UNIT – II

GAS ANALYZER

OXYGEN ANALYZER

PARAMAGNETIC OXYGEN ANALYZER

Oxygen is a paramagnetic gas and is attracted into a strong magnetic field. Because this
measurement is a purely physical effect, nothing is consumed and in principle the cell has an
unlimited life. However, contamination of the cell by dust, dirt, corrosives or solvents can lead to
deterioration. Measurement range is typically 0.05% to 100% O2.

The paramagnetic sensor utilizes the paramagnetic susceptibility of oxygen, a physical

property which distinguishes oxygen from most other gases.

The sensor incorporates two nitrogen-filled glass spheres mounted on a rotating

suspension. This assembly is suspended in a strong magnetic field. The oxygen in the
surrounding gas is attracted to the magnetic field, resulting in a force on the glass spheres. The
strength of the torque acting on the suspension is proportional to the oxygen content of the
surrounding gases.

Refer to above Figure; the measuring system is 'null-balanced'. First the 'zero' position of
the suspension assembly, as measured in nitrogen, is sensed by a photo-sensor that receives light
reflected from a mirror attached to the suspension assembly. The output from the photo-sensor is
fed back to a coil around the suspension assembly. This feedback achieves two objectives.

First, when oxygen is introduced to the cell, the torque acting upon the suspension
assembly is balanced by a restoring torque due to the feedback current in the coil. The feedback
current is directly proportional to the volume magnetic susceptibility of the sample gas and
hence, after calibration, to the partial pressure of oxygen in the sample. Therefore the current
gives an accurate measurement of the concentration of oxygen in the gas mixture.

Second, the electromagnetic feedback 'stiffens' the suspension, damping it heavily and
increasing its natural frequency, making the suspension resilient to shock. As the instrument uses
an absolute measurement principle, once built and factory calibrated, it does not require any
further factory calibration. Factory calibration consists of calibration of the electronics to accept
the input signal from the detection cell and checking that the instrument then reads correctly on
air, 20.9%. The instrument is then further checked for correct reading on 100% oxygen content.
The paramagnetic analyzers may be used for measurement of oxygen at any level between 0-
100% in gases or gas mixtures.

Types of Oxygen Analyzer

1. Magnetic wind method

The detector has two chambers, each of which has a heating wire element located at the
center. A magnetic field is provided only on the measurement chamber. Once the gas under
measurement is sent to the measurement chamber, oxygen is attracted by the magnetic field and
then heated with the heating wire element. Thus, the magnetization factor decreases and a
continuous flow of gas (magnetic flow) occurs. The magnetic flow cools the heating wire
element as its intensity varies in proportion to the concentration of oxygen. Therefore, the
resistance changes during this process are picked up as unbalanced voltage at the bridge to
measure the concentration of oxygen. The magnetic wind type analyzer uses no movable part,
making it highly resistant against vibrations and other similar effects. Such a relatively simple
structure provides this analyzer with high durability. Carbon dioxide causes positive interference
as the thermal conductivity varies greatly. If the concentration of CO2 is stable enough, the
interference of CO2 is compensated for by applying electric compensation to the reading of
CO2 or by taking any other effective means.
2. Magnetic force type

The magnetic force type oxygen analyzer is largely classified into the dumbbell type and
the magnetic pressure type.

Dumbbell type

A non-magnetic dumbbell is suspended with a fine wire within a magnetic field. When
the sample gas is introduced into the magnetic field, oxygen in the gas tends to approach the
strongest part of the magnetic field while trying to push the dumbbell aside. This produces such
force as pushes the dumbbell out of the magnetic field, causing the suspending wire to be
twisted. This twist is detected as the movement of light from the reflective mirror secured at the
center of the suspending wire. With this signal, current is sent to the exciting coil so that the wire
is untwisted to the original state. The concentration of oxygen is measured from the intensity of
this current. This method assures high linearity, minimizes the effects of coexisting gases, and
provides high response. However, it is susceptive to mechanical shocks.
 Dumbbell Type

Magnetic pressure type

When the sample gas is introduced into a magnetic field which is uneven due to magnetic
poles, oxygen (paramagnetic material) in the sample gas is attracted toward the strongest part of
the magnetic field, in which the magnetic poles have come closer to each other. A small amount
of reference gas like pure nitrogen or air is externally supplied through a small hole made on one
of the magnetic poles. The increase in pressure resulting from the attraction of oxygen is then
detected with a capacitor microphone type detector or a mass flow sensor.

