DEPARTMENTOFMECHANI

CALENGI
NEERI
NG

LABMANUAL

THERMALENGI
NEERI
NG&GASDYNAMI
CS

(
ME601)

VI
-SEM (
ME)
 LI
STOFTHEEXPERI
MENT

S.
No. NameofExper
iment
s

1
Tost
udyl
owpr
essur
eboi
l
erandt
hei
raccessor
iesandmount
ings.

2
Tost
udyhi
ghpr
essur
eboi
l
erandt
hei
raccessor
iesandmount
ings.

3
Topr
epar
eheatbal
ancesheetf
orgi
venboi
l
er.

4
Tost
udyt
hewor
kingofi
mpul
seandr
eact
ionst
eam t
urbi
ne

5
Tof
onddr
ynessf
ract
ionofst
eam bysepar
ati
ngandt
hrot
tl
ingcal
ori
met
er.

6
Tof
indpoweroutput&ef
fi
ciencyofast
eam t
urbi
ne.

7
Tof
indt
hecondenseref
fi
cienci
es.

8
Tost
udyandf
indv
olumet
ri
cef
fi
ciencyofar
eci
procat
ingai
rcompr
essor
.

9
Tost
udycool
i
ngt
owerandf
indi
tsef
fi
cienci
es.

10
Tof
indcal
ori
fi
cval
ueofasampl
eoff
uel
usi
ngbombcal
ori
met
er.
 EXPERI
MENTNO.1

Ai
m:-Tost
udyl
owpr
essur
eboi
l
ersandt
hei
raccessor
iesandmount
ings.

Appar
atusUsed:
-Model
ofLancashi
reboi
l
er(
lowpr
essur
eboi
l
er)
.

Theor
y:-Lancashir
eisastat
ionaryfi
retube,i
nter
nal
lyfi
red,
horizontal
,natur
al
ci
rcul
ati
onboi l
er.I
tisacommonl yusedinsugar–mi l
lsandtexti
lesindustr
ieswher
e
al
ongwi t
hthepowerst eam andsteam fort
heprocessworkisalsoneeded.

Thespeci
fi
cat
ionsofLancashi
reboi
l
erar
egi
venbel
ow:
-

1.Diamet eroftheshell
–2t o3m.
2.
3.Lengthoft heshell–7to9m
4.
5.Max i
mum wor ki
ngpressur
e–16bar
6.
7.Steam capacity–9000kg/ h
8.
9.Effi
ciency–50t o70%

Lancashireboilerconsi st
sofacy l
indricalshellinsi dewhi cht wol arget ubear e
placed.Theshel lisconst ructedwi t
hsev eralringsofcy lindricalfr
om andi tispl aced
hor i
zontal
lyoverabr i
ck wor kwhi chf ormssev eralchannel sf orthef l
ow ofhot
gasses.Theset wot ubesar eal soconst r
uctedwi thsev eralringsofcy l
indr i
calf orm.
Theypassf r
om oneendoft heshelltoot herendal lcov er edwi t
hwat er
.Thef urnace
i
spl acedatt hefrontendoft heeacht ubeandt heyar eknownasf urnacet ubes.The
coali sint
roducedt hrought hef ir
ehol ei ntot hegr eat.Ther eisal ow br i
ckwor kfir
e
bridgeatt hebackoft hegat etopr eventt heent ryoft hebur ni
ngcoalofashesi nto
i
nt eri
orofthefurnacet ubes.
Thecombust ionsf rom thegr atepassupt ot hebackendoft he
furnacet ubeandt heni ndownwar ddi rection.Ther eaf tertheymov et hrought he
bot t
om channelorbot tom flueuptot hef rontendoft heboi l
erwher etheyar edi v i
ded
andpassupt othesidef l
ues.Asr esultthef l
owofai rtot hegr atecanbecont rolled.

Mount
ingsofboil
er:
-Ther
ear
ediff
erentfi
tt
ingsanddevi
cewhicharenecessar
yfor
t
heoperat
ionandsafet
yofaboi
l
er.Thevari
ousmounti
ngsusedontheboi
ler:
-

1.Waterlev
elindicat
or:-
Thefuncti
onofawat erl
eveli
ndi
cat
oristoindi
cat
ethe
l
evelofwaterinthelevel
constantl
y.I
tisal
socal
ledwat
ergauge.

2.Pressur
egauge:-Thef unctionofapressuregaugeistomeasurethepressure
exert
edinsi
dethev essels.Iti
susuall
yconstruct
edtoindi
cateuptodoubl
et he
maximum workingpr essure.It
sdiali
sgraduatedtoreadpressur
einkgf/cm2
gauge.Ther
earetwot ypeofpressuregauges:-

(
i)Bour
dont
ubet
ypepr
essur
egauge

(
ii
)Di
aphr
agm t
ubet
ypepr
essur
egauge
 3. Safetyval
ves:
-Thef unct
ionofasaf
etyvalv
eistorel
easetheexcessst
eam
whenthepressur
eofst eam i
nsidetheboi
l
erexceedsther
atedpressur
e.Thevar
ious
t
ypeofsafetyval
veis:
-

(
i) Deadwei
ghtsaf
etyv
alv
e

(
ii
) Spr
ingl
oadedsaf
etyv
alv
e

(
ii
i) Hi
ghst
eam &l
owwat
ersaf
etyv
alv
e

4. Fusi
blepl
ug:-Thefunct
ionofafusi
blepl
ugi
stopr
eventt
heboi
l
eragai
nst
damageduetoover
heati
ngforl
owwaterl
evel
.

5. Bl
owof
fcock:
-Abl
owof
fcockorv
alv
eper
for
mst
het
wof
unct
ions:
-

(i
)Itmaydi
schar
geapor t
ionofwat
erwhent
heboi
l
eri
sinoper
ati
ont
obl
ow
outmudscal
eorsedi
mentsper
iodical
l
y.

(
ii
)Itmayempt
ytheboi
l
erwhennecessar
yforcl
eani
ng,
inspect
ionandr
epai
r.

