INNOVATIVE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SENIOR HIGH

SCHOOLS IN GHANA
Abstract
Innovative waste management in senior high schools continues to be a global burden to
educational institutions. This has generate thoughts, interest and research because of the huge
amount of the refuse that schools generation which include papers, cartons, cans, broken bottles,
polymers which can be recycled but are rather turned out as rubbish to be collected as refuse.
These refuse from schools are at times collected alongside other household refuses and heaped
on streets or refuse dump with it antecedent health challenges which include unsightly heap of
refuse, the odour emanating from such heap and the heap being a breeding ground for disease
vectors like mosquitoes, cockroaches, rodents, reptiles among others. Among all the significant
contributors of environmental waste, schools have been chosen for this write up since the waste
generation rate and its corresponding composition has not been reported or has been
underestimated. A theoretical literature review was used to achieve the objective of the study.
Hence, the present paper is an attempt to fill up this gap in knowledge. The objective of this
paper specifically is to bring to spot innovative solid waste management practices in senior high
schools in Ghana and raise awareness among educators, learners and their families of the cause
and effect of poor waste management and the benefits of recycling, reuse and reduce as waste
management strategies. Also, to provide environmental tools to enhance quality of life and assist
schools with portfolio development and waste minimization projects.

Keywords: innovative, reuse, reduce, recycle, senior high school, environment, management

1.0 Introduction
It is an undeniable fact that wherever human beings are found and activities are going on whether
in the home, school or church there will always be waste. Goudie (2018) said when the human
population was very small and nomadic this was not a major issue, but today because of the ever
increasing population with urbanization and the growth of large conurbations waste has become
a major challenge and a concern for all. Nowadays wastes are seen as a resource of greater
importance in many parts of the world. Waste as a resource material provides a view into such
phenomena as: the impacts of formal recycling on the efficiency and sustainability of waste
management (Chowdhury, 2009; Tsai, 2008). Poor management of waste had led to
contamination of water, soil and the atmosphere air and had impacted on public health negatively
(Guerrero, et al., 2013). There are many serious incidents and highly publicized pollution
incidents associated with poor waste management practices, which had become a global concern,
about lack of controls, inadequate legislation, environmental and human health impact (WHO,
2010).

Though waste is now seen as a resources yet many developing countries are still struggling with
management. It has been recommended that for alternative waste management it is good to
consider the integrated waste management where waste recycling is held at high esteem to make
waste useful again (Marshall & Farahbakhsh, 2013). Proper waste management include but not
limited to waste prevention/ refuse, waste re-use, recycling, and composting. In many countries,
a large percentage of waste is not presently being re-used, re-cycled or composted and the main
way of handling them is disposal methods at landfill site and incineration (Giusti 2009). Many

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landfill sites in urban areas and most educational institutions are overflowing which forces waste
management authorities to look for alternative way of waste management systems (Tsai, &
Chou, 2009). This in turn forced many local and international governments to introduce new
policies, regulatory frameworks to deal with hazardous and unsustainable waste management
operations.

Adams, (2015) suggested the bringing together all the other waste management to achieve a
“Zero Waste” starting from schools. To achieve a “Zero Waste” there is the need also to adopt a
lifestyle which will move waste management toward a “Zero Waste” by adopting the 5R of
Mack (2002), refuse what you don’t need, reduce what you need, reuse, recycle and repurpose
waste. According to Sterling and Huckle (2014) schools as an institutions are the pivot players
who play an important role as molding behavior patterns people that positively impact the
society. Therefore, they must take responsibility for implementing environmental actions in all
activities undertaken in bringing proper waste management to all. Educating for sustainability
implies a culture of change and values; that is why spaces for reflection and discussion are
required, besides time and effort in handling waste (Dahl, 2012).

