Unit 8 Assignment Template

Annotated Bibliography
Introduction
Leading teachers in the twenty-first century school can seem daunting. With PLC teams,
administrative requirements, testing, and district initiatives, to name a few, being a leader in an
environment that is ever-changing and evolving to meet the needs of new learners every year, is
very difficult. Staying current on the latest research as it pertains to leading collaborative teams,
shared leadership and decision making, setting and reaching goals, promoting rigorous discourse,
leading for continuous improvement, and promoting a digital culture are key best practices to
take into consideration when moving teachers towards a digital-age school. Based on research, a
teacher leader must develop and establish key leadership characteristics to promote this culture
and help teachers improve their abilities based on these core characteristics.

1
 Articles

Resource #1
Title of resource:
Digital Competencies and long-term ICT integration in school culture: The perspective of
elementary school leaders
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Blau, I., & Shamir-inbal, T. (2017). Digital competences and long-term ICT integration in school
culture: The perspective of elementary school leaders. Education and Information Technologies,
22(3), 769-787. doi:http://dx.doi.org.library.capella.edu/10.1007/s10639-015-9456-7
Summary
In this article, the authors’ quantitative study examined how leaders of technology
integration in educational institutions, namely school principals and ICT facilitators, assess
systemic changes that occurred in their schools. Their research questions explored the predictors
of the general school’s ICT culture and its changes over time in its culture and its components.
An online questionnaire was distributed to all elementary schools in the Northern District of
Israel. Surveys will filled out jointly by the school principal and ICT facilitator. In total, 392
questionnaires were analyzed. Their findings indicated that there were significant changes
between third and fourth years of schools integrating ICT and its components. Those components
of ICT integration include digital competence of teachers, collaboration type, digital content and
design, and e-communication mode.
The program included the integration of ICT in curriculum on a daily basis, e-
collaboration among teachers and e-teamwork of students, the use and design of digital learning
materials, connections between classroom and students’ home, visibility of homework activities
through class websites and LMS, and promotion e-communication among teaching staff,
students, and parents as an integral part of the organizational culture. Questionnaires were sent to
428 Israeli elementary schools with a total of 392 responses that were obtained. School
principals and ICT facilitators were asked to fill out the survey jointly during a face-to-face
setting and assess the ongoing integration within their schools according to the program
components. Based on their findings, the authors concluded that the more frequently teachers
implemented ICT in their classroom, the higher their beliefs in ICT enhance pedagogy.
Additionally, the more digitally competent teachers are, the wider their use of existing and new
digital content (p. 778). A significant predictor of ICT integration was the amount of
collaboration among teachers during the fourth year of ICT integration, but it had little
predictability during the third year. Additionally, teacher and parent e-communication was also a
significant predictor during the fourth year, but not so much the third year. These findings
suggest that these components of ICT integration need longer periods of time in order to become
an integral part of school culture. Overall, findings suggest that schools with more experience in

2
the national program reported more sharing and collaboration activities in student teamwork, but
little growth was shown in the cooperative abilities among students. Additionally, little growth
was also seen in e-communication among teachers and no differences between third and fourth
year schools were found in the pedagogical and administrative updates to educational websites.
Limitations include the failure to expand the study to other districts within Israel. This
study was also based solely on quantitative measurements. Further research suggestions should
include a qualitative measure of conducting interviews with ICT facilitators to gain a deeper
understanding of the underlying beliefs that drive ICT integration among teachers. Additionally,
the study focused on perceived components of school ICT culture. Future research should focus
on actual pedagogical outcomes.

