Presentation on geophysical methods

1. 1. PRESENTATION/LECTURE ON GEOPHYSICAL METHODS SITE INVESTIGATION AND LABORATORY

MEASUREMENTS (CIV 8326) ANDREW ABAH ONOJA SPS/15/MCE/00023 M.ENG –
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING BAYERO UNIVERSITY,
KANO 16TH June, 2016
2. 2. • INTRODUCTION • Geophysics is the application of the principles of physics to
the study of the Earth. The Earth is comprised of materials that have different
physical properties. Clay and dolerite, for example, have different densities, acoustic
velocities, elastic moduli, electrical conductivities, magnetic susceptibilities, and
dielectric constants. Geophysical instruments are designed to map spatial variations
in the physical properties of the Earth.
3. 3. • Exploration in geophysics is an applied branch of geophysics, which uses
physical methods (such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and
electromagnetic) at the surface of the Earth to measure the physical properties of
the subsurface, along with the anomalies in those properties. • The science of
geophysics applies the principles of physics to the study of the Earth. Geophysical
investigations of the interior of the Earth involve taking measurements at or near
the Earth’s surface that are influenced by the internal distribution of physical
properties. Analysis of these measurements can reveal how the physical properties
of the Earth’s interior vary vertically and laterally.
4. 4. • Geophysical methods are investigative techniques that directly or indirectly
measure the presence of resources or material behaviour concealed within the
earth’s subsurface as a result of geologic processes or human disturbances. • The
methods describe the techniques used to collect subsurface information related to
the physical properties of earth material (Technos, 2004). The techniques are useful
in the following areas: • To detect subsurface contrasts, including mass-density
relationships, ionic or electrical potentials, magnetic susceptibilities, and elemental
decay. • To identify the location of archeological resources and lead to their
identification. • To investigate buried prehistoric and historic structures and
artifacts.
5. 5. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS Electrical Resistivity Methods Seismic Methods Gravity
Geophysical Method Electromagnetic Method Geothermal Method Resistivity
Profiling Resistivity Sounding Refraction Reflection Frequency Domain EM 2D-
Resistivity imaging Time Domain EM Ground Penetrating Radar Radiometric
Surveys Micro-Gravity
6. 6. * Geophysical methods are generally non-intrusive and can be employed quickly
to collect subsurface data. When performed properly and utilized early in the site
characterization process, the methods can provide valuable information for placing
monitoring wells and borings. They can be used later in the investigation to confirm
and improve site characterization. * Measurements are taken at or near the surface
and are classified by the physical property being measured. When selecting a
geophysical method, the following should be completed:
7. 7. • (1) Define the objective of the investigation. • (2) Review site-specific geology. •
(3) Determine if cultural features are present that may interfere with the
 instrument(s). • (4) Determine site access. • (5) Consult with a person with
expertise in geophysical data reduction and interpretation. • (6) Determine cost.
8. 8. • Geophysical exploration may be used with advantage to locate boundaries
between different elements of the subsoil as these procedures are based on the fact
that the gravitational, magnetic, electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of the
different elements of the subsoil may be different. • Differences in the gravitational,
magnetic and radioactive properties of deposits near the surface of the earth are
seldom large enough to permit the use of these properties in exploration work for
civil engineering projects. However, the resistivity method based on the electrical
properties and the seismic refraction methods based on the elastic properties of the
deposits have been used widely in large civil engineering projects.
9. 9. * Electrical Resistivity as a Geophysical Method • Electrical resistivity uses
electrical resistance (poor conductivity) properties to identify buried cultural
resources. • A highly refined electrical resistivity survey may be the most revealing
geophysical technique, but it is expensive to perform because it requires a high
number of readings per unit area. Resistivity experts interpret electrical resistivity
patterns to identify the presence of nearly all forms of constructed features, such as
foundations, paths, and roads. The technique can also reveal compacted soils,
indicative of a former pathway, and disturbed soils, such as those found at burial
sites and cultivated fields.