School are considered to be similar to small towns because of their large size, population, and the
various complex activities taking place on campuses (Alshuwaikhat and Abubakar, 2008).
Schools are also faced with increase in population, build up areas and other infrastructure,
increase in their consumption pattern the quantity of waste also has increased, which if not well
managed and disposed, may cause a great problem in the school community (Schwartz et al.,
2015). There is growing awareness that schools can teach and demonstrate the theory and
practice of sustainability through taking action to understand and reduce the unsustainable
impacts of their own activities on the environment (Gottlieb et al., 2012). Several studies have
been conducted with respect to waste management in educational institutions globally. For
instance, De Vega et al., (2003), work on Mexican educational institutions and waste
management, Mwilu (2006) study on waste management in educational institutions in Kenya
with emphasis towards sustainability, Sepetu (2009) work on waste management in public
educational institutions of Mwanza and Tanzania. Zhang (2011) also examined the greening of
high educational institutions through sustainable waste management and Dery (2014) study on
institutional solid waste management practices in Ghana. All these researches testify to the fact
of poor waste management in educational institutions and this needs to be addressed for
environmental sustainability.

1.2 Problem Statement

From observation of most second cycle institutions in the country generate large amount of solid
waste daily, which also ends up in the landfill site created in the schools or burnt. Due to the
large volume of waste that goes to the these landfill sites, it is reaching full capacity, and all
components of the environment, air, water, as well as open spaces are increasingly threatened.
Some of the wastes generated in these schools are dumped indiscriminately in the school
environment, creating nuisance, filth, bad odour and threatening the health of students. These
mismanagements have led to new problems of contamination and pollution. Solid waste can be

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both valuable and harmful. This is because it contains valuable materials and also serves as
important source of potential environmental contaminants. The main problem facing policy
institution heads in the solid waste management sector is how to project and therefore fairly
predict the amount and the composition of solid waste that is likely to be generated in the near
future in order to devise the most appropriate treatment and disposal strategy. The present
scenario in which waste collection and management in the second cycle institutions is done is
inefficient and not reliable. The study therefore seeks to assess innovative solid waste
management practices in senior high schools in Ghana.

1.3 Main Objectives of Study

The main aim of this study is to assess innovative solid waste management practices in senior
high schools in Ghana

Specific Objective
Specifically the study seeks to
1. determine the composition of solid waste generated in the senior high schools.
2. findout out level of knowledge on students and school authorities on waste management
practices
3. determine innovative waste management practices carried out in schools

1.4 Significance of the Study

It is worthwhile to note that this study delivers an avenue for a deep understanding school solid
waste management practices. In increasing such an understanding, a more effective waste
management may be practiced by senior high schools. The study adds to existing theoretical
literatures and further serves as a spring board for further studies in different geographical,
economic and political settings. Thus, this study is targeted primarily at a Ghanaian and
international audience within the environment and soil research field as well as management and
stakeholders in waste management. Therefore, this research will enable Waste Management team
to understand what must be done in order to act in the best interest of students and school
authorities in choosing best management practices. The main problem facing policy makers in
the waste management sector in most urban areas is their inability to make appropriate future
predictions of the amount and the composition of SW likely to be generated over a period so as
to devise the most appropriate treatment and disposal strategy. The importance of reliable
information on both the quantity and composition of school solid waste for the effective planning
of waste handling infrastructure underscore the role this study may play. With the data,
hopefully, some model structure can be developed to reasonably manage school solid waste in
the vicinity where this work is being undertaken.

2.0 Methodology

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The review was a general narrative review type which was based on selected, specific and related
studies to the review topic. Waste management practices in schools and innovative solid waste
management practices in senior high schools in Ghana are compared and summarized on the
basis of experience, existing views, existing theories and ideology. Results are based on a
qualitative rather than a quantitative level.

2.1 Method of review

The issue review method was used in this studied by investigating the innovative solid waste
management practices in senior high schools in Ghana in terms of its composition of waste, its
characterization, waste management practices in schools environmental benefits and also
determining its present status in Ghana as case study, as there fewer detailed reviews on the
innovative waste management in schools in Ghana.

2.2 How it was conducted

The steps and stages involved in the preparation of this review involves the following

The descriptive type of abstract was used in writing the abstract.

The introduction was written based on the subject background i.e. the general topic, issue, area
of concern was also given to illustrate the context i.e. the Waste management practices in
schools. The Problems were also highlighted i.e. Trends, new perspectives, gaps, contrary ideas.

