Increasing

Efficiency of Lean
Tissue Deposition in
Broiler Chickens

A report for the Rural Industries

Research and Development Corporation

by Mingan Choct, Adam Naylor,

Hutton Oddy and John Nolan
University of New England

August 2000
RIRDC Publication No 98/123
RIRDC Project No UNE-54A
© 2000 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.

ISBN 0 642 57838 9

ISSN 1440-6845

“Increasing Efficiency of Lean Tissue Deposition in Broiler Chickens”

Publication No. 98/123
Project No. UNE-54A

The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not
necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person
who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report.

This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the
Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications
Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details

Dr Mingan Choct
Division of Animal Science
School of Rural Science and Natural Resources
University of New England, Armidale
NSW 2351, Australia.

Phone: 02 6773 5121

Fax: 02 6773 3275
email: [email protected]

RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 1, AMA House
42 Macquarie Street
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6272 4539

Fax: 02 6272 5877
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in August 2000

Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

ii
Foreword

Genetic selection of broilers for growth over the last 30 years has resulted in an average
weight gain increase of 40 grams per year. Associated with this are an increase in fatness and
a loss of reproductive ability – both obviously undesirable both economically and socially.

This project, by University of New England researchers, outlines two experiments, which
were conducted to examine the effects of dietary manipulations on lean growth in broilers.
One experiment examined graded levels of dietary organic chromium and leucine on
performance and body composition, while the other experiment examined the influence of
four different fat sources (linseed oil, lard, fish oil and safflower oil) at two dietary levels on
lean growth in broilers.

This project was funded from industry revenue which is matched by funds provided by the
Federal Government and is an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 600 research
publications. It forms part of our Chicken Meat R&D program, which aims to support
increased sustainability and profitability in the chicken meat industry by focusing research
and development on those areas that will enable the industry to become more efficient and
globally competitive and that will assist in the development of good industry and product
images.

Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through
our website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm
• purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter Core
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii
Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank support of the following individuals of the University of New
England:
Mrs Aleksandra Babarowski Mr Frank Ball

Mr Neil Baillie Mr Brian Cross

Mr Ed Clayton Ms Kylie Day

Ms Maria Hyland Mr Winston Hewitt

Mr John Smallshaw Mr Simon Stachiw

Gary Taylor Evan Thomson

Mrs Ann Tukei Mr Dan Waters

We also gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Mr Graham Bourke, CSIRO Division of

Animal Production, Chiswick.

iv
Contents
Foreword .................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iv
Preface ....................................................................................................................... vi
Executive Summary................................................................................................... vii
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 1
2. Background ......................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Branched Chain Amino Acids ........................................................................ 2
2.2 Chromium .................................................................................................. 2
2.3 Long chain fatty acids .................................................................................... 3
3. Materials and Methods ........................................................................................ 6
3.1 Experiment 16
3.2 Experiment 210
3.3 Statistical Analysis of Data........................................................................... 13
4. Effects of Chromium Supplementation and Elevated Levels of Leucine
on Body Composition in Broilers Chickens........................................................ 14
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 14
4.2 Results ................................................................................................ 14
4.3 Discussion ................................................................................................ 16
5. Effects of Dietary Fatty Acids on Lean Growth in Broiler Chickens .................. 18
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 18
5.2 Results ................................................................................................ 18
5.3 Discussion ................................................................................................ 20
6. Implications and Recommendations.................................................................. 21
7. References ........................................................................................................ 22

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Experimental Design of Trial 1............................................................................................ 7

Table 3.2: Ingredients in Experiment 1 Starter Diets ........................................................................... 7
Table 3.3: Ingredients in Experiment 1 Finisher Diets ......................................................................... 8
Table 3.4: Chromium Addition to Experiment 1 Diets.......................................................................... 8
Table 3.5: The Fatty Acid Composition of Fat Treatments. ............................................................... 11
Table 3.6: Starter Diets (ME = 12.31 MJ/kg; Protein = 21.19%) ....................................................... 12
Table 3.7: Finisher Diets (ME=12.34 MJ/kg; Protein = 20.81%) ....................................................... 12
Table 4.1: Effect of Chromium Treatment on Body Parameters........................................................ 15
Table 4.2: Analysis of Variance Results for Experiment 1................................................................. 15
Table 4.3: Analysis of Variance Data For Carcass Water and Fat.................................................... 16
Table 4.4: Effect of Fat Source on Abdominal Fat Pad Weight. ........................................................ 19
Table 4.5: Effect of Fat Source on Body Parameters ........................................................................ 19
Table 4.6: Analysis of Variance Results for Experiment 2................................................................. 20

v
Preface
The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation funded this work as a pilot
project for a duration of 12 months. One of the authors, Mr Adam Naylor, who was doing his
Honours Degree in Animal Science, took up the project in February 1997 and completed it in
February 1998. This report is largely a shortened version of Mr Naylor's thesis entitled
"Nutritional Manipulation of Lean Tissue Deposition in Broiler Chickens".

Dr Mingan Choct
Senior Lecturer in Animal Science
University of New England

vi
Executive Summary
Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of dietary manipulations on lean
growth in broilers.

Experiment 1 examined graded levels of dietary chromium and leucine on performance and
body composition. Chromium picolinate at 0.5ppm significantly (P<0.05) lowered the
carcass fat level. Gut weight and carcass water content were increased as a result of
chromium treatment. Body weight, plucked weight, carcass weight, abdominal fat pad
weight, breast yield and feed efficiency were unaffected by chromium treatment. Leucine did
not interact with chromium to effect lean growth. Dietary leucine above the recommended
maintenance level (1.2% of diet) markedly (P<0.001) reduced the breast muscle yield.

Experiment 2 was conducted to examine the influence of different fat sources at two dietary
levels on lean growth in broilers. The addition of fish oil to broiler diets reduced (P<0.05) the
abdominal fat pad weights compared to birds on linseed diets. Fish oil is believed to improve
lean growth through the effects of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in lowering the very
low density lipoprotein levels and triglyceride in the blood, in the mean time increasing
glucose uptake into the muscle tissue in blood and by minimizing the negative impact of the
immune system on protein breakdown. The amount of fat in the diet (2% or 4%) did not
affect body composition.

vii
1. Introduction
Genetic selection for growth over the last 30 years has resulted in an average weight gain
increase of 40g/year. Associated with this are an increase in fatness and a loss of
reproductive ability. Modern broilers contain 150 to 200 g fat per kg body weight, over 85%
of which is physiologically inessential. Fatness in poultry has three major attributes: a) it
depresses feed efficiency; b). some adipose tissues are of little economic value, ie, abdominal
fat is removed by evisceration, thus decreasing processing yield; and c). consumption of
saturated fat is associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular risks in humans.
Increased fat content in the chicken meat is therefore undesirable both economically and
socially.