In order to ensure the stable detection of signals, the two magnetic poles are alternately
excited to amplify alternating current. In this method, the effects of coexisting gases are
relatively small and the zero point is stable. For this measurement, a reference gas is required.
 Magnetic pressure type

3. Zirconia type

When stable zirconia (YHZ) obtained by adding CaO to ZrO2 is heated to more than
several hundred degrees centigrade, the conductivity of oxygen ions increases. If a platinum
electrode is installed on both sides of this element, oxygen ions move in accordance with the
difference in the concentration of oxygen between the two electrodes, where electromotive force
then occurs. The measured potential difference is in proportion to the logarithm of partial
pressure ratio of oxygen. Therefore, the oxygen in the sample gas can be found by sending a
reference gas to one of the electrodes. Since the measurement cell itself is at a high temperature,
some of the relevant analyzers allow it to be inserted directly into the exhaust combustion gas.
The zero calibration cannot be performed for such a gas as contains no oxygen, e.g, when an
N2 gas cylinder is used. In such a case, an oxygen cylinder for about 10% of the range is used for
this calibration.

In the case of the limiting current type analyzer, electric potential is applied between the
zirconia electrodes. The oxygen concentration limited by gas dispersion holes is in a proportional
relation with the limiting current and this current value is detected. This analyzer is easy to
handle because it requires no reference gas, its output is linear, and the reading is stable even at
around 21%.

For the zirconia type oxygen analyzer, since its element reaches a high temperature, the
oxygen decrease involved in the oxidation and combustion of combustible gases becomes
negative interference.
 Zirconia type

4. Electrode method

Galvanic cell method when a battery is made using a positive electrode of precious metal
like Pt, a negative electrode of Pb, and an electrolyte solution of KOH, the reducing reaction of
O2 occurs on the positive electrode as follows:

O2 + 2H2O + 4e-> 4OH-

If negative resistance is properly chosen, the output in proportion to the oxygen

concentration can be obtained. The dissipation and absorption of moisture inevitably occur
through the diaphragm because the electrolyte solution is used. It is also inevitable that the
electrodes deteriorate, e.g., as the activity of the working electrode catalyst diminishes. Despite
of these drawbacks in relation to the maintenance, the relevant analyzer can be designed to be
compact.

Galvanic cell type

CO ANALYZER
 An infrared gas analyzer (sensor) is typically used to measure the quantities of various
gases. The basic principle to an infrared gas analyzer involves two chambers (one chamber being
the reference chamber and the other chamber allowing for measurement of the type of gas and
quantity). Infrared light of a particular frequency is emitted from one end of the chamber through
to a series of gas chambers that contain given concentrations of different gases. As the photons
from the infrared source pass through the different gas chambers, they excite symmetric and
asymmetric vibrations in the gas molecules (i.e., the gas of interest will absorb some of the
infrared radiation passing through the gas chamber). The detector, being the end chamber to this
sensor, is responsible for converting the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by the gas into a
voltage (e.g., the signal from the detector [end chamber] will change in response to varying
levels of CO/CO2 in a given sample) (see figure ).

Infrared co gas analyser

Infrared gas analysers are standard detectors for the measurement of gas in any given
environment. The accuracy of the detector is maintained by generating a constant signal known
that the ‘zero’ point. This is based on the understanding that gas absorbs radiation in the same
proportion. However, infrared energy absorption is proportional to the number of hydrocarbons
present in a gas molecule, and with this analyser being the least sensitive to molecules with
single bonds (i.e., CH4, a gas known to contribute to GHG emissions); it is, therefore, limited to
the types of gases that can be monitored in the environment.

NO2 Analyzer

NO2 Analyzer utilizes the principle of chemiluminescence for analyzing the NO or NO X

concentration within a gaseous sample.

A chemi-luminescence detector (CLD) is the industry standard method of measuring

nitric oxide (NO) concentration. The reaction between NO and O 3 (ozone) emits light. This
reaction is the basis for the CLD in which the photons produced are detected by a photo
multiplier tube (PMT). The CLD output voltage is proportional to NO concentration.The light-
producing reaction is very rapid so careful sample handling is important in a very rapid response
instrument. The Cambustion Fast CLD uses a unique sampling system coupled with miniaturised
CLD technology to give millisecond response times.

