Intergrated Science PDF

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Contents
Section A: Agriculture Section D: Structures
1. Photosynthesis 03 1. Structures 100
2. Mineral nutrition 07 2. Trusses 103
3. Plant pests and diseases 08 3. Joining materials 105
4. Transport in plants 10 4. Large structures 107
5. Transpiration 14 5. Bridges and dams 109
6. Reproduction in plants 17 6. Mechanical systems 112
7. Animal nutrition 22 7. Fluids 115
8. The circulatory system of mammals 28
9. Gaseous exchange 34
10. Respiration 36
11. Animal parasites and diseases 38
12. Inheritance 39 Section E: Science in the
13. Ecosystems 41
Community
1. Health 120
2. Food Preservation 125
Section B: Industry 3. Smoking, Alcohol & Drugs 126
4. Disease 128
1. States of Mater 52
5. Defence systems 130
2. Atomic Structure 55
6. Reproduction 132
3. Elements, Mixtures & Compounds 56
7. Environmental health 138
4. Metals & Non-Metals 57
5. The Reactivity of Metals 58
6. Oxidation & Reduction 59
7. Acids, Bases & Salts 61
8. Speed of Reaction 65
9. Extraction of iron & copper 68
10. Industrial processes 72
Section C: Energy
1. Fuels 77
2. Electrostatics 86
3. Current electricity 89
4. Solar Energy 96
TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

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Definition:
Photosynthesis: is a process whereby green plants use carbon dioxide and water to make
glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.
Word equation
𝐬𝐮𝐧𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐲𝐥𝐥
Green plants are the ultimate producers of food for the world. Green plants are called producers because, only
they, can make food. Animals are called consumers. They cannot make food, they can only eat what has been
produced already.
The four factors that are necessary for photosynthesis to take place are:
 carbon dioxide
 water
 sunlight
 chlorophyll
Without any one of these four, photosynthesis cannot take place.
Water: is drawn in from the soil through the roots.

Carbon dioxide: enters the leaves through microscopic holes called stomata.
Sunlight: energy from the sun is used in making the carbohydrates.
Chlorophyll: is the green pigment found in plants. Chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun.
We can carry out experiments to find out whether a plant is photosynthesising or not. This may be done by
testing for the presence of starch. The glucose made during photosynthesis is stored as starch. Both glucose
and starch are carbohydrates.
TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

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PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

Action Reason
1 Boil the leaf in water To kill it/ to stop all chemical processes.
And also to break open the cells.
2 Dip the leaf in boiling To remove chlorophyll, so that colour changes may be clearly observed.
alcohol
3 Place the leaf in boiling To soften it because alcohol makes it brittle
water
4 Place the leaf on a white tile To check whether starch is present or not.
and apply iodine solution.
Iodine solution: is the chemical that is used to test for the presence of starch. It is brown in colour.
Starch present [Positive result] Starch absent [Negative result]
Blue/black Brown
NB: There is a danger involved when testing a leaf for starch [in step 2]. Alcohol is highly inflammable. In
order to overcome this danger, we use a water bath.
EXPERIMENTS TO PROVE THE NECESSITY OF SUNLIGHT, CARBON DIOXIDE AND

CHLOROPHYLL
In each of the following experiments we first of all have to de-starch the potted plants we are to use.
De-starching: to de-starch is to remove all the starch from the leaves of a plant.
We de-starch a potted plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for at least 24 hours.
CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS
All the following experiments are controlled experiments. A controlled experiment is set up in two parts.
One set up has all the conditions required, this is called the control. The other set up has all the conditions
required except for the one factor that is being investigated.
1. THE NECESSITY OF SUNLIGHT

 De-starch a potted plant.
 Partly cover one leaf with aluminium foil/ cardboard.
 Place the plant in light for a few hours.
 Test the leaf for starch.
[The exposed part of the leaf is the control. It has all the
conditions that are required for photosynthesis]
Results
 The part that was covered turns brown [starch
absent].
 The part that was formerly exposed to sunlight turns
blue/black [starch present].
Conclusion: Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

to take place.

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2. THE NECESSITY OF CHLOROPHYLL

 De-starch a potted plant with variegated leaves and test one leaf for starch to prove that the leaves have
been de-starched.
 Place the plant in the sun for a few hours.
 Test one leaf for the presence of starch.
A variegated leaf:
 The white part is the experiment [it has everything except chlorophyll]
 The green part is the control. All factors necessary are present.
Results
 White part turns brown.
 Green part turns blue/black.
Conclusion: Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to take place.
3. THE NECESSITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE

For this investigation you can either use two plants or you can set up two different leaves on the same plant.
 De-starch two potted plants.
 Set up the two plants in transparent polythene bags.
 In one bag place potassium hydroxide solution. This plant is the experiment as potassium hydroxide
absorbs carbon dioxide from its surroundings [soda lime also absorbs carbon dioxide].
 In the other bag place sodium hydrogen carbonate which releases carbon dioxide. This is the control.
You may also just put water or just cover with plastic since the air contains carbon dioxide already.
 Set the plants up in the sun for a few hours. Test one leaf from each plant for starch.
Result: The leaf that lacked carbon dioxide turned brown showing that photosynthesis did not take
place. The other leaf which had all the conditions required, turned blue back to show that
starch was present.
Conclusion: Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

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THE CROSS-SECTIONAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

 Much of the photosynthesis takes
place in the palisade cells.
 The spongy layer has a lot of air
spaces to allow easy diffusion of
gases through the leaf.
 Gases enter and leave the leaf
through microscopic holes called
stomata.
 The cuticle is waterproof so as to
prevent excessive water-loss
HOW THE LEAF IS ADAPTED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 A large surface area to trap as much light as possible.
 Thin to allow light through.
 Veins to carry water into the leaf and soluble food to other parts of the plant.
 Layers of cells to make food.
 Air spaces to allow carbon dioxide to enter the cells.
 Large number of stomata to allow for exchange of gases.
THE FATE OF THE END PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Oxygen: is released into the atmosphere
Is used for respiration by the plant and also by other living organisms.
Glucose: some is used immediately by the plant to respire and provide energy.
some is stored temporarily in the leaves, as starch, for respiration at night.
some is transported to other parts of the plant that do not photosynthesise [translocation].
is converted to starch &stored in special storage organs such as seeds, tubers, and fruits.
is converted into cellulose which makes up the cell walls of plants for structural support.
[The organic end product of photosynthesis is glucose]
EXPERIMENT: TO SHOW THAT THE GAS PRODUCED DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS OXYGEN

 A water plant is set up as shown.
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate is dissolved in
the water to increase the concentration of
carbon dioxide.
 A water plant, such as elodea, is used
because it is adapted to photosynthesise
under water.
The set-up is left in the sun and the gas produced
is collected as shown.
 To prove that the gas collected is indeed oxygen, you test using a glowing splint.
 Oxygen re-lights a glowing splint.

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There are some minerals that are very important for plants to grow well. These mineral elements are
required in very small quantities and each one has its own specific functions. We will take a look at only
three minerals here.
Mineral element Functions Deficiency symptoms
Nitrogen  Protein synthesis  Stunted growth

 Good leaf growth  Yellow leaves [chlorosis]
Phosphorus  Good root growth  Stunted roots
 Production of energy  Purple leaf colour
carrier molecules.
Potassium  Fruit and flower  yellow/brown leaf margins.

formation  Premature death
 osmotic and ionic  Poor flowering
balance  Poor fruit setting
 Respiration and
photosynthesis.
Mineral element deficiencies are corrected by applying fertilisers.
CULTURE SOLUTION EXPERIMENTS

 Culture solution experiments are carried out to find out the specific functions of each mineral element.
A culture solution is made by adding minerals [fertilisers] to distilled water.
 Culture solution experiments are

controlled experiments. This means
that there are two set-ups for each
investigation.
 One set up has all the nutrients
required for plant growth.
 And the other has all nutrients except
for the one being investigated
 The purpose of the opaque (dark)

cover is to prevent the growth of
algae.
 During the first few weeks there is no

noticeable difference between the
two set ups because both seedlings
would be using nutrients stored in the
seeds.

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Pests and diseases affect productivity in plants and cause reduction in yields. They multiply quickly on farms
where many plants of the same type are grown together.
Pest: a pest is any organism, plant or animal, that is harmful to people and their activities.
1. Tissue eating pests

Tissue eating pests have biting mouth parts. They eat plant tissue and leave behind gaps, holes and cut
edges.
Examples: locust, grasshopper, grub, caterpillar, millipede, snail
2. Sap sucking pests

These have piercing mouth parts. They leave behind spots on the stem and leaves.
Examples: aphids, red spider mite.
3. Bacterial Wilt
 Is a disease caused by bacteria in plants.
 Slimy liquid oozes out when stem is cut.
 Causes browning of shoots.
 Affects crops like potatoes and tobacco.
4. Fungal rust
 Caused by fungi.
 Mainly affects cereals like maize and wheat.
 Pustules [‘pimples’] appear on the plants.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Pesticide: it is any chemical used to kill pests.
Fungicide: it is any chemical used to kill fungi.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Quick  Can be harmful to the environment
 Effective and efficient  Affects other organisms along the food chain
 Specific  Chemicals may be washed into sources of
 Can be controlled if used correctly drinking water
 May stay in the soil for long periods
 Expensive
Safe use and handling of chemicals

 Always wear protective clothing such as goggles and gloves when using chemicals.
 Always read chemical labels carefully and follow the given instructions.

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 Keep chemicals locked away from the reach of children.

 Dispose of chemical containers properly.
 Wash hands thoroughly after handling chemicals.
Warning symbols used on pesticide containers
CAUTION It represents the least toxic LEAST TOXIC

chemicals.
Such chemicals may be used in
the home.
GREEN
POISON POISONOUS
AMBER
DANGEROUS POISON VERY POISONOUS
RED
VERY DANGEROUS
POISON Indicates the group of
chemicals that are
EXTREMELY POISONOUS MOST TOXIC
PURPLE
Cultural control
Examples of cultural control
 Hand picking.
 Introducing predators, for example hens to feed on caterpillars.
 Plant extract sprays from plants such as eucalyptus and tobacco.
 Spreading ash.
 Crop rotation.
 Improving drainage.
 Isolation of infected plants.
 Using disease resistant varieties.
 Safe for the environment.  May not be effective against some pests.
 It is cheap.  Requires a lot of labour since it needs to be repeated.
 Substances used are easily available.  Is very slow

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Water is transported from the roots to all parts of the plant and gases enter and leave through the stomata.
Dissolved sugars are also transported from the leaves, where photosynthesis takes place, to all parts of the
plant.
Transverse section through a bean stem Transverse section through a root
Xylem: transport water and dissolved mineral ions from the roots to all parts of the plant.
Phloem: are for the translocation of sugars from the leaves to all parts of the plant.
Cortex: are packing cells.
EXPERIMENT
To show the position of xylem vessels
 A young plant has its roots immersed in coloured water for several hours.
 The stem is cut and examined with a hand lens.
 The result will show that the xylem vessels become stained with the colour of the dye.
 This proves that the xylem vessels are the ones that transport water and ions.
The xylem and phloem are collectively known as the vascular bundle/ tissue. They are responsible for
transporting substances around the plant.
Kinetic theory of matter:

Matter is made up of tiny particles which are always in motion.
Diffusion: is the movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration.
A difference in concentration is called a concentration gradient. Hence diffusion may be defined as the
movement of particles down a concentration gradient.

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OSMOSIS
Osmosis: is the movement of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region
of their lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
So osmosis is a special type of diffusion concerning water molecules only.
A semi-permeable membrane may also be called a selectively-permeable membrane or partially-permeable

membrane.
When pure water and a salt solution are separated by a selectively permeable membrane, there is a
relatively higher concentration of water molecules in the pure water than in concentrated salt or sugar
solution. Experiments may be done to show or prove the movement of water molecules. We may use egg
membrane or visking tubing. Visking tubing is an artificial semi-permeable membrane.
VISKING TUBING EXPERIMENTS
The weight of the visking tubing and its contents is first measured and recorded.
Set up Result and conclusion

1 Experiment 1
Result:
After weighing for the second time, results show that the
weight of the visking tubing and its contents increases.
Conclusion:
This is because the water molecules move from their
region of higher concentration [beaker] into the visking
tubing where they are at a lower concentration. Osmosis
has taken place.
2 Experiment 2
Result:
After weighing for the second time, results show that the
weight of the visking tubing and its contents decreases.
Conclusion:
This is because the water molecules move from their
region of higher concentration which is the visking tubing
into the surrounding salt solution where they are at a
relatively lower concentration.

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EGG MEMBRANE EXPERIMENTS
The level of liquid inside the egg membrane is first noted and the experiment is set up as shown.
Set up
1 Experiment 1
Result:
The level of liquid inside the egg membrane rises.
Conclusion:
This is because the water molecules move from their region
of higher concentration into the salt solution inside the egg
membrane where they are at a lower concentration.
Osmosis has taken place.
2 Experiment 2
Result:
The level of liquid inside the egg membrane falls
Conclusion:
This is because the water molecules move from their region
of higher concentration in the egg membrane into the
surrounding salt solution.
Osmosis has taken place.
Movement of water molecules always takes place from the distilled water to the concentrated sugar or
salt solution.
TURGIDITY AND PLASMOLYSIS

Turgid plant cells Plasmolysed plant cells
Turgidity:
 When plant cells are surrounded by water, there is a higher concentration of water molecules outside
compared to inside the cells.
 Water moves into the cells by osmosis.
 The cells become firm and hard.
 We say the cells are turgid.
 The cellulose cell wall prevents the cells from bursting.

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Plasmolysis:
 When plant cells are surrounded by concentrated sugar solution they lose water by osmosis.
 Water molecules move from the plant cells into the sugar solution where they are at a lower
concentration.
 The cell walls sag inwards, the cells become soft.
 We say the cells are flaccid.
EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING POTATO TISSUE

1. If potato strips are immersed in distilled water:
 Water molecules move into the potato tissue where they are at a lower concentration.
 The potato tissue becomes firm/ hard.
 The potato strips increase in size.
2. If potato strips are immersed in concentrated sugar or salt solution:

 Water molecules move from the potato tissue into the solution where they are at a lower concentration.
 The potato tissue becomes soft.
 The potato strips shrink and decrease in size.
3. EXPERIMENT
 The lower part of the potato is peeled.

 Salt / sugar is put into the trough in the upper part of the potato.
 After a few hours the trough becomes filled with water.
 This is due to osmosis.
 Water molecules always move from an area of their higher concentration to an area of their lower
concentration.
Explanation
The water molecules move from the container, where they are at a higher concentration, to the salt.
The potato tissue acts as the selectively-permeable membrane.
ACTIVE UPTAKE
As water diffuses into plants mineral ions are taken up at the same time. However, the minerals are taken up
against a concentration gradient. This is called active uptake.
Active Uptake: is the absorption of mineral ions against a concentration gradient, using energy.

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Transpiration: is the loss of water vapour from the leaves of a plant.
NB: Transpiration takes place from all plant surfaces, but it mainly takes place through the leaves.
Particularly from the underside of the leaf where stomata are present.
Importance of transpiration
 It helps to cool down the plant.
 As water is drawn into the plant it helps with the uptake of mineral ions that are carried, dissolved in it.
Factors affecting transpiration rate

 Temperature  Light
 Humidity  Surface area
 Wind  Stomata density
Conditions that lead to a high transpiration rate Conditions that lead to a low transpiration rate
Temperature High Temperature Low
Humidity Low Humidity High
Wind High Wind Low
Light intensity High Light intensity Low
Surface area Large Surface area Low
Stomata density High Stomata density Low
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. When humidity is high the transpiration rate is
low. This is because the air already contains a lot of water vapour and there would be very little space for
any water vapour to evaporate into, from the surface of the leaf.
Light intensity
A higher light intensity will result in an increased rate of photosynthesis. The stomata will open up a little bit
more to accommodate the increased rate of gas exchanges resulting from the increase in the rate of
photosynthesis. More water will consequently be lost from the stomata.
Stomata density
Transpiration mainly takes place through the stomata, so an increase in number of stomata per unit area will
result in an increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Wind
On a windy day transpiration rates would be higher due to the fact that the wind would be carrying away all
the water vapour from the leaves’ surroundings. There would, therefore, be space available for water
vapour from the plant to evaporate to.
Surface area
A larger surface area results in an increased rate of transpiration.
Temperature

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Higher temperatures result in increased transpiration.
POTOMETER
A potometer is used to measure transpiration rates.
A syringe is used to draw water into the capillary tube. And also to
include an air bubble that will be used to check the length moved per
given time.
To measure the transpiration rate the potometer is set up and the

position of the bubble is noted.
After a certain amount of time the position of the air bubble is noted
again. The transpiration rate may then be calculated in cm or mm per
minute.
Experiment: To show that water is mainly lost from the underside of the leaf
Four leaves are greased with petroleum jelly and hung from a string as shown above. They are then
monitored over a few days.
A: greased on upper and lower surface

B: greased on upper surface only
C: greased on lower surface only
D: left normal [as a control]
Result: D dries first, then B, followed by C and lastly A.