10. 10. • Electrical resistivity is useful for measuring depth to bedrock and is often
performed before GPR in geophysical surveys involving multiple techniques. Depth
to bedrock measurements is useful in calibrating GPR equipment. Electrical
resistivity uses current electrodes to introduce into the soil, an electrical current of
known amplitude (amps) and frequency (volts), and potential electrodes with an
ohmmeter to measure resistance changes in the soil, vertically and horizontally.
11. 11. • Fig: Electrical Resistivity Apparatus (TERAMETER)
12. 12. • The field between the electrodes is distributed only near the surface when the
electrodes spacing is close but the electrical flux flows deeper when the electrodes
are further apart. The flux will crowd into the more conductive layers and will
rarefy in the more resistive layers. • The potential at the surface will reflect these
path differences and will provide a data set for which an electrical profile model of
the subsurface can be calculated.
13. 13. • It is important to note that not all geophysical methods are appropriate for
groundwater exploration. The principal methods used in groundwater
investigations include Electrical Resistivity (ER), Electromagnetics (EM), and
Nuclear Magnetic resonance (NMR). The limitations associated with these methods
have prompted hydrogeologists to use more than one method to collect accurate
data in groundwater exploration (Revil et al., 2012). • The most popular methods
used in hydrogeological applications are ER and EM because of the close
relationship between electrical conductivity and the physical properties of aquifers,
i.e. conductance and resistance. Thus Resistivity and Electromagnetic methods are
usually coupled in groundwater investigations for optimum results.
14. 14. • CONDUCTING THE TEST. • Resistivity Profiling and Soundings • Measurements
of vertical changes in resistivity are called “soundings” and measurements of
horizontal changes in resistivity are called “profiling.” The technique requires at
 least three individuals to move two current electrodes and two potential electrodes
along a survey grid. • Measurement of ground resistivity involves passing an
electrical current into the ground using a pair of steel or copper electrodes and
measuring the resulting potential difference within the subsurface using a second
pair of electrodes. These are normally placed between the current electrodes.
Typically, current (I) is induced between paired electrodes (C1, C2). The potential
difference (ΔV) between paired voltmeter electrodes P1 and P2 is measured.
Apparent resistivity (Δa) is then calculated (based on I, ΔV, electrode spacing).
15. 15. • Schematic of Electrical Resistivity
16. 16. • Resistivity soundings involve gradually increasing the spacing between the
current/potential electrodes (or both) in order to increase the depth of
investigation. • The resistance data collected in this way are converted to apparent
resistivity readings that can then be modelled to provide information on the
thickness of individual resistivity layers within the subsurface.
17. 17. • Along survey gridlines, changes in resistance readings are used to create
“contour maps” of soil resistivity. On the map, concentric contours emanating from a
location (called a “spot elevation”) represent material of lowest conductivity.
Because soil conductivity is directly related to the presence of water, locations
measuring the greatest resistance will have lower soil-water content. • Electrical
resistivity tests should be performed in more than one season with varying soil-
water conditions. In some geologic conditions the native soil may have a lower
water content and therefore higher resistivity than buried cultural resources.
Because resistivity is directly related to permeability, degree of saturation, and the
chemical nature of entrapped fluids, prior knowledge of indigenous geologic
conditions is requisite to accurately interpret resistivity data.
18. 18. • Typical Result chart from Electrical Resistivity Investigation.
19. 19. • 2D resistivity imaging • Another form of electrical resistivity technique is, 2D
resistivity imaging. This is a fully automated technique that uses a linear array of up
to or beyond 72 electrodes connected by a multicore cable. The current and
potential electrode pairs are switched automatically using a laptop computer and
control module connected to a ground resistivity meter (that provides the output
current). In this way a profile of resistivity against depth ('pseudo-section') is built
up along the survey line. Data is collected by automatically profiling along the line at
different electrode separations. The computer initially keeps the spacing between
the electrodes fixed and moves the pairs along the line until the last electrode is
reached. The spacing is then increased by the minimum electrode separation (the
physical distance between electrodes which remains fixed throughout the survey)
and the process repeated in order to provide an increased depth of investigation.
