Subido, Lorraine Anne O.

BSTFT-II A

1. The History of Knitting

Knitting is a technique of making fabric with yarn on two or

more needles. The word “knitting” comes from the word
“knot”. Knitting is made of wool, silk, and other fibers. The
first pieces of clothing made in the technique similar to knitting
were socks. These socks were done with Nålebinding which is a
technique that uses single needle and thread. There are ideas that
knitting began in Middle East, from there came to Europe
through Mediterranean trade routes and then to the Americas
from Europe.

The oldest knitted items have been found in Egypt and are dated between the 11th and 14th
centuries AD. Spanish Christian royal families employed Muslim knitters and their works are the
earliest known knitted items in Europe. They were very skillful and made many different items
like cushion covers and gloves. Archeological findings from the many cities of Europe show that
knitting spread throughout Europe in the 14th century. During 16th century, knitting spreads
through Britain. On the Scottish Isles, during the 17th and 18th centuries, knitting becomes
preoccupation of many. There were cases of whole families who did knitting as a form of a job
and it became an important source of their income. Sweaters were one of the major items that
were knitted because they proved useful to the local fishermen of these islands. In time, many
elaborate designs were developed.

Before Industrial revolution there were mechanical

ideas for faster knitting but they didn’t spread too far.
When the revolution started, machines appeared that
did wool spinning, cloth manufacturing and even for
knitting lace. During the 1920s, White Russians that
lost the Civil War fled to China and showed the craft of
knitting to Chinese caravan men, who used camel hair
as a material for knitting.

During the Second World War, British wartime

government department, the Ministry of Information,
started action for people to make knitted items for the
Army and Navy to wear in winter. Because wool was in
short supply they encouraged people to unpick old unwearable woolen items so they could re-use
the wool. Action was also a matter of moral. It showed soldiers that people at home where
thinking of them and it gave to people at home a positive sense of contributing to the war effort.
After the war knitting again became popular because many new colors appeared along with new
designs and patterns for knitting. Children were also thought knitting in schools. In 1980s
machine-knitted items became so cheap comparing to handmade that interest for and popularity
of hand-knitting started to decline.

With the beginning of the 21st century knitting starts to be popular again. Reason for this
popularity is "Handmade Revolution" and ease of finding information on the internet. The more
exotic natural fibers from animals, such as alpaca, angora, and merino and plant fibers have
become easier and less costly to find in this day as well as designs and patterns thanks, again, to
internet. Knitters can also connect easier over the internet and exchange experiences. Another
new phenomenon appeared at the same time- yarn bombing which is a type of graffiti where
people cover public objects with meters and meters of knitted fabric.

2. Hand Knitting Tools and Materials and their Functions

1. Needles
There are three types of knitting needles:
a. Straight Needles
Straight needles are used for most rectangular
projects, like scarves and washcloths.
b. Circular Needles
Circular needles are two needle heads connected to a cord.
You need them for larger projects, like blankets, because
they can hold more stitches than straight needles. They are
also used for projects that are worked in the round, like
hats or the body of a seamless sweater.
These needles vary by needle size and by cord length, from 9″ to 60.″ If you do a lot of knitting
you might want to get a circular needle kit which will offer greater flexibility: Rather than
buying a needle for each project, a kit allows you to mix and match the cord length and the
needle size. Plus, if your project calls for changing needle size part way through, all you have to
do is scrunch your stitches onto the cord and switch out the needle heads.
c. Double-Point Needles
Double-point needles are used for smaller projects joined in the round, like mittens or the crown
of a hat. Often, you will start a project on circular needles, then switch to double points as you
get close to binding off.

2. Yarn

Yarn is a long continuous length of

interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the
production of textiles, sewing, crocheting,
 knitting, weaving, embroidery, or ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing
by hand or machine.

3. Scissors
You’ll need a pair of scissors to cut the yarn when you finish your project or want to switch to
switch colors. Really, whatever scissors you have on hand will do the trick! As you knit more,
though, you may want to grab a smaller pair of snips that you can take with you on the go.

4. Tapestry Needle
The most basic tool in any knitter’s kit, a tapestry needle is a large sewing needle, with an eye
big enough to accommodate bulky yarn. You’ll use the needle to weave in the tails of yarn left
after you bind off your project.

5. Stitch Markers

These small, colorful rings slip on your needles to

mark particular points in your pattern. Some
markers can be clipped directly onto a stitch if
you need to mark a spot on the project itself to
come back to later in the pattern.

