 
3200 2  68 . 5 × 10 6
π 2 × 210000 × 68.5 × 10 6 

= 5699x106 Nmm = 5699 kNm

LTB Example
Non-dimensional lateral torsional slenderness for segment
BC:

Wy fy 6198 × 10 3 × 265
λ LT = = = 0.54
Mcr 5699 × 10 6

Select buckling curve and imperfection factor αLT:

From Table 6.4: h/b = 762.2/266.7 = 2.85

For a rolled I-section with h/b > 2, use buckling

curve b
LTB Example
From Table 6.3 of EN 1993-1-1:

For buckling curve b, αLT = 0.34

Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional

buckling, χLT – Segment BC:

1
χ LT = but χ LT ≤ 1.0
Φ LT + Φ 2
LT −λ
2
LT

where Φ LT = 0.5 [ 1 + αLT ( λ LT − 0.2) + λ2LT ]

LTB Example
ΦLT = 0.5[1+0.34(0.54-0.2) + 0.542] = 0.70

1
∴ χ LT = = 0.87
0.70 + 0.70 − 0.54 2 2

Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd – Segment BC :

fy 265
Mb ,Rd = χ LT Wy = 0.87 × 6198 × 10 ×
3

γ M1 1 .0

= 1425 × 10 6 Nmm = 1425 kNm

LTB Example
MEd 1362
= = 0.96 ≤ 1.0 ∴ Segment BC is OK
Mb ,Rd 1425

Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6.3.2.2) – Segment

CD:

MEd = 1362 kNm

fy
Mb ,Rd = χ LT Wy
γ M1
where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sections

Determine Mcr for segment CD (Lcr = 5100 mm)

LTB Example
0 .5
π EIz 2
 Iw L cr GI T 2
Mcr = C1  + 2 
L cr
2
 Iz π EIz 

Determine ψ from Table:

0
ψ is the ratio of the end moments = =0
1362
⇒ C1 = 1.88

0 .5
π 2 × 210000 × 68.5 × 10 6  9390 × 10 9 5100 2 × 81000 × 2670 × 10 3 
Mcr = 1.88  + 
5100 2  68 . 5 × 10 6
π 2 × 210000 × 68.5 × 10 6 

= 4311×106 Nmm = 4311 kNm

LTB Example
Non-dimensional lateral torsional slenderness for segment
CD:

Wy fy 6198 × 10 3 × 265
λ LT = = = 0.62
Mcr 4311× 10 6

The buckling curve and imperfection factor αLT are as for

segment BC.
LTB Example
Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional
buckling, χLT – Segment CD:

1
χ LT = but χ LT ≤ 1.0
Φ LT + Φ 2
LT −λ 2
LT

where Φ LT = 0.5 [ 1 + αLT ( λ LT − 0.2) + λ2LT ]

= 0.5[1+0.34(0.62-0.2) + 0.622] = 0.76

1
∴ χ LT = = 0.83
0.76 + 0.76 − 0.62 2 2
LTB Example
Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd – Segment CD :

fy 265
Mb ,Rd = χ LT Wy = 0.83 × 6198 × 10 × 3

γ M1 1 .0

= 1360 × 10 6 Nmm = 1360 kNm

MEd 1362
= = 1.00
Mb ,Rd 1360

Segment CD is critical and marginally fails LTB check.

LTB Exercise
 A 12 m beam is required to support two secondary
beams. The beam ends and two secondary beam joints
are restrained against torsion with the compression
flange free to rotate in plan. The compression flange is
unrestrained between supports. Design the simply
supported primary beam for the given loading. Use
Grade S275 steel.
LTB Exercise