20. 20. • The raw data is initially converted to apparent resistivity values using a
geometric factor that is determined by the type of electrode configuration used.
Many 2D resistivity imaging surveys are carried out using the Wenner Array. In this
configuration the spacing between each electrode is identical. Once converted the
data is modelled using finite element and least squares inversion methods in order
to calculate a true resistivity versus depth pseudo-section.
21. 21. • Fig: Wenner Array
22. 22. VES 1 VES 2
23. 23. * SEISMIC METHODS * The seismic method measures the response of seismic
(sound) waves that are input into the earth and then refract along or reflect off
subsurface soil and rock boundaries. The seismic source is usually a sledgehammer
blow to a metal plate on the ground, a larger weight drop, or an explosion. The earth
response is measured by sensors called geophones, which measure ground motion.
Two basic methods of seismic exploration are used refraction and reflection. These
methods determine geological structure and rock velocities by either refracting or
reflecting waves off boundaries between rock units with different seismic velocities
or impedance. * Seismic techniques are commonly used to determine site geology,
stratigraphy, and rock quality. These techniques provide detailed information about
subsurface layering and rock geo-mechanical properties using seismic acoustical
waves.
24. 24. • CONDUCTING SEISMIC TEST • Seismic Refraction: • The seismic refraction
method measures head waves that are refracted along geologic formations below
the earth's surface. Refractions generally occur along the top of the water table and
the uppermost bedrock formation. A plot of the arrival time of the first seismic wave
to each geophone gives information about the depth and location of these geologic
horizons. This information is plotted in a cross section that shows the depth to the
water table and to the first bedrock layer. • The method is based on the
measurement of the travel time of seismic waves refracted at the interfaces between
subsurface layers of different velocity. Seismic energy is provided by a source (S)
located on the surface. The energy radiates out from the shot point, either travelling
directly through the upper layer (direct arrivals), or travelling down to and then
laterally along higher velocity layers (L1) as refracted arrivals (R1, R2, etc.) before
returning to the surface. This energy is detected on the surface using a linear array
of GEOPHONES. Observation of the travel-times of the refracted signals provides
information on the depth profile of the refractor.
25. 25. • Seismic Refraction on Site Seismic refraction tomogram of a salt Hot colors
correspond to higher velocities, i.e. salt. Cool colors delineate shale.
26. 26. • Fig: Seismic Refraction Pattern
27. 27. • Seismic Reflection: • The reflection method measures the time necessary for a
sound impulse to travel from the source, bounce off a geologic boundary, and return
to the surface at a geophone. The reflection from a geologic horizon is similar to an
echo off a cliff face. • Seismic Reflection follows the law of mirror images – angle of
reflection from a surface is equal to the angle of incidence. Shots are fired, in turn, at
each of the geophone positions and active geophones are progressively added ahead
of the shots, and taken up from behind the shots, in a roll-along fashion.
28. 28. • Fig: Seismic reflection plot of a Fault. Indicated is the main normal fault and an
associated antithetic fault.
29. 29. • ELECTROMAGNETIC CONDUCTIVITY • Electro-magnetic conductivity, also
called EM, is used to detect and differentiate metallic artifacts buried near the
earth’s surface. The technique locates near-surface cultural features (structures,
compaction, excavation, and habitation sites) by their various water saturations
(their conductivity). A conductivity measurement is the reciprocal of resistivity. •
The EM method is also very sensitive to metal. Thus, the location of buried metal
objects, such as drums or pipes, can be mapped with this technique.