Full preparation of article was done through narrowing of the topic; defining a few research
questions like: what is solid waste?, what makes up school solid waste? The search for literature
sources was done using specific key words, the topic and research questions during the search
read. Evaluation, classification and extraction of related information based on the focus study
was made and notes were formed.

A chronological outline structure was developed and headings for the sections in the text body
was made find headings for the sections in the text body.

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The planning of the content of the paragraphs was made in the sections.

 The final drafting of the abstract, introduction, results sections, conclusion, and references were
made.

2.3 Keywords used in the search

1. Solid waste

2. Composting

3. Solid waste management

4. Recycling

5. Incineration

6. Characterization of solid waste

2.4 Criteria of inclusion

The criteria for inclusion were based on selective, important, and related information on the
desired study topic. All cogent reviews, statistics, ideology and definitions related to the search
keywords were included with specific references to the school solid waste management.

2.5 Analysis

The method of analysis of the information was done through deductive and logical reasoning

3.0 Results and Discussions

3.1 Solid Waste

According to the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana (EPA) of 1999, solid wastes
comprise all such non-flowing materials generated by households, institutions, commercial
establishments and industries, and discharged from their premises for collection; all litter and
clandestine piles of such wastes; street sweepings, drain cleanings, construction/demolition
waste, dead animals and all such waste materials. UNEP defined solid wastes as substances or
objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of

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by the provisions of national law. Solid Waste also refers to “an item, material or substance you
as an individual consider useless at a given time and place” (Mugambwa, 2009). Waste is a
dynamic concept which can be defined in different ways (Pongrácz, 2009). Pongrácz introduces
an innovative description of waste in what she refers to as “object-oriented modelling language,
PSSP. PSSP stands for purpose, structure, state and performance, which are object attributes”
(Pongrácz, 2009).

In most cases, the definition of waste depends on the type or category of waste under
consideration. Some of the dominant types of waste include; municipal waste, solid waste,
hazardous waste and, electronic waste. I will define municipal and solid waste, which are
relevant to this study. Solid waste, also known as garbage is not very different from municipal
waste. This study takes on the definition by the State of the Environment Report for Uganda
(NEMA, 2007) that defines solid waste as “organic and inorganic waste materials produced by
households, commercial, institutional and industrial activities that have lost value in the sight of
the initial user”

3.2 Solid waste composition

Solid waste composition describes the individual elements that make up the solid waste stream
and their relative distribution, usually based on percentage by weight and that it depends on the
environment in which the waste is generated ( Bolaane and Ali, 2004 ). Yousuf (2005) in his
work on Sustainable and Replication of Community-based Composting in Bangladesh, classified
the components of solid waste as plastics, glass, wood, textile, metals/cans, cardboards and
miscellaneous (ash, sand etc.). According to Makende (2007), the understanding of what
materials are in a solid waste stream helps in the identification of, to some degree, the valuable
natural resources being thrown away rather than reused, recycled or recovered to create other
products, materials or energy. Waste composition information helps develop waste minimisation
programmes such as composting (for solid waste with significant percentage of organics),
material recovery and recycling schemes.

3.3 Solid waste composition in schools

According to the City of Los Angeles Bureau of Sanitation, U.S.A, waste composition
determination means finding how much of the different composition of waste is discarded in a
quantity of waste. This involves collection, sorting and weighing waste generated in schools and
district facilities. Waste characterization helps in planning how to reduce waste set up recycling

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programmes and conserve money and other resources (City of Los Angeles Bureau of Sanitation,
2007). A similar study by Ifegbesan (2008) in six Secondary Schools in Ogun state revealed that
a large percentage (62%) is made up of organic waste consisting of food remains, fruits,
vegetables etc. with less paper waste. A waste composition study was conducted in North
Carolina in January 2008 to evaluate the composition of solid waste disposed by the Wake
County Public School System (WCPSS) which comprises of the Elementary, Middle and the
High Schools. The findings of the study was meant to be used as an indicator of the effectiveness
of the Countys recycling programme in schools. A key variable influencing options for schools‟
composting programme is the assumed quantity of the compostable waste among the waste
generated (Walling et al., 2004). Based on this, Global Action Plan, an independent
environmental charity, presented a comprehensive data on the quantity of compostable solid
waste generated in 13 Schools in London over a two-year period. According to the findings, the
13 Secondary Schools constituting about 6004 students, annually generated 36.4 tons of food
waste (which is approximately 99.7Kg daily).