Nutritional manipulations taken to counter excessive body fatness include feed restriction,
changing protein to energy ratio and manipulation of the balance of individual amino acids.
Although some of these measures have yielded favourable results their practical use has been
limited. This project has examined the effect of graded levels of organic chromium and
leucine, and four different fat sources on the body composition of broiler chickens.

1
2. Background

2.1 Branched Chain Amino Acids

An extensive amount of literature has been published on the effects of branched-chain amino
acids (BCAA's) on the processes of protein synthesis and protein degradation (Chua et al.,
1979; Li et al., 1978; Buse and Weigand, 1977; Morgan et al., 1981). It is known that
skeletal muscle in particular is affected by the supply of amino acids, especially the BCAA's
which exert an anabolic effect on muscle protein. The observation that heart and skeletal
muscles can readily oxidise the BCAA's bought about the proposal that a catabolic product of
the BCAA's might be responsible for their stimulatory effects on protein deposition (Lindsay
and Buttery, 1980).

It was confirmed by Garlick and Grant (1988) that the only amino acids that can regulate
protein synthesis in muscle tissue were the BCAA’s and they proposed the mode of action
was through changes in the sensitivity of muscle protein synthesis to insulin. Of the BCAA's,
leucine alone has been demonstrated to be as effective in promoting protein synthesis as a
combination of all three BCAA's (Chua et al., 1979). Leucine, not isoleucine or valine, can
regulate the rate of protein turnover in skeletal and heart muscles. In heart tissue, leucine has
been demonstrated to accelerate protein synthesis by around 50% and inhibit protein
degradation by up to 30%.

These effects were reflected by a number of BCAA metabolites, including alpha-

ketoisocaproate, isovalerate, acetoacetate, isobutyrate and acetate, but not for isoleucine or
valine. The metabolites of leucine, however, did not mimic leucine’s effects in skeletal
muscle (Morgan et al., 1981). The precise mode of action of leucine remains unclear. Effects
of leucine on protein synthesis are exerted during mRNA translation and seem to involve
altering the rate of peptide chain initiation (Buse, 1981). Studies in vivo have shown that
leucine or a combination of all three BCAA's reduces protein degradation by increasing the
proportion of polysomes to subunits in preparations of psoas muscle (Buse 1981).

2.2 Chromium
Insulin release is influenced by dietary trace minerals. Chromium (Cr) has been shown to be
involved in normal glucose metabolism and is necessary for optimal insulin function and
glucose uptake by insulin-sensitive cells (Amoikon et al., 1995). Chromium deficiency can
lead to a diminished responsiveness of tissues to insulin (Mertz, 1979). Animals deficient in
chromium have impaired pancreatic beta-cell functions and an altered glucose tolerance curve
similar to that seen in non insulin-dependent diabetes in humans (Striffler et al., 1995). Other
factors associated with insufficient chromium levels are increased levels of circulating
insulin, impaired growth, higher percent body fat, lower lean body mass and increased
mortality rate. Lindemann et al. (1994) reported an increased sensitivity of skeletal muscle to
insulin as a result of chromium supplementation in pigs. A significant difference was noted
in both carcass composition and feed utilization between chromium supplemented and control
animals. Similar observations have led to the conclusion that conventional animal diets have
chromium levels far too low for optimal production, and this can be alleviated through the
addition of chromium to the diet. In a later study pigs supplemented with chromium at
0.5ppm resulted in a greater percentage of lean tissue and a higher feed conversion ratio, than

2
pigs fed control diets (Wenk, 1995). It is known that dietary and environmental stresses
(including temperature, humidity and pathogens) can alter the animal’s requirements for
nutrients such as chromium. Chromium supplementation improves the performance of
stressed animals (Kegley and Spears, 1995). Current literature supports the belief that
chromium is usually suboptimal in the diet and an animal’s requirement for chromium is
strongly influenced by stress (Lindemann et al., 1994, Kegley and Spears, 1995; Wenk,
1995).

Only trivalent chromium Cr(III) is biologically active. Metallic chromium cannot be

absorbed and Cr(IV) is toxic. Adequate absorption of chromium occurs only when it is
associated with a specific organic molecule such as chromium tripicolinate (CrPic) or as high-
chromium yeast (Kitchalong et al., 1995). Cr(III) exerts its physiological effects through its
presence in the multiunit complex, the glucose tolerance factor (GTF). The GTF is a large
molecule composed of the trivalent chromium linked with nicotinic acid and three amino
acids - glycine, glutamic acid and cysteine (Mowat, 1993). This chromium containing
compound was first described in brewers yeast and is reported to enhance the hypoglycaemic
action of insulin in pigs (Amoikon et al., 1995; Wenk, 1995; Striffler et al., 1995). The
physiological mechanisms by which the GTF enhances glucose tolerance are not clear, but
suggested action is through improving the binding affinity of insulin to its specific receptors
(Mowat, 1993). It is known that chromium positively effects protein synthesis. Wenk (1995)
reported that chromium supplementation increased protein deposition and reduced fat
deposition in growing pigs. The anabolic effects of chromium picolinate in pigs was
attributed to a potentation of insulin function, measured by an increase in the concentration of
insulin binding to RBC plasma membranes and isolated fat cells (Amoikon et al., 1995). It
has also been postulated that chromium may have a regulatory role in the maintenance of
normal beta-cell glucose sensitivity (Striffler et al., 1995). The mechanism of action of
chromium on glucose tolerance and the insulin sensitivity of cells remains unclear.
Chromium supplementation is beginning to be used commercially around the world.
Chromium as chromium yeast has been permitted in pig diets in Switzerland since January
1994 (Wenk, 1995). Chromium may become a common microingredient for animals in the
future, especially during periods of stress. Further research into the effect of chromium on
animals under stressful and normal conditions is required before dietary guidelines can be
suggested.

2.3 Long chain fatty acids

A high polyunsaturated fatty (PUFA) acid content in the diet reduces fat accretion in chickens
(Pinchasov and Nir, 1992). Omega - 3 fatty acids present in fish oils, namingly
docasahexaenoic(DHA) and eicosapentanoic acids(EPA), reduce fat deposition by reducing
the circulating very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels in the blood. Fish oil has been
reported to improve feed efficiency in broilers (Farrell, 1995) but its impact on growth
performance remains unclear. Some long chain PUFAs, including linoleic acid and DHA,
reduce the protein wasting which is associated with immune response (Chin et al, 1994).
Linoleic acid is generally converted to arachidonic acid, a long chain PUFA which is a
precursor for the eicosanoids. Eicosanoids are local messenger molecules which regulate the
rates of protein synthesis and degradation (Reeds, 1987). This investigation was designed to
test the effect of differing long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on lean tissue deposition.
Fat sources high in omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil) and linoleic acid (safflower oil and lard)
were tested against linseed oil to assess lean growth in broilers.

3
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) contain two or more
double bonds in their carbon skeleton. The double bonds are generally separated by a
methylene group (i.e. -CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-) and rarely conjugated (alternating double and
single bonds i.e. -CH=CH-CH=CH-) (Lehninger, 1993). A high percentage of PUFAs in the
diet (over 1.44g/100g of feed) inhibits lipogenesis and depresses fat deposition in broilers
(Pinchasov and Nir, 1992).