In the NO mode, the method is based upon the chemiluminescent reaction between ozone
and nitric oxide (NO) yielding nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) and oxygen. Approximately 10% of the
NO2 produced from this reaction is in an electronically excited state. The transition from this
state to a normal state produces light which has an intensity proportional to the mass flow rate of
NO2 into the reaction chamber. The light is measured by means of a photodiode tube and
associated amplification electronics. In the NOX mode, NO plus NO 2 is determined as above,
however, the sample is first routed through the internal NO 2 to NO converter which converts the
NO2 in the sample to NO. The resultant reaction is then directly proportional to the total
concentration of NOX. The entire sample, prior to the reaction chamber, is maintained at a
temperature of 65°C. Analyzer is designed to continuously measure the total concentration of
oxides of nitrogen within a gaseous sample. The gaseous sample can be ambient air, exhaust
gases from an internal combustion engine, or exhaust gases from a combustion process.

Applications

Process Chemical Gas Analysis

Personnel Safety
Power Plant Stack De-Nitrification
Diesel Vehicle Emissions
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Analyzer

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a clear, colorless, extremely toxic gas that has a rotten egg
smell at low concentrations. The human nose can detect H 2S at concentrations below 100 parts
per billion.

Lead Acetate Tape

This method relies on the chemical reaction of H2S with lead acetate impregnated paper
tape to form lead sulfide. The lead sulfide appears as a brown stain on the paper tape. A light
source is used to illuminate the tape where the reaction is to occur and light detector is used to
monitor the reflection of the source from the tape. A concentration of H 2S can be determined by
the rate of staining on the tape. Lead acetate tape can be used to measure total sulfur by mixing
the sample stream with hydrogen and passing it through a quartz tube heated to 1000 o C. This
process quantitatively converts sulfur bearing compounds to H 2S which can then be measured at
the tape. The lead acetate tape method is H2S specific, very sensitive, and has an equimolar
response to sulfur when used in the total sulfur mode. Tape is typically linear up to 2000 ppm.
Higher ranges can be achieved with dilution systems.

Sulfur Chemiluminescence

This is a two step measurement process in which a small amount of sample is injected
into a hydrogen rich flame or an enclosed combustion assembly. The hydrogen to air ratio
combined with the presence of a vacuum allow for the formation of sulfur monoxide (SO) in the
combustion assembly. The combustion gases from the flame or combustion assembly are then
drawn under vacuum to a reaction cell where ozone from an ozone generator is continuously
added. SO reacts with ozone to form an electronically excited state of sulfur dioxide (SO 2) which
releases ultraviolet (UV) radiation upon relaxation. The released UV radiation is detected with a
photomultiplier tube and is linearly proportional to the amount of sulfur present in the sample.
Sample can be injected directly to the analyzer to arrive at a total sulfur concentration. The
addition of a chromatograph column prior to the detector allows for the measurement of
individual sulfur compounds. The sulfur chemiluminescence detector is linear over a large range,
very sensitive and has an equimolar response to sulfur compounds. This allows for the use of a
single component, single point calibration which greatly simplifies the calibration process.

Flame Photometric Detector (FPD)

FPDs are generally employed as chromatograph detectors. The effluent from a

chromatograph column is passed through a hydrogen rich, low temperature flame. Sulfur species
are converted to S2 which becomes excited and emits radiation upon relaxation. The emitted
radiation is monitored by a photomultiplier tube. The FPD is very sensitive and selective to
sulfur. Its response to sulfur is, however, non linear and non equimolar which makes it difficult
to calibrate because several multi-component standards of varying concentration are required.

Ultraviolet (UV) Absorption

This method relies on the ultraviolet absorption characteristics of H2S. The optical system
consists of a UV lamp as a source, a transparent sample cell through which the sample gas flows,
and a single photomultiplier tube detector. In front of the detector is a motor driven beam splitter
which alternately directs the source beam to a reference filter and a measurement filter. The
measurement filter is selected to correspond to an absorbency peak of H 2S while the reference
filter is selected to correspond to some non-absorbing region of the spectrum for H 2S. In this way
the absorption of the sample can be measured and is proportional to the amount of H2S present in
the sample. The UV absorption method is typically used at percentage levels of H 2S, however, by
lengthening the cell and pressurizing the sample in the cell, measurement at ppm levels is
possible. This method is subject to strong positive interference from olefins and aromatic
compounds. Chromatographic techniques are sometimes employed to separate the H 2S from
interfering species.