6. Stitch Holders

A stitch holder is like a large safety pin.

When a pattern calls for you to set some
stitches aside to come back to later, you
simply slip those stitches onto a holder.

7. Measuring Tape
Some patterns call for a number of inches, rather than a number of rows. A flexible measuring
tape will be indispensable, especially when making pairs of things, like mittens or sleeves. You
don’t want to guess that your sleeves are the same length.
8. Crochet Hook
Crochet hooks are not just for crochet! You can use them for many different tasks, from picking
up dropped stitches to making a provisional cast-on.

9. Row Counter
Some patterns require you to keep track of exactly how many rows you have knit, and a row
counter helps you keep an accurate count. Some row counters slip onto your needle and have a
number dial you change after each row. Some have a simple button you click. And, yes, there are
smart phone apps for that, too.

10. Swift and Winder

11. Washi Tape or Sticky Notes

It can be difficult to find your place on a chart, even if you’re keeping count of the rows. To
solve that problem, just place washi tape or a sticky note right below the row of the chart that
you’re working on to make reading that row much easier. Because you can lift and re-stick washi
tape, you can just keep moving it up the chart as you stitch without damaging your pattern.

12. Yarn Guide

Yarn guides help you hold two colors at

the same time without them getting all
tangled. Plus, the tool helps you to keep an
even tension as you knit.
13. Needle Gauge
Needle gauges are excellent for travel since few of us actually travel with a tape measure. Not
only are these gauges good for figuring out the sizes of knitting needles that are unmarked, but
they’re also awesome for checking gauge and measuring your work.

14. Yarn Bobbins

You could use these bobbins to make pulling the yarn easier, sure, or you can use them to store
scrap yarn! If your scrap yarn is getting tangled in storage, consider separating each scrap with a
bobbin. You can even tuck the scrap yarn label between the yarn and the bobbin so you won’t
forget what the scrap is.

15. Yarn Threader

When working with tricky fibers like mohair, threading a tapestry needle is no easy feat. If
you’re planning to work with lofty fibers or light lace-weight fibers, a yarn threader will save
you time.

16. Needle Caps

Before you take a knitting

break, place these adorable little caps
on the end of your needles to ensure
no stitches slip off while your project
is in your knitting bag. In a pinch,
they can also be used to turn a
double-point needle into a straight
needle.

17. Wool Wash Kit

Washing your knits for the first time can be scary, especially when you're working with more
expensive yarns. A wool wash kit takes all the guesswork out of it, giving you a mild soap and
even a special basin just for knits. Beginners will just need to check out the yarn label to see the
care instructions.
 3.Different Machine for Knitting

Weft Knitting Machine

Weft Knitting Machines are used to

make weft knitted fabrics by just a
single yarn. Knitting in weft is a more
common method than warp knitting. In
Weft knitting, the looms are knitted
horizontally in a circular form from left
to right of the fabric. Weft knits are
made from a yarn fed into the circular
knitting machine needles.

Warp Knitting Machine

On the other hand, Warp knitting is

done by knitting in a zigzag pattern
along the fabric area. While weft
knitting is done by knitting across the
fabric, Warp knitting is accomplished
by running knits through adjacent
wales or columns.

Both Warp knitting machines and Weft

Knitting machines can be further classified into many types of knitting machines listed below.
Circular Knitting Machine

A Circular Knitting machine is one of the most popular

knitting machines in use today. Even hobbyists make use
of a small circular knitting machine such as an Addi
Express Knitting Machine to create their own knitted
pieces such as sweaters, gloves, scarfs and many small
diameters sized creations. 

The mechanism of the industrial Circular Knitting

Machines used to create apparels in large volumes and
fast production rates is simple. Fabrics are knitted in
spiral and cast on. The circle of stitches are joined
forming seamless tubes. The layers it produces are
counted on as the number of rows.

Machines of this type can produce a wide range of

diameter from 12 inches to 60 inches. It can knit a variety
of sportswear and fashion clothing and apparel in an incredibly fast rate.

Single Jersey Circular Knitting Machine

The Single Jersey Circular knitting machine is a

modern machine and has a simpler design than the
Rib Machine
Double Jersey Circular Knitting Machine
This type of circular knitting machine has two forms, known as Rib Machine or Interlock
Machine. In the Double Jersey Circular Knitting Machine, two sets of needles are contained in
the machine. 