3.4 Characterization of solid waste

Individual components and their relative distribution in the waste stream make up waste
composition. According to Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata (2012), low income countries have the
highest proportion of organic waste because affluence increases at a slower rate in these
countries and waste composition is influenced by factors including climate, culture, economic
development among others furthermore influencing waste collection and disposal. It has been
reported that the composition and the quantity of MSW generated form the basis on which the
management system needs to be planned, designed and operated (Sharholy et al., 2008).

According to Ghana’s Climate Change Technology Needs and Needs Assessment (TNA) Report
(2003) a study on the composition of MSW conducted in 1997 by the Accra Metropolitan
Assembly showed that about 65% of the waste stream consists of organics and inert material
arising from the practice of hand- sweeping sand constituted about 17.1% of the waste stream.
Together, both organics and inert material accounted for about 82% of the waste. A study reveals
that the composition of solid waste in Mysore city in India has 40 % organic matter followed by
45 % earthen materials and 1.5 % as wooden materials, suggesting the city’s waste has a large
amount of biodegradable materials. Though the percentage of non-biodegradable waste like
metals and plastics is relatively not very high, substantial percentage of it made up of concrete /
pebbles / silts / sands etc was observed: which is indicative of large scale building construction
and other development activities (Chandra and Devi, 2009). Domestic waste in Accra is
primarily made of organic material (65%). The remainder of the disposed waste consists of
paper, plastics, glass, metals and textiles. The organic material is typically a mixture of kitchen
waste (vegetables, rotten fruits, crop residues, and leaves) and animal excreta.

3.5 Management of Solid Waste

Solid waste management chain requires intensive use of Environmental Sound Technology
(EST) for its activities which could be as simple as containers for primary collection to as
complicated as incinerators for disposal of hazardous waste (UNEP, 2009). Solid Waste
management is said to be the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage,

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collection, transfer, processing and disposal of solid waste, in a way which is governed by the
best principles of public health, economics, engineering, aesthetics and other environmental
considerations. This definition of MSW management is the ideal that most metropolitan,
municipal and district assemblies are struggling to achieve.

In most countries, local governments are responsible for municipal solid waste management
(UNEP, 2009). Solid waste management has become a serious environmental problem for most
communities all over the world (Su et al., 2008). Inappropriate waste handling, storage,
collection and disposal practices pose environmental and public health risks. Anthropogenic
activities in society generate large quantities of wastes posing a problem for their disposal
(Chandra and Devi, 2009). Almost all such human activities generate some amount of waste.
Rapid increase in volume and types of solid and hazardous waste as a result of continuous
economic growth, urbanization and industrialization, is an up-and-coming problem for national
and local governments to ensure effective and sustainable management of waste. It was
estimated that in 2006 the total amount of solid waste generated globally reached 2.02 billion
tones, representing a 7% annual increase since 2003 (Global Waste Management Market Report,
2007). It was further estimated that between 2007 and 2011, global generation of municipal
waste would rise to 37.3%; equivalent to roughly 8% increase per year.

To Asase et al., (2009), the estimated daily municipal waste generation rate in Kumasi is 0.6 kg
per capita. According to Collivignarelli et al. (2004), waste production and composition depend
on many factors, such as the stage of development; socio-economic, climatic and geographical
conditions and collection frequency (Sharholy et al., 2008). With its resultant exponential growth
coupled with insufficient data for planning, it does not enhance effective waste management.
Besides, increasing population levels, rapid economic growth and rise in community living
standards accelerate the generation rate of municipal solid waste in cities. According to UNEP
(2005) the rate of waste generation generally increases in direct proportion to that of a nation’s
advance in development and failure to provide a management system could result in greater
environmental degradation with increase health risk to the urban population. To provide effective
management system, there is the need for data on quantity variation and generation to plan for
collection and disposal systems (Sharholy et al., 2008).

