MIN 4015

Drilling and Blasting

By

Prof. Thomson Sinkala

[email protected]

Mining Engineering Department

School of Mines, University of Zambia

MODULE 1:
The Science of Rock Drilling by
Percussive and Rotary Drilling Techniques

(For distribution only to registered students taking MIN 4015 course)

Contents of Module 1

 Drilling and rock breakage mechanisms

 Drilling in mining operations
 Principles of percussive and rotary drilling
 Understanding percussive and rotary drilling techniques
 WHAT IS DRILLING AND WHAT ARE THE
DIFFERENT ROCK BREAKAGE MECHANISMS?
Excavation can be defined as a process of creating a hole
in a substance.
Penetration mechanisms in rock can be classified based
on types of rock breakage.
The four primary rock breakage mechanisms are:
 chemical reaction;
 thermal spalling;
 melting (fusion) and vapourisation; and
 mechanical breakage
Chemical Reaction
A wide variety of chemicals can be
used to dissolve rock. Highly
reactive chemicals such as fluorine
can drill rock at high rates and
produce harmless by-products.

Safety problems and high chemical

costs preclude the use of these
chemicals for widespread drilling.
Thermal Spalling

Thermal spalling occurs when high

stresses produced by rapid surface
heating exceed the strength of the rock.

The volumetric expansion which quartz

undergoes during its alpha-to-beta
transition at 573 oC is a major factor in
this spalling mechanism.
Melting and Vaporization

The melting temperature of igneous rock ranges from

1100 to 1600 oC whereas limestone melts at 2600 oC.

Lasers and electron beams produce sufficient power

concentration to melt and vaporise all types of rock.

High energy requirements of these rock-melting

devices preclude their widespread use except for
drilling small diameter holes or for melting narrow
kerfs in conjunction with mechanical cutters.

Consequently, these devices can also be used to melt

narrow kerfs around large blocks of rock and remove
the rocks intact.
Mechanical Breakage
The rocks are mechanically
drilled by impact, abrasion
or erosion.

These mechanisms induce

tensile or shear stresses
which exceed the rock
strength and produce plastic
yielding or brittle failure.
Classification of rock penetration methods based on form of attack
Drilling in Mining Operations
 Examples of Mining Methods

Surface Mining

Surface + Underground Mining

The six main stages/categories in the
life of a mine are
 Prospecting;
 Exploration;
 Site/infrastructure development;
 Shaft sinking (for underground mines);
 Ore-body development;
 Ore-body exploitation; and
 Mine closure.
 Prospecting / Exploration Drilling

Core drilling Drill cores

Cross-section of
Rock structure
 Shaft Sinking

Shaft drills at work Cactus grab removing

broken rock

Shaft
https://www.behance.net/gallery/8799755/Industrial-Photography
Orebody

Drilling for
orebody
 Tunnel Drilling

Underground drilling machines Drift/drive/tunnel

 Surface/bench drilling

Surface/bench drilling machine Hole profile in a bench

 Principles of Drilling

We will mainly focus on percussive and rotary drilling

which are most commonly used in mining industry
The four main functional components of percussive and
rotary drilling systems related to utilization of energy in
attacking the rock
Drill
The drill is the energy source. It is the prime mover which
converts energy from its original form (fluid, electrical,
pneumatic or combustion engine drive) into mechanical
energy to actuate the system.

Drill steel
The rod (or drill steel, stem or pipe) transmits energy
from the prime mover (source) to the bit (applicator).
Bit
The bit is the applicator of energy in the system which attacks rock
mechanically to achieve penetration.

Circulation fluid
 cleans the hole,
 controls dust,
 cools the bit,
 lubricates the bit, and
 at times stabilizes the hole.
For rock drilling in mining industry, the two main
ways of energy transfer forms are:

 Percussion, and
 rotation + thrust

The two techniques have a long history in their

application.

An early use of percussive drilling involved a sledge

and hammer, while rotary drilling was done by rolling
a tool between palms of hands.
 Early
Percussive
and
Rotary
Drilling
Feed force
(Thrust)

Torque
(Rotation)
While these basic drilling principles remain much
the same today, there are however changes in
the level of mechanisation and power of the
drills because:
hole applications have evolved, even where purposes have
remained the same;
scarcity of minerals, gas, coal, oil, etc at shallow depths has
given rise to drilling of deeper holes;
increase in industrial activity and diversity of mineral
use have resulted in drilling methods which give
higher outputs;

demand for better safety, health and environment

have influenced improvements in the sophistication
of drill rigs; and

economic constraints have led to reduction in human

labour where possible and/or necessary.
Understanding Percussive And
Rotary Drilling Techniques
Key Parameters in Percussive Drilling
There are four externally induced drilling parameters
involved in percussive drilling, namely:
 Percussion,
 feed (thrust),
 rotation or indexation (torque), and
 Flushing.
Understanding PERCUSSION in percussive drilling
Consider the diagram with the following assumptions:

the piston and rod have same material properties;

both the piston and the rod behave elastically;
only longitudinal wave velocity, hence longitudinal strain, are considered;
the piston and rod have the same magnitudes of cross-sectional area (A); and
the stress applied on the left end of the bar is uniformly distributed.
Let, p = pressure of fluid at the back of the piston
d = travel distance between rest position of the piston and the point
where it strikes the rod
m = mass of piston
v = velocity with which the piston strikes the rod
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
 = density of the material
c = sonic velocity at which stress wave travels in materials

p
Then, force F acting at the back of the piston due to fluid pressure is given by
F = pA (Eq. 1)
The impact energy of the piston is just kinetic energy, given by
e = Fd = mv2/2 (Eq. 2)
When stress is induced at point 3, its action is not instantaneously transmitted to
all parts of the rod, until the wave has time to reach the respective parts.

The uniform compression of an infinitely thin layer which is produced travels in a

manner shown by the shaded area, at stress wave velocity (c).
At time t, the compressed part of the bar is
R = ct (Eq. 3.3)
while the remaining part is at rest.
Compression forces induce velocity (u) to particles in the compressed zone.
The compressed zone (shaded in the Figure) shortens by an amount:

r ct  R (Eq. 3.4)
E
Consider the left end of the shaded portion in the Figure.
At time t = 0, particle velocity u = 0
At time t = t, particle velocity u = u
Equating the change in momentum of the length R to impulse, we have
momentum = impulse of compressive force
mass x velocity = force x time

Act.u = A.t (Eq. 3.5)

From where
(HOME WORK: Check/prove Equations 3.5 to 3.9 , Submit by next Tuesday lecture !!)
 c.
u  (Eq. 3.6)
c E

Therefore

c = (E/) (Eq. 3.7)

and is independent of compressive force.

Also

E
c ( ) {Eq. 3.8)


and is proportional to the stress .

Hence, the velocity of the left end of the bar is just equal to the velocity of
particles in the compressed zone.
 The Total Energy in the Rod
Therefore, based on the above results, the total energy acquired by the rod at
time (t) is:

W = kinetic energy (KE) + stored strain energy (PE)

1 r 1 
= (  . t. A)u 2  ( . A.)( .c.t )
2 t 2 E

1 1 2
= A(c.t ) u  A(ct )
2

2 2 E

1 1 u 2
E. 
= A(ct ) u  A(ct )
2

2 2 E
 Hence, Total Energy

W = (0.5xKE) + (0.5xPE)

2
W = A(ct ) (Eq. 3.9)
E

Because of problems of drill steel fatigue, the impact velocity of the piston is
limited to between 9 - 11 meters per second in actual drilling, for most modern
rock drills.

In practice, only a fraction of the stress wave energy is utilised to disintegrate rock
as part of it is lost in drill string joints, and in form of elastic waves in the rock.
The power (P) of a percussive mechanism is given by

P= ne = 0.5nmv2 (Eq. 3.10)

Where n = the stroke frequency, Hz

e = impact energy of the piston, Nm
p = power (W)
Understanding THRUST in percussive drilling
The functions of the feed force, which either comprises of the operator (hand-held
machines) or a mechanical device are to:

Feed screw
 support the drilling machine
 maintain the bit in firm contact with rock each time the stress wave reaches the bit.
 restrain the recoil movement of the machine due to acceleration and retardation of
the piston in the cylinder.
To obtain maximum penetration rate, a drill system must be stable.
Theoretically, the impact energy of the piston, the stiffness of the drill
system, and the resilience of the rock determine the thrust required.
A simple relationship for predicting the optimum thrust is given as:
f =0.5PA (Eq. 3.11)
for pneumatic rock drills.
Insufficient thrust results in
 wastage of impact energy,
 damage to drill strings (especially threads), and
 lower penetration rates.
On the other hand too much thrust results in damage and/or buckling
of drill strings.
Buckling of drill strings gives rise to hole deviations
 Understanding INDEXATION/ROTATION in percussive drilling
When the compressed zone (R in Figure 1 below) reaches the bit end, the inserts
on the surface of the bit displace rock due to strain energy contained in the zone.