Conjugated Linoleic Acid: The major sources of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) are animal
products, beef tallow having around 2.6% of its fat as CLA. Plants possess a far lower CLA
content, their oils ranging from 0.1% CLA (coconut oil) to 0.7% (safflower oil). The c-9, t-11
CLA isomer has been isolated as the active compound, it is this isomer which is incorporated
into the phospholipid bilayer in animal tissues (Chin et al., 1992). In beef lard, 84% of the
CLA occurs in this active form, whilst in plants the c-9, t-11 isomer represents less than 50%
of the total CLA. CLA has been shown to improve feed efficiency and increase the body
weight in rats possibly through its effects on prostaglandin synthesis and signal transduction
pathways (Chin et al., 1994). CLA has the ability to decrease the catabolic response
generated by the immune system without altering the normal immune systems functioning
(Chin et al., 1994). Reducing this response minimizes the breakdown of skeletal muscle and
thus improves feed conversion and enhances lean growth. Thus, CLA at a level of 0.5% of
diet reduced body fat and increased lean tissue deposition (Albright et al., 1996).

Arachidonic Acid: Arachidonic Acid (AA) is an important biological compound present in

most cells in the plasma membrane. AA is a precursor for the eicosanoids, a group of
biologically potent messenger molecules, which affect tissues near the cells that produce
them. AA is released from the plasma membrane in a reaction catalyzed by phospholipase A2
(Lehninger, 1993). AA in the cell is converted to the eicosanoids by the enzymes of the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Free AA is oxidized by two enzymes, cycloxygenase and
lipoxygenase. The cycloxygenase pathway converts AA into prostaglandins and the
throboxanes. The third group of eicosanoids, leukotrienes are the result of AA being
metabolized through the lipoxygenase pathway. These different eicosanoid classes exhibit
different physiological actions. Prostaglandin acts on local tissues to control micro-
circulation, reduce blood pressure and exhibit an effect on reproduction. Thromboxane
induces blood vessel constriction and platelet aggregation, while the leukotrienes are involved
in many inflammatory and immune hypersensitivity reactions (Clarenburg, 1992).

AA also has a reported role in the regulation of ion channels, enzyme activity and growth.
The exact mechanisms of action remain unclear. Changes in AA metabolism alter the rates of
protein degradation. The prostaglandin PGE2 has been identified as a regulator of the rates of
protein synthesis and degradation. Also the addition of prostaglandins alone could stimulate
protein synthesis in skeletal muscle (Reeds, 1987). AA and other long chain PUFAs also
enhance tumor growth by promoting cell proliferation and reducing apotosis (Tang et al.,
1997).

Omega-3 Fatty Acids: A high intake of fish oil is beneficial in the fight against heart disease,
hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. This protective quality is associated with the
high levels of long chain omega-3 (n-3) PUFA’s, namingly eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5, n-

4
3) (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6, n-3) (DHA). These n-3 fatty acids have a
pharmacological impact on the thrombic and inflammatory systems. EPA and DHA influence
haemostatis and the vascular system, and behave as regulators of inflammation. Like CLA,
fish oils rich in n-3 fatty acids reduce the catabolic response induced by immune stimulation
and effectively may promote growth (Chin et al., 1994). Omega-3 fatty acids also reduce the
very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels in blood, acting to lower the circulating free low
density lipoprotein (LDL) concentration. Omega-3 fatty acids lower the blood levels of free
LDLs (which are normally delivered to tissues for fat storage or is deposited directly in the
arteries) and reduce the rate of triglyceride synthesis in the liver. Diets fortified with fish oils
may effectively reduce the abdominal fat pad and overall body fat levels in broilers. Fish oil
increases the feed conversion efficiency of broiler diets (Farrell, 1995), but it’s effect on
growth and body fat deposition is unclear.

One consideration in the use of fish oil as the n-3 fatty acid source is it’s off flavour in bird
diets and the reduced shelf life of the chicken meat. A combination of preserving agents and
antioxidants may be used to increase shelf life and conceal the distasteful flavours (Farrell,
1995).

5
3. Materials and Methods
The following experiments were designed to test the influence of different nutritional
manipulations on lean growth in broilers.

Experiment 1 examined the effect of graded levels of chromium and leucine on lean tissue
growth. Balanced, wheat based diets with various levels of chromium and leucine (Table 3.1)
were fed ad libitum to mixed - sexed broilers from days 1 to 42. Weekly feed intakes and bird
weights were recorded and feed conversion efficiency determined. At day 43, after a 24 hour
fast, the birds were processed and whole bird, plucked, carcass, breast fillet, entrail and
abdominal fat pad weights recorded. Carcass water percentage and carcass fat content were
determined on a 25 % subset of birds from each treatment.

Experiment 2 was undertaken to test the influence of various fat sources, at two dietary levels,
on lean growth. Diets containing linseed oil, lard, fish oil and safflower oil at 2% and 4% of
diet were fed ad libitum to male broiler chicks from days 1 to 42. Feed intakes and bird
weights at day 21 and day 42 were measured and feed efficiency calculated. On day 43 all
birds were slaughtered. Body, plucked, carcass, gut, abdominal fat pad weights and breast
yield were recorded.

3.1 Experiment 1
This experiment was conducted to examine if dietary chromium as chromium picolinate
improves protein deposition in broilers.

Husbandry
Mixed sex broiler chickens (300) were supplied by Baiada Poultry, Tamworth. Upon arrival
at UNE, 216 healthy day old chicks were weighed and housed in electrically heated brooders.
These brooders consisted of wire mesh floors with galvanized cage partitions with slide-in
excreta trays, and external feeders and water troughs. At 21 days of age the birds were moved
to Harrison carry-on cages ( 4 birds per cage for 54 pens). These wire mesh cages were also
fitted with external galvanized feeders, external water troughs and slide-in excreta trays
(Appendix 2). Brooders and cages were located in an insulated room. Room temperature was
maintained between 23-280C. The floor was wetted each morning to increase the humidity in
the rooms and to keep the dust levels to a minimum. The floor was regularly swept to remove
spilt feed and excess dust and feathers. Excreta trays were cleaned and water troughs
scrubbed and refilled regularly. All birds were individually weighed upon arrival to UNE (one
day old). Birds in the weight range of 47-53 grams were accepted for the experiment, other
weights were rejected. Birds were then weighed weekly. Birds showing obvious sickness or
leg weakness (such as tibial dischondroplasia), which hindered their ability to access water or
food, were euthanised by cervical dislocation.

Experimental Design
Table 3.1 displays the experimental design used in trial 1. This 3 x 3 factorial design
included three increments of chromium and three levels of leucine. Overall there were nine
separate diets which were used to determine the dietary effects of chromium or leucine. The

6
nine diets were randomized between 216 mixed-sex broilers (9 replicates of 24 birds per
treatment).