Ghana has waste management difficulties that extend from the state to the local municipalities,
and refuse of all shapes and sizes is a common site in both urban and rural areas. These
difficulties are concentrated and complicated by population pressures in the few heavily
populated cities. Solid waste management in Ghana has seen many challenges especially with
increase in economic development and rapid urbanization of the country. Over the years, waste
has been disposed in the open with no specific management systems in place. Apart from the
urban areas where conscious efforts are being made to manage waste in an organized way, the
rural areas of the country seem to have been left to their own fate with regards to waste
management. Many approaches to waste management exist. Generally, solid waste in Accra is
managed through economic instruments, landfills, incineration, recycling or reuse. Tsiboe and
Marbell (2004), identified three main ways through which waste has been managed in Ghana,
and thus mainly in the urban localities. Unfortunately all these waste collected are deposited at
landfills. The first is collection of waste by trucks directly outside houses, the second is

8
collection from public communal containers where people come to dump their wastes whiles the
third is door to door collection by labour intensive methods.

3.6 Knowledge gap on school solid waste management

The attitude of schools towards waste management has been a topic of interest among
researchers for years. Many studies in the last two decades on socio-demographic variables,
environmental perceptions and waste management have helped in understanding students‟ views
and thinking about the environment (Ifegbesan, 2008). Gender is a variable that has received
consistent attention among researchers. Raudsepp (2001) found that female students were
significantly more likely than males to be concerned with environmental problems. Females have
been consistently shown to have higher environmentally conscious attitudes than men. However,
in other studies such as that of Van-Liere and Dunlap (1981) gender was not a significant
predictor of environmental concerns and attitudes as other socio-demographic variables. It has
been found that no gender difference in this attitude for U.S. children in the 2nd grade. In a
study of Canadian students in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade, it was found no attitude differences
between the sexes. Environmental knowledge in the school sector is known to provide
opportunities for students and authorities to engage in actions and behaviour that impact
positively towards achieving a more sustainable school environment (Diamontopoulos et al.,
2003).

There are studies that have examined public and students„ views on the attitudes of their schools
towards waste management. Bassey et al. (2006) used both qualitative and quantitative methods
to examine the types of waste disposal techniques employed in the management of solid wastes
in five selected public schools in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and reported that more
than half (55.8%) of the students expressed dissatisfaction in the way waste are disposed of
within their schools. In his study to examine the level of understanding and practices of
Secondary School Students in Ogun State with regards to waste management, Ifegbesan (2008)
revealed that Secondary School students from the sampled zones, independent of their sex, were
aware of waste problems on their school compounds, but possessed poor waste management
practices differ by sex, class and age of students. Duan and Fortner (2005) found that students
possessed high environmental awareness and knowledge of local environmental issues than
global environmental issues. Other researchers have also studied how solid waste is handled and
managed in High Schools in Ghana. In a study on how waste is generated, treated or managed at
Armed Forces Technical Secondary School in Kumasi, Agyemang et al.(2004) identified the
school farm, the compound, residences of staff, the kitchen and the sewage as the sources of
waste generation in the school. As part of the school’s waste management programme, plantain
peels which form a significant percentage of the garbage is collected and handed over to a local
soap manufacturing company which is used for the production of a local soap called „Alata
samina‟. The quantity and the complexity of solid waste generated in High Schools is drawing
increasing attention as garbage normally lie uncollected on campuses causing inconveniences,
environmental pollution and a risk to public health (Ifegbesan, 2008). Due to the waste
management problems in schools experts have done some work in the field of waste disposal in
schools in an attempt to correct the situation. Presenting a fact sheet about waste management
in schools, Horeder (2004) investigated the possibility of implementing waste stations on the

9
campus of Saint Pewter’s in central Newcastle, U.S.A. Research by Waranusantikule (2003)
gave birth to a waste management model at Maneeya Kindergarten School, Thailand. The model
centered on waste separation practice along with a “garbage bank” that combines to provide
environmental education for the students. According to Waranusantikule (2003), a strong
commitment from staff and students is extremely critical if a waste management model is to
succeed, thus it is essential that an appropriate awareness raising scheme be put in place.
Furthermore, waste separation and garbage bank practices can only be done successfully when
the government’s central waste collection and management systems for separated wastes are
available (Waranusantikule, 2003).