Dust and Smoke Measurement

Dust Mesurement

In power houses it is necessary to control the amount of dust into flue gases in order to
comply with the requirements imposed by the municipal laws to control the pollution.

Types of dust monitoring instrument

1. Optical type flow dust monitor

2. Electrical type flow dust monitor

3. Electrostatic type flow dust monitor

4. Reflected type dust monitor

Optical type flow dust monitor

It consists of light source, photo detector and a glass plate. Initially a clean glass plate is
placed in the flow path of the dust laden gas. After a particular time, the plate is analyzed by
measuring the obscuration caused by the deposition of dust on the glass plate.

In the analysis process, the dust collected glass plate is placed in between the light source
and the photo cell. The light beam is allowed to pass through the glass plate and it is received by
a photocell. The output of photocell decreases with increase in the dust on the glass plate which
is proportional to the amount dust present in the gas.
Electrical type flow dust monitor

It uses the principle of charging to measure the amount of dust present in the flue gas.
The instrument gets a sample of dust laden gas at a constant velocity and charges the dust
electrically and then measures this charge. This charge will be proportional to the amount of dust
present in the flue gas.

Electrostatic type flow dust monitor

It uses a tube made from special materials for the measurement of dust. The instrument
withdraws a sample of gas at a constant velocity and imparts swirl to the gas and passes it
through the tube. The swirling dust gives an electrostatic charge to this tube by friction. The
measurement of this charge gives the measure of the dust in the flue gas.

Reflected type dust monitor

It measures the scattered light or reflected light. It consists of a lamp and a photocell both
are mounted by side. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass into the duct through a small
opening. While it passing through the duct laden gas some of the light will be reflected back on
the photocell. Reflected light ray is directly proportional to the amount of dust present in the gas.
The output from the photocell is amplified and is indicated by a indicator.

Smoke Measurement

There are two methods – optical method and ionization method

Optical Method

In this method, a known volume of air is continuously drawn through a filter paper for a
period of one hour. The properties of the sample are measured by the reduction of light
transmission through the filter. This reduction in light transmitted is a measure of the smoke.
This method does not measure the absolute concentration or the deposited mass of particulates,
rather it is an indicator of particulate matter suspended in the air.
Ionization Method

It works on the principle of electrically charging the air within an open detector chamber.
The charged air is a measure of the smoke. It is also called as fire alert ionization because it
detects the outbreaks of fire at an earliest state.

It consists of the ionization chamber, integrating timer, charge detector and alarm. The
ionization chamber is having a small radioactive source which irradiates the space between the
electrodes with alpha particles. This creates ions of both positive and negative signs and moves
towards the respective electrodes. The movement of ions constitutes the current flow.

When compared with normal air ionized current, air with smoke produce less ionization
current. This reduction in the electric current is a measure of smoke.
Thermal Conductivity Analyzer

Each gas has a known thermal conductivity - how well heat transfers through it. Thermal
conductivity is measured with a sensor that employs four matched filaments that change
resistance according to the thermal conductivity of the gas passing over it. The gas analyzer
sensor uses four matched filaments that change resistance according to the thermal conductivity
of the gas passing over it. These four filaments are connected in a Wheatstone Bridge
configuration as shown below in Figure 1.

Wheatstone Bridge of the thermal conductivity detector

 When all four resistances are the same, VOUT is zero and the bridge is considered
balanced. When zeroing, the reference gas is passed over all the filaments, the resistances will be
the same (because filaments are matched) and the bridge is balanced. When the sample gas is
passed over half of the bridge, then VOUT’s value correlates to the content of the sample gas in
the reference. The detector is a four element Katharometer having two elements situated in the
reference gas and two elements in the sample gas shown in Figure 2 below.

Cut-away view of the thermal conductivity sensor

The four elements are electronically connected in a bridge circuit and a constant current
is passed through the bridge to heat the elements. If each element is surrounded by the same gas,
then the temperature and hence the resistance of each element will be similar and the bridge
circuit will be balanced.

Electrical diagram of the thermal conductivity sensor.