3
Resource #2
Title of resource:
The Dynamics of Shared Leadership: Building Trust and Enhancing Performance
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Drescher, M. A., Korsgaard, M. A., Welpe, I. M., Picot, A., & Wigand, R. T. (2014). The
dynamics of shared leadership: Building trust and enhancing performance. The Journal of
Applied Psychology, 99(5), 771-783. doi:10.1037/a0036474
Summary
In this article, the authors analyze the relationship between building trust in groups and
how it might enhance performance within a shared leadership setting. Based on their findings,
they concluded that as groups increasingly distribute leadership functions among group
members, trust grows. Secondly, through trust, the expansion of shared leadership is associated
with increased performance (p. 778). In other words, there is a direct correlation between trust
within a group and increased shared leadership performance. Their study consisted of a group of
849 individuals that were broken into 86 groups. In this study, participants engaged in an online
game building landmarks. Participants were required to work together to build these landmarks
and if one member was not online, one to two members could log into the game to complete the
requirements for that team member. Data was collected from log-file data and online survey data.
To encourage participation, participants were entered into a lottery where they could win in-
game currency worth about $2.50 USD. As the authors engaged in the 12-month study, their
findings aligned with previous research studies that there is a need for organizations to recognize
and leverage the emergence of shared leadership (778). The authors go on to state that
organizations should take steps to achieve an optimum level of mutual influence as new
members join PLC groups to continue the culture of shared leadership.
Overall, the study had an optimal amount of participants and the authors maintained
validity and reliability using surveys based on a Likert-scale. However, the authors mention
various limitations. For example, the simulation game was given to participants to analyze the
effects of shared leadership and how trust builds relationships. However, given the linear
structure of the game, some researchers argue that “the effectiveness of shared leadership may
depend on additional factors such as the means of selecting leaders and the complementarity of
skills (p. 779). Another limitation noted was the large sample size. Being that groups consisted of
23 participants, the number of participants interacting with one another could have skewed the
data as compared to a smaller group of participants.

4
Resource #3
Title of resource:
Trust and Collaboration in PLC Teams: Teacher Relationships, Principal Support, and
Collaborative Benefits
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:

Hallam, P. R., Smith, H. R., Hite, J. M., Hite, S. J., & Wilcox, B. R. (2015). Trust and
collaboration in PLC teams: Teacher relationships, principal support, and collaborative benefits.
National Association of Secondary School Principals. NASSP Bulletin, 99(3), 193-216.
doi:http://dx.doi.org.library.capella.edu/10.1177/0192636515602330

Summary
In the article, the authors sought to analyze the impact of trust among PLC teachers and
how it impacts teacher collaboration. Specifically, the authors desired to discover how trust is
developed in PLCs, what is the role of the principal in facilitating trust among teachers in PLC
teams, and in what ways does trust facilitate teacher collaboration in PLC teams. The researchers
did a qualitative study to explore various teacher perceptions on how the overall culture of their
school and how teacher and principal attitudes impact their overall trust of each other as a
professional learning community. Two case studies were conducted involving four schools of
elementary and middle school teachers. In conversations with teachers regarding their overall
level of trust within their PLC groups, the researchers gathered over 400 pages of data. Using
NVivo software, the researchers were able to consolidate data to determine how trust impacts
PLC development and growth. Based on their research questions, the authors were able to come
up with nine themes (p. 208, Table 7) that were associated with the five themes of trust:
Benevolence, Reliability, Openness, Competence, and honesty. Based on these themes, the
researchers concluded that sharing personal information and fulfilling individual responsibilities
was one key solution to gain trust in a PLC team. Additionally, treating one another with
patience and kindness was also key to show benevolence. Sharing teaching strategies, student
data, and taking responsibility for all students in a grade level was also a key factor in building
trust. From a principal’s perspective, giving teachers the autonomy to make decisions for
themselves rather than micromanaging indicates a healthy culture of trust among administrators
and teachers. Ultimately, as the authors state, “To trust one another, [teachers] indicated they
needed to sense each other’s caring intentions and see their team commitment” (p. 207). By
promoting trust, teachers will begin to share ideas and strategies for the betterment of their
students, which is key in developing an effecting professional learning community.
The first weakness of the study is the fact that the authors used the actual names of the
schools involved in the study. As a researcher, this could have skewed data being that the
schools’ names were made public. Although the individual teachers within the study were not
identified, this lack of confidentiality is dangerous. Additionally, the schools chosen were not
identical. One school comprised of a fifth and sixth grade student population. The other schools
involved had a traditional school setup and the researchers used the fifth and sixth grade students

5
solely for the comparison. As was stated in the study, many of the teachers in the fifth and sixth
grade school had very negative thoughts about their school being that many were taken away
from the middle school when the district decided to combine both fifth and sixth grade students
under one roof. In effect to this, there was bound to be a more negative trust issue simply due to
the teachers not being accustomed to the new school requirements.