Conclusion: The lower side of the leaf loses the most water vapour during transpiration.

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Water is mainly lost from the underside. This is because the vascular tissue are closer to the underside
and also because the spongy mesophyll cells are not close packed.
The diagram above shows how water vapour moves from the xylem vessels and goes out of the leaf
through the stomata.
Adaptations of plant leaves to minimize water loss

 Thick, waxy cuticle.
 Reduced surface area [needle-like leaves].
 Hairs on the leaf surface.
 Reduced number of stomata.
 Stomata located only on the underside
Wilting
 Wilting is a condition that occurs when a plant loses more water, in the form of water vapour from
the leaves, than it can absorb from the roots.
 When a plant loses a lot of water vapour, the cells in the leaves become flaccid, and the leaves
become wilted.

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Plants reproduce either sexually or asexually. Sexual reproduction is reproduction through seed. While
asexual reproduction is reproduction without seeds.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is made possible by flowers. They are the sexual reproductive organs of plants. Flowers
produce fruits with seeds which, after dispersal and germination, produce new plants.
STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated flower
Stamen: is the male part of a flower.

Is made up of the anther and the filament.
Carpel: is the female part of a flower.

Is made up of the stigma, style and ovary.
Pollen: are the male sex cells of a plant. Pollen is found on the anther.
Ovules: are the female sex cells of a plant. They are located in the ovary.
Pollen, the male sex gametes, are found on the anther. For fertilization to take place the pollen grains must
be transferred to the stigma.
Pollination: is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Self-pollination: is when pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
Cross pollination: is when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower of the same type.

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Pollen may be transferred either by wind or by insects. Both insect and wind pollinated flowers have
characteristics that increase the chances of pollination.
Differences between insect pollinated and wind pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers
 Brightly coloured petals  Dull petals
 Scented [have pleasant smells]  Not scented
 Produce sweet nectar  Do not produce nectar
 Anthers are inside the flower  Anthers are exposed
 Stigma is smaller and inside the flower  Exposed, bushy stigma
 Pollen is sticky, larger and fewer  Pollen is light & abundant
Dependence of pollination on weather

 Dry, windy weather is ideal for wind pollination to occur.
 Rainy weather causes pollen to be washed down onto the ground, and therefore disturbs both wind and
insect pollination.
Diagram: germination of pollen grains down the style after pollination.
Pollination occurs first and then the pollen grains germinate

and grow tubes down the style into the ovary.
Fertilization then takes place.
Fertilization: is the fusion of a male sex cell and a female sex cell to form a zygote.
After fertilization the:

 Ovules develop into seed.
 Ovary develops into fruit.
 Other parts of the flower wither [shrivel and die].
The seeds produced are dispersed in different ways.

 Animal dispersal. Seed passed out in animal faeces. And also some seeds are spiky and they cling to
animal fur.
 Self-dispersal. Some fruits become dry and explode, scattering the seeds a considerable distance
away from the parent plant.
 Wind dispersal. Some seeds are very light, some have wings or hairs and are carried to distant places
by the wind.

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GERMINATION
Germination: is the beginning of growth in plants.
There are 3 conditions that are necessary for germination to take place. These are:
 Oxygen
 Moisture &
 A suitable temperature
At low temperatures germination will not take place because enzymes would be inactive. They require an
optimum temperature in order to work effectively. Without moisture germination does not take place as
well because metabolic reactions require water. Oxygen is required for the process of respiration.
Tube 1: Germination will not take place due to a lack of oxygen.

Pyrogallic acid is used to absorb oxygen.
Tube 2: germination will take place because carbon dioxide is not necessary for the process.
Tube 3: is the control. Germination will take place.
Tube 4: germination will not take place. The temperature is too low.
Germinating seeds respire. Respiration provides the energy needed for germination and growth.
There are mainly two types of seeds, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

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Dicotyledonous seed
Example: bean
External structure lnternal Structure
Hilum: scar marking former attachment to pod.

Micropyle: small opening to allow water and oxygen to enter.
Cotyledons: are the food stores. They later appear as the first leaves of the plant.
Plumule: is the part that later develops into the shoot.
Radicle: is the part that later develops into the root system.
Testa: is the hard protective covering of a seed.
The plumule and the radicle are collectively known as the embryo.
The food in the cotyledon is used during respiration to provide energy for germination. The cotyledons then
shrink and fall off.
Monocotyledon
Maize
A maize seed has a very small cotyledon, so the

food is stored in the endosperm.
To determine percentage germination:
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬

x 100
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬

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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction: is the production of new individuals from vegetative structures of
a single parent.
It is reproduction without the use of seeds.

Asexual reproduction is also known as vegetative reproduction. It makes use of vegetative structures such
as:
 Tubers  Rhizomes
 Leaves  Cuttings
 Buds
Tuber Rhizome
Vegetative organ Example

Rhizome Runner grass
[A horizontal modified stem with lateral shoots and
adventitious roots]. It grows horizontally, underground.
Tuber Irish potato
Cutting Sugar-cane,
sweet potato
Suckers banana
Tubers and rhizomes are natural methods of vegetative reproduction. Cuttings are an artificial method. A
cutting must contain at least one bud which will grow into a new plant.
Vegetative reproduction:
Offspring are identical to parent plants There is no genetic variation so the identical offspring
[important to farmers] are easily attacked by diseases.[reduced resistance to
diseases]
Offspring obtain food from their parent The plants become overcrowded and compete for light,
plant. This increases their chances of nutrients and water.
survival]
Many new plants are established quickly Reduced chances of survival due to overcrowding,
competition and diseases.

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Overview
Digestion: is the breaking down of large, insoluble food molecules into smaller, soluble ones that
can be used by the body.
Ingestion: is the taking in of food through the mouth.
Absorption: is the passing of soluble food molecules from the small intestines into the bloodstream.
Digestion begins in the mouth and ends in the small intestines. Absorption then takes place in the small
intestines.
Absorption takes place by diffusion and active uptake through villi. The absorbed food molecules are
transported to all parts of the body.
After absorption comes assimilation.
Assimilation: assimilation is the actual use of food by the body. It involves the re-arrangement of food
into new molecules to form bone, muscle, skin and other structures. Assimilation is also
concerned with growth and repair of damaged tissues.
Water is absorbed in the colon. Undigested material is then egested.
Egestion: is the passing out of undigested waste (faeces) through the anus.
DIGESTION
Can be divided into two, mechanical and chemical digestion.
MECHANICAL DIGESTION
Involves the use of:
 Teeth to chew (masticate) food into smaller pieces that are easier to swallow. Chewing also increases
the surface area of the food for attack by enzymes during chemical digestion.
 Saliva to moisten and soften the food for easier swallowing.
 The tongue to mixed food with saliva and it also takes part in swallowing.

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Peristalsis
Peristalsis:
It is the muscular action by which food is passed
along the alimentary canal.
 Muscles behind the food bolus contract to

squeeze the food along. [X]
 Muscles in front of the food relax to allow the
food to pass through. [Y]
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
It is the breakdown of insoluble food molecules into soluble molecules by the action of enzymes.
Enzyme: an enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction.
Food group End products

Carbohydrate Glucose
Protein Amino acids
Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
Starch
 Starch digestion begins in the mouth.
 pH in the mouth is 7 [neutral].
 Starch is digested into simple sugars [reducing sugars], maltose and glucose.
 Is digested by an enzyme called amylase found mainly in saliva and pancreatic fluid.
 Starch digestion continues in the small intestines after neutralisation of stomach acids.
 The ileum wall produces enzymes that also digest starch.
Protein
 Chemical digestion of protein begins in the stomach.
 pH in the stomach is 2 [acidic] because stomach walls produce gastric juice which contains hydrochloric
acid.
 Protein is digested to amino acids.
 Proteins are also digested in the ileum.
Fats
 Fat digestion begins in the duodenum.
 Bile enters the duodenum through the bile duct to emulsify fats.
 To emulsify is to separate the fats into small droplets thereby increasing their surface area for attack by
enzymes.
 Bile contains bile salts and no enzymes. Bile also neutralises stomach acids to increase pH.
 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest fats (as well as proteins and starch).

P a g e | 24
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
Salivary glands  produce saliva

Saliva  moistens food.
 Contains amylase for starch digestion
Stomach  holds food for about an hour
 produces gastric juice
Gastric juice  contains hydrochloric acid to lower the pH for protein digestion
 contains enzymes for protein digestion
Pancreas  Produces enzymes for protein, starch and fat digestion.
Liver  produces bile,
 stores vitamins and minerals
 regulates blood sugar
Gall bladder  Stores bile.
Bile  emulsifies fats and oils
 neutralises stomach acids
Bile duct  carries bile from the gall bladder to the duodenum
Ileum wall glands  produce enzymes which digest protein, starch, sugars, fats and oils
Colon  absorbs water and salts

Rectum  Holds undigested remains [faeces] before egestion.
Anus  allows passing out of indigestible matter [faeces]

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ABSORPTION
 Takes place in the small intestine (ileum).
 The two ways by which absorption takes place are diffusion and active uptake.
 Food molecules diffuse from the region of their higher concentration (ileum) to the region of their lower
concentration (blood).
During active uptake energy is used to absorb the molecules against a concentration gradient.
The small intestines are lined with microscopic structures (projections) called villi. Villi increase the surface
area for absorption of food molecules.
ASSIMILATION
Assimilation: It is the actual use of food by the body cells. Soluble food molecules diffuse from
blood into body cells.
 Glucose is transported to all body cells where respiration takes place to release energy.
 Amino acids are used to make new protein molecules for tissues, hair, & nails and to repair damaged
tissues.
 Fatty acids are used up in respiration & some are used for cell membranes and protection of vital organs
in the body, for example the heart and kidneys.
All the absorbed nutrients are carried from the small intestines to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.
REGULATION AND CONTROL BY THE LIVER
The liver:
i. Converts excess glucose to an insoluble compound, glycogen, and stores the glycogen.
ii. Converts glycogen back to glucose when needed. The glycogen may also be stored under the
skin as fat.
iii. Processes excess amino acids into a waste substance called urea. [urea is later removed from
blood by the kidneys]
iv. Breaks down toxins (poisonous substances) e.g. alcohol. Excessive alcohol consumption causes a
disease called liver cirrhosis.
v. Stores vitamins and minerals.
vi. Produces bile.
Cows and rabbits are herbivores. People cannot digest cellulose but herbivores can. Cellulose is a complex
carbohydrate that makes up the structures of plants. It makes up their cell walls.
RUMINANTS
Example: cow
 Ruminants digest cellulose by a process called bacterial fermentation.

 In cows bacterial fermentation takes place in the first stomach section, called the rumen.
 There are millions of bacteria in the rumen.
 In the rumen, bacteria partly breakdown cellulose.
 The food is regurgitated [passed back into the mouth]. Cows 'chew the cud' and then swallow food for

P a g e | 26
the second time.

 The food then passes into other sections of the alimentary canal.
1st stomach: Rumen

2nd stomach: Reticulum
3rd stomach: Omasum
4th stomach: Abomasum
The abomasum is the true stomach of the cow.
Non-ruminants
Example: rabbit
 Non ruminants have a special structure in

their digestive system which helps them to
digest cellulose.
 The structure is called a caecum. The

caecum also contains millions of bacteria
that ferment cellulose.
Poultry and Rabbits

Food given to livestock is called rations. Rations need to be balanced. They have to contain all the food
groups including vitamins and minerals.
Food Function
Carbohydrates energy
Protein growth and repair
Vitamins and minerals health and protection against disease
Growth curve

P a g e | 27
Highest feed conversion rate is where the

gradient of the graph is steepest.
The appropriate time for slaughter is just

before growth rate begins to slow down.

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This system carries oxygen and nourishment to the tissues and waste products away from it. It is the chief
transport system of the body
The circulatory system of mammals is made up of:

 The heart
 Blood vessels &
 Blood
The circulatory system of mammals is said to be a double circulation.

There is the pulmonary circulation where deoxygenated blood leaves the heart, goes to the lungs to collect
oxygen and then comes back to the heart.
And then there is the systemic circulation where oxygenated blood now leaves the heart, goes to all body
cells and then comes back to the heart.

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THE HEART
 Is made of cardiac muscle
 Has 4 chambers; 2 atria and 2 ventricles.
 Has valves between the atria and ventricles to
prevent backflow of blood.
 When atria contract they push blood into the
ventricles.
 When ventricles contract they push blood out of
the heart and into the major blood vessels.
 Deoxygenated blood is found in the right atrium
and the right ventricle.
 Oxygenated blood is found in the left atrium and
the left ventricle. Blood from the two sides never
mixes.
 The septum divides the two sides of the heart.
The part labelled X is a valve.
WHAT HAPPENS TO BLOOD FROM THE MOMENT IT ENTERS THE HEART
 Deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the

vena cava, into the right atrium and then into the
right ventricle.
 The right ventricle pumps the blood through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs.
 Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and
the blood becomes oxygenated.
 The oxygenated blood now enters the heart
through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium &
then into the left ventricle.
 The blood is now pumped out of the heart
through the aorta to all parts of the body
1. Vena cava 2. Right atrium 3. Right ventricle 4. Pulmonary artery

5. Pulmonary vein 6. Left atrium 7. Left ventricle 8. Aorta

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BLOOD
Blood is a tissue. It contains millions of cells which carry out similar functions.
Functions of blood
 It is a transport medium, it carries substances around the body.
 Carries useful substances like oxygen, plasma proteins and dissolved nutrients to where they are
needed.
 Carries waste substances produced in body cells to the organs of excretion.
 Assists with the distribution of heat from the internal organs to the fingers and toes.
 Fights infections.
The liquid part of blood is called plasma.
Components suspended in blood plasma

 Red blood cells
 White blood cells
 Platelets
Blood component Diagram Function

Red blood cells  To transport oxygen from the lungs to all
body cells
White blood cells  To fight infections/ foreign particles such as

bacteria and viruses.
 Engulf bacteria.
 Produce antibodies.
Platelets  For clotting.

 Clotting prevents excessive loss of blood in
the case of an injury.
 It also seals the wound to prevent infection.
Shape of red cell: bi-concave disc.

Purpose of shape: to maximize surface area for the absorption of oxygen.
Substances dissolved in blood plasma

 Glucose  Urea
 Proteins  Hormones
 Salts  Plasma proteins
 Wastes  Vitamins

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BLOOD VESSELS
There are three types of blood vessels:
 Arteries
 Veins &
 Capillaries
Blood circulates in a series of different kinds of blood vessels as it goes around the body.
Heart → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Vena Cava → Heart
The purpose of these different vessels is to deliver blood to capillary beds, where substances are exchanged
between body cells and blood.
Arteries
Large vessels which leave the heart, branching several times to become smaller and are then called
arterioles. With further branching, the vessels become so small and are called capillaries. Arteries generally
contain oxygenated blood.
Capillaries
The capillaries form a network within the tissues. They join up and become venules and then eventually
veins.
Veins
These are the large vessels which return deoxygenated blood to the heart.
 Carry blood away from the heart  Carry blood towards the heart
 Have thick walls  Have thin walls
 Have a small central lumen  Have a larger central lumen
 Carry blood under high pressure  Carry blood under low pressure
 High pressure prevents backflow of blood  Veins prevent backflow of blood
 Except for the pulmonary artery, arteries  Except for the pulmonary vein, veins generally
generally carry oxygenated blood. carry deoxygenated blood.