6. Feedcheckv al
ve:-Thef unctionofafeedcheckv alveistocontr
olthesuppl
y
ofwat ertot heboi lerandtopr eventt heexcepti
onofwat erfrom theboil
erwhenthe
pumppr essur ei slessaspumpi sst opped.
7. Stopv al
veorJunct i
onv alve:
-Ajunctionvalveisav al
vewhichi spl
aced
dir
ectlyov eraboi l
er andconnect edt oast eam pipewhi chcar ri
essteam tothe
engine.Ifav alveispl acedint hest eam pi
peleadingsteam tot heengi
neandplaced
neartheengi ne.Itusuallyter
medasst opv al
ve.Thelargersizesarecall
edJuncti
on
val
veandsmal lersizesStopv alv
e.

Accessor
iesofboi
l
er:-Thereareauxil
i
aryplant
srequi
redforsteam boil
erfort
hei
r
pr
operoperat
ion&fori
ncreaseoft
heireff
ici
ency
.Thevari
ousaccessor
iesare:
-

1.Feedpump:-Thefeedpumpi sapumpwhi chisusedt odel

iv
erfeedwater
totheboil
er.Itisdesir
abl
et hatthequanti
tyofwatersuppli
edshouldbeatleast
equaltothatevapor
atedandsuppl i
edt
ot heengi
ne.Twot ypeofpumpswhi chare
commonl yusedasfeedpumpar e

(
i)Reci
procat
ingpump

(
ii
)Rot
arypump

2.Economi ser:
-Aneconomi serisadeviceinwhichthewast eheatofthef
lue
gasesisutil
izedforheatingthefeedwat er
.Economiserisveryimportantpar
tofthe
boil
er,wit
ht hehel ptheeconomi sertheeffi
ciencyoftheboi l
erincr
easedandt he
evaporat
ivecapacityoftheboil
erisincr
eased.Economiserareoftwotype:-

(
i)I
ndependentt
ype

(
ii
)Int
egr
alt
ype

3.Airpr
e-heater
:-Thefuncti
onofai
rpreheater
eistoincr
easet
het emperatur
e
ofai
r beforei
sent ersthefurnace.I
tisgeneral
lyplacedaft
ertheeconomiser.So
thatfl
uegasespassthroughtheeconomi
serandt
hent
oai
rpr
eheat
.Usual
l
y,t
her
e
arethr
eetypesofpr
e-heat
er:
-

(
i)Tubul
art
ype

(
ii
)Pl
atet
ype

(
ii
i)Regener
ati
vet
ype

4.Superheater:
-Thefunct
ionofasuperheat
eri
stoi
ncr
easet
het
emper
atur
e
oft
he steam abov
ei t
ssatur
ati
onpoint
.

5.Inj
ect
or:
-Thef uncti
onofani nj
ectori
st ofeedwateri
ntotheboil
er.I
tis
commonly empl
oyed forv ert
icaland locomoti
ve boi
lerand does notf
ind i
ts
appl
i
cat
ionsinl
arge capacityhighpr
essureboi
ler
.

Quest
ionsf
orvi
va-v
oce:
-
1.Expl
aint
heconst
ruct
ion&wor
kingofv
ari
ousmount
ingsofboi
l
er?
2.Expl
aint
heconst
ruct
ion&f
unct
ionofaccessor
iesofaboi
l
er?
3.St
atet
hel
ocat
ionandf
unct
ionofsaf
etyv
alv
einaboi
l
er?
4.St
ateanyf
oursal
i
entf
eat
uresofl
owpr
essur
eboi
l
er?
5.Gi
vet
headv
ant
ageofl
owpr
essur
eboi
l
er?
 EXPERI
MENTNO.2

Ai
m:-Tost
udyhi
ghpr
essur
eboi
l
ersandt
hei
raccessor
iesandmount
ings.

Appar
atusUsed:
-Model
ofLamontandLoef
fl
erboi
l
er(
highpr
essur
eboi
l
er)
.

Theor
y:-

Lamontboi ler:-I
tisahi ghpressur eboi l
er.Iti
swat ertubeboi lerworkingonf orced
circulati
onsy stem.Thewat erfr
om t hest oragedrum i sdrawnbyt hecircul
ati
onpump.
Compr essedt oabout2. 5barabov et hedr um pressureandsuppl ytoheaderwhi ch
distri
butewat ertot hegener at
ingt ubeG. Heresomewat erisconv ertedintosteam
andami xtureofwat erandst eam t henpassi ntot hest oragedr um..Thest eam is
furtherheat edi nt hesuperheat erbef orebei ngt akenoutwat erfrom hotwel lis
suppl i
edbyt hefeedpumpt hrought heeconomi sertot hest or
agedr um.Thesl udgeif
anywoul dset t
ledrum andcanber emov edf rom thebot t
om.
Loef f
lerboi l
er:-Loefflerboileri
sal soahi ghpr essurewat ertubeboileremploy sthe
adv antageoff orcedci rculat
ionandi ndi r
ectheat i
ng.Itusest eam asheatcar ryi
ngand
heatabsor bingmedi um bef oret hef ur naceheati sonl ysuppl yt oeconomi serand
superheat er.Thef eedwat erfrom t hef eedpumpi sf edt othedr um throught he
economi serwher eitgai nsheatf r
om outgoi nggases.

Mount
ingofhi
ghpr
essur
eboi
l
er:
-

1. Wat
erl
evel
indi
cat
ors

2. Fusi
blepl
ug

3. St
eam st
opv
alv
e

4. Feedcheckv
alv
e

5. Bl
owof
fcock

6. Saf
etyv
alv
e

7. Pr
essur
egauge

8. Manandmudhol
es

Accessor
iesofhi
ghpr
essur
eboi
l
er:
-

1. Feedpump

2. St
eam i
nject
or

3. Ev
apor
ator

4. Economi
ser

5. Superheat
er

6. Ai
r-
preheat
er
Evaporat
or:
-Evaporat
orisusedi nhighpressureboil
erwhichi
splacedaft
ertheai
rin
thewayoff l
uegaseswat eraretube.Henceev apor
atori
saunitwhichconsumesthe
energyoffl
uegasesi nboil
er.It
smai nfuncti
oni st
oconvertt
hewat ert
osteam add
mucht otheboi
lereff
ici
ency.

Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-
voce:
-

1. Dr
awaneatsket
chofanyonef
ir
etubeboi
l
er?

2. St
ateanyf
oursal
i
entf
eat
uresofahi
ghpr
essur
eboi
l
er?

3. Cl
assi
fyt
heboi
l
er?

4. Dr
awaneatsket
chofanyonewat
ert
ubeboi
l
er?

5. Gi
vet
headv
ant
ageofhi
ghpr
essur
eboi
l
er?
 EXPERI
MENTNO3

Ai
m:-Topr
epar
eheatbal
ancesheetf
orgi
venboi
l
er.

Heatlossesint
heboil
er:
-Theeff
ici
encyofboil
erisnev
er100%asonl
yapor
ti
onof
heatsuppli
edbythef
ueli
suti
li
zedrestofi
tisl
ost:
-

1. Heatcarr
iedawaybydryproductofcombustion.
2. Heatcarr
iedawaybyt hesteam productbyt hecombust
ionofhy dr
ogen
presenti
nfuel
.
3. Heatcarr
iedawaybymoi st
ureinfuelandai
r.
4. Heatlossduet oincompletecombust i
onofcar bontocarbonmonoxide
i
nsteadofcarbondi oxi
deandthusescapeofcombust abl
ematteri
nt hef
luegases
andash.
5. Heatl
ossduet oradi
ati
on.

Met
hodofmi
nimi
zi
ngt
heheatl
oss:
-

1. Theheatl osst ochimneygasesmaybemi nimizedbyi nstal

lingan
economi serinbetweent heboi l
erandchi mney.
2. Lossofheatmaybemi nimizedbypr ovi
dingt heboi lerwithanef fect
ive
draughtsy st
em whi chwi l
lensuresuffi
cientsupplyofairthrought hefueli
nf urnace.
3. Heatl ossduet ounbur ntfuelwhichmayf allintoashpi tmaybe
minimizedbypr oper l
ysizingofcoal.
4. Heatl ossduet omoi sturecontentint hef uelmaybemi ni
mi zedby
makingt hefueldrybef orechargingint
ot heboil
erfurnace.
5. Heatl ossduet oext er
nalradiati
onmaybemi ni
mi zedbypr ov i
dingef fect
ive
coveri
ngofi nsulat
ingmat er
ialontheboi l
erpart
swhi charel i
abletoradiateheat .

Theory
:-Theboil
erci
rcul
ati
onar
egener
all
ybaseduponthehighcalori
fi
cvalueof1kg
offuel
consider
edas100%.Thet er
mforheatbal
ancedsheetexpl
ainearl
i
er.

Resul
t:
-Theheatbal
ancedsheetofaboi
l
eri
sst
udi
ed.

1. Heatut
il
izedbygener
ati
onofst
eam:
-

Usef
ulheatabsor
bed,
H1=m (
h1-
h2)

H1=Equi
val
entev
apor
ati
on.2256.
9KJ

2. Lossduet
omoi
stur
einf
uel
:
-

Themoi
stur
eint
hef
ueli
sev
apor
atedandsuper
heat
edandt
hust
heheati
s
l
ost
.

Lossduet
omoi
stur
einf
uel
,H2=m1(
n11-
n21)

Wher
em1=Massofmoi
stur
eperkgoff
uel
off
ir
ed

N11=Ent
hal
pyofst
eam f
ormed

N21=Ent
hal
pyofl
i
qui
datt
emper
atur
eofboi
l
erf
urnace.

3. Lossduet
oH2Ov
apourf
rom combust
ionofHy
drogen:
-
 Thi
sisf
oundsi
mil
arl
ytol
ossduet
omoi
stur
einf
uel
.

4. Lossduet
omoi
stur
einai
r:
-

Thi
sisal
sof
oundi
nthesi
mil
arwayasabov
eandi
tisgener
all
ynegl
i
gibl
e.

5. Lossduet
odr
yfl
uegases:
-

Thi
sist
het
argetl
osst
hatt
akespl
acei
nsi
det
heboi
l
er.Thi
sisgi
venby:
-

H3=m2Cp(
tg-
ta)

Wher
em2=Massofdr
yfl
uegasesperkgoff
uel
.

Cp=Speci
fi
cheatofdr
yfl
uegases

t
g=Temper
atur
eoff
luegases

t
a=Temper
atur
eofat
mospher
ic(
gases)ai
r

6. Lossduet
oincompl
etecombust
ionofcar
bon:
-

Thi
slossiscausedbyi
ncompl
etecombust
ionofcar
bont
ocar
bonmonoxi
de
i
nst
eadofcarbondi
oxide.
H4=m3. CVofCO

H4=CO.
C

CO2+CO.CVofCO

C=Massofcar
bonact
ual
l
ybur
nedperkgoff
uel

CO&CO2%byv
olume

CV = Numberofheatuni
tgener
ated by bur
ning 1kg ofcar
bon
cont
ainedi
nCOt
o

CO2=23820KJ/Kg

7. Lossduet
ounconsumedcombust
iont
oref
use:
-

Thi
slossi
sduet
osomeunbur
ntcar
bonf
all
i
ngi
ntot
heasphi
t.

