EconomicDesign PlateGirder Bridge PDF
EconomicDesign PlateGirder Bridge PDF
EconomicDesign PlateGirder Bridge PDF
RICHARD P. KNIGHT
As a service to the bridge design profession, Bethlehem Steel up to around 200 ft (61 m), representing a majority of the
has conducted hundreds of studies of steel plate girder bridge population. Continuity and composite design are
bridges using its Preliminary Bridge Girder Optimization assumed because these features combine to save 20% or
Program. The program is unique because it optimizes plate more in main girder cost compared to simple span non-
girder designs on the basis of least cost, not least weight. An composite designs. Therefore, only continuous composite
evaluation of many study results leads to a number of designs will be discussed.
guidelines which are offered in this paper. When applied by
the bridge designer, these guidelines should result in PRELIMINARY BRIDGE GIRDER
economical steel plate girder designs for continuous OPTIMIZATION STUDIES
composite bridges with span lengths of up to approximately
Most of the guidelines are based on the hundreds of studies
200 ft (61 m), representing a majority of the bridge
accomplished with Bethlehem Steel's Preliminary Bridge
population.
Girder Optimization Program over more than a decade.
Comparisons of various parameters are made on a cost
Certain material and fabrication costs are built into the
index basis. These subjects are discussed: load factor vs.
program, allowing comparisons to be made on a cost index
working stress design, weathering steel, painted high-strength
basis. The cost indices cited are based on the fabricated main
steel, number of girders in a cross section, optimum web
girder material only. Other components, such as diaphragms,
depth and thickness, transverse vs. longitudinal web
bearings, deck slab, etc. would have to be evaluated before
stiffeners, flanges and flange splices, plus other
selecting a final superstructure design. Also, it may be noted
considerations leading to cost effective steel plate girders for
that the difference between cost indices sometimes seems
bridges.
small. This is because all comparisons are between designs
In the design of steel plate girder bridges, it used to be
which are optimum for their respective parameters.
sufficient to determine a least weight solution and develop it
as a complete set of plans for competitive bidding. That was
DESIGN METHOD
believed to be the most economical design. However, over
the past several years, many improvements have been made Within the 200-ft (61-m) span range, Load Factor Design
in design and analysis methods, materials and construction (LFD) produces savings of 5 to 12% compared to Working
techniques, obliging the designer to consider an increased Stress Design (WSD). For spans longer than 200 ft (61 m),
number of options. Today's heightened competition due to LFD saves from 12 to 20%. This increasing cost advantage
alternate bidding practices, including contractor sponsored of LFD as spans become longer is a function of the increase
alternates, makes it further incumbent upon all concerned in the proportion of dead load to live load as spans increase
with steel bridge design and construction to always strive for in length. Dead loads can be predicted with greater certainty
the most cost-effective solution. than live loads. Therefore, with LFD, dead loads carry a
lower factor of safety than live loads. LFD is the clear
ECONOMICAL GUIDELINES economical choice compared to WSD.
This paper will present some features of economical steel However, some states have used a higher HS live loading
plate girder bridges and offer some guidelines. Application of for LFD than for WSD, or they have increased the beta factor
these guidelines by the bridge designer will, in most cases, above the value in the standard AASHTO formula. The cost
result in economical steel plate girder designs for continuous for using such modified Load Factor Designs is about the
composite bridges with span lengths same as for Working Stress Designs. The LFD method should
not be modified through increases in live loading or beta
factors unless such increases represent a decision to upgrade
Richard P. Knight is an Engineer in the Construction Marketing loadings in general without regard to design method. Using
vision, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. greater loadings for LFD than for WSD effectively nullifies
This paper was presented at the National Bridge Conference, June the cost advantage of LFD which for equivalent conditions is
1, 1983. the clear economical choice over WSD.
the overall optimum depth are only slightly more costly for Figure 4 shows how girder cost varies with web thickness
both hybrid and homogeneous solutions. This is beneficial in for a given depth. The difference in cost between web
situations where the optimum depth girder cannot be used, thicknesses varied by 1/16-in. (1.6-mm) increments is relatively
such as having to limit structure depth to meet small as the curves are traced in the direction of the thicker webs
underclearance requirements. For whatever reason, for from their lowest, or optimum, points. Figure 4 is intended to
hybrid or homogeneous designs, web depths may be demonstrate that, for spans up to 200 ft, a designer can select a
increased or decreased several inches from the optimum web thickness 1/16 in. thinner than the unstiffened web and rest
without significant cost penalty. assured that he has not incurred undue cost penalty if his
selection does not happen to be the actual cost optimum. For
Web Thickness purposes of this paper, the only way to determine the actual cost
Very seldom does the Bethlehem program determine an optimum is through use of the Bethlehem program.