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Capillaries
 Are the smallest blood vessels
 Are very thin, only a single layer of cells.
 They have very thin walls to enable exchange of substances between blood and body cells.
Major blood vessels

From To Name of vessel
Heart Lungs Pulmonary artery
Lungs Heart Pulmonary vein
Body Heart Vena cava
Heart Body Aorta
Heart Kidney Renal artery
Kidney Heart Renal vein
Heart Liver Hepatic artery
Liver Heart Hepatic vein
Ileum Liver Hepatic portal vein
If you study the table closely you will learn that it is very easy to know the blood vessels because all
vessels coming from the heart are called arteries and all those going towards the heart are called veins.
A: Pulmonary artery
B: Vena cava
C: Hepatic portal vein
D: Renal artery
The hepatic portal vein carries dissolved food nutrients from the ileum to the liver. The liver regulates
nutrient levels in blood.

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A: Hepatic vein
B: hepatic artery
C: Renal artery
D: Renal vein

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Mammals, like all living organisms, need oxygen in order to live. Oxygen is taken in and transported to all
body cells where respiration takes place to release energy. Carbon dioxide is released during the process.
The respiratory system ensures that gaseous exchange takes place.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
As air passes through the respiratory tract

it is:
 Filtered,
 Warmed and
 Moistened
The diaphragm and the intercostal muscles enable breathing movements to take place.
 To inhale is to breathe in.
 To exhale is to breathe out.
The path taken by an air particle:
Nostrils nasal passage larynx bronchus bronchiole alveolus
 The nasal passages and the tubes of the respiratory tract are all lined with mucus and tiny hairs that trap
dust and micro-organisms.
 There are millions of alveoli in each lung.
 Alveoli have a large surface area to ensure efficient gaseous exchange.
 The wall of the alveolus is very thin.
 The alveolus is surrounded by tiny blood vessels called capillaries.

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Gaseous Exchange in the Alveolus

 There is a higher concentration of oxygen in
the alveolus than in the blood.
 Oxygen therefore diffuses from the

alveolus, were it is at a higher
concentration, into the capillary where it is
at a lower concentration.
 There is a higher concentration of carbon
dioxide in the blood than in the air in the
alveolus
 Carbon dioxide therefore diffuses from the
blood into the alveolus
(The plural of alveolus is alveoli)
NB: diffusion is the movement of particles from their region of higher concentration to their region of lower
concentration.
Percentage composition of air

Inhaled air Exhaled air
Nitrogen 79% 79%
Oxygen 20% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0,03% 4%
Water vapour lower Higher/ saturated
Experiment: To compare the levels of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air
 You breathe in and out through the mouthpiece.

 Air from the atmosphere enters through tube A and into
the lungs.
 When breathing out, air exits through tube B.

 Limewater is used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide
in both tubes.
Result
The limewater in tube A turns milky.
The limewater in tube B remains clear.
Conclusion
Inhaled air contains very little carbon dioxide.
Exhaled air has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide.

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Respiration: is the release of energy by the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen.
 It is the oxidation of glucose to release energy.

 Respiration takes place in all living cells in both plants and animals.
Word equation
Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy
All living organism respire .This means even plants take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. But they
however photosynthesize during the day.
Differences between respiration photosynthesis
Respiration Photosynthesis
 Glucose and oxygen are used  Glucose and oxygen are produced
 Carbon dioxide and water are produced  Carbon dioxide and water are absorbed and used.
 Energy is released  Energy is absorbed
 Takes place in all living tissue, both plants  Takes place in green plants only
and animals.
Experiment
To show that germinating seeds release heat energy
 The seeds are soaked overnight to soften the testae.

 One container has boiled [dead] seeds that have been
washed in mild disinfectant.
 The other container has soaked seeds.
 Both containers are plugged with cotton wool and
thermometers inserted.
 The temperature in each container is recorded every
day for the next few days.
 Containers are left upside down to prevent heat loss.
Disinfectant is used in order kill micro-organism that would

otherwise respire and also produce heat energy.

P a g e | 37
EXPERIMENT: To show that plants respire
A: potassium hydroxide solution

B: limewater
C: specimen chamber containing respiring plant
D: limewater
 The potassium hydroxide in tube A absorbs carbon dioxide

 The lime water in tube B is used to indicate that there is no carbon dioxide in the air before it enters the
specimen chamber. So it remains clear.
 In the specimen chamber the potted plant is respiring. It is taking in oxygen and giving out carbon
dioxide
 In tube D the limewater changes from clear to milky due to the high concentration of carbon dioxide
from the respiring potted plant
To show that animals respire we can put a small animal, say a frog or a locust, in the specimen chamber. The
rest of the set-up would be left unchanged. The same results would be obtained.
Conclusion:
Living organisms respire, they take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.

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Pathogen: is a disease-causing organism.
Parasite: is an organism that lives in/on another organism [host] from which it feeds
 Parasites do not necessarily have to cause disease.

 Some parasites live outside the host, for example, ticks, fleas and lice.
 Some live inside their hosts, for example liver flukes and worms.
Parasites cause reduced productivity and death of animals.

Productivity has to do with the amount or quantity of meat, milk and offspring.
Parasites
Control Treatment
Ticks  Are parasites Dipping
 Cause diseases, e.g.
heartwater &
redwater
Liver flukes Are parasites  Rotational grazing Dosing

small flat worms that  Restrict animal movement
infect the liver  Dose the whole herd
 Separate infected animals.
Tapeworms Infects the small intestine
Diseases
These diseases affect cattle and goats in Zimbabwe.
Disease Causative agent Treatment and control

Foot and mouth Virus No cure
Vaccination as a preventive measure
Quarantine, kill infected animals
Notify authorities
Anthrax bacterium Antibiotics
Burn/ bury dead animals

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VARIATION
Variation: variation is the difference between organisms with reference to a particular characteristic,
for example, height. Variation is caused by differences in environmental conditions and also by genetics
[inheritance from parents].
There are two types of variation.
1. Continuous variation
 Shows slight differences from one individual organism to the next.
 Is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
 Individuals cannot be put into distinct groups.
2. Discontinuous variation
 There are distinct differences between individual plants or animals.
 Is due to genetic factors. [It is heritable].
 Individual plants or animals can be put into distinct groups.
Characteristics that show continuous and discontinuous variation
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

Height Ear lobes
Shoe size Sex [male / female]
Weight/ mass Tongue rolling
intelligence Blood groups
Left/ right handedness
Coat colour in cattle.
SELECTION
Selection is the process by which individuals with particular characteristics are chosen to produce the next
generation. This can happen naturally or artificially.
NATURAL SELECTION
Is the process by which the environment chooses/ selects certain organisms, that are best adapted the
conditions, to survive and produce the next generation. The fittest organisms survive and mature to produce
offspring. This is known as “survival of the fittest”. So the offspring inherit favourable characteristics from
their parents. The new generation is better suited to the environment compared to its parents. Natural
selection is a mechanism for change.
Artificial selection
Artificial selection is selective breeding done by humans on plants and animals in order to select offspring
with desired characteristics. It is the way by which humans speed up selection.

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Animal breeding results in desirable characteristics such as:

 Increased milk production.
 Early maturity.
 Increased disease resistance.
 High quality meat.
 Increased meat yields.
In crop farming hybrid seeds have also been developed. These have resulted in plants that:
 Are drought tolerant
 Produce high yields
 Mature early
 Have high disease resistance
BREEDING
Breeding is when animals are mated in chosen pairs in order to produce offspring with desired
characteristics.
Cross-breeding
It is the mating of two different breeds to produce offspring with combined desired characteristics.
Artificial insemination
Is when sperm from a male animal is inserted into a female animal to increase the chances of cross breeding.
In-breeding
It is when a herd is allowed to breed freely without bringing in any new animals. Although it maintains
present desirable characteristics it has numerous disadvantages.
Problems of in-breeding
 Reduced resistance to disease.
 Deformities.
 Decrease in variation.
 Reduced productivity.
 Increase in undesirable characteristics.

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Ecosystem: it is a self-contained system of interdependant organisms and their physical

environment.
Living organisms in an ecosystem include plants, animals and micro-organisms. These living organisms
depend on each other and on their surroundings.
Examples of ecosystems
 Forest  lake
 river  grassland
Components of ecosystems
Biological components Physical components
Plants Air
Animals Water
Micro-organisms Soil
Light
SOIL
Soil is an important component of ecosystems.
Physical components of soil

 Rock particles  Water
 Air  Mineral salts
Biological components of soil

 Litter  Fungi
 Earthworms  Bacteria
 Nematodes  humus
 Termites
Biological components are important because:

 They improve soil fertility.
 They improve aeration and
 Result in a good crumb structure of the soil.
Sand Clay
Light Darker
Loose Heavier and more compact

P a g e | 42
EXPERIMENT: To show that there are living organisms in soil.
The wire gauze holds the soil and stops it from

falling into the water.
Soil organisms do not like light. They will move
away from the light bulb and fall into the
alcohol.
The alcohol traps the living organisms.
We can use water in place of the alcohol but

alcohol is better in that it preserves the soil
organisms and stops them from decaying
quickly.
EXPERIMENT: To show that there are micro-organisms in soil
All living organisms respire and produce carbon

dioxide.
We may use limewater as the carbon dioxide
indicator.
Result: Limewater in tube A turns

milky.
Limewater in tube B remains
clear.
Conclusion:
In tube A there are living organisms respiring
and producing carbon dioxide.
In tube B the baked soil has no living organisms.
They are killed by the high temperatures during
baking.
Bi-carbonate indicator can also be used in place of limewater. Bicarbonate indicator changes from red to
yellow in the presence of carbon dioxide
EXPERIMENT: To calculate percentage moisture in soil

 Weigh soil sample and record mass.
 Heat soil sample over a water bath and weigh regularly until mass becomes constant.
Example
Mass of moist soil sample + container 220g
Mass of container 30g
Mass of dry soil sample plus container 205g
Mass of water is therefore: 220-205 = 15g

Mass of moist soil is: 220-30 = 190g

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15
Percentage moisture is therefore x 100 = 7.9%
190
To calculate percentage organic matter in soil

Carry out the procedure as above, then finish off the experiment by roasting the dry soil sample in a crucible.
This burns off all the organic material in the soil.
Percentage organic matter = [mass of organic matter ÷ mass of soil] x 100
EXPERIMENTS TO COMPARE SAND AND CLAY SOILS

1. To compare drainage
 Equal quantities of soil are used as well as equal

volumes of water.
 A stop watch is used to find out the amount of
water that passes through each soil sample in a
given time period.
 A measuring cylinder is used to measure amount of
water collected.
Result: water passes through at a faster rate in

sand compared to clay.
2. To compare water holding capacity

The set-up is the same as above but the experiment is left to run until there is no more water draining
through each soil sample. The results will show that clay soil holds more water compared to sand. i.e.
less water drains through.
3. To compare Leaching
To each 10cm3 of soil sample add 15cm3 of distilled water and shake.
Filter off the water to obtain a filtrate.
Evaporate the filtrate to dryness and compare the amount of residue left behind.
Result: more residue is left behind by the filtrate obtained from sandy soil. This shows that sandy
soil easily loses minerals to water.
4. To compare pH
We can compare the pH of different soil samples by shaking each soil sample with distilled water and
then testing the resultant filtrate with universal indicator solution, or with a digital pH meter.
Sandy soil is generally more acidic than clay soil.

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5. To compare air content
 Holes are punched in the base of a can.

 The can is pressed into soil.
 The soil in the can is emptied into a measuring cylinder.
 An equal volume of water is added using a similar can.
 The volume of the water and the soil is noted.
Result: Volume of soil 300 Result shows that some of the water entered into
Volume of water 300 air spaces between soil particles.
Volume of water + soil = 570
Volume of air in soil sample= 600 – 570 30
Percentage air in soil sample = x 100
300
= 30
SUMMARY: SOIL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY SANDY SOIL LOAM SOIL CLAY SOIL

Size of particles large Medium Very small
air content High Medium low
Water holding capacity Low Medium High
Drainage High Medium Low
Leaching Very high Reduced Low
Infiltration High Medium Low
pH: acidity/ alkalinity More acidic than clay Less acidic than sand Generally alkaline
SOIL PROPERTIES IN RELATION TO MAIZE, COTTON AND TOBACCO CULTIVATION.

Cotton: dark, fine-textured soils Maize: many types of soil
(Clay soils)
Tobacco: light, coarse-grained soils

(Sandy soils)

P a g e | 45
NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems are powered by energy from the sun. Plants convert energy from the sun into chemical energy
which they store.
 This energy is then transferred to animals when they feed on the plants.
 Green plants are called producers, they make food.
 Animals are called consumers, they consume the food made by green plants.
 Energy is lost at each trophic level
Primary consumers
 These are animals that feed on plants.
 They are also known as herbivores.
Secondary and tertiary consumers

 Secondary consumers are animals that feed on primary consumers.
 Tertiary consumers, in turn, feed on secondary consumers.
 Both secondary and tertiary consumers feed on meat and are thus called carnivores.
Decomposers
 These are micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
 Are important as they cause decay of dead plants and animals in order to return nutrients to the soil.
 Decomposers are not normally shown on a food chain/web but they are found at each trophic / feeding
level.
Plants use energy from the sun, this energy is then transferred from one feeding level to another. Each
feeding level may be called a trophic level. The links between feeding levels may be shown using a food
chain.
Sun Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary

cvv cvv consumer cvv consumer cvv
consumer
Example of a food chain:

Grass Locust Lizard Hawk
There are links between, food chains to form a food web
Producers: green plants
Primary consumers: locusts, rats, aphids, snails
Secondary consumers: toads, lizards, beetles
Tertiary consumers: snakes, birds.
TRST WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

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Loss of energy
 Energy is lost at each trophic level
 This is because an organism use some energy for itself
 Some energy is lost as heat to the environment
 Some energy is also lost in sweat and excretion, e.g. faeces
Pyramid of numbers
Energy is lost at each trophic level. So the number of organisms at each level is restricted due to these
energy loses. As you move up the pyramid of numbers, the number of organisms that can be supported
decreases.
Pyramid of biomass
A pyramid of biomass has an advantage in that it takes into account the size/mass of the organisms.
Biomass: is the amount of living material in an ecosystem.
As we move from the lowest level, biomass decreases.

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THE CARBON CYCLE
Processes that release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere:

 Respiration by plants.
 Respiration by animals.
 Combustion of fuels containing carbon.
 Decay of plants.
 Decay of animals.
The rate of release of carbon dioxide has always been increasing because of human activities.
The Greenhouse Effect

Photosynthesis is the only major process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
 Deforestation has led to reduced photosynthesis.

 This, in turn, has led to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 Accumulation of carbon dioxide has resulted in the greenhouse effect.
 Carbon dioxide traps heat energy from the sun around the earth.
Global warming
 The greenhouse effect causes the overall global temperature of the earth to increase.
 This is called global warming.
 We need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by using alternative sources of energy such as wind, solar
and water.
 Deforestation needs to be reduced as well.

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THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen- fixing bacteria

This type bacteria is found in the root nodes of legumes e.g. beans
The bacteria convert nitrogen from the air into plant proteins
Nitrifying bacteria
This type of bacteria converts ammonium compounds in dead plant and animal matter into nitrates.
Denitrifying bacteria
Convert nitrates from soil into atmospheric nitrogen.
Lightning converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates.
Plants absorb nitrates from the soil.

 Animals obtain nitrogen by feeding on plant proteins.
 When plants and animals die they decompose to form ammonium compounds
ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEMS
Artificial ecosystems are human made ecosystems, such as cultivated fields or gardens.
They have got a limited species diversity.
Biodiversity: is the variety of plant and animal life in a particular habitat or ecosystem.
Problems caused by low biodiversity

 Pest problems.
 Soil infertility.
 Production for human consumption only.