 When the gas to be measured is introduced into the sample gas stream, the two
Katharometer elements in this gas stream will be cooled to a greater extent than the two elements
in the reference gas. The bridge circuit will be unbalanced, producing a signal voltage related to
the measure gas content of the sample gas. Measure the gas sample content of a sample/reference
mixture by comparing the thermal conductivity of the mixture with that of a reference.
For example, hydrogen has a thermal conductivity which is approximately seven times greater
than that of nitrogen, so small changes are readily detected. All other common gases have
thermal conductivities similar to nitrogen so the method of measurement is fairly selective.
Helium is the only other gas with a thermal conductivity comparable with that of hydrogen.
Other gases that may be measured using this technique are:

 Carbon Dioxide
 Oxygen
 Argon
 Methane
 Sulphur Dioxide
 Ammonia

THERMAL ANALYZER

Thermal analysis measures physical or chemical changes in a material as a function of

temperature. Two common complimentary techniques in this category are differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). These methods are typically used to
determine the material properties of organic polymers as the sample is heated or cooled in a
controlled manner or held isothermally for a specified time. Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
is a method similar to DSC, but performed at higher temperatures for metals, minerals, ceramics,
and glasses.

DSC - Differential scanning calorimetry measures heat flow to or from a sample as a

function of temperature and time. A small portion of a sample is placed in an aluminum pan and
heated and/or cooled in a controlled manner. A reference material (usually an empty aluminum
pan) simultaneously undergoes the same programmed time/temperature routine. Calorimetric
measurements are made during the heating/cooling cycle. Two methods can be used for the
calorimetric measurements. Differences in temperature between the sample and reference
material can be measured as the same amount of heat energy (calories) is added to both. Or,
differences in the amount of heat energy added to both are measured as the temperature for both
the sample and reference are kept constant. In both cases, the heat flow and temperature of the
sample are monitored in comparison to the reference material. The analysis is usually performed
in an inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen. The amount of energy absorbed (endotherm) or
evolved (exotherm) as the sample undergoes physical or chemical changes (e.g. melting,
crystallization, curing) is measured in calories as a function of the temperature change. Any
material reactions involving changes in heat capacity (e.g. glass transition) are also detected. The
thermal cycle for DSC typically can range from less than -50°C to 300°C or greater. The
principals for differential thermal analysis (DTA) are similar to DSC, but the temperature range
for DTA can reach temperatures greater than 1500°C.

TGA - Thermogravimetric analysis continuously measures the weight of a sample as a

function of temperature and time. The sample is placed in a small pan connected to a
microbalance and heated in a controlled manner and/or held isothermally for a specified time.
The atmosphere around the sample may consist of an inert gas, such as nitrogen, or a reactive
gas, such as air or oxygen. The heating program may start in an inert atmosphere and then be
switched to air at a certain point to complete the analysis. Weight changes observed at specific
temperatures correlate to volatilization of sample components, decomposition,
oxidation/reduction reactions, or other reactions or changes. Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) or mass spectroscopy (MS) may be used in conjunction with TGA to
analyze and identify the evolved gases from constituents volatilized from the sample at specific
temperatures.

DSC - By closely monitoring the heat flow and temperature, DSC can provide abundant
information regarding a polymer material including: melting temperature, heat of fusion, glass
transition temperature, curing temperature, heat of reaction, thermal history, and others. DSC is
ideal for studying reversible reactions of thermoplastics such as melting-crystallization points
and glass transition temperature. It is also used in the study of the kinetics of thermoset curing
reactions, purity, heat capacities, and the effects of additives. Similarly, DTA analysis is used for
determining the temperatures for melting and solid state phase transformations in metals,
minerals, and ceramics.

TGA - As the TGA instrument measures the temperature and weight of the sample,
thermally activated events are recorded. These events are expressed as weight loss or weight
change for a given time or temperature. They may also be expressed as a rate of weight loss. The
onset temperature for the weight loss is also recorded. These data correlate to and give
information about such properties as: thermal stability, moisture or solvent content, additive or
filler content, oxidation or decomposition temperatures and rate. Thermal events such as melting,
glass transition, and other changes are not detected because there is no change in sample mass
associated with these events. Identification of the constituents driven off as evolved gases may be
obtained when the TGA is used in conjunction with FTIR or mass spectroscopy.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
DSC (or DTA)
• Determination of melting temperature, heat of fusion, and glass transition temperatures
• Analysis of polymer blends and copolymers
 • Comparison of two lots of similar polymers
• Determination of cure temperatures/times for epoxies or other thermally-cured
polymers
• Reaction rate and temperature evaluation • Determination of thermal history, e.g.
annealing, etc.
TGA
• Volatile compound concentration
• Plasticizer content • Inorganic filler content
• Polymer thermal degradation profiles • Polymer thermal and/or oxidative stability
• Identification of volatile components or thermal degradation products ( with FTIR or
MS)
SAMPLE REQUIREMENTS
DSC - Typically requires six to ten milligrams of sample. Samples may solids or liquids.
TGA - Typically requires twenty to thirty milligrams of sample. Samples may be solids
or liquids.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:

1. Define thermal conductivity of a gas.

Thermal Conductivity of a gas is defined as the quantity of heat (in calories) transferred in unit
time

(seconds) in a gas between two surface 1 cm2 in area when the temperature difference the
surfaces is

1°C.