H5=m4.
CV

m4=Unbur
ntmassofcar
boni
nref
useperKgoff
uel

CV=Cal
ori
fi
cfuel
ofcar
bon.
HEATBALANCESHEET(Basi
s1Kgofl owgradef
uel
)
Heatsuppl
i
ed %age HeatExpendi
tur
e(KJ) %age

(
KJ) (
inappr
ox.
)

Gr
ossheat 100 (
a)Heatut
il
izedi
nst
eam gener
ati
on 78.
00

suppl
i
ed (b)Heatcarr
iedawaybyf
luegases 12.
00
(c)Heatuti
li
zedinev
apor
ati
ngand
superheat
ing 4.
750

themoi stur
ef uelandwatervapourformed
due
toburningofhy drogenoffuel
. 3.
00
(d)Heatlossbyi ncompletecombust i
on
(e)Heatcarriedawaybyexcessai r 1.
500
(f)Heatcarri
edawaybycar bonnash
(g)Heatuncount edforsuchasr adi
ati
onand 0.
500
error

et
c. 0.
250

Tot
al Tot
al 100

Quest
ionf
orv
iva-v
oce:
-

1. Def
ineheatbal
ancesheet
?

2. Def
inet
hemet
hodofmi
nimi
zi
ngt
heheatl
ossi
nboi
l
er?
 EXPERI
MENTNO4

Ai
m:-ToSt
udyt
hewor
kingofI
mpul
seandReact
ionst
eam t
urbi
nes.

Appar
atus:
-Model
ofI
mpul
seandReact
ionst
eam t
urbi
nes.

Theory
:-St
eam tur
bines:
-Thesteam turbi
nei sapri
memov eri
nwhicht
hepotent
ial
ener
gyofsteam i
stransf
ormedintokineti
cenergyandlat
teri
nit
stur
nist
ransf
ormed
i
ntothemechani
calenergyoft
her ot
ationofthetur
bineshaft
.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofst
eam t
urbi
ne:
-Wi
thr
espectt
otheact
ionofst
eam,t
urbi
near
e
cl
assi
fi
edas:
-

1.I
mpul
set
urbi
ne

2.React
iont
urbi
ne

Impul set urbi

ne:-I
tisat ur bi
ne,whichr unsbythei mpulseofst eam jet.Int hi
s
tur
bine, thest eam isfir
stmadet ofl
owt hroughanozzl e.Thent hest eam j
eti mpi nges
on t he t urbi
ne bl ades wi th are curved l i
ke bucketand ar e mount ed on t he
cir
cumf erenceoft hewheel .Thest eam j etafterimpingesgl i
deov ertheconcav e
surfaceofbl adesandf i
nallyleav ethetur bi
ne.Thet oppor ti
onofI mpulset ur bi
ne
exhibitsal ongi tudi
nalsectiont hroughtheupperhal f,themi ddl eporti
onshowsone
setofnozzl ewhi chisfol
lowedbyar ingofmov ingblades,whi lelowerpar tindicate
changesi npr essandv elocitydur i
ngt hef low ofst eam t hrought het urbine.The
pri
nci pl
eequat ionofthisturbineisthewel lknown“ Delev el
”turbine.

Reacti
ont urbi
ne:-I
naReact iont urbine,t
hesteam entersthewheel
underpr essureand f l
owov ertheblades.Thest eam whil
egli
dingpropertheblades
andt henmakest hem to move.The t urbine r unnerisrotated bythe reacti
ve
forcesofst eam jet
s.Inthis,t
hereisa gradual pr essur
e dr op takes pl ace
continuouslyov ert
hef i
xedandmov i
ngbl ades.Thef uel off i
xedbladesisthatthey
afterall
owi texpandtoal argervel
ocit
yast hest eam passes over the mov ing
blades.ItsK.E.isabsorbedbyt hem athreest ageReact i
ontur
bine.

Compoundi ng:-Ifthesteam isexpendedfrom theboil

erpressureinonestaget he
speedofr ot
orbecomest remendouslyhi
ghwhichdr opuppracti
calcompli
cacies.The
areseveralmethodsofr educi
ngthisspeedtolowerv al
ue,al
lthesemethodsut i
li
zed
amul ti
plesy st
em ofr otorinseries.Keyedonacommonshaf tandthest eam
pressur
eorj etvel
ocit
yisabsorbedinstageast hesteam fl
owsov ert
heblades.This
i
sknownascompoundi ng:-

1.Velocit
ycompoundi ng:-St
eam i sexpandedt hroughast at
ionar ynozzle
from theboilerorinl
etpressuretocondenserpr essure.Sot hepressureint henozzle
drops,t heK.E.ofst eam increaseduet oincreasei nv eloci
ty.A portionoft his
av ai
l
ableener gyi
sabsor bedbyar owofmov i
ngbl ades.Thest eam thenfl
owt hr
ough
thesecondr ow oft hebladeswhi charefixed.Theyr edir
ectt hesteam flow without
alter
ingi t
sveloci
tytothef ol
lowingnearestrowmov ingblades.Wher eagai nwor kis
doneont hem andsteam withalowv el
ocityfr
om t heturbi
ne.

2.Pr
essurecompounding:-I
nt hi
sri
ngsoff i
xednozzlei
ncorporat
edbetween
ri
ngofmov i
ngblades.Thesteam ofboil
erpressur
eentersthefi
rstsetofnozzl
eand
expandspar
tial
l
y.TheK.E.ofsteam thusobt
ainedinabsorbedbythemov i
ngblades.
Thesteam thenexpandsparti
all
yint hesecondsetofnozzl
eswhosei t
spressure
againfal
lsandthev el
ocit
yincreases.TheK. E.t
husobtai
nedisobservedbyt he
secondri
ngofmov i
ngblades.Thi
sisr epeat
edinst
age3andsteam f
inal
l
yleav
est he
tur
bineatl
owv el
oci
tyandpressure.

3.Pressur
e-Veloci
tycompounding:
-Thi s method isthe combi nat
ion of
vel
oci
tyand pr essurecompoundi
ng.Thet otaldr
opi nsteam pressur
ei sdi v
ided
i
ntostagesandv eloci
tyobtai
nedineachst ageisalsocompounded.Ther ingof
nozzl
e,arefir
edatbeginni
ngofeachst ageandpr essur
er emai
nsconst antdur i
ng
eachstage.

Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-v
oce:
-

1. St
atepr
inci
pleofwor
kingofReact
ionst
eam t
urbi
ne?

2. Def
inet
het
erm st
ageef
fi
ciencyofat
urbi
ne?

3. Def
inet
het
ermv
acuum ef
fi
ciencyofat
urbi
ne?

4. Whati
spr
imemov
er?

5. Whati
scompoundi
ng?
 EXPERI
MENTNO5

Ai
m:-Tof
inddr
ynessf
ract
ionofst
eam bysepar
ati
ngandt
hrot
tl
ingcal
ori
met
er.