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Management of ecosystems
Ground cover
Ground cover is very important in ecosystems.
 It reduces surface runoff.
 It reduces soil erosion.
 It reduces evaporation.
Mulch: is a mass of leaves, grass, bark, or compost spread around or over a plant for protection
or to enrich the soil. Mulch acts as artificial ground cover.
 The above reasons ensure that top soil is preserved.
 There is also improved water retention.
Characteristics of savanna soils in Zimbabwe

 High temperatures
 Rapid denitrification
 Few earthworms
 Low soil fertility
Effects of human activities on ecosystems

Agricultural, industrial and social activities have resulted in:
 Soil erosion
 pollution
 desertification
 reduction in bio-diversity
 acid rain and
 global warming
MARGINAL AREAS
Marginal areas are those areas that receive very little rainfall. In Zimbabwe marginal land is found in
natural farming regions 4 and 5.
Problems of farming on marginal land

 Low fertility
 Unreliable rainfall patterns
 Low rainfall.
Indigenous animals have an ability to utilise a wide variety of food and they can also resist drought.
Ways of using marginal land:

 Game ranching
 Growing of drought tolerant crops.
 Application of conservation

P a g e | 50
Carrying capacity
The carrying capacity of a habitat is the maximum number of animals that can be supported without
damaging the habitat
Limiting factors to carrying capacity:

 Oxygen
 Food
 Space
 Water
 Shelter
Effects of exceeding carrying capacity
 Overstocking
 Overgrazing
 Deterioration of veld
We can maintain and control animal populations within the carrying capacity of a habitat by:
 Culling
 Destocking
 Paddocking
Culling: is reducing the population of a wild animal by selective slaughter [killing].

Destocking: is reducing the population of wild animals in a particular area by moving some of them to
another area.
Paddocking: is fencing of land into separate sections in order to manage the grazing of animals.

P a g e | 51

P a g e | 52
Matter exists in three states:

Solid, Liquid, Gas
The kinetic theory of matter:

Matter is made up of tiny particles which are always in motion.
Solid:
 Particles are closely packed & arranged in a regular manner
 Very little kinetic energy, particles only vibrate in fixed positions
 Fixed shape, fixed volume
 Strong forces of attraction between the particles
Liquid:
 Particles are free to move over each other
 More kinetic energy than solid particles but less compared to gas particles
 Fixed volume but no fixed shape
Gas
 Particles move very fast in all directions
 Weak forces of attraction between the particles
 No fixed shape, no fixed volume
In the following diagram:

X represents particles in a gas,
Y represents particles in a solid and
Z represents particles in a liquid.
Change of state
 Adding heat to a solid substance will increase the kinetic energy of the particles.
 Forces of attraction between particles are weakened.
 Solid will turn into a liquid.

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Change of state
Sublimation
Sublimation: Is a change from the solid state to the gaseous state without passing through the liquid
state.
Examples of substances that sublime are:

 Iodine crystals
 Solid carbon dioxide [dry ice]
EXPERIMENT: Sublimation of iodine

When grey iodine crystals are heated they turn directly into a purple vapour, they do not melt.
This change of state from solid to gas is called sublimation.
NB. Iodine vapour is toxic, so the experiment is carried out in a fume cupboard or near an open window.
Adding heat to a substance increases its temperature.

Removing heat from a substance reduces its temperature.

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LATENT HEAT
When heat energy results in a change of state, there will be no temperature change. When a solid melts the
temperature will not change until the entire solid has become molten. Similarly, when a liquid evaporates
the temperature remains constant. This heat energy that is used to effect a change of state is called latent
heat.
Latent heat of vaporisation is heat energy absorbed to change a liquid into a gas/ vapour.
Heating curve Cooling curve
When a liquid evaporates it takes away heat resulting in ‘cooling by evaporation’.
EXPERIMENT: Vaporisation of ether

The vaporising ether will cool the water droplets between the wooden block and the beaker. When you try
to lift the beaker you will find it stuck to the wooden block.

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 All atoms of the same element are identical.

 When atoms of different elements combine a new compound is formed.
Atomic structure
Diagrams showing a 2D and a 3D view of an atom.
Atom: an atom is the smallest part of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.
An atom consists of three smaller particles:

Particle Charge Mass Position in atom
1. Proton +1 1 Nucleus
2. Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
3. Electron -1 0 Shell
 The nucleus is the centre of the atom.

 It is made up of protons and neutrons.
 Electrons move around the nucleus at very high speeds.
 They orbit the nucleus in paths called shells.
 The first shell can hold a maximum of two electrons; the second can hold up to 8 electrons.
 Atoms are neutral, so the number of positively charged particles (protons) is equal to the number of
negatively charged particles (electrons).
 Number of neutrons = mass number – proton number
Chemical significance of electrons

Electrons are responsible for the way in which any particular element reacts with others.

P a g e | 56
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS
 Are substances made up of identical atoms.  Are substances formed when two or more
 Can be grouped into metallic and non- elements are chemically combined.
metallic elements.  Are made of different types of atoms.
The two elements, hydrogen and oxygen, react to form water. So water is a compound. The hydrogen and
oxygen atoms combine chemically to form water molecules.
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water

(Element) (Element) (Compound)
Molecule: a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of
a compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
MIXTURES
When iron and sulphur are mixed they do not react. They simply form a mixture of iron and sulphur.
When the mixture is heated a chemical reaction occurs. A new compound, iron sulphide, is formed.
Differences:
Mixture Compound
1.Physical change 1. Chemical change

2. Easily separated by physical means 2. Cannot be separated physically
3. Properties of the mixture are those of the added 3. Properties are different from those of the
substances combined substances
4. Heat not usually taken in or given out 4.Heat is usually taken in or given out when a new
5. No new substances is formed compound is formed
5. New substance formed
 A mixture of iron and sulphur can be separated using a magnet.

 If the mixture is heated a chemical reaction occurs and iron sulphide is formed.
 Iron sulphide cannot be separated by physical means.
 No heat energy is involved in the mixing of iron and sulphur. But when iron sulphide is formed, heat
energy is evolved. The reaction is exothermic.
 The original colours of sulphur and iron can be seen in the mixture but not in the iron sulphide.
(Properties of a compound are different from those of its constituent elements).
When elements burn in air they react with oxygen. This is a chemical reaction.
New compounds [oxides] are formed.

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Elements can be divided into two groups: metals and non-metals.

Examples
Metals Non metals
 Copper  Carbon
 Zinc  Chlorine
 Iron  Hydrogen
 Gold  Fluorine
 Silver  Oxygen
 Aluminium  Iodine
 Tin  Sulphur
 Lead `  Nitrogen
 Calcium
 Magnesium
 Sodium
 Potassium
Properties
Metals Non metals
 Are good conductors of heat  Are poor conductors of heat [insulators]

 Are good conductors of electricity  poor conductors of electricity [insulators]
 Are malleable*  Are brittle [break easily]
 Are ductile*  Have lower melting points
 Are lustrous [shiny]
 Have high tensile strength
 Have high melting points
 Can be alloyed
*Ductile means can be drawn into wires.

*Malleable means can be hammered into different shapes.
An alloy is made by mixing different metals in the molten state and when they solidify they produce a metal
(alloy) with desirable properties.
Uses of metals Aluminium Uses of aluminium

Cooking utensils  Is a light metal.  Aircraft bodies
Electricity cables  Does not easily corrode  Electricity cables
Ornaments  Is expensive  Cooking utensils

P a g e | 58
Calcium most reactive We compare reactivity of metals using

 Oxygen
Magnesium  Water
Aluminium  Acids
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper least reactive
1. Reactivity with oxygen

 Some metals burn in oxygen at ordinary temperatures e.g. potassium.
 Others burn with a bright flame when heated or ignited e.g. magnesium.
 Some do not react even at high temperatures e.g. gold
[Zinc oxide is yellow when hot and white when cold]
2. Reactivity with water

 Some metals react with cold water to give hydrogen gas.
 Others react slowly with cold water.
 Some react with steam [higher temperatures increase speed of reaction]
 Some metals do not react with water at all.
Metal + Water Metal oxide + Hydrogen

Magnesium + Water Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Aluminium + Water Aluminium oxide + Hydrogen
Zinc + Water Zinc oxide + Hydrogen
Iron + Water Iron oxide + Hydrogen
3. Reactivity with acids

 Metals react more vigorously with acid than with water
 Metals that react with acid dissolve in the acid to form a salt. Hydrogen gas is also evolved.
Metal + acid salt + hydrogen

Zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen
Generally speaking, metals higher up in the reactivity react vigorously. Those at the bottom react slowly or
not at all in some cases.
Copper does not react with acids. And it only reacts very slowly with oxygen.

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OXIDATION
Oxidation: is the addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
 When substances burn in air they react with oxygen.

 This is oxidation.
 The substances are oxidised by oxygen.
 Oxygen is the oxidising agent.
Examples of oxidation reactions:

Carbon, sulphur and magnesium burn in air and are oxidised.
Carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide

Sulphur + oxygen sulphur dioxide
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
Water is also an oxidising agent because it can add oxygen to other substances.
The oxidising agent supplies oxygen.
Magnesium + steam magnesium oxide + hydrogen
REDUCTION
Reduction: is addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen.
Magnesium oxide + Carbon Magnesium + Carbon dioxide

Zinc oxide + Carbon Zinc + Carbon dioxide
Metal oxides can be reduced by heating with a reducing agent such as carbon or hydrogen.
Oxidising agents: supply oxygen.

Reducing agents: take away oxygen.
Examples of:
Oxidising Agents
 Oxygen
 Water
 Metal oxides
Reducing Agents
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Metals

P a g e | 60
To reduce copper oxide or zinc oxide using hydrogen.
Copper oxide + hydrogen copper + water [steam]
In both reactions
hydrogen is the reducing
agent. It reacts with the
oxygen in the metal
oxides.
Hydrogen is oxidised to
form water.
Oxidation and reduction

always occur at the same
time, it is called a redox
reaction.
EXPERIMENT: REDUCTION OF METAL OXIDES USING CARBON
 Charcoal is made up of carbon.

 Carbon is a reducing agent.
 When the metal oxide is heated with carbon,
the carbon takes away the oxygen in the
metal oxide.
 The metal oxide is reduced.
 Carbon dioxide is produced in the process.
Metal oxide + carbon → metal + carbon dioxide
Rusting:
 Is oxidation of iron.
 Rust is hydrated iron oxide.
 Rusting occurs when there is water and oxygen.
 Iron in dry air does not rust.

 Iron can be alloyed with other metals so that it can resist corrosion [alloys, e.g. steel]
 Iron in boiled water does not rust because boiled water contains no oxygen.
 If a more reactive metal is present, the reactive metal corrodes instead of iron [e.g. magnesium].

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ACIDS
Examples: Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid Nitric acid
Acids are made by dissolving the oxides of non-metals in water. The resulting solution has a pH less than
7.
All acids:
 taste sour
 effervesce with sodium hydrogen carbonate [soda]
 turn universal indicator red/orange/yellow
 turn blue litmus red
 are corrosive
 have pH less than seven.
NB: ALL ACIDS CONTAIN HYDROGEN.
1. ACID-METAL REACTIONS
Reactive metals dissolve in acid, and hydrogen gas is evolved.
i.e. some metals displace hydrogen from acids.
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen

.
Hydrochloric acid + Calcium Calcium chloride + Hydrogen
Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Hydrochloric acid + Zinc Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Sulphuric acid + Lead Lead sulphate + Hydrogen

Sulphuric acid + Magnesium Magnesium sulphate + Hydrogen
Sulphuric acid + Zinc Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
NB hydrochloric acid forms salts called chlorides, sulphuric acid forms nitrates and nitric acid forms nitrates.
2. ACID-CARBONATE REACTIONS
Acids effervesce (fizz) with carbonates. Carbon dioxide gas is evolved.
Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Hydrochloric + sodium carbonate sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Acid
Similarly, sulphuric acid would form sodium sulphate and nitric acid would form sodium nitrate. In both
cases carbon dioxide would be evolved and water would also be formed.

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N.B. carbon dioxide turns limewater milky and changes bicarbonate indicator from red to yellow.
Copper carbonate reacts with hydrochloric

acid.
Effervescence is observed as carbon dioxide is

evolved.
Limewater changes from clear to milky to

prove that the gas produced is carbon dioxide.
bbb
BASES
Bases:
 contain oxygen
 are oxides of metals
 turn red litmus blue
 React with acids to form salt and water
 Have pH greater than 7.
All metal oxides are bases.

Examples:
 Magnesium oxide
 Aluminium oxide
 Zinc oxide
The reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralisation reaction.
Neutralisation: is a reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water.
REMEMBER:
Every acid forms its own type of salts
Acid Salt formed
Hydrochloric acid Chloride
Sulphuric acid Sulphate
Nitric acid Nitrate

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Neutralisation reactions: acid + base = salt + water
Hydrochloric acid + Calcium Oxide Calcium chloride + Water

Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium Oxide Magnesium chloride + Water
Hydrochloric acid + Aluminium Oxide Aluminium chloride + Water
Hydrochloric acid + Zinc Oxide Zinc chloride + Water
Hydrochloric acid + Copper Oxide Copper chloride + Water
Sulphuric acid + Lead Oxide Lead sulphate + water

Sulphuric acid + Magnesium Oxide Magnesium sulphate + water
Sulphuric acid + Zinc Oxide Zinc sulphate + water
Sulphuric acid + Copper Oxide Copper sulphate + water
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid + copper oxide copper nitrate + water
SALTS
Salts are made when acids and bases react in neutralisation reactions.
We can make salts by reacting acids and metal oxides.
Experiment: To make Copper (ll) Sulphate

Reactants: Copper (ll) oxide and sulphuric acid
 Add copper (ll) oxide to warm dilute sulphuric

acid
 Stir continuously while you add more and more
copper oxide until the oxide can dissolve no
more.
 This means the reaction is complete.
 Filter and collect the blue filtrate formed, this is
a solution of copper (ll) sulphate.
 Evaporate some of the solution until it is
saturated.
 Allow the solution to cool
 Copper (ll) sulphate crystals will form at the
bottom.
 Filter off the crystals using filter paper and allow
them to dry.
To make any salt you need an acid and a metal oxide (base).

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To make you need

Magnesium sulphate Magnesium oxide and sulphuric acid
Lead sulphate Lead oxide and sulphuric acid
Copper sulphate Copper oxide and sulphuric acid
Zinc sulphate Zinc oxide and sulphuric acid
Calcium chloride Calcium oxide and hydrochloric acid

Magnesium chloride Magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid
Zinc chloride Zinc oxide and hydrochloric acid
Lead chloride Lead oxide and hydrochloric acid
Copper nitrate Copper oxide and nitric acid
pH
 pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity.

 It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14.
 pH less than 7 is acidic.
 pH 7 is neutral.
 pH greater than 7 is alkaline.
 Strong acids have pH closer to 1. Strong bases have pH closer to 14.
Litmus paper can be used to test whether something is acidic or alkaline.

Acids turn blue litmus red.
Bases turn red litmus blue.
Universal indicator paper or solution can also be used to test the acidity of a substance. Acids turn universal
indicator red. Bases turn universal indicator blue/ purple. At pH 7 (neutral), universal indicator is lime green.

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The rate at which chemical reactions occur varies.

Factors affecting speed or rate of reaction are:
 Temperature
 Surface area / particle size
 Concentration
 Catalyst
The speed of a chemical reaction depends on the rate at which the reacting particles collide.
The speed of a reaction may be ascertained by measuring:

 volume of gas produced per given time or
 Decrease in mass of reactants per given time.
1. Temperature
Increasing temperature increases the speed of a reaction because particles collide at a faster rate.
2. Particle Size
 Reducing particle size increases the speed of a reaction.
 Reducing particle size has the effect of increasing the surface area of the reacting substance.
 This increases number of collisions per given time and thus the speed of reaction.
 Effect of particle size
Calcium reacts with hydrochloric acid to

evolve hydrogen.
The reaction rate can be assessed by

measuring the decrease in mass of the
reactants or the volume of hydrogen
produced per given time.
 Lumps react the slowest.
 Calcium chips react slowly with acid,
but faster than lumps.
 Granulated calcium reacts faster than
calcium chips
 And powdered calcium reacts fastest.

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3. Catalyst
A catalyst: is a substance that changes the speed of a reaction but remains unchanged at the end
of the reaction.
Adding a catalyst increases the speed at which a chemical reaction occurs.
Examples of catalysts: iron in the reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen to produce ammonia.
And copper sulphate in acid-metal reactions.
4. Concentration
 Increasing concentration increases the speed of reaction.
 Number of particles per given volume increases and this increases collisions between particles.
 Using different concentrations of acid in acid-metal reactions proves that increasing concentration
increases speed of reaction.
Sodium thiosulphate reacts with dilute

hydrochloric acid. The speed of reaction is
measured by noting the time taken for a
marked cross to disappear after
precipitation of sulphur. The sulphur is
yellow in colour.
Speed of reaction is therefore increased by:

 Increasing temperature
 Reducing particle size [increasing surface area]
 Increasing concentration
 Adding a catalyst.
Graphs showing speed of reaction

 A steeper gradient means a faster speed of
reaction.
 The reaction is fastest at the start
 Gradient decreases showing that the reaction is
slowing down
 The curve then becomes horizontal showing
that the reaction has come to an end.