Table 3.1 Experimental Design of Trial 1

Diet No. Diet Id. Diet Design

1 Control Control (recommended level of leucine - 1.2% digestible)
2 L1 Control + 1.88% digestible leucine
3 L2 Control + 2.40% digestible leucine
4 Cr1 Diet 1 + 0.5 mg/kg digestible chromium
5 Cr1L1 Diet 2 + 0.5 mg/kg digestible chromium
6 Cr1L2 Diet 3 + 0.5 mg/kg digestible chromium
7 Cr2 Diet 1 + 1.0 mg/kg digestible chromium
8 Cr2L1 Diet 2 + 1.0 mg/kg digestible chromium
9 Cr2L2 Diet 3 + 1.0 mg/kg digestible chromium

Diets and Feeding

Both starter and finisher diets were kindly formulated by Inghams Enterprises Pty Ltd,
Leppington, NSW, using the feed formulation software Agridata. Chromium was obtained
from Ridley AgriProduct in Tamworth as chromium picolinate and synthetic leucine from
Masashi Australia in Melbourne. Birds were fed a starter diet for the first three weeks. At 21
days of age the birds were transferred onto the finisher diet until slaughter. During the trial
feed was available ad libitum. Feed was removed from the feed troughs 24 hours before the
trial was terminated. Water was also provided ad libitum throughout the trial and access was
continued until slaughter. The starter and finisher feed ingredients are displayed in Tables 3.2
and 3.3, respectively. To the required diets chromium was added (Table 3.4).

Table 3.2: Ingredients in Experiment 1 Starter Diets

Ingredients Diets Diets Diets

1,4,7 2,5,8 3,6,9
Wheat (11.5% C.P.) 50.04 49.44 49.84
Barley (10% C.P.) 10.00 10.00 10.00
Rice Pollard (13% C.P.) 6.00 6.00 6.00
Cottonseed 4.00 4.00 4.00
Meat and Bone Meal (50% C.P.) 10.00 10.00 10.00
Soyabean Meal (48% C.P.) 15.00 15.00 15.00
Lime 0.50 0.50 0.50
Tallow 3.03 3.03 3.03
DL Methionine 0.23 0.23 0.23
Lysine 0.31 0.31 0.31
Bicarbonate Soda 0.18 0.18 0.18
Salt 0.10 0.10 0.10
Choline 0.08 0.08 0.08
Premix (vitamins & minerals) 0.50 0.50 0.50
Synthetic Leucine 0.00 0.60 1.20
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
M.E. = 12.59 MJ/kg Crude Protein = 21.79%

7
Table 3.3: Ingredients in Experiment 1 Finisher Diets

Ingredients Diet Diet Diet

1,4,7 2,5,8 3,6,9
Wheat (11.5% C.P.) 61.35 60.85 60.35
Barley (10% C.P.) 9.00 9.00 9.00
Rice Pollard (13% C.P.) 4.00 4.00 4.00
Cottonseed 4.00 4.00 4.00
Meat and Bone Meal (50% C.P.) 8.13 8.13 8.13
Soyabean Meal (48% C.P.) 10.00 10.00 10.00
Lime 0.40 0.40 0.40
Tallow 1.83 1.83 1.83
DL Methionine 0.18 0.18 0.18
Lysine 0.23 0.23 0.23
Bicarbonate Soda 0.14 0.14 0.14
Salt 0.15 0.15 0.15
Choline 0.02 0.02 0.02
Premix (vitamins & minerals) 0.50 0.50 0.50
Synthetic Leucine 0.00 0.50 1.00
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
M.E. = 12.58 MJ/kg Crude Protein = 18.92%

Table 3.4: Chromium Addition to Experiment 1 Diets.

Diet No. Diet Identification. Chromium

(mg/kg Feed)
1 Control 0.0
2 Control + 1.88% digestible leucine (L1) 0.0
3 Control + 2.40% digestible leucine (L2) 0.0
4 Diet 1 + 0.5 mg/kg digestible chromium (Cr1) 0.5
5 Diet 2 + 0.5 mg/kg digestible chromium (Cr1L1) 0.5
6 Diet 3 + 0.5 mg/kg digestible chromium (Cr1L2) 0.5
7 Diet 1 + 1.0 mg/kg digestible chromium (Cr2) 1.0
8 Diet 2 + 1.0 mg/kg digestible chromium (Cr2L1) 1.0
9 Diet 3 + 1.0 mg/kg digestible chromium (Cr2L2) 1.0

The major ingredients (grains, soybean meal, meat and bone meal etc) were mixed together in
a large feed mixer. Minor ingredients including vitamins, feed enzymes, synthetic amino
acids salt etc, were separately weighed and mixed in a small mixer, then the mix was
combined with the major ingredients. Fat was melted and poured over the mixing feed
ingredients, to create a consistent fat content throughout the food.

The diets were divided and the increments of leucine and chromium added accordingly (refer
to experimental design section 3.1.2). These trace ingredients were first added to a small
quantity of the minor ingredients. This was gradually diluted up to an amount which could
assure homogenous ingredient mix when added to the rest of the ingredients. The mixed feed
was cold pelleted. The freshly pelleted diets were placed in a dry room to cool down and
become isoanhydrogenous with the surroundings. This process was carried out to balance the
water content of the food and to reduce the risk of bacteria or mould spoiling the feed.

8
Measurements
Feed Intake: All birds were weighed upon arrival. They were again weighed at weekly
intervals and after slaughter. Feed intake was recorded weekly and the feed conversion
measured. Mortalities were recorded and weekly feed conversion was adjusted accordingly.
The calculation used was:

Body Parameter Measurements: At 6 weeks of age the birds were fasted overnight in
preparation for processing. Birds were killed by cervical dislocation and transported to the
processing room in labelled plastic buckets. Each bird was weighed, then immersed in 670C
water for 40-50 seconds. The animal was then plucked using a custom made, automated
chicken plucker fitted with 15cm rubber fingers. The weight of each plucked bird was
recorded (Appendix 3). The bird was then manually eviscerated with care taken to collect all
of the abdominal fat pad (Appendix 3). The fat pads and visceral weights were recorded.

From the carcass, both breast muscles were removed and weighed (Appendix 4). The carcass
and filleted breast muscles were placed in labelled polythene bags and stored at -230C for
further analysis.

Moisture Determination: A subset (25%) of the 216 birds was randomly selected from each
treatment for body water and fat content measurements. Moisture analysis was carried out on
a 50 gram subsample. Each frozen carcass was cut into 25mm x 25mm strips on a band saw
then refrozen (Appendix 4). A homogenate was created after each carcass was doubly
minced. Processing through the mincer twice resulted in a uniform homogenate. Subsamples
were taken as a representation of the total carcass for moisture and fat analysis.