6
Resource #4
Title of resource:
Distributed leadership and digital collaborative learning: A synergistic relationship?
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Topic article

APA citation:

Harris, A., Jones, M., & Baba, S. (2013). Distributed leadership and digital collaborative
learning: A synergistic relationship? British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(6), 926–939.
https://doi-org.library.capella.edu/10.1111/bjet.12107

Summary
In this article, the authors investigate, using two virtual collaboration programs, how
virtual PLCs impact collective inquiry and trust amongst teachers. Specifically, they wanted to
see how distributed leadership impacted virtual PLC work and responsibilities. In a recent study,
two virtual collaboration programs, PLC Online and DCEPL portal were used to promote virtual
collaboration. The goal was to see if an online program assisted teachers in collaborating
together. Based on the results, the researchers stated that the program contained too many
individuals working at one time, which made it hard for the curriculum and departmental leaders
to facilitate the work that was going on. Additionally, meeting together at a set time was also
difficult. As the authors continued, they stated that research supports the importance of “…social
interaction, mutual dependence and active collaboration as the most powerful means of securing
changes in professional practice” (p. 931). Being that their focus was studying the impact of
virtual collaboration, they wondered if digital collaboration could achieve similar outcomes.
Additionally, they sought to investigate how leadership styles differed compared to face-to-face
PLC interaction. Based on further research, they discovered that one of the most important
aspects of leading a virtual team includes filtering, managing, and coordinating data flows to
ensure online activity is contained and not constrained (p. 933). In other words, instead of taking
a direct leadership approach in directing the PLC team, the leader serves a more facilitative role.
In conclusion, the authors state that effective digital collaboration hinges on a focus on learning
rather than teaching and engendering trust among team members. Additionally, it is imperative
to foster a culture of openness in the online PLC environment rather than returning to the
confines of other forms of communication.
Overall, the authors created a very solid literature review. However, basing the PLC
collaboration solely on two online platforms limited the scope of their study. It was noted that
the two programs had various limitations, including one program only allowing certain schools
access. Additionally, other tools can be used for virtual collaboration that could serve a better
purpose for communicating with teachers online, including Google Meet, and using Google
Apps for Education. This would still require a departmental or curriculum leader to serve a
facilitative role, but it would allow greater options for schools to use to collaborate versus solely
relying on two PLC programs.

7
Resource #5
Title of resource:
Coaching Discourse – Supporting Teachers’ Professional Learning
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Heineke, S. F. (2013). Coaching discourse: Supporting teachers' professional learning. The
Elementary School Journal, 113(3), 409-433. doi:10.1086/668767

Summary
In this study, the authors investigated elementary instructional coaches and teachers’
interactions on a one-on-one basis. The authors sought to analyze conversations each had with
one another to promote instructional growth and pedagogical practices. Instead of using the term
conversation, the author chose to use the term discourse. They defined discourse, in terms of this
study, as “…professional discussions that take place in a school context from informal, casual
conversations” (p. 414). Coaching discourse was defined as those professional interactions
between coach and teacher. Participants included two reaching coaches and two teachers. The
authors used quantitative data analysis through videotaped interactions, semi-structured
interviews, and a research log. Videotaped interactions were analyzed and themes were gathered
on the interactions between participating coaches and teachers. These interactions were labeled
as verbal moves. Each move was categorized as to its potential to extend the conversation.
Three contextual factors emerged in the study. These themes included the roles and
responsibilities of each of the reading coaches, the relationship between the reading coach and
the teachers, and mandated testing. As it pertains to roles and responsibilities of the coaches,
many of them varied in their duties given to them by each principal. On top of being reading
coaches, many of them served administrative tasks, taught students, analyzed test data, and
determined students’ reading interferences. It was also noted that less than half of the eighteen
recorded interactions included discourse that the authors would consider actual instructional
coaching. In this case, instructional coaching was defined as one-on-one coaching with a focus
either on literacy instruction or students’ reading and writing practices and how those teachers
could better meet the needs of their students. When it comes to building relationships, both
teachers and coaches noted the difficulty in establishing meaningful relationships. It was also
noted that teachers and coaches both noted the importance of coach availability and maintain
visibility within the school. This helped coaches become more noticed by teachers and helped
build and strengthen those relationships. With mandated testing, it was evident that coaching
centered on the locally mandated tests. Out of 18 recorded interactions, seven of them focused
mainly on testing. Eight focused on reading instruction or reading practice, and three discussed
other topics. With each theme, patterns of discourse were seen within coaching interactions.
The patterns of discourse noted were dominance, progressiveness, and responsiveness. It
was noted by the authors that coaches initiated the majority of exchanges. Overall, coaches
dominated the conversations by initiating conversations 70% of the time. When both participants
were thoroughly engaged in the discussion, they both contributed to the direction of the
discussion. When it comes to progressiveness, three of the four pairs of teachers showed growth

