Dog

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This article is about the domestic dog. For related species known as "dogs",
see Canidae. For other uses, see Dog (disambiguation).

Domestic dogs

Temporal range: At least 14,200

years ago – present[1]

Selection of the different breeds of dog

Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae

Subfamily: Caninae

Tribe: Canini

Subtribe: Canina

Genus: Canis

Species: C.  lupus

Subspecies: C. l. familiaris

Trinomial name

Canis lupus familiaris

Linnaeus, 1758

Synonyms

Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758 [2]

[3]
 aegyptius Linnaeus, 1758, alco C. E. H.

Smith, 1839, americanus Gmelin,

1792, anglicus Gmelin,

1792, antarcticus Gmelin,

1792, aprinus Gmelin,

1792, aquaticus Linnaeus,

1758, aquatilis Gmelin,

1792, avicularis Gmelin, 1792, borealis C. E.

H. Smith, 1839, brevipilis Gmelin,

1792, cursorius Gmelin,

1792, domesticus Linnaeus,

1758, extrarius Gmelin, 1792, ferus C. E. H.

Smith, 1839, fricator Gmelin,
 1792, fricatrix Linnaeus, 1758, fuillus Gmelin,

1792, gallicus Gmelin, 1792, glaucus C. E. H.

Smith, 1839, graius Linnaeus,

1758, grajus Gmelin,

1792, hagenbecki Krumbiegel,

1950, haitensis C. E. H. Smith,

1839, hibernicus Gmelin,

1792, hirsutus Gmelin, 1792, hybridus Gmelin,

1792, islandicus Gmelin, 1792, italicus Gmelin,

1792, laniarius Gmelin, 1792, leoninus Gmelin,

1792, leporarius C. E. H. Smith,

1839, major Gmelin, 1792, mastinus Linnaeus,

1758, melitacus Gmelin,

1792, melitaeus Linnaeus, 1758, minor Gmelin,

1792, molossus Gmelin,

1792, mustelinus Linnaeus,

1758, obesus Gmelin, 1792, orientalis Gmelin,

1792, pacificus C. E. H. Smith,

1839, plancus Gmelin,

1792, pomeranus Gmelin, 1792, sagaces C. E.

H. Smith, 1839, sanguinarius C. E. H. Smith,

1839, sagax Linnaeus, 1758, scoticus Gmelin,

1792, sibiricus Gmelin, 1792, suillus C. E. H.

Smith, 1839, terraenovae C. E. H. Smith,

1839, terrarius C. E. H. Smith,

1839, turcicus Gmelin, 1792, urcani C. E. H.

Smith, 1839, variegatus Gmelin,

1792, venaticus Gmelin,

1792, vertegus Gmelin, 1792[4]

The dog (Canis familiaris when considered a distinct species or Canis lupus

familiaris when considered a subspecies of the wolf)[5] is a member of the
genus Canis (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids,[6] and is the most widely
abundant terrestrial carnivore.[7][8][9][10][11] The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa[12][13]
[14]
 as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated,[13]
[14]
 which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct.[15] The dog was the
 first species to be domesticated,[14][16] and has been selectively bred over millennia for
various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. [17]
Their long association with humans has led dogs to be uniquely attuned to human
behavior[18] and they are able to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for
other canids.[19] Dogs vary widely in shape, size and colors.[20] They perform many roles
for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting
police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding disabled
people and therapeutic roles. This influence on human society has given them
the sobriquet of "man's best friend".

Contents

 1Terminology
 2Taxonomy
 3Origin
 4Biology
o 4.1Anatomy
 4.1.1Size and weight
 4.1.2Senses
 4.1.3Coat
 4.1.4Tail
 4.1.5Differences from wolves
o 4.2Health
 4.2.1Lifespan
o 4.3Reproduction
 4.3.1Neutering
o 4.4Inbreeding depression
 5Intelligence, behavior, and communication
o 5.1Intelligence
o 5.2Behavior
o 5.3Communication
 6Ecology
o 6.1Population
o 6.2Competitors and predators
o 6.3Diet
o 6.4Range
 7Breeds
 8Roles with humans
o 8.1Early roles
o 8.2As pets
o 8.3Work
o 8.4Sports and shows
o 8.5As food
o 8.6Health risks to humans
o 8.7Health benefits for humans
o 8.8Shelters
 9Cultural depictions
o 9.1Mythology and religion
o 9.2Literature
o 9.3Art
o 9.4Education and appreciation
 10See also
o 10.1Lists
 11References
 12Bibliography
 13Further reading
 14External links

Terminology
 The term dog typically is applied both to the species (or subspecies) as a whole,
and any adult male member of the same.
 An adult female is a bitch.
 An adult male capable of reproduction is a stud.
 An adult female capable of reproduction is a brood bitch, or brood mother.
 Immature males or females (that is, animals that are incapable of reproduction)
are pups or puppies.
 A group of pups from the same gestation period is called a litter.
 The father of a litter is a sire. It is possible for one litter to have multiple sires.
 The mother of a litter is a dam.
 A group of any three or more adults is a pack.