30. 30. * TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC CONDUCTIVITY i. Frequency Domain
Electromagnetic (FDEM) ii. Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) iii. Ground
Penetration Radar (GPR) LIMITATIONS OF GPR Site-specific conditions may limit
the success of GPR in geophysical surveys. The presence of highly conductive clay
soils in proportions of 10 percent or more is probably the greatest limiting factor
affecting radar signals. Highly conductive soil conditions result in the attenuation of
electromagnetic energy, a reduction in signal velocity, and a decrease in depth of
signal penetration.
31. 31. • HOW TO CONDUCT THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TEST • Two individuals are
required to perform the technique, but the conductivity instrument can be moved
from station to station by one operator. Resistivity requires a crew of at least three
to move and place electrodes in the ground along a survey line. • Electromagnetic
conductivity uses a non- surface contacting radio transmitter and receiver. The
transmitter induces an electromagnetic field in the earth, causing an electrical
current to flow.
32. 32. • The electrical current generates a secondary magnetic field that causes the
flow of an electrical current signal in the receiver. The receiver signal is measured
for conductivity by a voltmeter incorporated in the EM instrument. The voltmeter is
calibrated to measure the soil as having a homogeneous level of conductivity. It is
assumed that buried cultural resources cause anomalies in the homogenous level of
conductivity detected along survey lines. Large fluctuations in conductivity are
indications of highly conductive subsurface materials, such as buried metallic
artifacts.
33. 33. • Fig: Ground Penetrating Radar
34. 34. • GRAVITY GEOPHYSICAL METHODS • State-of-the-art gravity meters can sense
differences in the acceleration (pull) of gravity to one part in one billion.
Measurements taken at the Earth’s surface express the acceleration of gravity of the
total mass of the Earth but because of their high sensitivity; the instruments can
detect mass variations in the crustal geology. • Microgravity profiling is a passive
technique that involves highly accurate measurement of relative changes in the
Earth's gravitational field. Measurements are made using a gravity meter, which
comprises a highly sensitive temperature stabilized spring balance. Subtle changes
in gravity result from variations in the density of materials within the subsurface
and the method can therefore be used to successfully locate voids or buried features
such as underground storage tanks. The effects of tidal and instrument drift that
would otherwise mask any subtle anomalies are overcome by repeat readings at a
fixed base station throughout the survey. Accurate topographic leveling is carried
out at each station in order to correct for the effects of terrain.
35. 35. Fig: Gravimeter
36. 36. * GEOTHERMAL METHOD * Radiometric Surveys * Radiometric surveys involve
the measurement of gamma radiation resulting from natural radioactive sources.
Instruments are available to measure either total count or provide spectral
information on individual elements such as uranium, thorium and potassium in
order to identify specific sources of radiation. Modern multispectral meters capable
of measuring up to 256 channels are being increasingly used in environmental
mapping. Radiometric measurements are primarily used in mineral exploration but
 can also be applied to the detection of faults, location of caves and for mapping
contamination.
37. 37. • RECENT DEVELOPMENTS FOR HIGHWAY ENGINEERS • AUTOMATIC ROAD
ANALYZER (ARAN) – FUGRO INC. • The ARAN is a network of tightly integrated
subsystems that synchronously collect accurate and reliable data for roadway
infrastructure management applications.
38. 38. • ARAN ROAD SURVEY VEHICLE
39. 39. • Description • Automatic Road Analyser (ARAN) is one of the most advanced
platforms available for collecting pavement condition and road asset data, providing
you with a safe, accurate, reliable and cost effective understanding of the condition
of your infrastructure. • The ARAN system adds new technology to the Australasian
market with advancements on the currently available systems, particularly in the
area of locational accuracy and repeatability. The system is a modular solution that
can be reconfigured to meet the specific data collection needs of users.
40. 40. • FRAME DIAGRAM OF THE ARAN SURVEY VEHICLE
41. 41. Laser Roughness Measurement System The ARAN system enables: • Complete
roadside inventories extracted from specially calibrated digital video log images.