8
in their conversations more often than the coaches did. Lastly, all the coaches were consistently
sensitive and affirming. They also consistently answered questions the teachers posed. Based on
the findings, the authors concluded that coaching is indeed complex and is influenced by the
context in which school leaders strive to use those coaches. Additionally, it is noted that coaches
need to be provided the opportunities to gain a better understanding of coaching processes and be
able to differentiate professional development depending on individual teaching needs.
Limitations include the fact that the study only consisted of four participants, two coaches
and two teachers. Additionally, the study also only involved elementary school teachers. More
research needs to be done to consider other teachers of middle and high schools and the impact
of multiple coaches and teachers. Lastly, it may be important to assess coaching styles and those
coach’s innate leadership abilities and inabilities.

9
Resource #6
Title of resource:
Mentoring beginning teachers and goal setting
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Hudson, P., & Hudson, S. (2016). Mentoring beginning teachers and goal setting. Australian
Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 41(10), 48-62.

Summary

In this article, the authors sought to study mentors and mentees relationships and how
they impacted the professional growth of new teachers. Based on their results of qualitative
surveys and interviews, the authors found that mentor-mentee relationships vary based on many
different characteristics and situations. However, overall, negotiated goal setting facilitates
successful practices that align with career goals. More specifically, the findings are associated
with the following themes: (1) mentor-mentee relationships, (2) roles, skills, and responsibilities,
(3) specific goal setting and (4) the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. To prepare
mentors for their mentee, ten participants engaged in a nine session program and received a
booklet to guide their mentoring. Once the training had completed, six of them confirmed their
mentoring role for the upcoming school year and agreed to be in the study. Of those participants,
all schools were low to mid socio-economic settings and were located in suburban areas.
Throughout the mentoring program, 30-40 minute semi-structured interviews were conducted
between months two and three. The central focus of the mentorship sessions was to assess the
focus on goal setting while mentoring new teacher. Based on their findings, the authors noted
that the link to mentoring with a focus on goal setting can be divided into the four main themes
listed above.
A successful mentor-mentee relationship, is at the center of having a successful program.
Participants noted basic rapport-building conversations about who each other are, what needs to
be achieved, and what are the concerns. For those mentors who had multiple mentees, it was
noted that it was difficult to build relationships due to the varying nature of each mentee’s
personalities. Each mentee had specific needs that needed to be met and it was difficult for the
mentor to be two different mentors for those people. When it comes to roles, skills, and
responsibilities, mentors saw themselves serving a supportive role. However, each mentor
viewed those supports differently. For example, Some were sounding board to mentees by role
modeling suggestions made by mentees. Others were very goal focused. A few also engaged in
collaborative problem solving. It all depended on the relationship and style of the
mentor/mentee. With specific goal setting, most mentors devised a program to keep track of both
short-term and long-term goals. With the goals being set, they were all tied to their Professional
Standards as Australian educators. However, many mentors noted the need to have mentors for
themselves. They stated the importance of having someone to assist them in ensuring they were
providing the proper growth for themselves while giving basic information to the mentees in
their first year of teaching.

10
 Based on results, it appeared too many mentees did not provide adequate differentiation
with adequate knowledge of each mentee’s challenges and achievements (p. 58). It was also
noted that mentors discovered the training they were giving new teachers was providing them a
stepping stone for further leadership roles. The authors also noted the likelihood that high-needs
schools training would look different than the scope of their study with mid-socio economic
students. Additionally, they noted the need for goal setting instructional programs for those
teachers mentoring beginning educators.
The limitations noted by the authors included the lack of participants involved in the
study and the lack of consideration and perspectives of the mentees. Only the mentors were
interviewed. Additionally, the time frame of the mentor-mentee meetings was not factored.
Perhaps having a time range study on how long it takes to achieve proficient status for teachers
to gain the knowledge they need to be a successful teacher should also be taken into
consideration.