Theory:
-DrynessFr
act
ion:
-Iti
sdefinedast herati
oofmassofdrysteam act
ual
ly
presentt
othemassofwetsteam whichcont
ainsiti
sdef
ined(
denot
ed)byl
ett
erx.

x= _
ms_
_
ms+mw

Wher
ems=massofdr
yst
eam

mw=massofwat
erorwetst
eam

St
eam gener
atorsepar
ati
ng&t
hrot
tl
ingcal
ori
met
er:
-

Inseparat
ing&t hrott
lingcal or
imeterareused.Thesteam passingf r
om acal or
imeter
maybest eam cont ai
ni ngsomewat erpart
icl
einit
.Thismet hodi sbasicall
yforawet
steam.Inthi
scasei tisnecessar ytodrythesteam parti
all
ybef orethrott
li
ng.Thisis
donebypassi ngthest eam sampl efr
om themainthroughaoper at
ingcalorimeter
.In
separat
ingcalori
met ert hesteam ismadet ochangeitsdir
ectionsuddenl y&wat eras
heavythensteam separ ateoutthereduetoiner
ti
a.Thequant i
tyofwat erseparateout
i
smeasur ed,thent hest eam ispassedthroughthethrott
li
ngcal orimeter.Aft
erthat
steam f
rom calori
met eri scoll
ectedandcondensed&measur ethecondensat e

x2=h3–h2
hfg2

Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-v
oce:
-

1. Def
inet
het
erm ofqual
i
tyofst
eam?

2. Whati
sdr
ynessf
ract
ion?

3. Whati
smeantbycal
ori
met
er?

4. Def
inet
heconst
ruct
ionofsepar
ati
ngandt
hrot
tl
ingcal
ori
met
er?

5. Def
inet
hewor
kingofsepar
ati
ngandt
hrot
tl
ingcal
ori
met
er/
 EXPERI
MENTNO6

Ai
m:-Tof
indpoweroutput&ef
fi
ciencyofast
eam t
urbi
ne.

Theory
:-Thevel
oci
tyofst
eam r
elat
iveoft
hebl
ades,canbev
eryeasi
l
yfoundoutby
thevel
ocit
ydi
agram.

Let
,

Vb=Li
nearv
eloci
tyofmov
ingbl
ade(
ati
nlet
)inm/
s

V1=Absol
utev
eloci
tyofst
eam ent
eri
ngmov
ingbl
adesi
nm/
s

Vr
1=Rel
ati
vev
eloci
tyofst
eam t
omov
ingbl
adeati
nlet

Vf
1=Axi
alcomponentofmov
ingbl
ade

Vw1=Tangent
ial
componentofv
eloci
tyV1

α=Angl
etot
het
angentornozzl
eangl
e

β=Ent
ranceangl
eofmov
ingbl
ades

V0=Absol
utev
eloci
tyofst
eam atout
letf
rom t
hemov
ingbl
ade

Vr0=Rel
ati
vev
eloci
tyofst
eam t
omov
ingbl
adeatexi
t

Ө=Angl
eofdi
schar
ge

γ=Angl
eofbl
adeatout
let

Speedr
ati
o,P=Vb
V1

Theeffect
ivecomponentofst eam j
etwhichproducest
angentialf
orceandcauset he
wheeltorot
ateistheveloci
tyofwheel.Sotheworkonbladeisdonebyt hi
stangential
for
ceandmaybef i
ndoutf r
om thechangei nmomentum inthedirect
ionofmot i
on.
Theveloci
tyoffl
owi sresponsibl
eforproduci
ngtheaxi
althr
ustont hewheel.I
fthere
i
saf r
icti
onlossthen

Vr0=KVr1

Wher
e

Ki
s(1-
fr
ict
ion)or(
1-l
oss)

Ot
her
wise

Vr0=Vr1

Wi
dthoft
hebl
ade:
-Fr
om t
heNewt
onsecondl
ow,
tangent
ial
for
ceont
hewheel
is

equal
to(
ms.
a)
 F=ms.
a

ms/
s.changei
nvel
oci
ty

mos.(
Vw1+Vw0)-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--(
1)

BecauseVw0i
sal
readynegat
ive.

Wor
kdonebyt
hebl
ade/sec=(
For
ce.Di
stance)
/sec

For
ce.v
eloci
ty=F.Vb

=mos.(
Vw1+Vw0)
.Vb-
--
--
--
--
--
-(2)

or =Powerdev
elopedbyt
het
urbi
nei
nKW

Si
ncet
heav
ail
abl
eener
gyofst
eam ent
eri
ngt
othebl
ades

i
.e. V12/
mos. 2--
-w/
d=ms.(
Vw1+Vw0).
Vb
o 2
m s.
V1 /2

ηb=2(
Vw1+Vw0)
.Vb
V12

Anot
hermet
hodt
ocal
cul
ateηb

ηb=V12–V02
V12

Axi
alt
hrustonwheel
:
-

=massofst
eam /sec.changeofaxi
alcomponent
sofv
eloci
ty

=ms.(
Vf1–Vf0)

I
fhd i
st heheatdr
opi
nthenozzl
eri
ngofani
mpul
sewheelt
het
otalener
gysuppl
i
ed
perstageis
hdperKgofsteam

Then

St
ageef
fi
ciency= _
___w/dbyblade_
_ _
___
__
Total
energysuppl
iedperst
age

= Vb(
Vw1–Vw0)
hd

I
fther
ear
enol
ossest
henst
ageef
fi
ciencyshel
lbesameasbl
adeef
fi
ciency

ηstage=ηb.ηnozzle.
Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-v
oce:
-

1. Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenI
mpul
seandReact
ionst
eam t
urbi
ne?