Freeze Drying: Total body water was calculated on 50 gram subsamples. Samples were
placed on predried 12.5cm square foam meat trays. The trays were dried overnight in a 600C
oven and cooled in a dessicator. The 50 grams of chicken mince were spread evenly over the
polystyrene tray and freeze dried using two Dynavac Freeze Driers at CSIRO, Chiswick
Laboratory.

After freeze-drying of the 50 gram sample was complete the trays were placed in a 600C oven
overnight. They were then desiccated and their dry weight recorded. Once the dry sample
weights were obtained, the carcass moisture content was calculated using the following
equation:

Carcass Fat Analysis: The fat content was determined using Soxlet extraction method.
Solvent (chloroform) extraction was performed on a 5-6 gram subsample of the freeze-dried
mince. All samples were analyzed in duplicate.

9
The dried samples were ground to a powder in a 1000 watt kitchen blender, and stored in
airtight bags in a 40C cool room until required for extraction. Clean soxlet thimbles were
labelled with lead pencil and placed (along with cotton wool plugs) in a 1050C oven
overnight. The dried thimbles were then removed (using tweezers - Soxlet thimbles should
never be handled) and placed in a dessicator to cool down for 45 minutes. The thimbles were
then weighed, and 5-6 grams of the powdered sample was placed under the cotton wool plug.
The thimbles along with the sample were returned to the oven. After overnight drying the
thimbles with samples were removed from the heat and desiccated for 45 minutes. The dry
samples and thimbles were then weighed - this figure being the initial weight for the
extraction.

The heating mantle and glassware were set up in a fume cupboard and all chloroform was
handled in fume hoods. Round bottom flasks were filled with 220ml of chloroform and
ceramic boiling chips. The prepared thimbles containing the dry samples were placed in the
extraction chamber, duplicates grouped together. With water running through the condensing
tubes, the mantle was turned on and the chloroform gently boiled. The boiled chloroform
condenses above the Soxlet thimble and drips onto and soaks through the sample. The
extraction chamber continues to fill as the thimble bathes in the solvent. The chamber
empties automatically when the chloroform levels reach a certain level (around 190ml), and
the solvent containing extracted fats reenters the boiling chamber.

After a constant, steady condensation rate is reached, the unit is left to run for 24 hours as the
fat extraction proceeds. After 24 hours the heat was turned off and the fatty chloroform
removed and set aside for re-distillation. The soxlet thimbles were carefully removed and
drained in a fume hood for three hours. The thimbles were then placed in a 1050C oven
overnight and then cooled in a dessicator for 45 minutes. Soxlet thimbles were weighed and
cleaned for later extractions.

The fat content (% dry weight) was calculated using the following formula:

3.2 Experiment 2
This experiment was conducted to test the effect of long chain and conjugated fatty acid
sources on lean tissue deposition in broilers.

Husbandry
Day old birds (48) were randomly housed in individual temperature control brooders in a
climate control room. The temperature of the room was maintained between 31.5 - 33.50C,
with a relative humidity of 55%. As a safety precaution the brooders were fitted with 40 watt
light bulbs, which switched on through a thermostat control if the room temperature fell
below 310C. The birds were maintained in this room until week three when they were
transferred to larger individual cages (Appendix 2).

10
Handling of the birds was as per Experiment #1 with the exception that the birds were
weighed at three weeks intervals (weeks three and six).

Experimental Design
Experiment two was a 2 x 4 factorial design. Two different increments (2% and 4%) of four
fatty acid sources (linseed oil, lard, safflower oil and fish oil) were used in formulating the
eight diets. Six birds were designated to each diet. Linseed in this experiment was
considered the control diet as it contained little linoleic acid and EPA and DHA are not
present. The tallow diet consisted of a higher proportion of saturated fats than the other diets.
The tallow diet did, however, contain traces of arachidonic acid and high content of it’s
linoleic acid as the c-9, t-11 isomer. Safflower oil was used as a rich source of linoleic acid
(over 77% of total fatty acid content). Fish oil treatments were trialed as they supply high
levels of the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. The commercial fish oil used in this
experiment had an unknown fatty acid composition. The fish oil composition displayed in
Table 3.5 is a representation of a fish oil’s specific fatty acid levels (cod oil from Tacon,
1990).

Table 3.5: The Fatty Acid Composition of Fat Treatments.

Fatty Acid Common Name Fat Source

Linseed Tallow Safflower Fish *
12:0 lauric - 0.1 - -
14:0 myristic - 3.2 0.1 3.7
16:0 palmic 6 24.5 6.5 12.6
18:0 stearic 4 19 2.4 2.3
20:0 arachidic - 0.1 - -
16:1, n-7 palmitoleic - 3.3 - 9.3
18:1, n-9 oleic 16 42.6 13.1 22.7
20:1, n-9 gadoleic - 0.6 - 7.5
22:1, n-9 erucic - - - 6.2
18:2, n-6 linoleic 15 2.6 77.7 1.5
18:3, n-3 alpha-linolenic 59 0.7 - 0.6
18:3, n-6 gamma-linolenic - 0.2 0.2 -
20:4, n-6 arachidonic - 0.4 - 1.4
20:5, n-3 EPA - - - 12.9
22:5, n-3 adrenic - - - 1.7
22:6, n-3 DHA - - - 12.7
* Cod oil (source = Tacon, 1990)

Diets and Feeding

Both the starter and grower diets were formulated at UNE using FEEDMANIA software
package (Mania Software, ABRI, UNE.) (Table 3.6 and Table 3.7 respectively).. The
difference between diets was the differing fat sources and levels. Feed and water were
available to the birds ad libitum.

11
Table 3.6: Starter Diets (ME = 12.31 MJ/kg; Protein = 21.19%)

Ingredients 2% FAT 4% FAT

(% as feed)
Sorghum (9% C.P.) 41.21 39.21
Barley (9% C.P.) 15.00 15.00
Rice Pollard (13% C.P.) 5.30 5.30
Cottonseed 5.00 5.00
Meat and Bone Meal (50% C.P.) 3.00 3.00
Soyabean Meal (48% C.P.) 24.80 24.80
Limestone 1.50 1.50
Dicalcium Phosphate 0.70 0.70
DL Methionine 0.40 0.40
Lysine 0.28 0.28
Threonine 0.11 0.11
Salt 0.20 0.20
Premix (vitamins & minerals) 0.50 0.50
Fat (lard, safflower, linseed or fish oil) 2.00 4.00
Total 100.00 100.00

Table 3.7: Finisher Diets (ME=12.34 MJ/kg; Protein = 20.81%)

Ingredients 2% FAT 4% FAT

(% as feed)
Sorghum (9% C.P.) 46.32 41.32
Barley (9% C.P.) 10.00 10.00
Rice Pollard (13% C.P.) 5.00 8.00
Cottonseed 10.00 13.00
Meat and Bone Meal (50% C.P.) 3.00 3.00
Soyabean Meal (48% C.P.) 20.00 17.00
Limestone 1.70 1.70
Dicalcium Phosphate 0.60 0.60
DL Methionine 0.30 0.30
Lysine 0.20 0.20
Threonine 0.03 0.03
Salt 0.35 0.35
Premix (vitamins & minerals) 0.50 0.50
Fat (lard, safflower, linseed, or fish oil 2.00 4.00
Total 100.00 100.00

Measurements

Feed Intake and FCE: During this experiment feed intake and FCE were determined every
three weeks. The birds were weighed upon arrival, at three weeks (when cages and rooms
were changed) and at slaughter.