11
Resource #7
Title of resource:
The Difference Explicit Preparation Makes in Cooperating Teacher Practice
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Lafferty, K. E. (2018). The difference explicit preparation makes in cooperating teacher practice.
Teacher Education Quarterly, 45(3), 73-95. Retrieved from http://library.capella.edu/login?
qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F2076266897%3Faccountid
%3D27965

Summary

In this article, the authors sought to analyze the impact of cooperating teacher training
when teachers are asked to mentor pre-service teachers. The authors concluded that training is
imperative and goals need to be set in order for the relationships with their pre-service teachers
to be successful. Based on their results, the authors indicated “that in teacher preparation,
cooperating teachers continue to play the most significant role yet...” (p. 92). However, in order
for there to be a significant growth in the pre-service teacher’s experience, training and greater
enactment of practices need to be taken into consideration. In other words, mentoring teachers
that participated in the study noted that training on how to successfully provide the feedback
needed to help their mentees was a main request and concern. With these trainings, goals would
be set to ensure the mentees reached milestones that are necessary for them to be successful
teachers. Additionally, training would provide mentoring teachers on what feedback would be
most beneficial to pre-service teachers. As noted by participants from survey data, some
cooperating teachers focused on questioning teaching practices of the pre-service teachers while
others observed and provided feedback after a teaching session. Others suggested ways of
delivering instruction to assist pre-service teachers in their content delivery. Being that training
was not given, there was no consistency in how the mentoring teachers provided feedback. By
having training, mentees noted this would increase their sense of having had a high-quality field
experience.
Participants included 119 preservice and 146 cooperating teachers in 10 university-based
credentialing programs in California. As noted, it was found that “cooperating teachers who
received preparation for their role reported greater enactment of practices overall and in
particular practices related to prompting reflection and goal setting” (p. 73). In this qualitative
study, participants were given the Cognitive Apprenticeship Teaching Questionnaire (CATQ)
scale with Likert-type questions. Questions consisted of varied principles related to mentee
relationships with their mentors. It was hypothesized that cooperating teachers with more
experience or who had previously worked with pre-service teachers would be better equipped to
provide timely and effective feedback to pre-service teachers. However, this hypothesis proved
to be debunked based on pre-service teacher feedback survey data. One factor that the
researchers noted that could have skewed data, but was not studied further, was the relationship
of both cooperating teacher and pre-service teacher based on race. It was not noted whether

12
teachers of the same race were paired together and what that impact may have had compared to
two teachers of differing races.
Limitations that the authors noted include participants only being from California. The
authors note that results could vary based on other states, school districts, and other teacher
preparation programs throughout the country. They also noted the need for increased sample size
to ensure validity and reliability. Finally, the survey data did not provide explicit details on what
training would improve their satisfaction with their cooperating teachers.

13
Resource #8

Title of resource:

Instructional Leaders’ Beliefs about Effective Professional Development

Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):

Journal article

APA citation:

Lutrick, E., & Szabo, S. (2012). Instructional Leaders’ Beliefs about Effective Professional
Development. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 78(3), 6–12. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com.library.capella.edu/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=aph&AN=74029558&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Summary

In this article, the authors participated in a phenomenological, quantitative study that

sought to compare the beliefs of varied instructional leaders in an elementary school setting with
the national standards and research on what characterizes effective PD. Based on their results,
they identified that the leaders were aware of and utilized all of the effective professional
development standards at their schools. Five participants were used from one suburban school
district. All were Caucasian females. Two elementary principals were used, where one had five
years of experience and one with two years of experience. Three elementary assistant principals
had experience ranging from one to four years of experience. Individual interviews were
conducted and transcribed verbatim and themes were found within the interviewee responses.
Themes that were gathered from interviews were: Ongoing, Collaboration, Data-Driven
Design, Interest-Driven Design, and Interactive. Ongoing PD was described as helping educators
form learning communities that can examine events that are continually happening and evolving
(p. 8). This professional development is designed to promote active engagement and promote
change. Collaboration was described in different ways, but was found to be important among all
interviewees. Based on their responses, collaboration centers around learning communities where
conversations can occur in a nonthreatening environment (p. 8). Data-Driven Design focuses on
PD that is chosen by looking at data from student scores and by walk-through assessments or
simple observations (p. 9). Interest-Driven Design was only mentioned by assistant principals.
They looked for various ways to get teachers involved in the learning process by creating PD
opportunities that they were interested in. Lastly, Interactive was only mentioned by the
principals. This component describes the actual learning environment and is focused on engaging
environments of learning. When these themes were related to the standards and the literature
review conducted by the authors, it was found that principals and assistant principals did know
about and use the professional learning standards when creating professional development
activities for their teachers.
Limitations that the authors noted included a very small sample size of five participants.
Second, the data was collected within the same school district. With such a small sample size and
limitation of geographic location, varied responses were minimized due to probable district

14
trainings. Lastly, the participants worked in highly exemplary schools that were recognized by
the state. This could have also skewed the focus on what standards were addressed and focused
on by the school.