2. Def
inet
het
ermsofDe-l
evel
tur
bine?

3. Def
inedi
ff
erentmet
hodofCompoundi
ng?

4. Def
inet
ermsaxi
alt
hrustonwheel
?

5. Def
inet
ermsst
ageef
fi
ciency
?
 EXPERI
MENTNO7

Ai
m:-Tof
indt
hecondenseref
fi
cienci
es.

Theory:
-Condenserisanapplianceinwhichsteam i
scondensedandtheandt he
energygivenupsteam inthecondensi
ngprocessispassedtoacoolant,whi
chis
water.I
tisoftwotypes,
dependinguponthewayinwhicht
hecooli
ngwatercool
sthe
exhauststeam

1. Jetcondenser
:-Inthistypeofcondenser ,thecool
ingwat erandexhaust
steam comeintodir
ectcontactandthetemperatureofcondensateisthesameas
thatofcool
i
ngwat erleav
ingthecondenser
.Iti
sthethreeoft
y pes:
-

(a)Par
all
elfl
owtype:-I
nwhichbot
hexhaustst
eam andcooli
ngwaterout
erat
thetopofcondenserandthenflowi
ndownwarddir
ecti
on.Thecondensat
eandwater
arecol
lectedf
rom t
hebottom.

(
b)Contraf l
ow type:-Exhauststeam and cool
i
ng waterout
erf
rom t
he
opposi
tedi
rect
ion.Usual
lyt heexhaustst
eam atthebott
om andri
sesupwhi
let
he
cool
ingwat
erentersatt
het opandf l
owdownward.

(
c)Eject
ortype:-Themixi
ngofexhauststeam andcool i
ngwatertakesplace
i
naseri
esobcombi ningconesandK.E.ofsteam isut i
li
zedtoassi
stindrai
ningthe
wat
erfr
om thecondenserint
onetwellagai
nstthepr essureofatmospher
ic.Paral
lel
f
lowandcontr
aflowcondenserar
efur
thersubdividedintwocategori
es:
-

(i
)Lowl ev
eltype:-Accordingtotheposi
ti
onofcondensingchamber,incase
oflow l
eveltypet heov erallheightoftheunitislow enoughtype.Sot hatthe
condensermaybedi rect
lyplacedbeneart hest
eam t
urbi
neorengine.I
nthistypeof
condenser,anextr
actionpumpi srequi
redfordrawi
ngoutthecondensate,cool
ing
waterandair.

(i
i)Highl
evelcondenserissi
mil
artolow lev
eljetcondenserexceptthati
t
uses a barometr
ictype ort r
ailpi
pe f
orcooling the v
acuum & r emovi
ng the
condensate&insomecasesthenoncondensabl
egases.

2. Surfacecondenser:
-Theexhauststeam andthecool
ingwaterdon’
tcomeinto
di
rectcontact.Thesteam t
obecondensedi smadet ofl
owov ert
heoutsideofanest
oftypethr
oughwhi chthecooli
ngwatercir
culat
es.Iti
sfol
lowingt
ypes:-

(
a) Downf l
owt y
pe:-Thesteam ent
ersatthetopandflowsdownov erthe
tubethroughwhichwateri
scircul
ated.Asthecondensedsteam f
loeper
pendi
cularto
thedirect
ionofflowofcooli
ngwat erinsi
dethetubes,thi
scondenseri
salsocalled
cross-surf
acecondenser
.

(b) Cent
ralfl
owt y
pe:-Inthecent
reofthetubenestisl
ocatedthesuction
ofair ext
ract
ingpumpt husresult
inginthefl
owofst eam r
apidl
yinwards.Thereis
bett
ercontactbet
weent heoutersurfaceoftubesandt hest
eam duetot hev ol
ute
cast
ingroundthenestofthetubes.

(
c) I nv
ert
edtype:
-Thest
eam af
terent
eringatt
hebot
tom r
isesupandthen
agai
nfl
owsdownfoll
owingapathneart heoutersurf
aceofthecondenser
.The
condensateext
ract
ionpumpispr
ovi
dingatt
hebot
tom whi
l
ethesuct
ionpi
peoft
he
ai
rextract
ionpumpconnect
edtot
hetop.

(
d) Ev
apor at
ivecondenser:
-Whent hesupplyofcoolingwat
erisli
mited,
i
tsquanti
tyrequir
edtocondensat ethesteam maybegr eatl
yr educedbycoveri
ngthe
ci
rcul
ati
ngwat ertoevaporati
veundersmal lpar
ti
clepressureduet oheatcapacit
yof
gi
ll
edpipeithastheperiodswithoutseri
ouslyaf
fecti
ngthev acuum.

Condensereff
ici
ency:
-Condensereffi
ciencyisdefi
nedasther at
iooft hedi
ff
erence
betweentheoutl
etandi nl
ettemper
atureofcoolingwatert
ot hedif
ferencebet
ween
the temperat
ure corr
esponding t
he v acuum i nthe condenser and the inl
et
temperat
ureofcooli
ngwater.

Condenseref
fi
ciency=Ri
sei
ntemp.ofcoolingwat
er
(t
emp.cor
respondencetovacuum)-(
inl
ett
emp.ofcool
i
ng
wateri
ncondenser)

Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-v
oce:
-

1. Whatdoy
oumeanbyst
eam condenser
?

2. Whati
sit
sfunct
ion?

3. Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensur
faceandj
etcondenser
?

4. Def
inet
het
erm“
condenseref
fi
ciency
”?

5. Whatar
etheadv
ant
agesofi
nst
all
i
ngacondenseri
nther
malpower
pl
ant
?

6. St
atet
hev
ari
oust
ypeofst
eam condenser
?
 EXPERI
MENTNO8

Ai
m:-Tostudyandfi
ndvolumetr
iceff
ici
encyofaReci
procat
ingai
rcompr
essor
.Al
so
cl
assi
fyt
heaircompr
essor(Rot
ary)
.

Theory:
-Thismayberegardedasamachinewhichcompr
essesorwhi
chi
susedt
o
i
ncreasethepr
essur
eofairbyreduci
ngi
tsvol
ume.