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Reversible reactions
These are reactions that go in both directions. I.e. as soon as the products are formed they decompose to
form the original reactants. The reaction reaches dynamic equilibrium.
Reversible reactions are shown by the equilibrium sign.
The diagram above shows how to set up an experiment in which speed of reaction is assessed by measuring
the volume of gas produced per unit time.
A graduated syringe is used to measure the volume of gas.
A stop watch is used to monitor the time.
Alternatively the gas evolved can be collected over water as shown below.

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IRON
 Is extracted from iron ore (haematite).
 The extraction is carried out at Redcliff.
 The iron ore is actually iron oxide. So oxygen is removed to leave pure iron. This is called reduction.
THE BLAST FURNACE
 Coke, limestone and

iron ore are charged
into the blast furnace
from the top.
 Hot air is forced in

through openings called
tuyeres from lower
down the furnace.
 Coke: is the fuel that burns at high temperatures to melt the iron ore.
is also the reducing agent, iron oxide is reduced to iron.
 Limestone: is used to remove sandy impurities

 Hot air: ensures the burning of coke to provide high temperatures for smelting of the ore.
 Near the base of the furnace carbon (coke) combines with oxygen to give carbon dioxide.
 As the carbon dioxide moves up it reacts with coke to form carbon monoxide.
 The carbon monoxide then reacts with the iron ore to give iron and carbon dioxide.
 Iron oxide also reacts with carbon.
Iron oxide + carbon → carbon monoxide + iron
 Molten iron settles at the bottom of the blast furnace because it is denser than slag.
Limestone decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
Calcium carbonate (limestone) → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

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 The calcium oxide produced reacts with the sandy impurities (silicon dioxide) to form calcium silicate.
Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide → calcium silicate [slag]
 Calcium silicate is also known as slag

 Slag is less dense compared to molten iron so it is collected from a tap hole above the molten iron.
 The iron produced is called cast iron
Cast iron
 Contains impurities such as phosphorus and sulphur.
 Is brittle, it breaks easily.
 Rusts easily when exposed to air and water.
 Cast iron is put through the basic oxygen process, which is also called the oxygen lance process.
Oxygen Lance Process
 The iron is first melted and oxygen is blown into the iron
through a lance.
 The impurities are oxidized.
 The reaction is exothermic, and so, no fuel is added.

 After the basic oxygen process the iron produced is used in
steel-making
Steel
 Is made by adding small amounts of other metals to the pure iron from the basic oxygen process while it
is molten.
 Manganese , chromium or nickel is added to give different alloys with different properties
 Different alloys can be made such as:
Alloy Constituent Elements Uses

Cast iron Iron , carbon Railings ,Engine blocks
Gas stoves
Mild steel Iron , carbon Car bodies,
concrete reinforcement in
construction
Stainless steel Iron ,chromium, nickel Cooking utensils,
Resists corrosion, hospital equipment
Strong and hard

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COPPER
Extraction from sulphide ore
1. CRUSHING  The ore is crushed into a very fine powder.
2. FLOATATION  Powdered ore is mixed with water.

 Foaming agent is added to make foam.
 Air is forced through from the bottom to agitate the
slurry.
 The copper bearing minerals are taken to the surface
by the foam.
 The foam is skimmed off filtered and dried.
3. ROASTING  The concentrate from the floatation plant is roasted.
 Some sulphur is burnt off and leaves as sulphur
dioxide.
 sulphur + oxygen → sulphur dioxide
4. SMELTING  The roasted copper is then smelted using limestone
as a flux.
 Unwanted impurities form a layer and are tapped
off.
 This produces matte copper
5. CONVERTOR  Air is blown through molten matte.
 Iron is oxidized and forms a slag.
 Sulphur is oxidised to sulphur dioxide.
 This forms blister copper.
6. PURIFICATION BY ELECTROLYSIS  Anode : blister copper

 Cathode : pure copper
 Electrolyte : copper(II) sulphate
 When the current flows through the circuit copper is
transferred from the anode(+) to the cathode(-)
 Impurities settle at the bottom
The diagram shows a floatation cell for

copper.
Foam is produced by blowing in pressurised

air.
Copper-bearing minerals are carried to the

surface by froth.

P a g e | 71
Alloys of copper
Alloy Constituent elements uses
Bronze Copper , tin Medals, valves, statues, bells

Brass Copper, zinc Bullet cartridges, taps,
ornaments.
Nickel silver Copper, nickel coins
Uses of copper
 Copper is a good conductor of both electricity and heat hence its use in electric cables and cooking pots
respectively.
 Copper is also used in hot water pipes due to its ability to resist corrosion. For the same reason it is used
to make ornaments.
Coating processes
Iron rusts easily in the presence of oxygen and water. Rust is actually hydrated iron (lll) oxide.
To prevent rusting we need to ensure that iron does not come into contact with oxygen and water. This may
be done by:
 Painting  Nickel plating
 Galvanizing  Chrome plating.
 Copper plating
Copper plating
The copper anode decreases in size as it goes into

the electrolyte and is transferred to the iron nail
connected to the negative terminal [cathode]
The iron nail becomes coated with copper.
Copper does not corrode easily, so it forms a

protective layer around the iron nail
Galvanizing: iron sheets are dipped in molten zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron and it corrodes instead
of iron. Zinc is sacrificed for the sake of protecting iron. This is called sacrificial plating.
Painting: ensures iron does not come into contact with oxygen and water. Oiling and greasing can also
be applied.
Chromium plating: it is similar to copper plating but the electrolyte used is chromic acid. Still, the item
to be coated is connected as the negative electrode (cathode). A lead anode is used.
Nickel plating: the electrolyte used is nickel sulphate, item to be coated is yet again connected as
the negative electrode.
NB: In all electroplating processes the size of the cathode increases.

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INDUSTRIAL GASES
Liquefaction & fractional distillation of air produces:
 Carbon dioxide
 Oxygen
 Hydrogen
Electrolysis of water produces:
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
LIQUEFACTION
 Air is cooled to -78˚C, water and carbon dioxide are frozen out.
 The remaining gases are cooled and compressed and allowed to expand.
 This process is repeated until the temperature of the mixture reaches -200˚C.
 At this temperature nitrogen and oxygen are liquids.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
 The mixture of liquid gases is then fed into a fractionating column.
 Temperature is increased slightly.
 Nitrogen boils off at -196˚C and is collected into storage cylinders.
 Liquid oxygen remains, [B.p. - 183˚C] and is also put into storage containers.
LIQUEFACTION AND FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF AIR

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
 Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen [H2O].
 Electric current is passed through acidified water.
 The water is acidified because pure water does
not conduct electricity.
 The hydrogen and oxygen are split up by the
electric current.
 Platinum electrodes are used.
 Hydrogen and oxygen are produced in the ratio
2:1 respectively.
 Hydrogen is evolved at the cathode [-] and
oxygen at the anode [+].
NB: an electrolyte is a substance which is decomposed
when electric current is passed through it.
In Zimbabwe, industrial electrolysis of water is carried out at sable chemical industries, Kwekwe. Water is
obtained from Sebakwe River nearby. The ZESA electricity grid also passes nearby. Sulphuric acid used to

P a g e | 73
acidify the water is obtained from Zimphos near Harare. Potassium hydroxide may be used in place of
sulphuric acid.
AMMONIA: THE HABER PROCESS
 Ammonia is made up of hydrogen and nitrogen.
 Hydrogen is obtained from the electrolysis of water and nitrogen from the fractional distillation of
air.
 Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in the ratio 3: 1 by volume.
Equation:
Nitrogen + hydrogen Ammonia
The reaction is slow, reversible and exothermic. The reaction soon reaches dynamic equilibrium. But
applying very high temperatures leads to decomposition of ammonia.
The following conditions are applied to promote the forward reaction:
Catalyst : powdered Iron
Temperature : 450-500˚C [moderate]
Pressure : 200 atmospheres
Ammonia is separated by condensation in a cooler.
SULPHURIC ACID: THE CONTACT PROCESS

Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the contact process at ZIMPHOS, near Harare.
1 Production of sulphur dioxide by burning

sulphur. Sulphur + oxygen sulphur dioxide
2 The sulphur dioxide is cleaned and dried This removes dust particles and other impurities. If the
impurities are not removed they poison the catalyst
and it loses its efficiency.
3 Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide to

sulphur trioxide. This reaction is reversible Sulphur dioxide + oxygen sulphur trioxide
and exothermic. So special conditions are
applied. Catalyst : Vanadium (V) oxide
Temperature : 450-500˚C
Pressure : 1 atmosphere
4 Conversion of sulphur to oleum:
Sulphur trioxide is cooled and absorbed Sulphur trioxide + sulphuric acid oleum
into oleum.
5 Dilution of oleum to sulphuric acid:

Oleum is added to water and not water Water + oleum sulphuric acid
into oleum.
NB sulphur trioxide is not dissolved directly into water because the reaction is exothermic and violent and
this would produce dangerous fumes of sulphuric acid.

P a g e | 74
We may also start the process by burning iron pyrites in air. In that case the equation for the first step would
be:
Iron pyrites + oxygen iron oxide + sulphur dioxide

The rest of the steps remain unchanged.
NITRIC ACID: CATALYTIC OXIDATION OF AMMONIA

Nitric acid is manufactured by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia at Sable Chemical Industries.
1 Ammonia from the Haber process is

oxidised over a platinum/ rhodium Ammonia + oxygen Nitric oxide + water + heat
catalyst at 900 ˚C.
The reaction is exothermic.

The products are cooled to 150 ˚C
2 Nitric oxide is mixed with excess air
and passed over the catalyst again. Nitric oxide + oxygen Nitrogen dioxide + heat
This results in oxidation of nitric oxide
to nitrogen dioxide.
3 Nitric acid is then mixed with excess

air and absorbed into water to form Nitrogen dioxide +oxygen + water Nitric acid
nitric acid.
AMMONIUM NITRATE FERTILIZER

Is manufactured by the neutralisation of nitric acid with ammonia vapour, at Sable Chemical Industries
Nitric acid + Ammonia Ammonium nitrate
The ammonium nitrate solution obtained is then evaporated until it is saturated. The fertiliser granules
are obtained by drying the solution in a prill tower
SUPERPHOSPHATE FERTILISER
Is manufactured at Zimphos.
Calcium phosphate rock is made into a soluble fertiliser by treatment with sulphuric acid.
The fertiliser is used to add phosphorus to the soil.

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SUMMARY: CONDITIONS
Catalyst Temperature [˚C] Pressure [atm]
Ammonia Powdered Iron 450-500 200
Sulphuric acid Vanadium (V) oxide 450 1
Nitric acid Platinum /Rhodium 900 8-10
SUMMARY: USES OF INDUSTRIAL GASES

Hydrogen  Ammonia manufacture
[Electrolysis of water]  Margarine manufacture
Oxygen  Steel making
[Electrolysis of water] or  Welding
[Fractional distillation of air]  Medical use
Nitrogen  Ammonia manufacture
[Fractional distillation of air]  Refrigerant
 Sperm preservation
 Freezing vegetables
 Removal of skin growths [medical use]
Carbon dioxide  Fizzy drinks

[Fractional distillation of air]  Fire extinguishers
 Coolant [dry ice]
USES OF AMMONIA, SULPHURIC ACID AND NITRIC ACID

Sulphuric acid  Manufacture of superphosphate fertiliser
 Manufacture of aluminium sulphate used in water purification
 Manufacture of paints, plastics, detergents and textiles
 Paper making
 Car batteries
 Metal extraction
 Cleaning or metals for electroplating
Ammonia  Fertilisers
 Explosives
 Dyes
Nitric acid  Fertilisers

 Explosives
 Dyes

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Fuel: a material that can be burned to give out heat or provide chemical energy. [syll]
A fuel is a substance which releases heat energy when it is burnt.

Fuels convert chemical energy into heat energy when they are burnt. There are different types of fuels.
Namely solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. Gaseous fuels are more efficient than solid and liquid fuels.
SOLID FUELS
 Wood
 Coal
 Coke
 Charcoal
Wood is an inefficient fuel, it produces a lot of smoke. Wood may be converted into charcoal, which is a
more efficient fuel. This is done by heating wood to very high temperatures in the absence of air.
Coal has a higher heating value than wood. But it can also be converted into a better fuel, coke, by the
process of destructive distillation. Destructive distillation is also known as dry distillation. Charcoal and coke
contain a higher percentage of carbon than wood and coal respectively.
Solid fuels: energy content [kj/g]

Fuel Energy
Content
Charcoal 33
Coke 28
Coal 26
Wood 17
Coal
 Is used as an industrial and also as a domestic fuel.
 It is a fossil fuel and therefore a non-renewable resource.
 Was formed by compaction of tropical vegetation in swamps over 200 million years ago.
 A very slow bacterial process [fossilisation] took place resulting in the formation of bituminous coal.
 Only bituminous coal is found in Zimbabwe.
 Bituminous coal is ideal for steam raising and for coking coal.
 Is used in power generation industry, agriculture, and coking.

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DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL

Coal is heated in the absence of air to produce coke and other useful by-products.
Demonstration: Diagram
This process is carried out on a large scale at the Hwange coke works.
 Coal is heated to 1250°C in the absence of air.
 The coal gas produced is used to heat the coke ovens.
Products of the destructive distillation of coal:

By-product Uses
Coke Is used as a fuel.
Is used to reduce iron oxide in the blast furnace.
Smelting metal ores in the metal extraction industry.
Making fuel gases.
Ammonia Metal processing

Fertilisers
Benzol [benzene, toluene, xylene] Solvents for grease, paint, varnish
Plastics, disinfectants, food flavouring, perfumes, drugs,
dyes, insecticides.
Tar Road surfacing

Naphthalene Chemical raw material
Creosote Protecting wood
Coal gas Fuel for coke ovens
LIQUID FUELS
Most liquid fuels come from the fractional distillation of petroleum [crude oil], for example petrol, diesel and
paraffin. Liquid fuels from petroleum are called hydrocarbons because their molecules are made of carbon
and hydrogen only.
Ethanol is produced by fermentation of sugar and it is not a hydrocarbon.

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GASEOUS FUELS
 Are the most efficient.
 Examples are propane and butane.
Biogas
Is a mixture of:
 Methane
 Carbon dioxide and
 Hydrogen sulphide
Biogas is made from the fermentation of biological waste.
Word equation:
𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Organic waste methane + carbon dioxide
 It is made by the action of anaerobic bacteria on manure [human and animal waste].
 This type of bacteria only works in an environment lacking oxygen.
 The sludge is later removed and used as a fertilizer.
Factors affecting biogas production

 Temperature [optimum 35-55°C].
 The pH must not be too acidic or too alkaline.
 Metals such as copper and zinc will stop the fermentation process.
 Length of time will depend on type of waste.
Uses of biogas
 Cooking
 Heating
 Lighting
 Refrigeration
Complete combustion: is when a fuel burns in a plentiful supply of oxygen. Complete combustion of
hydrocarbon fuels produces carbon dioxide and water only.
Incomplete combustion: occurs when a fuel burns in a limited supply of oxygen. It produces carbon
monoxide, unburnt carbon [soot] and water.
 Carbon monoxide gas is a poison.
 Unburnt carbon is the black residue left behind. It is a pollutant.
 Incomplete combustion causes wastage as less energy is released.
When the air hole of a Bunsen burner is open, the Bunsen burns with a non-luminous blue flame.
The blue fame is hotter and there is complete combustion.

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With the air hole closed the flame is luminous and cooler. This is due to incomplete combustion.
Word equations for complete combustion

Examples:
Burning of petrol
Octane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Burning of butane and propane gas

Butane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Word equations for incomplete combustion

Examples:
Burning of petrol
Octane + oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon + water
(soot)
Burning of butane and propane gas

Butane + oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon + water
Propane + oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon + water
ETHANOL
Is a liquid fuel [alcohol] which burns with a pale blue flame, leaving no residue. Ethanol is less polluting than
hydrocarbon fuels. Methylated spirits is an alcohol to which a dye and a poison have been added.
Ethanol Production
Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of sugar.
Word equation:
𝐳𝐲𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐞
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
In Zimbabwe, production of ethanol is carried out at Triangle, in the south-Eastern lowveld where sugar-cane
is grown.
The process is carried out as follows:

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Sugar Mill  Crushing of sugar-cane to extract juice.