3.6.1 The Concept of Composting

Composting is the controlled aerobic or anaerobic degradation of organic materials (Kone et al.,
2007). The final product of composting is called "compost". Kone et al. (2007) in their study on
dewatering and co-composting of faecal sludge in tropical climates came out with the two most
important purposes for composting organic wastes as; to decrease the amounts of usable
organic materials that are being deposited in landfills and to conserve the nutrient or fertilizer
values of the organic materials. According to Surahet (2005) the feasibility of adopting
composting as a waste management option to manage solid waste in a community depends on its
acceptance by the people, the quantity of organic solid waste among the waste stream and the
ability of the finished compost to support plant growth which is mainly defined by the C:N ratio
of the organic waste composted.

3.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Composting

Many researchers including Zurbrugg (2003) have shown that decomposition of organic material
in the compost pile depends on maintaining microbial activity and that any factor which slows or
halts microbial growth also impedes the composting process. Most researches have noted that
efficient aerobic decomposition mainly depends on aeration (oxygen level), moisture, particle
size of composting material, temperature and a sufficient source of carbon and nitrogen (C:N
ratio). Carbon and nitrogen are essential to microorganisms that break down organic material. In
the process of breaking down organic material, microorganisms utilize the carbon as a source of
energy and the nitrogen as the building block for protein synthesis. A nutritional requirement for
microorganisms is that the C: N ratio of organic material must be at a level for optimum
decomposition efficiency (Adholeya and Prakash, 2004). Many studies on the quality of compost
have revealed that C: N ratio is an important parameter that can be used to determine if a
compost is nitrogen stable or not. In a study of the nutrient content of composted organic
materials in the sub-Saharan climatic conditions, Madar (2002) revealed that woody plants or
lignin-rich materials such as newspapers, sawdust, wood, straw, dry leaves and corn stalks have
relatively high carbon content but low in potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen whiles others such
as food wastes and animal waste are low in carbon but rich in nitrogen. According to Mamo et
al. (2002) as cited by Mensah (2010) the limiting C: N ratio for most microbial organisms’
ranges from 25:1 to 30:1 (i.e., 25–30 parts carbon to 1-part nitrogen). When the C:N ratio of the

10
organic material exceeds 30:1, the organisms become deficient in nitrogen and the process of
decomposition is slowed down (Mamo et al., 2002). However, other shown that in general, a C:
N ratio of 35:1 or lower is preferred if the material is to be nitrogen stabilized. The C: N ratio is a
critical factor in composting since it could prevent nitrogen robbing from the soil and ensure the
conservation of maximum nitrogen in the compost.

Reporting on the composting potential of waste generated from different income group areas in
Kumasi, Mensah (2010) indicated that the C:N ratios of waste in low, middle, high income
groups were 26.6:1, 24.7:1 and 25.0:1 respectively. However, a good compost can be prepared
from hard plant materials, with high C: N ratio, by mixing lime in a ratio of 5 kg per 1000 kg of
waste material (Mahimairaja et al., 2008). The addition of lime neutralizes some of the organic
acids released during decomposition, maintains a desirable acidity range, and reduces the loss of
nitrogen gas. It also enhances the process of decomposition of hard plant materials by weakening
the lignin structure (Mahimairaja et al., 2008). According to Hirano et al. (1991) when
oxygenation is inadequate, aerobic bacteria die off and anaerobic bacteria take over the
decomposition which slows significantly.

Temperature is a function of the biological activity within the composting system, and, to some
extent, its exposure to the sun (Jiang and Doyle, 2003). In their view, Jiang and Doyle (2003)
observed that when microbes flourish, they raise the pile temperature through their metabolism,
reproduction, and conversion of composting materials to energy. The main reason, according to
Jiang and Doyle (2003) for one to be concerned about pile temperature is that maintaining a
minimum pile temperature of 131°F (61.7oC) for a week is desirable to destroy weed seeds or
plant pathogens. According to Zurbrugg (2003) the ideal moisture level for a composting system
is between 40 and 60 percent (the compost should feel damp but not soggy) The conditions for
efficient biological decomposition of organic waste depend on optimum temperatures (61.3oC–
70.8oC), moisture (46–56%), oxygen (15–21%), pH (6.0–7.5) (Mamo et al., 2002).