Insert bit

Button bit
Figure 1 Figure 2

To break loose the penetrated rock fabric and to move inserts to new positions
before arrival of successive stress waves, the percussion machine must also be
capable of turning (rotating/indexing) the bit after every piston impact (Figure 2).
 10 – 20 oC

Related to bit type,

the rotation (see
Figure) between
consecutive blows is
about 80-160 r.p.m.
(10o – 20o turn after Insert bit
5 – 7 oC
every blow) for insert
bits, and 40-50 r.p.m.
(5o – 7o turn after
every blow) for
button bits, to avoid
gauge wear.
Button bit
The energy per unit volume is a minimum at a certain indexing angle, and is the optimal indexing angle for
a given rock. Furthermore, the minimum energy per unit volume is independent of applied impact energy.
Figure below shows results from investigations on indexing. For a given rock, the optimum indexing angle
and the applied impact energy appear to be roughly related by:

I1/I2 = e1/e2 (Eq. 3.12)

where: I = indexing angle

e = impact energy

Too low a rotation speed results in low penetration rate while too high rotation speed results in loss of
impact energy and steel wear is accelerated.
Key Parameters in Rotary Drilling
There are three externally induced drilling parameters
involved in rotary drilling, namely:
 feed (thrust),
 rotation or indexation (torque), and
 Flushing. Rotation
Feed

Rotation Feed

Flushing
When thrust advances bit inserts/buttons (eg. cemented carbide
buttons) into rock, torque will cause the bit to rotate in order to break
the displaced rock in shear.

Understanding ROTATION in rotary drilling

The power necessary is a product of torque required to rotate the bit
and the rotational speed of the bit. This is expressed as:
Hp = 2NT/33000 (Eq. 3.16)
Where:
Hp = rotary horse power (1hp = 745.7 W)
N = rotary speed, (rpm)
 = bit torque (ft-lb), (l ft-lb + 1.3558 J)
For a given hole size, bit torque generally increases with

 increase in thrust on bit, and

 increased rock penetration by buttons.

Normally, drills are designed to have a torque capability between

0.1356 and 0.2712 kg-m per 54kg of thrust, although in rotary
drilling this amount is rarely necessary.
 Understanding THRUST in rotary drilling
This thrust is a pull-down force applied on to the bit.
Unlike in percussive drilling where thrust is used mainly to keep the bit in contact with
rock between successive stress waves, in rotary drilling thrust advances bit inserts into
rock which is sheared by bit rotation i.e. thrust is involved in the actual felling of the
rock fabric.
The required thrust on bit generally depends on

 hole size, and

 compressive strength of rock.

It can vary from 0.5 ton to 4 ton per inch (2.543 cm) diameter from soft to hard rocks,
respectively. The maximum feed force (F) is often set at:
F = 0.5Wr (Eq. 3.17)
where W = weight of the drill rig.
Depending on the type of bit and inserts onto it, there are three
main classifications of rotary drilling (see Figures below), thus:

 rotary crushing
 rotary cutting (including auger drilling) Diamond inserts
 rotary abrasive or diamond drilling

Rotary crushing Rotary cutting Auger drilling Rotary abrasive /

diamond drilling
Key Components of Core Drilling Head

Core drilling assembly

 Understanding FLUSHING in drilling
Flushing of drill holes is a necessity for both percussive
and rotary drill holes.
To obtain a clean new surface for bit-rock contact the Flushed rock
broken rock cuttings are flushed out using suitable fluid cuttings
through a central hole in the rod and suitable passage
in the drill bit.
The cuttings are transported out of the hole usually
through the space between drill string and the walls of
holes.
For downward drilling, however, gravity tends to pull
cuttings towards the bottom and the velocity with
which cuttings fall towards the bottom of the hole is
known as slip velocity.
This is one of the reasons why it is always necessary to
provide annular velocity (upward direction) greater Flushing
than slip velocity, to be able to remove cuttings.
Design of flushing holes

Flushing holes for fluid

transmission to bit-rock interface
The annular velocity is a function of:
 size of the hole
 Conditions of the hole,
 output of pump,
 size of inner diameter of drill rod, and
 clearance between outside diameter of the rod (and drill
collar when used) and walls of holes.
The type of flushing fluid used depends mainly on the
 rock being drilled,
 its availability, and
 environmental conditions/demands.
Disadvantages of insufficient flushing include
 greater risk of drill string and/or bit getting jammed,
 lower penetration rates due to wastage of impact energy,
 increased gauge wear, and
 increased hole deviations.
 Common Flushing Media
WATER
This is mainly used underground and in
any areas where the dust generated
would become a health hazard.
The dust formed is bound by water.
For downward drilling water flushing
velocities are recommended to be within
0.4 to 1.0 meters/second, in order to
achieve effective cleaning of a hole.
Drilling underground
 AIR
This is very common in
surface drilling, and the dust
is collected using dust
collectors.
Dust collector
Air flushing velocities are
recommended to be about
15 to 20m/s for percussive
drilling, and 30 to 45 m/s for Drill cuttings

rotary drilling.
Surface Drilling
 FOAM
Basically, foam complements flushing
by air because it becomes easier to lift
cuttings.

Since overburden rock in surface

drilling is often unconsolidated
coupled with presence of cavities,
foam flushing becomes useful because
the medium also serves to seal and
lubricate walls of holes.
Unconsolidated rock formation
 MUD
This is often a mixture of clay
and water and is used in
unconsolidated rock
formations to both stabilize
holes and flush out rock
cuttings.

It is also mainly used in surface

Drilling mud filling cavities and
drilling. stabilizing holes
End of Module 1