The cylinder has one set and the dial has the other set of the needle. The dial and cylinder
needles are arranged in a perpendicular manner. Cylinder cams and Dial cams are two different
set of cams takes control of the knitting action. This arrangement can either be interlocked or
ribbed while producing the fabric. 

Rib Circular Knitting Machine

The most notable feature of the Rib Circular

Knitting Machine is the rib structure it forms on
the fabric. A rib structure is formed by the face
and back loops occurring along the coarse
successively while the loops of the wales remain
the same. 

Two sets of needles are used in a perpendicular position with each other. Both the dial and
cylinder revolves with the cam systems of the feeders remaining stationary. Cylinder needles
move vertically while the dial needles move horizontally.

Interlock Circular Knitting Machine

Interlock is a 1×1 rib variant structure. Two sets of needles work in both cylinder and dial that
accomplishes at least two processes. With Interlock Circular Knitting Machines, purl structures
can also be made. These Purl fabrics are knitted on specialized machines allowing dual-ended
latch needles and special devices of drive them and form intermeshed loops in two directions.

Pique Circular Knitting Machine

Pique Circular Knitting Machines manufacturer textures with the waffle weave look of Pique
fabric. This type of fabric differs from your jersey clothing as it has a rough-look texture whereas
jerseys have flat and smooth surfaces.
Straight Bar Knitting Machine

Straight bar knitting machine have bearded

needles on a vertical bar. Movement is
controlled by the accurately constructed cam
system. Divisions are equally distributed
along the length of the machine in a number
of heads. Each knitting head can knit
separately in a uniform way along the
garment panel.

 Single Needle Straight Bar Knitting Machine

Straight bar frames usually have a single needle bar. This configuration, however, makes it
incapable of knitting rib welts.

Double Needle Straight Bar Knitting Machine

Double-needle straight bar knitting machines have horizontal and vertical needle bar for knitting
rib welts, but the performance of these machines are much slower than the previous machine
type.

Flat Bar Knitting Machine

Flat Bar Knitting machines are most suitable for

flat or 3D creations but is also applicable in
creating tubular knits like circular knitting machines. In this type of fabric knitting machine, the
needles are arranged on a straight bar. The mechanism follows a back and forth movement of the
carriage containing the yarn feeders through a horizontal path. 

Flat Bed or V-Bed Flat Knitting Machine

A “Flat” or Vee Bed knitting machine has
two flat needle beds having an upside-
down “V” formation. Needle beds can
stretch up to 2.5 meters wide. A forward
and backward movement of the carriage
known as the Head or Cambox works to
move the knit, tuck and transfer stitches. 

This type of machine can make complex

knit designs and sophisticated stitching.
Knitting speed can be up to 0.5 m/s.

Raschel Warp Knitting Machine

Raschel Warp Knitting Machine makes warp

knits to form fabrics. In comparison with the
other warp knitting machine, the Tricot, Raschel
uses coarser yarns. In fact, there has recently
been interest in knitting staple yarns on these
machines. 

The mechanism is as follows. The warps are

twisted and locked with a loop from a
succeeding warp. This will then be shifted back
by another warp to the preceding layer of
knitting. Needles move in a steel plate known as
the trick plate. It functions to limit the top level of loops. 
 The pull of the yarn and sinkers limit the loops. This type of
machine has locking belts relatively perpendicular to the
plane of the shaking motion or shogging motion.

Tricot Warp Knitting Machine

Tricot machines produce warps knitted

fabrics that are finer than Raschel
Machines. Compound needles are used
in this type of machine. Warp yarns are
fed to the needles through the situated
guide bars by the shogging motion of
the machine.

Application of Tricot Knitting Machines

 Swimwear
 Underwear
 Sportswear
 Gloves

4. Different Hand Knitting Stitches

Garter Stitch

If you knit every row, you’ll end up with rows and rows of ridges. This is called garter stitch and
it is the most basic of all knitted fabric.

It’s knitting at its simplest form.

Stockinette Stitch

Stockinette (also known as stocking stitch) is created by alternating rows of knit stitches and purl
stitches. When this is done, it creates the signature knitting that most people know. There are
smooth little V’s on the front and ridge rows on the back.

Reverse Stockinette Stitch

This is exactly the same as stockinette stitch; alternating rows of knit and purl stitches. The only
difference is the ridge rows are considered the front of the piece and the V’s are considered the
back of the piece.