overall optimum solution having an unstiffened or fully The dissimilarity in the shape of the two curves in Fig. 4
stiffened web. The optimùm usually falls somewhere is linked to tension field action which is not permitted in the
between. For spans up to approximately 150 ft (45.7 m), the load factor design of hybrid girders. This is why Fig. 4
web thickness for the optimum solution is usually 1/16 in. indicates a thicker web for the optimum hybrid girder than
(1.6 mm) thinner than the unstiffened design, requiring for the optimum homogeneous girder. The thinner optimum
nominal stiffening. As span lengths increase, the optimum web thickness occurs on the homogeneous girder because
web thicknesses tend to be thinner than the unstiffened design tension field action may be included when evaluating web
by increments larger than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). Sometimes the strength. This phenomenon is mentioned in the discussion
increment is as large as ¼ in. (6.4 mm). that follows on longitudinal stiffening.
deck/multi-girder design vs. a precast-deck/two-girder design 4. Designs should use the fewest number of girders
were within 3%, even though there were site constraints compatible with deck design and other factors. It is
working against the latter. This is encouraging for the future suggested a girder spacing of 10 ft (3.05 m) be
of precast decks and wide-girder spacings in new considered the minimum for economical results.
construction. Certainly this concept deserves serious 5. Transverse stiffeners (except diaphragm connections)
consideration. should be placed on only one side of the web.
6. Web depth may be varied several inches greater or
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
lesser than the optimum without significant cost penalty.
Within the present state of the art there are possibilities for 7. A nominally stiffened web (1/16 in. or 1.6 mm thinner
improving economy, such as: (1) omission of bottom lateral than unstiffened) will be the cost optimum or very close
bracing as covered by new AASHTO empirical methods, (2) to it.
use of elastomeric bearings or pot bearings instead of
8. Designs with web thickness which varies by field
expensive, custom-fabricated steel rocker bearings and (3)
section are suggested.
use of composite construction in negative moment regions
over the piers. Even if negative moment regions are designed 9. Longitudinally stiffened designs should not be
as non-composite, there is a statement of AASHTO allowing considered for spans less than 300 ft (91.5 m).
inclusion of the whole deck slab in the section properties of 10. Use no more than three plates (two shop splices) in the
negative moment regions when calculating maximum live top or bottom flange of field sections up to 130-ft (39.6-
load deflections. It is possible that steel plate girder designs m) long. In some cases, a single-flange plate size should
have been made unnecessarily conservative because this be carried through the full length of the field section.
provision was overlooked. 11. An average of about 700 lbs. (318 kg) of flange
material should be saved to justify the introduction of a
SUMMARY flange splice.
Most of the guidelines developed in this paper are derived 12. Use constant flange widths within field sections.
from the many studies accomplished with Bethlehem Steel's 13. Haunched girder designs should not be considered for
Preliminary Bridge Girder Optimization Program. These most conventional cross sections until spans exceed 400
guidelines apply to spans up to 200 ft (61 m) in length, a ft (122 m).
majority of the bridge population, although some also apply
to longer spans. 14. Omit bottom lateral bracing where permitted by
AASHTO.
1. Load Factor Design (LFD) is more economical than
Working Stress Design (WSD). Modifying LFD by 15. Use elastomeric bearings or pot bearings in lieu of
imposing higher loads than on WSD nullifies the usual custom-fabricated steel bearings.
cost advantage of LFD. 16. Consider use of composite construction in negative
2. Unpainted A588 weathering steel is the most economical moment regions.
design. Properly designed in the appropriate Probably the most influential of these guidelines are use
environment, weathering steel bridges are more of (1) Load Factor Design, (2) unpainted weathering steel
economical than those requiring painting of the whole and (3) minimum number of girders in the cross section.
structure. These three should always be the first consideration.
3. The most economical painted design is hybrid. Painted 50 Application of all these guidelines in the design office
ksi (345 MPa) homogeneous designs are a close second. should lead to economical steel plate girder bridges.