 Separation of juice from bagasse.*
 Evaporation of juice to produce sugar crystals.
 Filtration to separate sugar crystals from molasses.
Ethanol Plant  Dilution of molasses and addition of yeast.

 Addition of sulphuric acid to lower the pH. Lowering pH kills bacteria but not the
yeast.
 Bubbling of air to multiply the yeast until it reaches the required level.
 Anaerobic fermentation of sugar to produce alcohol. [40 hours]. At this stage air is
not allowed because anaerobic bacteria only works in an environment lacking
oxygen.
 Yeast becomes inactive when alcohol concentration reaches 15%.
Distillation Plant  Fractional distillation is carried out in order to remove water and make the alcohol
more concentrated.
 The mixture of alcohol and water from the ethanol plant is pumped into the
middle of the distillation column.
 Ethanol evaporates to the top and water moves to the bottom.
Carbon Dioxide Plant  The carbon dioxide produced is piped to this plant. It is then liquefied or solidified.
Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice.
*The bagasse is used to as a fuel to heat the boilers that generate steam. Bagasse is the fibre that remains
when juice is extracted from the cane.
Uses of ethanol
 Fuel
 Solvent for dyes, plant pigments, medicines
 Blending with motor fuel
 Beverage
Remember: Carbon dioxide is a by-product in the manufacture of ethanol.
Uses of carbon dioxide

 To make carbonated ‘fizzy’ drinks
 In fire extinguishers
 Dry ice is used as a coolant

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Experiment
Fermentation of glucose
In this demonstration fermentation

of glucose produces ethanol.
The enzyme in yeast
Carbon dioxide gas is produced and

it turns limewater in the test tube
milky.
Experiment: Fractional distillation of ethanol

 Fractional distillation refers to the
separation of substances with different
boiling points (volatilities).
 The ethanol [liquid with the lower boiling

point] evaporates first.
 The ethanol vapour is cooled in the

condenser and it condenses to liquid and
collects in the conical flask.
 Any water that evaporates together with

the ethanol condenses on the glass beads
and drops back into the round-bottomed
flask.
FUEL ENGINES
Fuel engines convert the chemical energy stored in fuels into heat and kinetic energy. The engines go
through a four stroke cycle that is repeated over and over again. A car has at
least four cylinders and the cylinders reach the power stroke at different
times to ensure a smoother running of the engine.

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Combustion takes place in the cylinders and a car has at least four cylinders.
THE PETROL ENGINE
Each cylinder goes through the following strokes, in order, one after the other:
Inlet compression power exhaust
The four strokes of a petrol engine
1 2
 Inlet valve is open.  Both valves closed.
 Exhaust valve is  Piston moves up.
closed.  The upward
 Piston moves movement of the
down to draw in a piston compresses
mixture of petrol the mixture of air
and air from the and petrol.
carburetor.
3  Both valves
closed. 4 Exhaust stroke
 A spark from the  Exhaust valve is

spark plug ignites open.
the petrol/air  Inlet valve is closed.
mixture.  Piston moves
 The mixture upwards.
explodes,  Upward movement
releasing a large of piston pushes
amount of heat out exhaust gases.
energy.
 Pressure inside
the cylinder
increases as gases
expand.
 The piston
therefore
The pistons drive a crankshaft which in turnmoves
drives a drive shaft. A heavy flywheel turns each piston between
power strokes. downwards.
The petrol engine makes use of a carburettor.

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The carburetor
Air filter: removes dust particles from the air.

Petrol filter: cleans the petrol to avoid blocking of the jets.
Jets: spray a fine mist of petrol which then mixes with the air from the air filter.
Choke: controls the amount of air entering the system. The choke closes during starting in order to
produce a mixture richer in petrol so that starting is easier.
Throttle: controls the amount of the petrol/air mixture that goes through to the cylinders. The
throttle is controlled by the accelerator.
Maintenance of the engine

This ensures that the engine keeps running smoothly and efficiently.
 Petrol filter should be replaced regularly so that petrol is always clean. This is to avoid blocking the jets.
 The air cleaner should also be replaced regularly as well as worn jets.
 The oil that lubricates all moving parts of the engine must be changed during servicing.
The Diesel Engine

The four stroke cycle of the diesel engine is similar to the one described for the petrol engine previously.
The major difference in operation is that in the diesel engine air is compressed before the diesel
Is introduced.
 Air is drawn in during the inlet stroke.

 The air is compressed on its own but the compression is twice as much as the compression of the petrol
engine.
 A very thin mist of the diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinders from the injectors.
 The diesel/air mixture explodes due to the high temperatures generated by the compression of the air.
 This drives the piston downwards.

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Differences:
Petrol engine Diesel engine
 Uses petrol fuel.  Uses diesel fuel.
 Petrol and air mixture is introduced before  Diesel is injected into the cylinders after air has
compression. been compressed.
 Spark plugs produce sparks that ignite the  Diesel is ignited by the heat generated from heavy
petrol/air mixture. compression of the air.
 Lower compression [1/2 that of diesel].  High compression [2 x that of petrol].
 Lighter.  Heavier.
 *Less efficient [25%].  *More efficient [40%].
 Less economical fuel consumption.  More economical fuel consumption.
 Spark plugs present.  Spark plugs absent.
 Injectors absent.  Injectors present.
 Carburetor present.  Carburetor absent.
 More carbon monoxide, more pollution.  Less pollution due to more efficient combustion.
*[Efficiency as measured by fuel economy (kilometres per litre)].
Some negative effects of using fuels

 Deforestation due to the use of wood as a fuel.
 Oil spills at sea kill thousands of birds, fish and other aquatic animals and disturb the local ecosystem.
 Oil spills ruin the beauty of coastal areas.
 Lead used as a petrol additive damages the brain.
 Oxides of sulphur and phosphorus released when coal is burnt lead to acid rain.
Fuels need to be handled safely and correctly. Some fuels are highly flammable and also cause pollution.
Renewable and non-renewable energy sources

Renewable sources of energy are those that can be used over and over again without running out.
Non-renewable resources are those that cannot be re-made once they are used up.
Examples
Renewable: Wind energy Non-renewable: include fossil fuels such as
Solar energy Coal
Hydro-electric power [HEP] Petrol, diesel, paraffin
Wood Nuclear energy
Biomass
Geo-thermal power
Ethanol
Biomass energy examples:

Maize and like crops can be fermented to produce methane gas.
Sunflower oil can be mixed with diesel and used to run farm equipment and some machinery.

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Electrostatics is the study of stationary/ static electric charges.
All atoms are neutral. The number of protons is equal to the number of neutrons. However, if electrons are
added or removed the material acquires a net positive or negative charge.
Static electricity comes about as a result of:

 The presence of excess electrons resulting in a negative charge.
 The deficiency/ absence of electrons resulting in a positive charge.
Producing positively charged materials

Glass/ Perspex : rub with silk
 Rubbing Perspex [or glass] with silk leads to transfer of electrons to the silk so the Perspex becomes
positively charged because it now has more protons than electrons.
Producing negatively charged materials

Polythene : rub with wool
 After rubbing, electrons are transferred from the wool to the polythene.
 There are now more electrons than protons in the polythene resulting in a negative charge.
NB: In both situations it is the electrons that are being transferred. Protons cannot move because they are
firmly held in the nuclei of atoms.
 Unlike charges attract.

 Like charges repel.
If a positively charged rod is brought near another positive rod, there will be repulsion and the rods will push
away from each other.
It is the same when two negative rods are used.
However when two rods with different charges are brought closer together there will be attraction. They will
move closer together.
Conductors
Conductors are materials that allow electricity to pass through easily. Conductors cannot carry static charges
unless they are held by a non-conducting material. Touching the material will result in it losing its charge as
electrons flow through your body from the material into the earth or from the earth into the material.
Non-conductors
Non-conductors are materials that do not allow electricity to pass through. They can easily carry static
electric charges.

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Lightning
Lightning is an enormous electric spark that results from the discharge of electrons. It can be from cloud to
cloud or from cloud to earth. Lightning results from the rubbing of water droplets in the clouds. The friction
results in some of the clouds acquiring a negative charge due to the presence of excess electrons.
The negative charge in the clouds induces a

positive charge on the surface of the earth.
The electrons in the cloud are attracted by the

positive charge.
This results in cloud to earth lightning.
Lightning conductors
There is a conducting material on top or above a building. This is turn connected to a metal plate in the
ground by means of a conducting wire. Lightning is attracted to the conductor which becomes positively
charged during a thunderstorm if the clouds carry a negative charge. If it is struck by lightning, the lightning
conductor carries the electric charge into the ground.
Precautions
 Disconnect roof-top television aerials.
 Install lightning conductors on thatched buildings.
Dos and don’ts during a thunderstorm.

Do Don’t
 Stay inside a motor vehicle.  Stand under isolated or tall trees.
 Stay inside a building protected by a lightning  Stand near metal objects such as fences
conductor.  Take a swim or shower
 Stand on the top of a hill.

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The positive rod attracts electrons to one side of the sphere and that side becomes negatively charged.
This cause attraction between the positive rod and the negative side of the sphere. The rod has induced a
charge on the sphere. The sphere therefore moves towards the charged rod.
The negatively charged rod repels electrons to the far side of the sphere. This causes attraction between the
negatively charged rod and the positive side of the sphere. The sphere therefore moves towards the charged
rod.

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CURRENT
 Is the flow of charged particles through a conducting circuit.
 It can be the flow of electrons through metals or it could be the flow of ions through an electrolyte.
 Current is measured in amperes (amps or A).
 Current is measured using an ammeter.
 An ammeter is connected in series.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 Potential difference (p.d.) is the force or pressure that causes electrons to flow.
 P.d is also known as voltage, it is measured in volts.
 A voltmeter is used to measure potential difference.
 A voltmeter is connected in parallel
RESISTANCE
 Resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for current to flow through a wire or component of an
electric circuit.
 Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω). The light bulb is an example or a resistor.
ELECTRICAL POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.
P=IV P = power
I = current
V = voltage
Ohms law: The current passing through a wire is proportional to the potential difference across its
ends.
V = voltage
V=IR I = current
R = resistance
This is the formula linking current, voltage and resistance.
Resistance causes heat energy to be produced when current flows through a wire.
Electrons flow from negative to positive but current flows in the reverse direction.

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Resistors in Series
Total resistance is given by:
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are in parallel, more current flows
where there is less resistance.
Total resistance is given by:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
R = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐
+ 𝐑𝟑
CELLS
 Provide the potential difference that causes current to flow.
 They convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
 Made up of an electrolyte (a liquid that conducts electricity) and two electrodes
Simple cell
 Cathode: is the negative electrode. The

more reactive metal is the cathode.
 Anode: is the positive electrode. The

less reactive metal is the anode.
 Electrons flow from the more reactive

metal (cathode) through the external
circuit.
 Through the electrolyte, ions flow to
ensure a complete circuit.
 Ions: are charged particles

that flow through an electrolyte
Metals that are farther apart in the reactivity series produce more current.

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Polarisation
 Results when bubbles of hydrogen gas form on the positive electrode causing current to stop
flowing.
 To depolarise a cell we use a depolarising agent such as potassium manganate (VII). This oxidises
hydrogen to form water molecules.
THE DRY CELL

It is more convenient to use than a simple cell as it has a built- in depolarizer and the electrolyte is in the
form of a paste instead of a liquid.
Negative electrode: zinc casing.

Positive electrode: carbon
Electrolyte: Ammonium chloride paste.
Depolarizing agent: manganese oxide
[with powdered carbon]
A combination of cells is called a battery.

Cells in series and in parallel
 Give a greater voltage.

 But do not last long.
 In a torch they give a brighter light but
they quickly go ‘flat’ compared to cells
connected in parallel.

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 Voltage across all cells is the same.
 Cells in parallel produce a lower voltage than

those connected in series but current is
supplied for a longer time.
 Last longer.
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

 Made of a semi-conductor called silicon.
 Solar cells convert solar radiation into electrical energy.
 Solar cells are joined to form solar panels.
THE LEAD- ACID ACCUMULATOR

 Stores chemical energy and releases it as electrical energy.
 Is used as a car battery and is made up of six 2V cells to give a total of 12V.
 It is called a secondary cell because it can be recharged.
Positive electrode: lead (IV) oxide

Negative electrode: lead
Electrolyte: dilute sulphuric acid

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When the battery is supplying current [discharging]:

 Both the anode and the cathode turn into lead (ll) sulphate.
 Density of sulphuric acid falls.
 lead + sulphuric acid → lead sulphate + water
 lead (IV) oxide + sulphuric acid → lead sulphate + water
When recharging:
Current is supplied to the battery in the opposite direction to that in which the battery supplies a current.
The above reaction is reversed.
Care and maintenance of lead-acid battery

 Avoid total discharge.
 Check electrolyte density with a hydrometer and top up electrolyte with distilled water if necessary.
 Avoid overcharging as this produces an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Electricity is generated by electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction occurs when there is interaction between an electric field in a wire and a
magnetic field. Moving a magnet into or out of a coil of wire will cause electric current to flow in the wire.
Direct current and alternating current

Alternating current (A.C.) is electric current that reverses direction several times per second and direct
current (D.C.) flows in one direction continuously.
MOTORS AND GENERATORS

ELECTRIC MOTOR [D.C.]
 Converts electrical energy to kinetic

energy.
 Consists of a magnet and a coil of
wire in which electricity can flow.
The stationary magnet is called the
stator
 The coil is wound around the
armature. These make the rotor.
 When electricity flows there is
interaction between the magnetic
field of the magnet and the
magnetic field produced around the
current-carrying wire.
 This interaction causes the coil to
move [kinetic energy]

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Electric motors are used in fans, grinding mills and lawn mowers.
GENERATOR
 Converts kinetic energy into electrical energy.
 If a coil is moved near a magnet or if a magnet is moved near a coil an electric current will flow through
the coil. We may set up a generator such that a coil will rotate in-between the poles of a permanent
magnet.
A larger current is produced by:

 Increasing the number of turns on the coil.
 Increasing the strength of the magnet.
 Rotating the coil at a faster rate.
Generators can produce either alternating current or direct current.
The A.C. GENERATOR
A coil rotates between the poles of a

magnet.
As the coil rotates it cuts the magnetic

field lines of the magnet. This induces an
electric current in the coil.
The slip rings make electrical contact with

the carbon brushes to deliver the current
produced.
The A.C. generator has slip rings to deliver current to the carbon brushes.
The D.C. generator has a split ring (commutator) to change the A.C. from the coil into D.C.
TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity is mainly produced at Kariba and Hwange.
The National Grid enables transmission of electricity around other parts of the country.
Electricity is transmitted as A.C. because:

 It results in lower energy losses compared to D.C.
 It is cheaper as A.C. can be transmitted using thinner cables, DC requires thick cables.
 The voltage of A.C. can easily be stepped up and down using transformers, D.C. cannot.
 The most efficient generators produce A.C.

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ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electricity is dangerous and so people need to take measures to avoid being electrocuted or causing
electrical fires. The following measures and precautions should be taken.
 Always wear shoes when using an electric stove or iron.

 Always unplug when repairing damaged electric cables.
 The three pin plug must be wired correctly.
 Electrical appliances should be plugged separately to avoid overheating of wires.
 Avoid working with electrical wires and appliances in damp conditions.
Earthing
 The metal casing of electrical appliances are connected to an ‘earth’ wire.
 If there is a short circuit [live wire touching the metal casing] the earth wire carries current into the
ground and the fuse will blow to protect the users of the appliance.
 If there were no earth wire the user would experience electric shock.
The fuse
 Protects the appliance and also the user when there is too much current in the circuit.
 The power surge may be caused by lightning or electrical faults.
 Fuses are rated in amperes, e.g. 13A.
 The fuse rating selected is slightly higher than the current normally draw by the appliance.
 If current exceeds required current the fuse will melt.
 The fuse is always placed in the live wire.
The three pin plug
Earth: carries electric current into the

ground when there is a short circuit
Fuse: melts when too much current flows
Live and neutral: carry electric current to

and from the appliance
The two pin plug

 It has no fuse.
 It has no earth.
 It only has a live and a neutral wire.
 It is used on electrical appliances that draw very little current and are made of plastic. These include
phone chargers and televisions.