Rib Stitch

What would happen if you alternated stitches across the row (knit one stitch, purl one stitch) to
create columns of knits and purls. You’d end up with ribbing. This technique creates a highly
stretchable fabric which is why it is often used for collars, cuffs, and sweater bands.

Seed Stitch
Seed stitch consists of single knits and purls that alternate horizontally and vertically. Seed stitch
gets its name from the texture of the knitted fabric — the little purl bumps look like scattered
seeds. Although a little more complicated than the garter and stockinette stitches, seed stitch
creates an interesting texture and is included in many patterns.

Like garter stitch, seed stitch lies flat, making it a good edging for a sweater border and cuffs.
The knitted fabric also looks the same from both sides, making it a nice choice for scarves and
other pieces of which both sides are visible.

Beginner Lace Stitch

There are hundreds (if not thousands) of variations to knitting lace. All of them are just creating
patterns in the knitting by adding yarn overs (wrapping the yarn around the needle) and knitting
two stitches together.

One of the things people find intimidating about lace is that more intricate patterns often use
charts. The reason for this is so that the designer doesn’t have to write out line by line to create a
REALLY long knitting pattern. Plus, it cuts down on YOUR reading time. Charts allow you to
quickly glance at a row of instructions and know what is going to happen next.
Cable Stitch

Cabling is another stitch that seems very difficult, but once you see how it’s done, you’ll know
that it’s something you can do!

As with all of the other stitches we have discussed, cables are made using the same knits and
purls. The only difference is that to create the “cable”, you’ll be twisting one row of stitches.

Fair Isle

Knitting colorful pattern repeats into your work is known as “Fair Isle” or colorwork knitting.
This type of knitting uses those same knits and purls, but alternating colors to create interesting
and beautiful patterns.

Fair Isle knitting usually consist of two colors per row. The colors are carried along creating
floats along the back of the project. What’s important to know about Fair Isle is that since the
colors are carried across the color changes need to happen over just a few stitches.

This type of colorwork is used to created color patterns.

For example, knit five stitches in red, knit 2 in white, then change back to red. This allows the
floats to be carried comfortably.

Intarsia Knitting

Intarsia is also colorwork knitting but there is one key difference from Fair Isle. Fair Isle color
changes happen frequently across a row and both colors are carried along the back of the work.

With intarsia, the colors are NOT carried along the back - the colors are worked in sections.
You’ll work to the color change, drop the old color and pick up the new color. This type of
colorwork is most often used for motifs.

5. Different Woven Fabric Defects

Warp direction faults:

Material defects in the warp direction occur in the threads and are defined as follows:

a. Thick or thin end: 

A warp thread that differs in diameter from the surrounding normal ends.
 b. Tight or slack end:
 A warp thread, or part of a warp thread, that is tighter or slacker than the surrounding
normal ends.
c. Missing or broken end: 
The absence of a complete warp thread or part of a warp thread.
d. Broken pattern: Broken pattern is caused if warp yarn is broken when a pattern was
being created during weaving.
e. Double end: A thread, or part of a thread, in the warp, which has accidentally been
doubled.

f. Defective selvage:
 Selvage having warp yarn under high tension may cause pucker or wavy surface
resulting in defective selvage. Besides, selvage may be thick and thin and may possess
broken ends, temple mark, etc. Defective selvage may make the whole fabric defective
and fabric finishing difficult.
g. Warp streak: Streak running in warp direction. Group of yarns having different dye
shades may result in warp streak.
Testing for faults in the warp direction is conducted using a simple visual
assessment of the imperfections in the fabric to decide which would be unacceptable in a
garment. The number or faults in the fabric are then counted and their lengths are
measured. Faults are tolerated if the residual cloth width satisfies the terms of the
contract.

Weft direction faults:

Material defects in the weft direction also occur in the threads and are defined as
follows:
a. Thick or thin pick:
 A weft thread that differs in diameter from the corresponding normal picks.

b. Tight or slack pick:

 A weft thread, or part of a weft thread, that is tighter or slacker than the corresponding
normal picks.
c. Loose weft or Slough off or Snarl: 
When a bunch of or coil of yarn slips from the pirn during weaving then thick yarn
bunches or coils appear on the fabric.
d. Missing pick: 
The unintentional omission of one complete pick across the full width of the cloth .
e. Broken pick: 
A pick that is inserted for only part of the cloth width.
 f. Double pick: 
The thread or pieces of thread in the weft which form the woven structure but are
accidentally doubled.
g. Trailer: Weft yarn that has been pulled inadvertently into the fabric during weaving.
As with the assessment of faults in the warp direction, testing for faults in the weft
direction is also conducted using a simple visual assessment of the imperfections in the
fabric that would be deemed unacceptable in a garment, followed by a measurement of
their lengths. In this case however, no tolerance is permitted for faults detected using this
method of control.