15
Resource #9
Title of resource:
Virtual Professional Learning Communities: Teachers’ Perceptions of Virtual Versus Face-to-
Face Professional Development
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
McConnell, T., Parker, J., Eberhardt, J., Koehler, M., & Lundeberg, M. (2013). Virtual
Professional Learning Communities: Teachers’ Perceptions of Virtual Versus Face-to-Face
Professional Development. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 22(3), 267–277.
https://doi-org.library.capella.edu/10.1007/s10956-012-9391-y

Summary
In this article, the researchers aimed to analyze the impacts of virtual collaboration to
promote the success of PLCs versus the traditional face-to-face teams. Their research questions
were as follows: a) How do videoconference PLC meetings compare to face-to-face PLC
meetings; b) What considerations in the implementation of Virtual PLC groups facilitate
collaborative learning; c) What are the advantages and challenges presented in the
implementation of a Virtual PLC convened in a videoconference environment. The study
consisted of teams of 54 teachers from school districts in Michigan that met once a month for
one school year via videoconferencing software to share their own inquiry into the effectives of
teaching strategies that address specific needs in their classrooms. More specifically, teachers
included questions about “how to help students organize journals and portfolios, how to ask
more productive questions to guide student thinking during lab activities, or strategies to help
student’s understand specific content” (p. 270). Nine groups analyzed the same evidence and met
face-to-face, while two groups chose to meet virtually through a videoconferencing software,
Marratech. To analyze the differences, researchers used a phenomenological perspective and
comparative case study methodologies were used. Sources of data included recordings from
virtual meetings, focus group interviews with participants, and reflections from the ten
participants in the virtual group setting. These responses and observations were compared with
the face-to-face participants. Based on these sources of data, the researchers found that the
virtual collaborative meetings did not differ greatly from the traditional face-to-face setting.
Overall, six key comments appeared in all focus group interviews: 1)Sharing articles or
information found by others; 2) Group members giving new perspective on evidence; 3) Hearing
practical solutions others have tried; 4) Accountability to the group; 5) Focus on professional
discourse; and 6) Developing professional friendships (p. 272). However, most participants of
the virtual collaborative team noted that they felt meeting face-to-face would have led to more
meaningful discourse and would have felt more personal. Ultimately, the researchers wanted to
compare how current trends in digital collaboration, which mainly is associated with
asynchronous discussions and feedback, might compare, live synchronous collaboration. The
researchers found that meetings live gave participants the feeling that members were “present”
which led to more engaging discussions (p. 274).

16
 Overall, the research project was solid. However, the small sample size limited the
validity and reliability of the study, according to the authors. Additionally, those members in the
reflective Focus on Practice (FOP) session where observations and reflections on the project
were made only consisted of 8-10 participants at a time until all participants were interviewed.
Based on this, the grouping of participants could have potentially had an impact on responses
given due to the overall culture of teachers’ perceptions in any given group.

17
Resource #10
Title of resource:
Analyzing discourse analysis: Teachers’ view of classroom discourse and student identity
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Rumenapp, J. C. (2016). Analyzing discourse analysis: Teachers’ views of classroom discourse
and student identity. Linguistics and Education, 35, 26-36. doi:10.1016/j.linged.2016.04.002
Summary

This study analyzed the impact of discursive analysis in a classroom setting. In a