3.7 Disposal of Solid Waste

According to Agyepong (2011), waste disposal in Ghana is mainly by landfilling. Currently the
country can boast of only two Sanitary Landfill facilities located in Kumasi and Tamale. Two
others are under construction in Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema. The other cities and towns depend
on dumpsites for their waste disposal. Other systems such as incineration, waste to energy and
anaerobic digestion have so far remained at exploratory stages, with the exception of composting
which is at the implementation stage at Zoomlion. Inappropriate waste handling, storage,
collection and disposal practices pose environmental and public health risks. In heavily
populated urban centres, appropriate and safe solid waste management is of utmost importance to
create a healthy environment for the people. However, the practice has been that the collected
waste is generally dumped on land in a more or less uncontrolled manner (Mosler et al., 2006).
In many metropolitan cities, open, uncontrolled and poorly managed dumping is commonly
practiced, giving rise to serious environmental degradation. Improper management of solid waste
in most cities of developing countries leads to problems that impair human and animal health and
ultimately result in economic, environmental and biological losses ( Sharholy et al., 2007).
Unscientific disposal cause an adverse impact on all components of the environment and human
health (Chandra and Devi, 2009). Moreover, landfill disposal and waste-to-energy (WTE)
incineration remains the two principal options for managing municipal solid waste (Moy et al.,

11
2008). Sanitary landfilling is an acceptable and recommended method for ultimate disposal of
solid waste. It is a necessary component of MSW management, since all other options produce
some residue that must be disposed of through landfilling. However, despite the importance of
landfill in solid waste management to the municipality, the uncontrolled leachate from the
landfill leaves much to be desired (Sharholy et al., 2008). According to Salem et al. (2008),
leachate from municipalities’ landfills represents a potential health risk to both surrounding
ecosystems and human populations.

3.8 Waste Minimization

In recent years, the burdens that waste puts on the environment has been widely publicized, To
address both the earth's dwindling resources and the growing mountains of waste many countries
have introduced statutory waste minimization and recovery targets (Emery et al., 2007).
Minimization of municipal solid waste and diversion from landfill to derived raw materials are
necessary to manage waste sustainably and achieve legislative compliance (Bench et al., 2005).
Public participation in Local Authority schemes is key to increasing household recycling levels;
however, the most effective way to reduce waste is to deal with it at source, through waste
minimization (Tonglet et al., 2004).

3.8.1 Reuse
A publication on solid waste management by UNEP (2005) indicates that the informal recovery
and reuse of materials from the waste stream occurs at several levels in Africa; moreover,
scavengers also recover materials for personal and commercial purposes. However, the extent of
commercial recycling of paper, metals, glass, and plastic depends on the presence of industrial or
other end uses for these materials. UNEP (2005), further observed that the rate of reuse of
materials is high in household with low-income, whereas in high-income areas, recovery is
carried out by domestic servants and/or wardens. Reusing the materials directly, they rather sell
bottles, plastics, cardboard, and paper to intermediaries or commercial centres that pay for these
materials. This is confirmed by Chandra and Devi (2009), that high income group people throw
away more plastic, metallic, glass waste and hazardous waste than the low income group.

3.8.2 Aerobic Composting

Composting, the bacterial conversion of the organics present in MSW in the presence of air
under hot and moist conditions result in compost, the final product obtained after bacterial
activity, which has very high agricultural value. It is used as organic fertilizer, is odourless and
free of pathogens though not totally free. Sharholy et al. (2008), stated that as a result of the
composting process, the waste volume can be reduced to 50–85%. To Bundela et al. (2010),
agricultural application of composted Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), as nutrient source for
plants and as soil conditioner, is the most cost effective option of MSW management because of
its advantages over traditional means such as landfilling or incineration. However, composting is
likely to be a labour-intensive venture with unproven commercial viability (UNEP, 2005).