Inventories containing type, location, condition, measurements, unique identifiers,
etc. Data output can be formatted for subsequent import into a GIS or road asset
management software environment.
42. 42. • Data Generated • The integrated ARAN system enables us to collect the
following data sets in a single pass i.e. visual and laser simultaneously: i.
Longitudinal profile and roughness (IRI, NRM and HATI) ii. Transverse profile and
rut depth iii. Macrotexture depth, Mean Profile Depth (MPD) and Estimated Texture
Depth (ETD) iv. Surface distress (Post) rating (Cracking, Potholes, etc.)
43. 43. •Characteristics: • * High definition digital images • * Measure transverse
profiles up to 4m wide • * Multiple data sets collected in a single pass • * High
precision positioning system • * Curvature, gradient, crossfall and slope data • *
Road profile data capture • * Texture data
44. 44. * Digital Video * The ARAN is fitted with HDTV cameras which capture Right-of-
Way images allowing you to virtually view the road from the comfort and safety of
your office. * The ARAN platform offers a variety of video logging options to suit
every need and budget. Correlate images with road condition data and geometry
information to get the complete picture for efficient asset management and decision
making.
45. 45. • Analyzing Section in the ARAN Road Survey Vehicle
46. 46. * Laser Roughness Measurement System * The Laser SDP is a longitudinal profile
measurement system that provides road profile data capture and real- time
roughness index calculations using a combination of high-speed lasers and
accelerometers. * The Laser SDP samples at 12.5 mm intervals and measures bumps
as short as 100 mm at variable speeds up to 100 km/h without loss of accuracy
(Type 1 Profiler). 64kHz lasers are used to define mean profile depth, which can in
turn be used to determine the Estimated Texture Depth or Equivalent Sand Patch
Texture Depth. Based on the South Dakoda Profiler (SDP), it is accepted as a Class A
device under ASTM950.
47. 47. Laser Roughness Measurement System
48. 48. * Laser Rut Measurement System * The laser rut measurement system (LRMS) is
a vehicle mounted subsystem that uses dual scanning lasers to accurately measure
transverse profiles up to 4m wide. * The transverse profile is measured in order to
calculate the depth of roadway rutting. By measuring the complete profile instead of
just the ruts, the effect of vehicle wander on measured rut values is eliminated. The
LRMS uses two synchronized, laser- based devices to measure the transverse profile
of a 4m lane width, with a lateral resolution of approximately 1,280 points – this is
in contrast to existing systems whic h only measure up to 15 points.
49. 49. Laser Rut Measurement System
50. 50. • Part of the Processed Data.
51. 51.  CONCLUSION: * Conclusively, successful implementation of a geophysical
survey depends on the following: *A comprehensive survey design that specifies the
set of techniques chosen for a survey (multiple techniques are requisite for a
thorough site investigation), the order in which the techniques are implemented, the
size and location of the survey grid applied, and the compatibility of the techniques
with the site (that is, compatible with geology and physical access). *An experienced
geophysicist contractor who is skilled in multiple geophysical methods and
knowledgeable about the physical and historic context of the survey and the nature
of the expected results.
52. 52. Possible limitations of geophysical surveys include the following: Geophysical
surveys are equipment-intensive and may be expensive to conduct. Geophysical
survey equipment cannot distinguish between cultural and geologic anomalies.
Geophysical survey techniques are limited to near-surface detection. There are
limits to the depth and scale of resolution. Geophysical survey equipment may not
detect subtle contrasts or weak signals. If the contrast between the sought-after
archeological material and incubating soil is small, detection is hindered. Erroneous
readings may occur as a result of distortion from nearby cultural entities with
physical or electromagnetic properties, such as subterranean utilities, power lines,
metal fences, transmission towers, buildings, roads, railroads, aircraft, and two-way
radios.
53. 53. END OF PRESENTATION THANK YOU FOR LISTENING
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