Reci
procat
ingcompressor
:-Thi
sisamachi
newhi
chcompr
essesai
rbymeansof
pi
stonreci
procat
ingi
nsi
deacy l
i
nder
.

Wor king:
-Itconsistapistonwhichisencl
osedwithi
nacy li
nderandequi
pped
wit
hsuct i
on anddi schargev al
ve.Thepistonrecei
vesthepowerf rom themain
shaf
tthroughacr ank shaftandconnecti
ngrod.Af l
ywheeli sfit
tedonthe
mainshaftt oensuret ur
ningmomentt o be suppli
ed throughout t
he cycl
e of
operat
ions.

Wor
kdone:
-

(
a)Whent
hegasi
scompr
essedaccor
dingt
olow.

PVn=Const
ant

Wor
kreq/
cycl
eW =P2V2+(
P2V2-
P1V1/
n-1)–P1V1

=[
(nP2V2-
P2V)
+(P2V2-
P1V1)
-(
nP1V1-
P1V1)
]/n-
1

=n(
P2V2-
P1V1)/n-
1

W =P1V1n/n-
1(P2V2/
P1V1-
1)

P1V1n=P2V2n

V2/V1=(P1/
P2)-
1/n

W =P1V1n/n-
1[(
P2/V1)
.(P2/P1)-
1/n-
1]

W =P1V1n/n-
1[(
P2/V1)n-
1/n-
1]KJ/cy
cle

(
b)Whengasi
scompr
essedadi
abat
ical
l
y:-

W =r/r
-1[
(P2/V2)r
-1/r
-1]Kj
/cy
cle

(
c)Whengasi
scompr
essedi
sot
her
mal
l
y:-

W =P2V2l
ogeV1/V2 or

P1V1l
ogeV1/V2KJ/Cy
cle

P1&P2ar
einKN/m2 & V1&V2ar
einm3
Rot
arycompr
essormaybecl
assi
fi
edas:
-

1.Posi
ti
vedi
splacementcompressor
2.Non–posit
ivedispl
acementcompressor

 Posi
ti
vedi
spl
acementcompr
essor
sar
efut
urecl
assi
fi
edas:
-

(
a) Rootsblower
(
b) CrescentorVaneblower
(
c) Lysholm compressor
(
d) Screwcompr essor

 Non–posi
ti
vecompr
essorar
ecl
assi
fi
edas:
-

(
a) Cent
ri
fugal
compressor
(
b) Axi
alfl
owcompressor

1.Posi t
ivedisplacementcompressor
:-I
thavetwosetsofmutual
l
yengagi
ngcam
surfaceorl obes.Theairistr
appedbetweenthelobesandt
hepressur
eri
setake
placeeitherbebackblowof
ai
rf rom recei
vebysqueezi
ngactionandbackbl
owofair
.

(
a)Rootsblower
:-i
nwhi
chbackf
lowofhi
ghpr
essur
eai
rfr
om t
her
ecei
vecr
eat
esr
ise
i
npressur
e.

(
b)Vaneblower:
-inwhi
chcombi
nedsqueezi
ngact
ionandbackf
low ofai
rcr
eat
es
r
isei
npressur
e.

2.Non–posi ti
vedispl
acementcompr
essor:-Thepressur
er i
sei nthesemachineis
notduet ospacereducti
onorbackblow acti
onoft hehighpr essureairfr
om the
receiv
easi nthecaseofposi
ti
vecompressorbuti
sduet ot
ransferofK.E.ofthefl
uid
tot hepressureenergybyoneormor er ot
ati
ngr i
ngsofcur vedbl adesknownas
‘
Impel l
er’
.

(a)Centri
fugalcompr essor :
-Ther ot
atingmemberknownast heI mpellerconsi
sta
l
argenumberofbl adesandi smount edont hecompr essorshaftinsidestati
onar
y
casti
ng.Ast heimpel lerrotatest
hepr essureinther egionaf al
lsandhencet heai
r
enter
st hr
ought heey eandf l
ow radi
allyoutwardsthrought heimpellerbladesasof
thecompr essor.Bot hv eloci
tyandpr essureincreaseast heairf l
ow t hr
oughthe
cyl
inderorimpellerblades.Airentersthroughtheconv ergentpassagef ormedbythe
dif
fuseblades.

(b)Axi alflow compr essor:-I

tismor ecommonl yused,t heai rf l
owsi nanaxi al
directi
onr i
ghtfrom theintaketothedel
iv
er y
.Thewor ki
ngprincipleisil
lustr
atedinfi
g.
Thest atorenclosest herotorbothofwhicharepr ovi
dedwithr i
ngsofbl ades.Ast he
airentersi nthedi r
ecti
oni tfl
owst hr
ought healter
natel
yar rangedst atorandr ot
or
blader i
ngt heai rgetscompr essedsuccessivel
y.Foreffi
cientoper ati
ont heblades
aremadeofaer ofoi
lsectionbasedonaero-dynamictheor
y.Theannul arareaismade
divergentasshowni nor dertokeeptheflowv el
ocit
yconstantt hroughoutthelength
ofcompr essor.

Quest
ionf
orv
iva-v
oce:
-

1. Cl
assi
fyt
heai
rcompr
essor
?
2. Expl
aint
hewor
kingofReci
procat
ingai
rcompr
essor
?

3. Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenReci
procat
ing&Cent
ri
fugal
compr
essor
?

4. Def
ineposi
ti
vedi
spl
acementcompr
essor
?

5. Def
inenonposi
ti
vedi
spl
acementcompr
essor
?
 EXPERI
MENTNO9

Ai
m:-Tost
udyCool
i
ngt
owerandf
indi
tsef
fi
ciency
.

Theory:
-Iti
sapartofpowerpl
ant.I
nlargeci
ti
eswhereacqui
sit
ionofl
oadisver
y
expansi
ve,wemaycooli
ngt
owerforcool
i
ngpurposeastheyar
eof t
enpl
acedont
he
rootoft
hepowerpl
ant.

Funct
ion:
-It
sfunct
ioni
stoi
ncr
easet
hesur
facear
eaorcool
wat
er.