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3.8.3 Incineration
UNEP (2005) found that high capital and operating cost make controlled incineration and WTE
inaccessible technologies for most African cities. Furthermore, incineration in Africa would be
very difficult to put into practice if the waste stream is indeed 70% (wet basis) putrescible
organic content. Residential domestic waste forms the bulk with high organic component of the
municipality’s solid waste. Another limiting factor is the lack of infrastructure to support these
technologies. Aside infrastructure there is lack of human expertise and effective institutional
control. Often in these developing countries, plastics are recycled by scavengers where markets
exist. Some plastic recovery operations have modular pelletizers to process the material prior to
sale. The processed material is then sold to local plastic product manufacturers. In some
locations, rags are recovered, processed, and recycled by scavengers using rag-pulling equipment
and other equipment to shred, clean, and re-knit the fibres into all-purpose utility cloths for resale
(UNEP, 2005).

4.0 Conclusion

Schools should largely utilise a resource like solid waste. Senior high schools where solid waste
is generated in large quantities should go in for science related projects on waste, which helps in
generating useful by-products and thus protects the environment. Student growth and particularly
the development of clean environment is a major problem. The current situation is that school
relies on inadequate waste infrastructure, the informal sector and waste dumping. There is a need
to cultivate awareness and change the attitude of students towards waste, as this is fundamental
to developing proper and innovative waste management systems. Senior high schools faces
challenges related to waste policy, waste technology selection and the availability of
appropriately trained people in the waste management. Until these fundamental requirements are
met, schools will continue to suffer from poor waste management and the associated impacts on
student health and the environment. As consumers and environmental concerned citizens, we
need to commit to the three Rs: reduce, reuse, and recycle. The first step is to find ways to reduce
our use of materials that eventually pollute our environment. We need to become willing to do
with less, such as expecting less packaging materials used with small consumer products.
Second, as concerned citizens, we all must learn to reuse as much as possible. Refilled milk
rather than the dairy can so that it can be reuse, as well as cloth diapers rather than the non-
degradable disposable diapers, are examples of reuse. Finally, we must recycle as much materials
as possible. Recycling will grow only as much as the demand and a market for recycled materials
allows. The cost of recycling and a lack of market for reclaimed materials often discourage
municipalities and industries for practicing more recycling. Lack of time and interest, failure to
understanding how to recycle, messiness, and a lack curbside pickup are also frequently
mentioned as reasons for not recycling in the home. When combined, the three ‘Rs’ of
Reduction, Reuse, and Recycle could significantly manage wastes generated.

5.0 Recommendations
School curriculum should have a multi domain focus and should be designed to engage students
in their understanding about litter and waste minimization related concepts. The curriculum
broken into syllabus and within each unit of the scheme of work should be evaluation techniques

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to assist schools to assess students. Where relevant, links to tools and resources should be made,
and indications given as to how school operations can be integrated in a meaningful way. The
government should work on a proposal to incorporate waste management in school curriculum in
order to sensitize the younger generation about managing municipal solid waste in a hygienic
and scientific manner.
1. To reduce the volume of school solid waste that reaches the landfill, source reduction
should be prioritized.

2. Mass education can play a significant role in urging the public to segregate the waste.

3. Labelling the products as recyclable or non-recyclable by school authorities can help in

better understanding of the students.

4. Innovative for school solid waste should be developed based on the type of waste
generated and suiting the school needs.

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De Vega, C. A., Benítez, S. O., & Barreto, M. E. R. (2008). Solid waste characterization and
recycling potential for a university campus. Waste management, 28, S21-S26.

Dery, A. F. (2014). Analysis of Institutional Solid Waste Management Practices: Insights From

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Gottlieb, D., Vigoda-Gadot, E., Haim, A., & Kissinger, M. (2012). The ecological footprint as an
educational tool for sustainability: a case study analysis in an Israeli public high
school. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(1), 193-200.

Goudie, A. S. (2018). Human impact on the natural environment. John Wiley & Sons.

Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., & Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities
in developing countries. Waste management, 33(1), 220-232.

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Schwartz, M. B., Henderson, K. E., Read, M., Danna, N., & Ickovics, J. R. (2015). New school
meal regulations increase fruit consumption and do not increase total plate
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Tsai, W. H., & Chou, W. C. (2009). Selecting management systems for sustainable development
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