yearlong study of five teachers, researchers engaged them in a study to record themselves
teaching and understand why students were engaged or disengaged in an ELL classroom setting.
The focus of the paper was on “how they used discourse analysis as a method to study their own
classrooms and draw implications for practice” (p. 28). Initially, teachers were involved in two
years of coursework that focused on ESL and bilingual education. Teachers drew on several data
sources, including field notes, student work, and ten classroom video recordings. The researcher
began a case study methodology, reviewed data, and triangulated the results to identify themes in
the findings. The case study analyzed two specific teachers from an urban elementary school in
“Chinatown” in the Midwestern United States. 93% of the student population was of Asian
ethnicity and 26% were documented as bilingual. 95% received free or reduced lunch.
In analyzing student data and reflecting on video recordings, one teacher, Allison, began
to notice a trend. The results of the analysis reveal “…that when teachers develop practices of
discourse analysis, they come to new understandings of students’ identities” (p. 30). Being that
the majority of students spoke English and many were ELL students, the initial assumption was
that shy students had difficulty in understanding what was being talked about in the classroom.
In effect, this was the reason these students were labeled as “shy”. However, upon further
observation of the video recordings, Allison soon discovered that her teaching style was more
teacher-centered and not focused on student dialogue and collaboration. As she began to
experiment with more student-centered learning, she began to observe the student who was shy
as one that had begun to come out of their shell and take more of a leadership role. With her
previous teaching style, Allison “recognized that this discourse structure did not allow for
opportunities of student interaction, which could be leveraged to foster language learning” (p.
30). Throughout discourse with other teachers, the authors noted that the term “shyness” came up
27 times in the data among teachers and was only associated with those who were officially
categorized as ELL. Allison assumed that when she did not see students engaging in the learning,
it was due to a language barrier and their personality.
Another teacher, Lee, initially was viewed as grouping student discourse and
involvement in activities based on their gender. She noted that boys tended to get off task more
often when paired with girls when doing group work. However, boys seemed to be more content
when working with other boys and staying busy. Upon further reflection and other recorded
classroom lessons, Lee identified the problem as being an engagement issue rather than gender.
When engaging in a topic that was very interesting to them, all students were focused on the

18
topic at hand. The authors noted that as both teachers engaged in new analytic practices, they
viewed their students in new and multiple ways. As the authors note, “The use of discourse
analysis allowed both teachers to move from apparently static assumptions of student identity
used to interpret classroom interaction to using classroom interactions to infer student identity
possibilities” (p. 35).
When looking at student involvement in the classroom, many times teachers assume
student engagement is due to their identity and personality. However, sometimes, teacher role in
the classroom can impact a student’s learning when it is not student-centered and has nothing to
do with them as individuals. Only through discourse analysis and reflection can teachers begin to
draw trends and assess if students are truly not learning due to language or cultural barrier versus
comfortability in delivering content through a teacher-centered model.
Limitations on the article include the fact that only two teachers were analyzed and only
one school was used as the participating entity. Based on the factors analyzed, more studies
could be done to show the relationship between how teachers view student identities and their
pedagogical choices. Additionally, the number of years of teaching could have also been a factor
on the way the teachers analyzed their classroom practices.

19
Resource #11

Title of resource:

Leading Teacher Teams: Bridging the Divide between Data Inquiry and Instructional Change

Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):

Journal article

APA citation:

Stosich, E. L., & Bocala, C. (2018). Leading teacher teams: Bridging the divide between data
inquiry and instructional change. Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership, 21(3), 88-102.
doi:10.1177/1555458917744842

Summary

In this article, the authors evaluate the success of an Enrichment and Intervention (E&I)
time that was implemented in an elementary school for struggling learners. The case study
focused on how school leaders can create stronger connections between information about
students learning and teachers’ instructional decisions. Based on the observations of the
elementary school principal, low-performing students who were placed in the E&I block never
seemed to move out of that group, as she had hoped. She sought to evaluate how using data,
team meetings, and instructional interventions could lead to measurable gains for those students.
Overall, the school had an excellent school culture, with teachers supporting each other both
personally and professionally. This culture directly impacted their state assessment scores where
they had consistently ranked high among other schools in the state. The principal described
herself as a collaborative leader where she strove to make sure teachers had everything they
needed to be successful. An assistant principal also agreed that teachers in the school worked
hard to support student learning. Teachers viewed their colleagues as a family and saw their
administrators as those who were fully supportive and allowed autonomy to do what they felt
was best for students in their classroom.
As a school, the faculty decided to support all students’ growth by creating and E&I
block to allow opportunities for intervention when students struggled and also provide
enrichment to challenge students to reach higher levels of learning. Each teacher would take a
different group of students based on level. It was stated that no data supported dividing students
up based on academic achievement level to help in student progress. As teachers began to
implement the practice, they began to notice students were not reaching the milestones they had
hoped. The principal felt as though teachers needed more support with selecting instructional
strategies that were truly differentiated for all learners. To assist them in their strategies, teachers
agreed to begin with engaging in a Data inquiry cycle. Using an Item Analysis Report on their
interim assessment data, teachers began to dig into their data to note discrepancies into what they
were teaching and how they were delivering content. It was noted that at the end of the
discussions, teachers had shared multiple strategies, but failed to make specific commitments to
try a particular approach or revise previously used approaches. However, upon further reflection
on the Item Analysis Reports, the same students who were identified as below grade level were