Body Parameters: The same body parameters were measured as a representation of growth in
the animal. All of the birds were processed on the same day. The techniques employed were
the same as those used in Experiment 1. Liveweight, carcass weight, abdominal fat pad,
breast muscles, and visceral weight were measured.

12
3.3 Statistical Analysis of Data

Data from both experiments were analyzed using Statgraphics statistical analysis software.
Any effects of diet which were likely to have occurred by chance less than five times in 100
test repeats (i.e., P<0.05) were declared statistically significant. Duncans multiple range test
was used to separate means and test for specific treatment effects.

13
4. Effects of Chromium Supplementation
and Elevated Levels of Leucine on
Body Composition in Broilers Chickens
4.1 Introduction
Reducing broiler fat levels is an important goal of poultry producers because it is associated
with improved lean gain, increased feed efficiency and is consistent with consumer
requirements. The amount of fat in birds can be reduced in several ways altered through
choice of breed (or sex), nutritional restriction and refeeding or through altering the
composition of the diet. The study reported here was undertaken to determine the effect of
specific alteration of diet composition on lean tissue growth in broilers.
This experiment examined the effect of dietary addition of organic chromium and leucine (an
essential branched chain amino acid) on body composition and growth of broilers

4.2 Results
All results are presented in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.

Feed Conversion Efficiency and Growth

Levels of leucine or chromium did not affect feed conversion efficiency (FCE). There was no
significant difference in FCE between the nine diets. The average FCE for all of the birds at 6
weeks of age was 0.58. There were no interactions between the diets and body weight,
plucked weight or the carcass weight. The average bird weighed 2068.5g at 42 days. Pen
averages ranged from 1662g to 2412g. The mean plucked weight was 1948.8g with no
significant difference between treatments. Carcass weight in this experiment included the
head and feet although these are removed during commercial processing. There was no
significant effect of chromium or leucine on carcass weight.

Body composition
Gut weight: Chromium included at 1mg/kg level had a significant (P<0.05) effect on gut
weight. It increased the average gut weight of the birds from 198.2g of the controls to 210.2g.

Abdominal fat pad: The average fat pad weight was 26.0 g. Neither Cr nor leucine had a
significant effect on fat pad weight.

Breast muscle weight: Chromium had no effect on breast tissue yield. Leucine reduced
(P<0.001) breast muscle weight. Control birds receiving the recommended level of digestible
leucine (1.2% of diet) had an average breast muscle weight of 329.4g. Birds fed leucine at
the L2 level (control+2.40% digestible leucine) had 15% lighter breast muscles less than
control birds.

Carcass Water Content: Leucine had no significant effect on the water content of the carcass.
The average water content of each carcass was 64.8%. The addition of Cr increased the
average water percentage with the difference between Cr0 and Cr1 being significant (P<0.05).

14
Carcass Fat Content: Chromium reduced (P<0.05) carcass fat content. Whereas, increased
dietary leucine tended to increase it (14.2g ± 0.39, 14.8 ± 0.39 and 14.8 ± 0.39 for L0, L1 and
L2, respectively).

Table 4.1: Effect of Chromium Treatment on Body Parameters

DIET Id. Body Plucked Carcass Gut Wt(g) Fat Pad Breast
Wt.(g) Wt.(g) Wt.(g) Wt.(g) Wt.(g)
Cr0 L0 2080.5 1960.9 1744.2 193.3 23.6 330.8
Cr0 L1 2111.2 1987.4 1760.6 198.7 28.1 310.4
Cr0 L2 1992.2 1877.5 1647.8 202.8 26.8 283.0
Cr1 L0 2082.6 1964.2 1741.4 199.3 23.3 329.9
Cr1 L1 2004.3 1883.7 1654.8 200.8 23.2 302.7
Cr1 L2 1998.6 1884.8 1658.5 201.5 25.8 272.3
Cr2 L0 2128.8 2003.7 1771.4 207.5 26.5 327.4
Cr2 L1 2174.7 2051.1 1809.8 213.8 27.6 310.1
Cr2 L2 2043.5 1925.7 1687.3 209.3 29.3 286.6
Mean: 2068.5 1948.8 1719.5 202.9 26.0 305.9
Cr0 = 0mg Cr/kg feed Cr1 = 0.5 mg Cr/kg feed Cr2 = 1.0 mg Cr/kg feed
L0 = 1.20% leucine L1 = 1.88% leucine L2 = 2.40% leucine

Table 4.2: Analysis of Variance Results for Experiment 1.

Treatment Count 42-d FCE Body Wt. Carcass Wt. Gut Wt. Fat Pad Breast Wt.
Chromium
Cr0 18 0.59 2061.28 1717.50 198.22a 26.17 308.06
Cr1 18 0.58 2028.47 1684.92 200.53a 24.08 301.64
Cr2 18 0.58 2115.67 1756.17 210.17b 27.78 308.03

P Value 0.28 0.21 0.29 0.01 0.11 0.74

Leucine
L0 18 0.57 2097.31 1752.33 200.00 24.44 329.36a
L1 18 0.57 2096.69 1741.75 204.40 26.28 307.72b
L2 18 0.58 2011.42 1664.50 204.50 27.31 280.64c

P Value 0.07 0.15 0.11 0.42 0.25 0.01

Chromium x Leucine
Cr0 x L0 6 0.57 2080.50 1744.17 193.25 23.58 330.75
Cr0 x L1 6 0.60 2111.17 1760.58 198.66 28.08 310.42
Cr0 x L2 6 0.58 1992.17 1647.75 202.75 26.83 283.00

Cr1 x L0 6 0.57 2082.58 1741.42 199.25 23.25 329.92

Cr1 x L1 6 0.58 2004.25 1654.83 200.83 23.17 302.67
Cr1 x L2 6 0.58 1998.58 1658.50 201.50 25.83 272.33

Cr2 x L0 6 0.57 2128.80 1771.42 207.50 29.25 327.42

Cr2 x L1 6 0.58 2174.67 1809.83 213.75 27.58 310.08
Cr2 x L2 6 0.58 2043.50 1687.25 209.25 29.25 286.58

P Value 0.39 0.79 0.72 0.86 0.82 0.97

Cr0 = 0mg Cr/kg feed Cr1 = 0.5 mg Cr/kg feed Cr2 = 1.0 mg Cr/kg feed
L0 = 1.20% leucine L1 = 1.88% leucine L2 = 2.40% leucine
a,b,c = different superscripts in separate columns within a treatment differ significantly at P<0.05.