Ty
pes:
-

1. Nat
ural
draught

2. Arti
fi
cial
draught(Mechanical
type)
(
i)Forceddraught(For
cedfan)
(
ii
)Induceddraught(Suct
ionfan)

1.Nat uraldraught:
-When t hecircul
ati
on ofairthrough thet oweri
sbynat ural
convection,i
tisknownasanat ur
aldraught.I
nthi
s,hotwat erfrom t
hecondenseri s
pumpedt otopoft owerwhereiti
sspr ayeddownthroughaser i
esofspraynozzles.
Thehotwat eraftergi
vingi
tsheatt oairwhichcir
culatesthroughthetowerduet o
natur
al convect
ion,get
scooledandi scol
lect
edfr
om bot tom oft
ower.

2.Art
if
icialdraught:-Whenthecir
cul
ati
onofairthrought het
owerisbyar
tif
ici
al
conv
ectione.Forcedfan,
Suct
ionf
anisknownasart
if
icialdr
aught
.Iti
soft
woty
pe:-

(
i)For
ceddr
aught
:-Thet
oweri
scomplet
elyencasedwi
thdi
schar
gedopeni
ngatt
he
t
opandfanatt
hebott
om t
opr
oducef
lowofair.

(i
i
)I nduceddraught
:-Her efanisplacedatt hetopwhichdrawsairthrought
hetower.
Thewar m watertobecool edint
roduceatt hetopofthetowerthroughspraynozzl
es.
I
tf all
sthroughaser i
esoft rayswhi charear r
angedt okeepthef al
l
ingwatertobe
brokenupi nt
ofinsdrops.Thecooledwat eriscoll
ect
edatt hebot
tom.

Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-
voce:
-

1. Whati
sthef
unct
ionofcool
i
ngt
oweri
nmoder
ncondensi
ngpl
ant
?

2. St
atet
heappl
i
cat
ionofcool
i
ngt
ower
?

3. Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weennat
ural
andar
ti
fi
cial
draughtt
ypecool
i
ngt
ower
?

4. Def
inet
het
erm ofboi
l
erdr
aught
?

5. Gi
vet
heuseofcool
i
ngt
ower
?
 EXPERI
MENTNO10

Ai
m:-Tof
indt
hecal
ori
fi
cval
ueofasampl
eoff
uel
usi
ngBombcal
ori
met
er.

Theor y:-Thiscal orimeterisusedt odeter minet hecal ori

f i
cv alueofsol idandl i
quid
fuels.Thecal or if
icv al
ueobt ainedbyt hiscal or
imet eri st hehi ghcal ori
fi
cv alueat
const antv ol
ume, becausethef uelundert estiswentatconst antv olumei nthecl osed
vesselknownasBomb.Thebodyoft hebombmadeofst ainlessst eelwhi chi s
capabl eofwi thst andinghighpr essure,heatandcor rosion.Itconsi st sofabasewhi ch
suppor tsthePl atinum crucibl
e,thef unctionofwhi chi st ocont ainthesampl eoff uel
tobet ested.Thecr uci
bleactasconduct orf orthecur rentwhi chi susedf ori gniti
ng
thef uel.Thethr eadcov ercarr
iest heoxy genv alv
ef orsuppl yi
ngoxy genandar elease
valvef orexhaustgases.
Thebombi ssur roundedbyameasur edquant i
tyofwat ercont ainedi nacont ainer
knownascal or i
met er
.Thecal ori
met erisf uturesur roundedbyawat erjacketandan
airspacei spr ov idedbet weent het wo, t
or educel ossesofheatduet or adiat
ion.The
l
idoft hecast ingi sprovi
dedwi t
hsui t
abl eopeni ngsf orthet her momet erandst ir
rer.
Thest ir
rerisar oundt hebombandi smov edupanddownbymeansofcr ankand
connect ingrodar rangement .

Det
ermi
nat
ionofcal
ori
fi
cval
ueoff
uel
sbyt
heBombcal
ori
met
er:
-

Thepr ocedurefordet er
mi netheC. V.ofanon- volati
lef uelissameast hatofasol i
d
fuel.Ameasur edquant it
yoff uelist akeni nt hecr ucibleandt hei gnitioni seffected
throughcot t
ont hreadswhi chafterdippingi ntot hesampl eisat tachedt othepaper
diskswhi chabsor bstheliqui
df uelandar etheneasi l
yi gnited.Thust heheatgai ned
bywat erisequalt otheheatgi venoutbyt hesampl eofcot tont hr eadort hepaper
disk.I fthef uelundert estishi ghlyv olatil
e,t hen t heuseofbomb cal ori
met er
becomesdanger ousbecauset hef uelevapor atesand gi vesoutv apourwhi chaf t
er
mi xingwi thoxygenwi l
lform anexpl osi
v emi xt
ur e.Secondar y ,thef uelcannotbe
measur edinanopencr ucibl
ewi t
houtt hel ossi nmass.I nsuchacaset hef uelis
suckedi ntoat iredthinglassbul bbyal ternat eheat i
ngandt hecool ingoft hebul b,
whi chi sthenseal edoffandwei ghed.Inor dert obr eakt hebul b,whenpl acedint he
bombi tisencircledbycot toncoat edwi thpar affi
nwax ,whi chi seasi lyi gnit
ed.Such
anar r
angementi sshowni nfi
g.Inmaybenot edt hatwhi l
ecalcul ati
ngt heC.V.oft he
fuel,dueal l
owancesi stobemadef ortheC. V.Oft hewr apping.

Calor
if
icv
alueoft
hefuel:
-Iti
sdefi
nedast
henumberoft
heheatuni
tspr
oducedby
thecompl
etecombust
ionofauni
tmassoruni
tvol
umeoft
hef
uel.

Quest
ionsf
orv
iva-
voce:
-

1. Def
inet
hef
unct
ionofBombcal
ori
met
er?

2. Whati
sit
sused?

3. Def
inet
heconst
ruct
ionofBombcal
ori
met
er?

4. Def
inecal
ori
fi
cval
ue?