Taxonomy
Further information: Canis lupus dingo §  Taxonomic debate – dog, dingo, and New
Guinea singing dog
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema
Naturae the binomial nomenclature – or the two-word naming – of species. Canis is the
Latin word meaning "dog",[21] and under this genus he listed the dog-like carnivores
including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic dog as Canis
familiaris, and on the next page he classified the wolf as Canis lupus.[2] Linnaeus
considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its cauda
recurvata - its upturning tail which is not found in any other canid.[22]
In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA indicated that the domestic dog may have
originated from multiple grey wolf populations, with the dingo and New Guinea singing
dog "breeds" having developed at a time when human populations were more isolated
from each other.[23] In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in
2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its
wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: "familiaris Linneaus, 1758
[domestic dog]" and "dingo Meyer, 1793 [domestic dog]". Wozencraft
included hallstromi – the New Guinea singing dog – as a taxonomic synonym for the
dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his
decision.[4] The inclusion of familiaris and dingo under a "domestic dog" clade has been
noted by other mammalogists.[24] This classification by Wozencraft is debated among
zoologists.[25]
In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid
Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be feral
dogs Canis familiaris, and therefore should not be assessed for the IUCN Red List.[26]

Origin
Main article: Origin of the domestic dog
The origin of the domestic dog includes the dog's genetic divergence from the wolf,
its domestication, and its development into dog types and dog breeds. The dog is a
member of the genus Canis, which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and was the first
species and the only large carnivore to have been domesticated.[14][27] Genetic studies
comparing dogs with modern wolves show reciprocal monophyly (separate groups),
which implies that dogs are not genetically close to any living wolf and that their wild
ancestor is extinct.[28][14] An extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the ancestor of
the dog,[27][1] with the dog's similarity to the extant grey wolf being the result of genetic
admixture between the two.[1] In 2020, a literature review of canid domestication stated
that modern dogs were not descended from the same Canis lineage as modern wolves,
and proposes that dogs may be descended from a Pleistocene wolf closer in size to a
village dog.[29]
The genetic divergence between dogs and wolves occurred between 20,000–40,000
years ago, just before or during the Last Glacial Maximum[30][1] (20,000-27,000 years
ago). This timespan represents the upper time-limit for the commencement of
domestication because it is the time of divergence and not the time of domestication,
which occurred later.[30][31] One of the most important transitions in human history was
the domestication of animals, which began with the long-term association between
wolves and hunter–gatherers more than 15,000 years ago.[28] The archaeological record
and genetic analysis show the remains of the Bonn–Oberkassel dog buried beside
humans 14,200 years ago to be the first undisputed dog, with disputed remains
occurring 36,000 years ago.[1]

Biology
Lateral view of skeleton

Anatomy
Main article: Dog anatomy

Skull of a dog

Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, sensory
capabilities, and physical attributes.[17] Modern dog breeds show more variation in size,
appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. [17] Dogs
are predators and scavengers; like many other predatory mammals, the dog has
powerful muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both
sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing.
Size and weight
Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was
a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood only 6.3 cm (2.5 in) at the shoulder, 9.5 cm (3.7 in) in
length along the head-and-body, and weighed only 113 grams (4.0 oz). The largest
known dog was a Saint Bernard which weighed 167.6 kg (369 lb) and was 250 cm
(98 in) from the snout to the tail.[32] The tallest dog is a Great Dane that stands 106.7 cm
(42.0 in) at the shoulder.[33]
Senses
Further information: Dog anatomy §  Senses
The dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste, touch and
sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field. Another study suggested that dogs can see the
earth's magnetic field.[34][35][36]
Coat
Main article: Coat (dog)

Dogs display a wide variation on coat type, density, length, color, and composition

The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common with dogs (as
well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a
soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional
"blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside. [37]
Regarding coat appearance or health, the coat can be maintained or affected by
multiple nutrients present in the diet, see Coat (dog) for more information.
Premature graying can occur in dogs from as early as one year of age. This has been
shown to be associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and
fear of unfamiliar people or animals.[38]
Tail
See also: Docking
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or
cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to
communicate their emotional state, which can be important in getting along with others.
In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries.[39] In
some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais, puppies can be born with a short tail
or no tail at all.[40]
Differences from wolves
The Saarloos wolfdog carries more gray wolf DNA than any other dog breed[41]

Despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number
of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated
dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by starch gel electrophoresis of red blood
cell acid phosphatase.[42] The tympanic bullae are large, convex and almost spherical in
gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled.
[43]
 Compared with equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30%
smaller brains.[44]:35 The teeth of gray wolves are also proportionately larger than those of
dogs.[45] Dogs have a more domed forehead and a distinctive "stop" between forehead
and nose.[46] The temporalis muscle that closes the jaws is more robust in wolves.
[5]:158
 Wolves do not have dewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture
with dogs that had them.[47] Most dogs lack a functioning pre-caudal gland and
enter estrus twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year. [48] So-called
primitive dogs such as dingoes and Basenjis retain the yearly estrus cycle.[49]
Dogs generally have brown eyes and wolves almost always have amber or light colored
eyes.[50] The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with
some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to
wear and tear in harsh weather.[51] The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf,
and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves. [52] The dog has
developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and
morphological variation than any other land mammal. [53]
Health
Main article: Dog health
There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs (and other mammals)
including begonia, Poinsettia and aloe vera.[54]
Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip
dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two
serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra,
affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat),
which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute
conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such
as fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms,
and heartworms (roundworm species that lives in the heart of dogs).
A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs,
including chocolate solids (theobromine poisoning), onion
and garlic (thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning),[55] grapes and raisins, macada
mia nuts, xylitol,[56] as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials. [57]
[58]
 The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can be exposed to the
substance by scavenging through garbage bins or ashtrays and eating cigars and
cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or
diarrhea. Some other signs are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.
[59]
 Dogs are susceptible to theobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion of chocolate.
Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is capable of
breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that for some dogs even small
amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate.
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans,
including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and
arthritis.[60]
Lifespan
Further information: Aging in dogs

Mixed-breed dogs such as this terrier have been found to run faster and live longer than their pure-bred parents
(see Heterosis).

In 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure
breeds, and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e.
the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan). [61]
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median
longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still
alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.[62][63][64][65] Individual dogs may live well beyond the
median of their breed.
The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire
survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a median
longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including miniature bull
terriers, bloodhounds, and Irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median
longevities of 6 to 7 years.[65]
The longest-lived breeds, including toy poodles, Japanese spitz, Border terriers,
and Tibetan spaniels, have median longevities of 14 to 15 years.[65] The median longevity
of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than
that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged. [63][64][65][66] The longest-lived dog was
"Bluey", an Australian Cattle Dog who died in 1939 at 29.5 years of age. [67][68]
Reproduction
Main article: Canine reproduction

Female dog nursing newborn puppies

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six to twelve months of age for both
males and females,[17][69] although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some
large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle.
They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body
prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being
mentally and physically receptive to copulation.[17] Because the ova survive and are
capable of being fertilized for a week after ovulation, it is possible for more than one
male to sire the same litter.[17]
Fertilization typically occurs 2–5 days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the
embryo attaches to the uterus, and after 7-8 more days the heart beat is detectable. [70][71]
Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[17][72] with an average of 63
days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about
six puppies,[73] though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In
general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger
breeds may average as many as twelve.
Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with
reproduction. Male French Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female.
For many dogs of this breed, the female must be artificially inseminated in order to
reproduce.[74]
Neutering
A feral dog from Sri Lanka nursing very well-developed puppies

Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male's

testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procreate
and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, many
animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be
neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized. [75]
According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million dogs and cats
are euthanized each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in
shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or
castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down. [76] Local humane societies, SPCAs,
and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt
animals from shelters instead of purchasing them.
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.
[77]
 Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting
mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs. [78] However, neutering
increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs,[79] and prostate cancer in
males,[80] as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture,
obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.[81]
Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g.
between half- and full siblings).[82] Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely
to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations. [83] Outcrossing
between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the
beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny. [84]
In a study of seven breeds of dogs (Bernese mountain dog, basset hound, Cairn
terrier, Epagneul Breton, German Shepherd dog, Leonberger, and West Highland white
terrier) it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival. [85] Another analysis
of data on 42,855 dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased,
litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating
inbreeding depression.[86] In a study of boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching
7 weeks of age.[87] Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection.
Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding. [87]

Intelligence, behavior, and communication

Intelligence
Main article: Dog intelligence
Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as
knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference.
A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He
inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those
novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have
advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a
border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal
command over 1,000 words.[88] Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human
body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice
commands, although a 2018 study on canine cognitive abilities found that dogs'
capabilities are not more exceptional than those of other animals, such
as horses, chimpanzees or cats.[89]
Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.[90] An experimental study
showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in
non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their
original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans. [91] Another study indicated
that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced
with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized
wolves do not.[92]
Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
See also: Dog behavior §  Behavior compared with other canids
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the
domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli. [93] As the oldest
domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds
of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of
this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the
ability to understand and communicate with humans, and they are uniquely attuned to
human behaviors.[18] Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-
cognitive abilities in the domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's
closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes but
rather parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children. [94]
Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related
traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. [95][96] In 2016, a study found that
there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These
gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate
selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes
have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of
the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response [96][97] (i.e. selection for tameness), and
emotional processing.[96] Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared
with wolves.[96][98] Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some
dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in
breed formation.[96] Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic
modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which
cause hypersociability at the expense of problem solving ability.[99][100][101]
Communication
Main article: Dog communication
Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, how they
understand messages from humans, and how humans translate the information that
dogs are transmitting.[102]:xii Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial
expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and
gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate to
dogs by using vocalization, hand signals and body posture.