15
Table 4.3: Analysis of Variance Data For Carcass Water and Fat.
Treatment Count Carcass H2O % Carcass Fat %
Chromium
Cr0 18 64.25 15.27a
Cr1 18 65.29 13.78b
Cr2 18 64.75 14.70c

P Value 0.13 0.03

Leucine
L0 18 64.93 14.17
L1 18 64.61 14.79
L2 18 64.75 14.71

P Value 0.82 0.43

Chromium x Leucine
Cr0 x L0 6 65.03 14.64
Cr0 x L1 6 62.96 16.57
Cr0 X L2 6 64.77 14.59

Cr1 x L0 6 65.31 13.25

Cr1 x L1 6 65.83 13.49
Cr1 x L2 6 64.73 14.59

Cr2 x L0 6 64.46 14.61

Cr2 x L1 6 65.05 14.32
Cr2 x L2 6 64.74 15.19

P Value 0.09 0.16

a,b,c = different superscripts in separate columns
within a treatment differ significantly at P<0.05.
Cr0 = 0mg Cr/kg feed Cr1 = 0.5 mg Cr/kg feed Cr2 = 1.0 mg Cr/kg feed
L0 = 1.20% leucine L1 = 1.88% leucine L2 = 2.40% leucine

4.3 Discussion

This study shows that altering the dietary concentration of organic chromium and leucine in
broiler diets affected deposition of fat and protein. Chromium added as chromium picolinate
at 0.5 mg/kg decreased carcass fat deposition (as measured by chemical fat content) without a
commensurate change in carcass weight, breast weight or water content. This observation is
consistent with reports in pigs (Amoikon et al., 1995; Wenk, 1995) that chromium
supplementation reduces fat deposition. The mechanism of action is not properly understood,
but is thought to be due to potentiation of insulin function through both enhanced secretion
and an increase in cellular sensitivity to insulin, possibly through increased insulin receptor
numbers (Buse, 1981). Chromium is a known micronutrient and thought to be part of a
complex of factors which increase tolerance to variation in blood glucose. Its use has not
previously been reported in broilers.

The lack of effect of chromium on deposition of lean is consistent with reports from other
species. Chromium was without effect on growth of rats (Striffler et al., 1995), and growing
pigs (Amoikon et al.; 1995, Lindemann et al., 1995; Wenk, 1995). In the current study, body
weight and breast muscle tissue are unaffected by chromium treatment.

16
Chromium supplementation usually improves performance during periods of stress
(Kitchalong et al., 1995; Wenk, 1995). Stress alters nutrient metabolism and ultimately
increases the dietary requirements for specific nutrients. It has been proposed that chromium
may normally be at sub-optimal levels in the diet, principally because of marginal deficiency
in grains. Stress, which increases rate of carbohydrate utilisation, may create a demand for
chromium and thus a deficient state (Lindemann et al., 1995). Supplementation with
Chromium has been shown to improve the growth and performance of stressed animals
(Mowat, 1993).

Additional dietary leucine had no influence on efficiency of feed use and had no impact on
carcass fat content. Moreover, additional leucine significantly reduced breast muscle weight.
It was surprising that leucine had these effects. Reduction in growth was unexpected until it
was realised that the branched chain amino oxidase complex is not specific for leucine, but
has similar affinity for isoleucine and valine. Moreover, it has been shown in rats (Block and
Harper, 1984) that excess dietary leucine decreases the circulating concentration of iso-
leucine and valine, by increasing the activity of branched chain amino acid oxidase (and
BCAA oxidation) in muscle, and branched chain keto acid dehydrogenase in liver. Given that
chickens are susceptible to marginal deficiencies in isoleucine, it is possible that in this study,
excess leucine has generated a functional decrease in isoleucine availability and through this
mechanism reduced muscle weight gain. It was surprising that this occurred with no
significant change in body weight, or in feed conversion efficiency.

17
5. Effects of Dietary Fatty Acids on Lean
Growth in Broiler Chickens
5.1 Introduction

Reducing fatness in poultry is a current industry goal to improve the efficiency of diets and to
provide a leaner product for consumers. Nutritional manipulation provides an opportunity for
reducing production costs and improving carcass quality. Feed restriction regimes and
alterations in the protein to energy ratio of feed have some success in increasing leanness in
broilers (Van Weerden, 1989). Unfortunately their commercial practice is limited.

Fats are required for normal growth and development. The essential fatty acids (EFAs)
linoleic and linolenic acids cannot be synthesized by birds and therefore must be supplied in
the feed. They are required for the production of eicosanoids, local mediators of metabolism.
Suboptimal amounts in the diet reduce performance. These polyunsaturated fatty acids
including docohexaenoic acid (found in fish oils) have been reported to promote cell
proliferation and reduce apotosis rate (Tang et al., 1997).

High dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid levels (over 1.4% of the diet) reduce fat deposition in
broilers (Pinchasov and Nir, 1992). The omega-3 fatty acids present in fish oils (specifically
eicosapentanoic and docohexaenoic acid) lower the circulating very low density lipoprotein
levels in the blood, effectively reducing fat deposition in arteries and tissues. Fish oil
improves the feed conversion efficiency of broiler diets (Farrell, 1995) but its role in growth
and leanness is unclear.

The following study examined the effect of different fatty acid sources, at two dietary levels,
on lean growth. Linseed oil, lard, fish oil and safflower oil were added to broiler diets at 2%
and 4% levels. Birds receiving the linseed based diets reported significantly heavier
abdominal fat pad weights than broilers on the fish oil diets. Fat source had no effect on feed
efficiency or other body parameters. The amount of fat in the diet, 2% or 4%, had no
significant influence on lean growth.

5.2 Results

Feed Conversion Efficiency and Growth

There was no effect of dietary fat source and level on feed efficiency and body weight, the
plucked weight or carcass weight of the birds (Table 4.6).

Body composition
Viscera Weight : The average viscera weight at 42 days was 205.6g. The type of fat in the
diet and the amount present did not influence weight.

Abdominal Fat Pad: The abdominal fat pad weighed an average of 22.9g. There was a
significant (P<0.05) difference between the fat pad weights of birds fed fish oil compared to
those on the linseed based diets, thus fat pad of birds fed the diet containing fish oil was 19.6g

18
for 2% inclusion and 21.6g for 4% inclusion compared with 28.7g for 2 % linseed and 26.8g
for 4% linseed inclusion (Table 4.4).

The amount of fat in the diet did not affect the fat pad weight. Diets containing 4% fat
resulted in slightly heavier abdominal fat pads than those with 2% fat (2% fat = 22.5g ± 1.45
and 4% fat = 23.4g ± 1.45).

Breast Muscle Weight: The average breast weight for the trial was 348.2g. The level of fat in
the diet did not influence the breast yield. The birds receiving linseed oil had the lowest
breast weights, with an average weight of 336.9g (Table 4.5), whereas birds receiving the lard
had the highest breast yield, with an average weight of 357.0g.

Table 4.4: Effect of Fat Source on Abdominal Fat Pad Weight.