2. Why thermistors are used in thermal conductivity analyzer as a heat

sensing elements?

Thermistors possess the advantage of being extremely sensitive to relatively minute

changes in

temperature and have a high negative temperature coefficients.The speed of response is also high.

3. What are the applications of thermal conductivity gas analyzer?

 i. It is used in the measurement of hydrogen in blast furnace gases

ii. In the determination of argon in Oxygen in the process of air decomposition

iii. In the determination of sulphur dioxide in roasting gases in the production of sulphuric acid.

4. How is nitrogen-di-oxide prepared by chemiluminescence?

The nitric oxide reacts with ozone to form nitrogen-di-oxide with

chemiluminescence .

NO + O3 —-> NO2 + hv (light 0.6- 3u)

5. What are the advantages of Hydrogen Sulfide analyzer?

i) It do not require pumps or aspirators to pull in the sample

ii) They are unaffected by wind or variations in relative humidity.

6. What is the use of gold films in H2S analyzer?

Gold films absorb hydrogen sulfide and register the concentration by a proportional change in
their

resistance.

7. Where are the electrochemical sensors used?

Electrochemical sensors are preferred in applications where the atmosphere is oxygen,

where

ruggedness is not important.

8. What is the principle of CO analyzer?

It is based on the oxidation of carbon monoxide. It is oxidized by hot mercuric oxide.

CO + HgO— -> CO2

+Hg(g)

The mercury vapor released may be measured photometrically.

9. What is the use of protective filter in Industrial analyzer?

 In Industrial analyzer gas- handling components should always include a small protective
filter,

preceded by a major filter if the gas contains suspended matter that requires removal.

10. What is the use of stream drying equipment?

If a gas sample has a water vapour concentration high enough to cause condensation
within the analyzer or if moisture is an interferent, stream drying equipment is necessary.

11. What is the need of bypass pumping devices ?

The bypass pumping devices are needed to keep fresh sample rapidly supplied to the input of
the

analyzer.

12. What are the applications of oxygen analyzer?

i. It is used in the areas of oxygen absorption studies on plants and tissues .

ii. It is used in food processing

industries. iii. It is also used in
respiratory studies.

13. What are the sources of error in oxygen analyzer?

i. The filament temperature is affected by changes in the thermal conductivity of the carrier
gas.

ii. The cross tube must be horizontal to avoid an error due to gravitational chimney-flow effects,

14. What is the principle of thermal conductivity analyzer?

It consists of a measuring cell and reference cell. When a gas whose thermal conductivity is
lower is

passed through the measuring cell, then the platinum wires in the measuring chamber are cooled
less and their electrical resistance becomes more.

The voltage across the diagonals is then proportional to the gas being measured.

15. What are the different analysis methods of Nitrogen Oxide?

i. Infrared
 ii. Ultraviolet

iii. Chemiluminescent

iv. Colorimetric

v. Electrochemical

16. What are the applications of Electrochemical and Infrared sensors?

i. Electrochemical sensors are used for ambient air

monitoring

ii. Infrared sensors are used for stack gas concentration.

17. What is the principle of paramagnetic oxygen analyzer used for gaseous samples?

Paramagnetic refers attraction towards the magnetic field.Oxygen has the characteristics
of attraction towards the magnetic field.Paramagnetic oxygen analyzer uses the magnetic
properties of oxygen along with thermal conductivity for the measurement of oxygen in
a gas.

PART B

1. With a suitable diagram Explain the construction and working principle of oxygen analyzer .

2. Explain how the CO analyzer is used.

3. Explain how the NO2 analyzer is used.

4. Explain how the H2S analyzer is used.

5. Explain how the dust and smoke analyzer is used.

6. Explain how the IR analyzer is used.

7. With a suitable diagram Explain the construction and working principle of thermal
conductivity analyzer.

8. What are the sources of air pollution and explain in detail?

9. What are the type’s gas analyzers? Explain anyone with example.