Stripes in the warp:

Stripes or streaks in the warp, which extend either for part of the warp direction or
over its entire length and which show up as faults against the rest of the material, are
considered being faults in the fabric. A visual assessment of the fabric and the
measurement of the length of the stripes are sufficient tests to decide whether the
imperfections would be unacceptable in a garment. Stripe faults are tolerated if the
residual cloth width meets the terms of the contract.

 Bars in the weft:

Bars in the weft are defined as streaks, which occur over either the full or part of
the length of the weft direction and which show up against the rest of the piece. Again, a
visual assessment of the imperfections is used to decide whether they would be
unacceptable in a garment. The length of the bars is also measured if they occur in a
sequence. No tolerance is permitted for faults detected using this method of control.
Knot or slubs in the warp or weft threads:
Knot or slubs in some of the weft or warp threads are considered to be faults when
they are visible to an experienced person and when they spoil the appearance of the
fabric. This visual assessment is sufficient to test whether the faults would be
unacceptable in a garment and no tolerance is permitted for faults detected using this
method of control.
Mixed warp and weft:
If wrong yarn is used instead of correct one, this defect appears.

Faulty mending and burling, tears, holes and stains:

Faults caused by mending and burling, tears, holes and stains are defined as
follows:
 a. Faulty mending: poor appearance of repair on the surface of the fabric.

b. Faulty burling: 
The presence of faults which have not been removed during burling

c. Tears, cuts and holes: 

Various forms of cloth breakage.

d. Stains: 

Areas of the cloth that have been contaminated with impurities.

e. Iron Mark:
Sometimes iron marks appear in the fabric caused from rusted reed.
These types of faults are again tested using a visual assessment of the
imperfections and the measurement of their length to ascertain whether they are
unacceptable for use in a garment. No tolerance of these faults is permitted.

 Fabric pieces cut in several parts:

Fabric is deemed faulty if it is cut across the whole width in two or more parts, the total being
equal to the required length. Once it has been verified that the number of the separate parts
together makes up the length ordered, no tolerance of this fault is permitted.
 
Reed marks:
Reed marks may appear due to defective reed, improper warp tension denting.

 Rough cloth surface:

If fabric is weaving with yarn, under heavy tension or unbalanced tension then rough cloth
surface appears. In the weaving time, if un-steamed yarn is used then fabric surface becomes
dull.

Shuttle mark:
Shuttle mark appears along weft yarn and is caused due to friction with the shuttle.

Shading:
Shading is a common problem for dyed fabric. When color variation occurs from wrong
handling of fabric.

Mil-dew:
If fabric is kept in wet places in store then mil-dew occurs. This is caused due to fungal invasion.

Cracks/ open set mark:

 A higher pick density than the normal is referred to as starting mark while a lower pick
density is referred to as crack. This kind of defect is mainly caused by the mechanical faults in
the loom.

Tails out:
If the cutter doesn’t work properly, this fault is appears in woven fabric.

Gout or foreign matter:

Gout is a foreign matter like lint, waste, etc. that appears into the woven fabric. The main causes
to produce this kind of faults for improper loom cleaning and unclean environment.

Temple mark:
In the light woven fabric this kind of defects are appears. When yarns are misshapen from their
paths then holes are produced near the selvedges.

Float:
For producing float in a woven fabric, slack warp and faulty pattern card is the main reason.

Neppy:
For the excessive amount of neps in yarn, this kind of defect is found on woven fabric surface.

Misdraw/ wrong denting:

One or more ends are incorrectly drawn in the reed.

REFFERENCES:

http://www.historyofclothing.com/making-clothing/history-of-knitting/

https://www.mybluprint.com/article/17-things-every-knitter-needs

https://www.xdknitmachinery.com/types-of-knitting-machines/

https://blog.nobleknits.com/blog/2018/10/17/how-many-types-of-knitting-are-there

https://fashion2apparel.blogspot.com/2018/03/different-types-fabric-defects.html