Fat Source % Addition Fat Pad Wt.(g)

Fish Oil 2 19.6
4 21.6
Linseed Oil 2 28.7
4 26.8
Safflower Oil 2 22.6
4 20.7
Lard 2 18.9
4 24.6

Table 4.5: Effect of Fat Source on Body Parameters

DIET DIET ID Body Wt.(g) Carcass Gut Wt.(g) Fat Pad Breast Wt.(g)
No. Wt.(g) Wt.(g)
1 2% Fish Oil 2177.3 1905.2 206.4 19.6 365.2
2 2% Lard 2147.8 1794.5 208.1 18.9 336.8
3 2% Linseed 2002.7 1656.2 204.2 28.7 336.5
4 2% Safflower 2244.8 1877.6 205.8 22.6 372.8
5 4% Fish Oil 2083.7 1736.9 196.0 21.6 334.3
6 4% Lard 2204.8 1850.4 199.9 24.6 377.2
7 4% Linseed 2128.8 1771.4 202.8 26.8 337.3
8 4% Safflower 2093.7 1719.0 221.8 20.7 325.3
Mean: 2135.5 1788.9 205.6 23.0 348.2

19
Table 4.6: Analysis of Variance Results for Experiment 2.

Treatment Count 42-d Body Wt. Plucked Gut Wt. Fat Pad Breasts
FCE Wt. Wt. Wt.
Fatpercent
2 24 0.69 2143.17 2036.97 206.12 22.47 352.83
4 24 0.68 2127.75 1997.96 205.11 23.42 343.54

P Value 0.71 0.82 0.55 0.88 0.64 0.58

Treatment
Fish Oil 12 0.68 2130.50 2042.85 201.21 20.59a 349.75
Lard 12 0.69 2176.33 2048.17 203.96 21.77ab 357.00
Linseed 12 0.68 2065.75 1945.08 203.50 27.78ab 336.92
Safflower 12 0.69 2169.25 2033.75 213.80 21.66b 349.08

P Value 0.17 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.07 0.86

Fat % by Treatment
2% Fish Oil 6 0.69 2177.33 2131.20 206.38 19.60 365.17
2% Lard 6 0.69 2147.83 2021.50 208.07 18.93 336.83
2% Linseed 6 0.68 2002.67 1889.17 204.20 28.73 336.50
2% Safflower 6 0.69 2244.83 2106.00 205.83 22.62 372.83

4% Fish Oil 6 0.67 2083.67 1954.50 196.03 21.58 334.33

4% Lard 6 0.69 2204.83 2074.83 199.85 24.60 377.17
4% Linseed 6 0.69 2128.83 2001.00 202.80 26.83 337.33
4% Safflower 6 0.69 2093.67 1961.50 221.77 20.70 325.33

P Value 0.14 0.46 0.32 0.55 0.51 0.26

a,b,c = data bearing different superscripts in a column within a treatment differ significantly at P<0.05.

5.3 Discussion
The type of fat in the diet can influence glucose and lipid metabolism in broiler chickens
(Newman et al., 1998). In the current study, the effect of linseed oil, lard, fish oil and
safflower oil included at 2% and 4% levels on body composition of broiler chickens was
examined. The level and type of fats had no effect on body weight, carcass weight, gut
weight or feed efficiency in male broilers. Birds receiving diets fortified with fish oil
developed significantly smaller abdominal fat pads than birds receiving the linseed oil
treatment.

This effect is possibly through the influence of polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentanoic
acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) in lowering the circulating very low density
lipoprotein (VLDL) levels. These complexes are normally delivered to tissues for fat storage,
including the abdominal fat pad.

The omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil may have reduced the catabolic response induced by the
immune system (Chin et al., 1994), reducing protein turnover levels and effectively
promoting lean growth. This is supported by the findings of Newman et al. (1998) that fish
oil increases glucose uptake into the muscle tissue and decreases plasma triglyceride
concentration in broiler chickens. The level of fat in the diet (2 or 4% of diet) had no
significant effect on feed efficiency or lean growth.

20
6. Implications and Recommendations
The studies have shown that (a) moderate level of chromium can reduce carcass fat content in
broilers, and (b) fats containing high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, i.e.,
eicosapentonoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA), can reduce abdominal fat pad
weight in broilers. The current industry practice does not have any particular provision for
chromium in the least cost feed formulation. Also various fats and oils are only used as
energy sources except that linoleic acid which is an essential fatty acid for poultry. The
chicken carcass contains 13-17% fat and any decrease in the fatness of broilers is favourable
in terms of production cost and meat quality. It is important that provisions be made for
chromium levels and some polyunsaturated fatty acids in practical feed formulations to take
advantage of their effect on energy utilisation and carcass fat content.

Although the data reported here are not extensive, they highlight need for future work as
follows:
1. Large scale experiments should be conducted to confirm the current findings that
chromium picolinate supplemented at moderate levels can reduce carcass fat
deposition.
2. The role of organic chromium in stressed and unstressed broilers should be
investigated.
3. The effect of graded leucine on lean tissue deposition in broilers should be examined
in conjunction with other branched chain amino acids in the diet.
4. A study on the effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids, i.e., EPA and DHA, and
conjugated linoleic acid on protein deposition and energy metabolism in broilers may
yield very useful information for the poultry industry.

21
7. References
Albright, K., Liu, W., Strokson, J., Hentges, E., Lofgren, P., Simeca, J., Cook, M.E. and
Pariza, M. (1996) Body composition repartitionimg following the removal of
dietary conjugated linoleic acid. Journal of Animal Science. 74(S1): 186.
Amoikon, E.K., Fernandez, J.M., Southern, L.L., Thompson Jr. D.L., Ward, T.L. and
Olcott, B.M. (1995) Effect of chromium tripicolinate on growth, glucose tolerance,
insulin sensitivity, plasma metabolites and growth hormone in pigs. Journal of
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Block K.P. & Harper, A.E. (1984) Valine metabolism in vivo: Effects of high dietary
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Buse, M. (1981) In vivo effects of branched-chain amino acids on muscle protein
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effects of leucine on the turnover of protein in muscles of control and diabetic rats.
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Chin, S.F., Liu, W., Storkson, J.M., Ha, Y. and Pariza, M.W. (1992) Dietary sources of
conjugated dienoic isomers of linoleic acid, a newly recognized class of
anticarcinogens. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 5: 185-197.
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Conjugated linoleic acid is a growth factor for rats as shown by enhanced weight
gain and improved feed efficiency. Journal of Nutrition. 124: 2344-2349.
Chua, B., Siehl, D.L. and Morgan, H.E. (1979) Effect of leucine and metabolites of the
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Clarenburg, R. (1992) Physiological chemistry of domestic animals. Mosby Yearbook
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Farrell, D.J. (1995) The enrichment of poultry products with the omega (n)-3
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Garlick, P.J. and Grant, I. (1988) Amino acid infusion increases the sensitivity if
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