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Solar radiation consists of

Ultraviolet radiation
Visible light
Infrared radiation
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
Heat moves in three ways:
 Conduction [in solids]
 Convection [in fluids*]
 Radiation [no medium required]
*solids and liquids are known as fluids.
Conduction
 Occurs in solids.
 Particles [atoms] vibrate and rub against each other, passing heat from one particle to the next.
 As heat is added they vibrate more and more rapidly.
Metals are good conductors of heat. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and are thus called insulators.
Copper conducts heat better than aluminium, while aluminium is a better conductor than iron.
Convection
 Occurs in fluids.
 The gas or liquid particles absorb heat and their kinetic energy increases allowing them to move further
apart.
 This makes the liquid or gas less dense. So the fluid caries the heat away from the heat source.
In fluids, the particles that are less dense rise and colder, denser particles sink down to take their place.
This sets up convection currents.
Demonstration: to show convection currents in water
Convection currents are set up to carry heat

energy in liquids and gases [fluids.]

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Convection in gases
Radiation
 Does not require a medium for transmission.
 Infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum as waves.
 When radiation strikes a body it is absorbed.
 The temperature of the body will then increase.
Black surfaces:
 Are the best absorbers of heat.
 Are the best emitters [radiators] of heat. They lose heat to their surroundings quickly.
White & silver [Shiny] surfaces:

 Are the best reflectors of heat and light.
 Retain heat longer as they are not good emitters.
Demonstration: To show that black surfaces are better absorbers of heat
 The thermometer is used to record the temperature. It is also used for stirring so as to distribute heat
more evenly.
 The temperature of the water in the black can rises faster than the temperature of the water in the shiny
white can.
 This shows that black is a better absorber.

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 If the heater were removed and the temperatures in the two cans monitored for several minutes, the
results would show that the temperature of the water in the black can would also fall faster than the
temperature of the water in the white can.
 This proves that black surfaces also radiate heat at a faster rate compared to shiny white surfaces.
Mirrors are used to reflect radiant energy from the sun. Parabolic mirrors can be used to bring the reflected
ray to a sharp focus. This is made use of in solar reflectors.
Solar cooker
A curved reflecting surface is used to reflect

and focus energy from the sun.
A black pot absorbs heat better than a shiny

one when used with the solar cooker.
Solar water heater

Uses radiant energy from the sun to heat water for domestic use.
Blackened collector [copper] plate Is black for maximum absorption of radiant energy
Expanded polystyrene insulator Prevents heat loss by conduction
Copper tubing Conducts heat energy to the water
Transparent glass cover Reduces heat loss due to convection.
Air space
Insulated water tank To keep the stored water from getting cold too quickly

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BEAMS
A beam is a supported length of solid material that carries a load.
A simple beam can be:

 Supported at both ends or
 Supported centrally
A cantilever beam is a beam that is built into a rigid wall.
Stress: Is force set up inside a material when pressure is applied.
There are three types of stress:

 Compressive stress
 Tensile stress
 Shear stress
Tensile stress
Results from forces that pull parts of the material apart.
Compressive stress
Results from forces that press the material together.
Shear stress
Results from equal and opposite forces that are not in line. Parts of the material are forced to slide past
each other.

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Stresses in loaded beams
1. Beam supported at both ends

When this beam is loaded:
 The upper part is under compression and
 The lower part is under tension.
2. Centrally supported beam

When this beam is loaded:
The upper part is under tension.
The lower part is under compression.
3. Cantilever beam
A cantilever beam is a beam built into a rigid wall.
The upper part is in tension.

The lower part is in compression.
Neutral axis
 The central part of a beam does not experience any stress.
 This part is called the neutral axis.
 Unnecessary material can be removed from the neutral axis.
 This gives the beam a higher strength to mass ratio. Both cost and weight are reduced.
Unnecessary material may be removed from around the

neutral axis of a solid square beam to make a box beam.
This increases the strength to mass ratio.
Unnecessary material may be removed from around the

neutral axis of a cylindrical beam to make a tube.
This increases the strength to mass ratio.
I and Z beams are just as strong as solid beams but unnecessary material has been removed. The thin plate
resists shearing stresses.

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Cross sections of beams with low strength to mass ratios.

L,I,T and Z beams have flanges to resist tension and compression and a
joining plate to resist shear.
In structures where forces can be applied from any direction, hollow

cylindrical beams are best.
To increase the strength of a beam the thickness is increased or the

cylinder made wider.
DEPTH OF A BEAM
 A beam is stronger when it has greater depth.
 A beam is stronger when placed on its side rather than when placed flat.
The beam on the left has greater depth than the one on the right
EXPERIMENT TO TEST THE STRENGTH OF BEAM

 Clamp the beam for support
 Hang weights in the middle of each beam or from one end depending on the type of support.
 Add weights little by little and find the load necessary to break each beam.
SUMMARY
 A beam is a supported structure that carries a load.
 When a material is subjected to a force an equal force acts in the opposite direction (reaction).
 There are three types of stress: tensile, compression, shear.
 A beam supported at both ends experiences compression on upper side and tension on the lower side.
 The central axis of a beam (neutral axis) remains unstressed when a beam is subjected to force.
 Removing the unnecessary material increases the strength- mass ratio of a beam.
 Increasing the depth of a beam increases its strength.

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A truss is a structure made of different members performing the function of a beam.
In trusses there is no material in between the members this reduces the weight of the structure.
A load is spread out through the members of a truss.
 Increasing the member of triangles increases the strength of a truss.

 Trusses can be used as the supporting framework for a roof, bridge or other structures.
 Trusses are made of triangles because triangles are stable, strong and they resist shear.
Trusses are used in:

 Girder bridges
 Pylons
 Cranes
TIES & STRUTS

Tie: a tie is a member of a truss that experiences tensional stresses.
Strut: a strut is a member of a truss that experiences compressive forces.
 The wire prevents the load from falling by an upward

tension.
 More pieces can be added to the truss
 Members that are parallel to

each other experience the same
type of stress.

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Roof truss
The thrust from the struts is supported by the walls of the building.
Tie beams prevent the load of the roof from pushing the wall outwards.
Trusses are strong because there is no material between the members.

A load is spread out through the members of a truss.
Advantages of trusses over beams

 Are more economical
 Stronger and more stable

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The function of a joint is to transmit load from one part of a structure to another.
METHODS OF JOINING
Pinning
 Wood: nails, screws and bolts.
 Metals: bolts, rivets.
Surface contact
 Wood: glueing, glueing with dowels and tongues.
 Metals: soldering, brazing, and welding.
 Plastics: welding, glueing.
The strength of a joint is dependant on surface area and number of pins:

 Increasing the width of overlap increases the strength of a lapped joint.
 Increasing the number of pins [i.e. rivets/ nails etc.] increases the strength of the joint.
Welded joints
 Are used in steel work
 Are cheaper than riveted joints,
 They offer less resistance to air and water
 A welding rod is melted using electricity. The molten metal is spread along the joint and solidifies.
Brazing
 Is done with an alloy of zinc and brass.
 Involves joining metal plates with molten metal.
Soldering
 Also involves use of molten metal.
 Solder is an alloy of tin and lead which has a low melting point.
 The solder is melted using a soldering iron.
Riveted joints
 Hot rivets are placed in holes drilled through a lapped

joint and their ends are hammered flat
 On cooling, the rivets contract and pull the joint
together.
 Can stop cracks, Redistribute the load because they
can slip.
 Become stronger with age when the holes become
filled with rust.

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Joining trusses
 Steel trusses are welded.
 Wooden trusses are joined using gang nails.
Gusset plate; is a metal plate used to join the members of a wooden truss.

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Materials
 Materials in large structures are chosen for their properties.
 Materials need to be tough rather than strong and stiff.
 A tough material is crack resistant.
 A brittle material cracks easily.
 Tough materials include most metals, timber, nylon, and fibreglass.
Shear strength: is the ability of a material to withstand twisting forces.
Durability: is the ability of a material to resist decay and corrosion.
Wood/ Timber
 Has a high strength /mass ratio.
 It makes light, strong beams or trusses that are tough and flexible.
 A steel beam may expand and buckle and push a building apart. Wood does not expand.
 Hardwoods are slower growing and so the annual rings are close together.
 The closer together the grain of the wood, the harder (stiffer) and stronger the wood. Softwoods (broad
grain) come from trees like pine.
 Wood is weak in compression but strong in tension.
 The shear strength of wood is low .Twisting forces will break it.
Metals & Alloys

 Metals have many properties that allow them to be used in large structures.
 They are ductile [can be drawn into wires].
 They are malleable [can be hammered into different shapes (sheets, rods, bars or tubes)].
 Metals are strong in both tension and compression.
 They can be alloyed (mixed) with other metals or non-metals to produce a material with different
properties.
Reinforced concrete
 Steel is strong in both tension and compression, but it is expensive.
 Concrete is strong in compression and it is cheap, but it is weak in tension.
 Concrete is made using stone, sand, cement and water. It is resistant to weathering.
 When a concrete beam is loaded cracks might appear on the underside. This is due to the fact that
concrete is weak in tension. This can be avoided by reinforcing the concrete.
 Steel reinforcing bars are placed in the concrete where tension occurs. Steel rods are embedded in the
concrete while it is still wet.
 So the main structural material for large buildings and bridges is reinforced concrete.

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Stone
 Stone is a very strong material.

 It resists corrosion more than steel.
 But it is inflexible and very heavy.
Flexibility: This is the ability of a material to bend without breaking.
Rubber is a flexible material. Some structures require flexible material while others need stiff (rigid)
materials.
CORROSION
Some materials corrode by reacting with water, oxygen and atmospheric pollutants.
Iron rusts very readily.
Iron can be protected by:

 Electroplating with tin or nickel,
 Painting,
 Alloying with other elements that do not corrode.
Alloy: Is a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strength
or resistance to corrosion.
An inferior metal is mixed with a precious one. The metals are mixed while they are in the molten state and
they solidify to become one.
Copper does not readily corrode. It is a less reactive metal [it is low in the reactivity series].
Aluminium forms a thin layer of aluminium oxide that protects it from further corrosion.
Steels resist corrosion more than iron does because they are alloyed with other metals that are resistant to
corrosion for protection.
Wood is protected by painting it with creosote, a timber preservative obtained from destructive distillation
of coal.

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BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure that spans a gap. It can be a beam and pier, arch or suspension bridge. When
constructing bridges, increasing the thickness of the beam merely increases its weight (self-load) and
therefore the amount of bending. This problem is overcome by using piers or trusses.
Bridges:
 Are usually made of steel and concrete
 Are made up of: the deck on which traffic moves.
Abutments and piers which support the deck.
1. Simple beam bridge

 A beam bridge is basically a rigid horizontal
structure that rests on two supports, one
located at each end of the bridge as shown.
 When the load pushes down on the beam
the top edge is pushed together or
compressed, while the bottom of the beam
is stretched or is under tension.
 The beam must be strong enough so that it
doesn't bend under its own weight and the
added weight of the traffic crossing it.
 Is only suitable where there is a very short span and where the maximum load is also very low.
 It is usually made of reinforced concrete
2. Pier bridge
 A pier bridge needs to be reinforced at points

of maximum stress

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3. Arch bridges
 An arch supports load by converting the downward force into sideways thrust.
 Thrust runs around the ring of the arch and is transferred to the abutments.
 An arch bridge is entirely in compression.
 Roadway is free from tension and compression but the abutments are under an enormous thrust.
 An arch bridge is composed of a curved structure with abutments on each end.
 The weight of the load is carried outward along the curve of the arch to the abutments at each end
of the arch. The abutments also keep the end of the bridge from spreading outward.
 The arch bridge is always under compression because the weight of the deck is pushed outward
along the curve of the arch towards the abutments. The rise in the form of the curved arch causes
the vertical load to have a horizontal thrust
4. Suspension bridge
 Cables supporting the beam are in tension

 High tensile steel wires are used for the cables.
 The towers are in compression’
 The suspended roadway is free of compression and tension.
 Suitable for very long spans.
 The suspension bridge literally suspends the roadbed from huge cables, which extends from one end
of the bridge to the other. The cables are attached to two tall towers and are secured at each end by
anchorages.
 The cable carries the weight on a suspended bridge to the anchorages that are imbedded in solid
rock or massive concrete blocks. The cables are spread over a large area in order to evenly distribute
the load inside the anchorages to prevent the cables from breaking free.
 The anchorages help to stabilise the bridge. Therefore, the tower must be embedded to earth
firmly. In such a way, the cables transfer the forces to the towers which carry the forces directly into
the earth where they are firmly imbedded

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DAMS
 Are expensive to construct

 Amount of cement can be reduced by
reinforcing the concrete.
 Vertical steel rods are anchored in the rock.
These steel rods are under tension.
 At the top the rods are tensioned by means
of a jacking device.
 Stability of dams is enhanced by a tapering
asymmetrical shape.
Curved shape enables transmission of the

thrust of the water into the embankments.
Earth dams
Have a different structure because the material is not as strong as concrete.
Their bases are quite broad.

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MACHINES
Machine: a machine is any device that makes work easier.
A machine can make work easier:

 By reducing the effort required to lift a load or
 By changing the direction in which the effort is applied.
Examples of machines are

 Levers  Gears
 Pulleys  Inclined planes
LEVERS
 Enable us to exert a small effort on a heavy mass,
 But the effort moves through a greater distance than the load
Examples of levers
 H
 Wheel barrow
 Bottle opener
 Crow bar
 Shovel
 Scissors
 Claw hammer
Formulae
𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭

Mechanical advantage =  Velocity ratio =
𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Work done = force × distance moved 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭

 Efficiency = × 100
𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭
The larger the mechanical advantage the more useful the machine
 Output is always less than inputs thus efficiency is never100%
 Increasing the distance from the pivot reduces the effort required.

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THE INCLINED PLANE

Using an inclined to load a lorry makes the work easier by increasing the distance moved by the load while
reducing the effort
𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
 MA =
𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭
𝐝
 VR =
𝐡
h is distance moved by load
d is distance moved by effort
𝐰𝐝
Efficiency =
𝐟𝐡
Reducing the angle of inclined of the plane, reduces the force used to lift the load, but it increases distance
moved by the effort.
PULLEYS
 A single fixed pulley used to change the direction of an effort would have a mechanical advantage and
velocity ratio of 1, if there were no friction.
 Increasing number of pulleys reduces the effort required.
 If more pulleys are combined the effort will be reduced and can be applied in a more convenient
direction.
 This arrangement is called a block and tackle.
 Each pulley increases the MA of the pulley by 2.
 The pulleys are arranged in blocks to make the arrangement.
 Efficiency of a pulley may be increased by reducing the weight of the pulleys, and also by reducing
friction on the string.

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GEARS
 Consist of cog wheels mounted on shafts.
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐠𝐞𝐚𝐫

 VR =
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐠𝐞𝐚𝐫
WHEEL AND AXLE

 In a large wheel turns small axle a small effort on the wheel can be used to lift or drag a larg load on
the axle
 A similar arrangement may be used to draw water from a well (windlass)
FRICTION
 Friction is a force that opposes all movement
 Friction causes wearing of the surfaces in contact
 Work must be done to overcome friction
 This energy is wasted and lost as heat
 Friction is higher when the weight of the moving parts is increased, and when the surfaces in contact are
rough.
 We reduce friction by:
Lubrication
 Moving surfaces are kept apart by a thin layer as lubricant
 If a machine is not well lubricated it will “seize”
Rollers and ball bearing

 When one body rolls over another the friction is much less than when surfaces slide over one another
 Roller bearings and ball bearings dominate a lot of friction
The work done by a machine can never exceed that which is done on the machine .The output is always less
than the input because some energy is lost due to friction. The lost energy becomes heat energy. This is a
great disadvantage and it is necessary to reduce friction as much as possible in a machine. This is done by
using lubricating oils or ball bearings and by keeping moving parts as light as possible. The efficiency of a
machine is calculate in the following way:
𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭
Efficiency = 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 x 100
work done on load

=work done by effort
load ×distance moved by load

=
effort ×distance moved by effort
The efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage

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PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
1. The pressure of a liquid at a particular depth acts equally in all directions.
2. Pressure increases with depth. This is due to the weight of the liquid particles above.
3. The pressure in a liquid increases with density.
Pressure in a liquid at a particular depth is given by the equation:
P= 𝝆gh Where P= pressure,

𝝆 = density of liquid,
g = 10 (acceleration due to gravity)
Units of pressure are Newtons per m2 h = depth/ height of liquid to the given depth
1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal
1 000 N/m2 = 1kPa
To measure the pressure due to a gas

A U-tube manometer can be used to measure the pressure of a gas.
 A manometer is a U-tube used to measure the

pressure of a gas.
 The manometer is half- filled with a liquid e.g.
water.
 When both arms are open atmospheric pressure
the levels of liquid are the same.
 When one arm is connected to a gas supply the
levels change.
Pressure of gas is given by:
P= 𝝆gh + Pa
Where Pa is atmospheric
pressure

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PUMPS
Are used to lift liquids and gases using atmospheric pressure.
LIFT PUMP
 Two leather flaps act as valves.