20
the same students who were consistently recommended for remediation, and these students were
the ones who continued to struggle.
The study highlighted the difficulty in using data to make meaningful improvements in
instruction and student learning. Additionally, it was noted that despite increasing awareness of
the importance of data inquiry, schools are still building the capacity to lead data work. Data is
now beginning to be used for improvement rather than accountability. Although teachers have
used data independently to drive their own instruction, using it collaboratively is still in its
infancy. Based on the study, it was noted that principal and teacher leadership are crucial to
addressing the challenges associated with developing an inquiry-based culture. Although the
school had a great culture professionally and personally, they did not understand how to
collaboratively evaluate their data to make informed improvements. Additionally, if team
members do not have the requisite background information to engage with a discussion protocol,
the protocol can have little value.

21
Resource #12
Title of resource:
A Meta-Analysis of Shared Leadership and Team Effectiveness
Resource Type (article, book, Internet resource, et cetera):
Journal article

APA citation:
Wang, D., Waldman, D. A., & Zhang, Z. (2014). A meta-analysis of shared leadership and team
effectiveness. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(2), 181-198. doi:10.1037/a0034531

Summary
In this article, the authors attempted to conduct a meta-analysis of shared leadership and
how it impacted team effectiveness. More specifically, the authors sought to provide specific
characteristics that attributed to shared leadership and if traditional leadership practices and more
modern approaches to leadership contained those same principles. Based on a forty previous
studies, the authors concluded that there was a moderately strong association between shared
leadership and team effectiveness. In relation to traditional leadership styles, new-genre
leadership styles such as transformational leadership have a high impact on team effectiveness.
The traditional follow-the-leader leadership and transactional leadership styles were once
thought to have a high impact on team effectiveness, when in reality, it was not beneficial to the
growth of teachers. With the new-genre leadership styles that promote shared leadership, the
following outcomes were noted within the forty studies: a high level of individual input from
team members, an increased level of proficiency, and the impact of teams to promote a culture of
shared learning and growth. Overall, those schools that employed a culture of professional
growth among all members of the team had an increased efficiency and effectiveness to complete
duties and responsibilities.
Overall, this article was very descriptive and deliberate as it pertains to analyzing the
current research and providing the reader with an overview of the characteristics that define
shared leadership and how it impacts the effectiveness of a team. However, there were various
notable weaknesses contained within the article. For example, the authors stated that the primary
studies that were meta-analyzed were not experimental studies. Therefore, careful consideration
should be taken when correlating shared leadership with team effectiveness. Additionally, the
number of studies analyzed was not sufficient for meta-analytic purposes. The authors state that
future research should be conducted on the various leader roles within each team and how those
roles impact team effectiveness. Furthermore, as it relates to a leadership vision, how might that
look with team working together to achieve a goal? The effectiveness of the team working
together toward a shared vision might look different.

22
Conclusion
Based on the research gathered within the Annotated Bibliography, many themes can be
gathered that can help promote growth and a forward-thinking for schools to advance into a
digital-age culture of twenty-first century teaching and learning. For example, one of the main
themes gathered from the research would be wait time and patience in establishing a successful
digital-age culture. Many studies were conducted over a three to five year basis and most results
were either beginning to show signs of progress or little to no differences were being seen. Based
on these results, it can be gathered that establishing a change in school culture takes time and
patience. Leaders need to be able to promote a willingness to keep moving forward and urging
teachers to continue practicing collaboration that promotes rigorous discourse and aim for
continuous improvement. Additionally, communication and listening skills are key for all parties
involved. Leaders need to be able to hear the needs of teachers and focus on those characteristics
that need the most growth and rely on teacher expertise to drive the development of those
characteristics. Teachers, on the other hand, need to allow for open and honest communication
and be open to new things. Based on my experiences with twenty-first century leadership, the
themes gathered from the research align with what I have seen in our school’s ability to move
toward a more digitally collaborative culture. Assessing data as a team and remediating
accordingly requires much listening and reflection on personal professional practices. It is also
noted that as we have begun to implement these practices, more work can be done to allow for a
more streamlined and fluid experience for all teachers and PLC teams. However, for our school,
listening to teacher needs and establishing trainings that allow for specific improvement based on
those needs seems to be the missing link to establishing a culture of shared leadership within our
school.

23