 When piston moves up valve A is forced to close.
 Pressure in cylinder is lowered.
 Atmospheric pressure pushing down on the surface of the water in the well forces water into the
cylinder.
 Water above the piston is forced out of the spout.
 Piston moves down and valve B closes water in the cylinder forces valve A open water now fills the
cylinder above the piston.
FORCE PUMP
 As piston moves up valve B closes.
 Atmospheric pressure forces water

up through valve A into the cylinder.
 As piston moves down valve A closes
and water is forced through valve B
into the reservoir and out of the
spout.
 Water flows continuously from the

spout because of the air trapped
inside the reservoir.

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BLAIR PUMP
 Gives a steady supply of water for small communities.
 Simple to erect.
 Cheap to maintain.
 Used in a covered well up to 10 meters.
 Pump handle is connected to a piston which moves in a cylinder that is fixed below the water level in a
well
Lift pump Force pump Blair pump
 Has to be primed before use.  No need to be primed. Delivers water on each down-
 Can only lift water through stroke.
less than 9m.  Can lift water through more
 Can only deliver water on the than 10m.
upstroke.  Delivers water during both
strokes due to pressure of air
trapped inside the reservoir.
BICYCLE PUMP
 Has a piston fitted with a leather or rubber washer.

 This makes an air tight fit with the cylinder.
 Air is compressed in the cylinder by the piston.
How to use a siphon

A siphon is used to draw a fluid out of one container. Differences in pressure cause liquid to flow from one
container into another.
 You suck water from the container into the tube.
 When the tube is full close the end with your thumb.
 Lower the end below the level of the water and hold it over an empty container and remove the thumb.
Explanation: When the end is opened pressure in the tube will be greater than outside.
The liquid will flow out.

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HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Use the facts that liquids:
 Pass on any pressure applied to them equally in all directions
 Examples of hydraulic machines: Hydraulic jack
Car brake system
The Hydraulic jack
 A piston in a small cylinder is worked by a handle.
 When the handle is pushed down pressure in the small cylinder is passed on through the liquid to the
larger cylinder which has a larger surface area.
 The ram exerts a large upwards force to lift a heavy load.
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
Remember: Pressure = 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚
Hydraulic Brakes
 Pressure is exerted on brake pedal causing the piston in the master cylinder to compress the brake fluid.
 This pressure is passed on equally to larger pistons in the wheel cylinders.
 This pressure forces the brake pads against the wheels.
 The force of friction stops the car.
 The brake pedal is a lever. The pivot is between the effort force and the load force.

P a g e | 119

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Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease.
People can maintain good health by:

 Eating a balanced diet
 Exercising regularly &
 Making the right choices in society.
NUTRITION
Balanced diet.
A balanced diet is a meal containing all the essential nutrients, required by the body, in their correct
proportions.
The body requires:
 Carbohydrates  Mineral salts

 Proteins  Roughage / Dietary fibre
 Fats  Water
 Vitamins
Functions of different nutrients in the body
Food group Function[s] Food examples

Carbohydrates  Energy giving food Cake, potatoes, pasta, rice,
sweets
Proteins  Growth of new tissue Meat, fish, beans, eggs, milk
 Repair of damaged tissue
Fats  Store of energy Meat
 Protection of vital organs, for example, the Nuts
kidneys Dairy produce
 Insulation of the body [warmth] Cooking oil
 Making of cell membranes
Vitamins &  Protection against diseases Fresh fruits and vegetables
Minerals  For metabolic processes in the body
Roughage  Helps to push food along the alimentary Fruits and vegetables
canal by the process of peristalsis. Lack of [Carrots, mangoes]
roughage causes constipation.
Water  Important for metabolic processes in the
body.
 Needed for blood, sweat, urine, tears,
saliva, digestive juices.

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Fats contain more energy than carbohydrates. This is readily shown by comparing the energy value of foods
through burning experiments.
In such experiments you burn food and use the energy released to heat water. You have to use equal
quantities of food samples to heat equal volumes of water and note the temperature changes. You should
keep stirring the water with the thermometer to distribute the heat.
The food sample that causes a greater change in temperature is the one that contains more energy.
Food Tests:
Starch Test:
 Put food sample in a test tube
 Add water to make it a solution
 Add iodine solution
 If starch is present the solution changes colour from brown to Blue Black.
 If starch is not present the solution remains brown.
Glucose [Reducing sugars] test:

 Add food sample to a test tube
 Add Benedict’s Reagent
 Put test tube in water bath for heating
 If reducing sugars are present the solution turns from blue to green, then yellow, orange, red
 A positive result is indicated by an orange/ red or brick-red colour.
 If reducing sugars are not present the solution remains blue.
Protein Test:
• Put food sample in a test tube
• Add water to make a solution
• Add Biuret Reagent
• If proteins are present, the solution turns Purple/ violet
• If proteins are not present the solution remains blue.

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Note: Biuret Reagent is blue in colour and made of copper sulphate and a small amount of sodium
hydroxide.
Fats Test:
• Add food sample to a test tube
• Add ethanol
• Add water and shake well
• If fats are present a milky/ cloudy, white emulsion is formed
• If fats are not present the solution remains clear
SUMMARY: FOOD TESTS

Food group Test Positive result
1 Carbohydrate: glucose Clinistix Pink to purple
2 : glucose Benedict’s test Blue to brick red
3 Carbohydrate: starch Iodine solution Brown to blue black
4 Protein Albustix Green to dark green
5 Protein Biuret Blue to purple/ violet
6 Fats Spot test Fats leave a translucent mark
on paper
7 Fats Emulsion test Cloudy emulsion formed
MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition: is when the diet contains too little or too much of one or more nutrients. The body is
malnourished when it does not receive the correct amounts of the right kinds of foods.
Malnutrition is eating food in the wrong proportions. In other words, an unbalanced diet which may be rich
in some nutrients and low in others, or even lacking of a substance. Malnutrition results in conditions such as
obesity, kwashiorkor, stunting of growth and deficiency diseases.
Undernourishment: not getting enough food.
Obesity: is a condition of being overweight. It is a form of malnutrition.
Obesity is caused by eating too much carbohydrate. The excess carbohydrate is converted to fats and stored
under the skin. To prevent obesity, you have to control your carbohydrates and fats intake and exercise
regularly.
Deficiency diseases
Deficiency: a deficiency is a lack or shortage.
Deficiency diseases result from a shortage of a particular nutrient.

Nutrient Deficiency disease
Iodine Iodised salt Goitre
Iron Liver Anaemia
Vitamin A Liver, Fresh vegetables Poor night vision [night blindness]
[carrots, tomatoes] Poor eyesight
Dairy produce Respiratory tract infections. [Trachea and bronchi]
Vitamin C Fresh fruits Scurvy

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Iodine
Is required for proper functioning of the thyroid gland in producing thyroxine. Lack of iodine results in
swelling of the thyroid gland [goitre]. Iodine deficiency may be corrected by using iodised salt in food.
Children who lack iodine experience stunted physical and mental development. They are known as cretins.
Vitamin A
Lack of vitamin A causes poor development of epithelial tissue resulting in upper respiratory tract infections;
poor night vision, poor sight and blindness.
Vitamin C
Scurvy is the deficiency disease of vitamin C. Its symptoms include bleeding gums.
Vitamin D and Calcium

Rickets is the deficiency disease of both Vitamin D and Calcium. Bones are made of calcium which Vitamin D
helps in depositing in the bones, if any of both is lacking in the diet, rickets is developed.
Iron
Anemia is the deficiency disease of iron. The amount of haemoglobin decreases and this causes short breath
and tiredness.
Anaemia is a condition of not having enough red cells in blood.
Kwashiorkor
Occurs in children who do not get enough protein. They experience stunted growth.
Symptoms:
 Swollen abdomen
 Thin limbs
 Weak body
 Red-brown hair
Special Diets
Pregnant Women:
The diet of a pregnant woman needs to be very rich of certain nutrients because she is not only feeding
herself, she is feeding her baby as well. In order for the fetus to develop well, it needs extra Protein, Iron,
Calcium and Vitamin D. Proteins are needed to develop the tissues of the fetus, Iron is required to make
haemoglobin, while Calcium and Vitamin D are essential for the development of the baby’s bones.
Infants: Need more energy per kilogram of body mass compared to old people.
Sedentary workers: Are people who do not move around a lot in the work place.
They need less energy compared to manual labourers.
Advantages of breastfeeding
 Protects the baby from disease by providing antibodies [immunity].
 Optimal brain development for baby.
 Mother-child bonding
 Better health and perfect diet.
 Hygienic

P a g e | 124
Teeth
Tooth structure
A: is the enamel, made of calcium.

It is the hardest part of the tooth.
B: is the dentine.
C: is the pulp cavity. It contains blood

capillaries and sensory nerves. The
capillaries bring blood containing nutrients
to nourish the tooth. Sensory nerves
detect and transmit pain.
Plaque: is a thin layer of food remains on

the tooth surface.
How tooth decay occurs

 Bacteria digests food remains on the teeth producing acid.
 The acid reacts with the enamel, wearing it down.
 A hole develops deeper into the enamel and subsequently into the dentine.
 Pain increases as the hole approaches the pulp cavity containing the sensory nerves.
 Eventually the tooth is destroyed.
Taking care of teeth

 Brush teeth after every meal
 Avoid eating snacks in-between meals.
 Avoid eating sugary foods such as sweets, cakes.
 Visit the dentist regularly.
 Change your toothbrush every 3 months.
 Brush your teeth in circular motion
 Brush for 1-3 minutes.
 Eat a balanced diet.
 Eat fibrous foods, they remove plaque.
Properties of a good toothpaste
 Should be abrasive to remove plaque. [some toothpastes contain granules]
 Should be alkaline to neutralise acid.
 Should be fluorinated to remove stains.
An experiment can be carried out to compare abrasiveness of toothpaste. You spread toothpaste on a
smooth surface and let it dry. After that you perform a touch test to check how abrasive it is.
Alternatives for toothpaste:

Salt kills bacteria by osmosis and is also abrasive to remove plaque. Bicarbonate of soda neutralises acid in
the mouth. Bicarbonate of soda is alkaline.

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Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi cause food to decay and decompose.
Conditions that promote rapid decomposition:
 Oxygen
 Moisture
 Warmth [suitable temperature].
The above factors cause food to decompose rapidly because they are the optimum conditions for growth
and multiplication of micro-organisms. In order to preserve food we need to remove at least one of these
conditions.
Preservation How the method prevents decay Food examples

method
Refrigeration Refrigeration does not kill micro-organisms but it only slows them all foods
down and keeps them from multiplying rapidly. It makes micro-
organisms inactive.
Canning Canning kills bacteria and also excludes oxygen. The food is heated Fruit, vegetables,
/cooked and sealed while it is still hot. The micro-organisms are meat, dairy produce.
destroyed by heat, the can is sealed to exclude oxygen.
Salting Bacteria requires water in order to survive. Salting food kills bacteria meat and fish
by osmosis.
Pickling Food may be preserved by adding vinegar. This lowers the pH [vinegar vegetables
is acetic acid]. Bacteria cannot survive at low pH.
Sugaring Jams have a high sugar content. Sugar shrinks the cells and prevents Fruits/ jams
bacterial and fungal growth.
Dehydration Bacterial activity cannot occur where there is no water. Drying of food fruit, vegetables,
prevents respiration and causes cells to lose water. meat
Smoking Some wood smokes produce anti-bacterial and fungicidal compounds. meat and fish
Smoking also has an advantage in that it adds flavour to the food.
Starchy foods have a longer life compared to most foods. Fats and oils have a long life as well.

P a g e | 126
SMOKING
Cigarette smoke is a pollutant. It contains harmful substances such as nicotine and tar.
Smoking is addictive. This means that one becomes physically dependent and finds it difficult to give up
smoking. Smoking also shortens life for both direct and passive smokers.
Nicotine
 Is a drug found in cigarette smoke.
 It is also a poison.
Lung cancer
 Is a terminal illness.
 Is caused by accumulation of tar in the alveoli [air sacs].
Emphysema
 Smoke particles break down the air sacs.
 Surface area inside the lungs is reduced.
 Fluid builds up in lung tissue.
 Difficulty in breathing.
 Reduced oxygen uptake.
Bronchitis
 Irritation and inflammation of the bronchiole linings.
 Disease may continue for life.
Pregnant women who smoke give birth to babies that are underweight.
Coronary heart disease

Results when coronary arteries that supply the heart muscle with blood become blocked.
This increases blood pressure, potentially leading to heart attacks.
Passive smoking
Passive smoking is when a non-smoker inhales the smoke from a smoking person. Passive smokers are also
affected badly, as though they were actual smokers. There is thus a great need to ban and enforce bans on
public smoking

P a g e | 127
Alcohol
It is part of a group of drugs called depressants. It is also a poison.
Consumption of alcohol leads to:

 Reduced reaction time. Alcohol slows down the central nervous system.
 Reduced self-control.
 Social problems that emanate from altered behavior.
The liver breaks down toxins in the body. Excessive consumption of alcohol damages the liver leading to a
disease called liver cirrhosis.
People also abuse alcohol in cough medicines.
Hallucinogens
 Are drugs that make you see things that are not actually there, they play tricks on the mind.
 Examples are mandrax and cannabis.
 They alter behaviour and personality.
 Hallucinogens have long-lasting and dangerous effects on the mind.
Mandrax
 Is a banned white tablet originally prescribed as a sleeping pill.
 Is a hallucinogen.
 Is addictive.
Cannabis
 Is a hallucinogen.
 Its leaves can be chewed or dried and smoked.
 Is also known as marijuana, mbanje, dagga or ganja.
Solvents
A solvent is a substance used to dissolve other substances. For example, solvents in glue.
 Sniffing of solvents is dangerous.
 Solvents have hallucinogenic effects.
 They damage muscles and the heart.

P a g e | 128
Pathogen: a pathogen is a disease-causing organism.
Examples of pathogens are:

 Bacteria  Viruses
 Fungi  Protozoa
Personal, domestic and community hygiene is very important in disease prevention.
Transmission of diseases
Diseases spread by Diseases spread by Diseases spread by Diseases spread by
physical contact droplet infection contaminated food or vectors
[contagious] [infectious] water
STDs Influenza Cholera Malaria

tetanus Colds Dysentery Sleeping sickness
ringworm TB Typhoid
leprosy Hepatitis
Vector: a small animal that carries pathogens from one host to another.
Parasite: is an organism that lives in/on another organism [host] from which it feeds.
Protozoa: are single celled organisms that cause diseases, for example, plasmodium that causes
malaria.
Cholera Malaria
Causative agent: bacterium Causative agent: plasmodium
Symptoms: watery faeces Vector: female anopheles

severe dehydration mosquito
body weakness
fever Symptoms: repeated fever
body weakness
Treatment: antibiotics
oral rehydration solution
Prevention: cleanliness and good Prevention: use of prophylactic drugs

hygiene Mosquito control
The cholera bacterium lives and multiplies in the human digestive system.

P a g e | 129
The malaria pathogen multiplies in the digestive system of the female anopheles mosquito and then it
moves to the salivary glands. When the mosquito bites a person the saliva enters the blood stream and the
person is infected. In humans the plasmodium infects the red blood cells.
Life-cycle of female anopheles mosquito

ADULT
MOSQUITO
EGGS
PUPA Laid in stagnant
water
LARVA
 Mosquitoes breed in ponds and stagnant water.

 In Zimbabwe, there is a high prevalence rate of malaria in low lying areas.
 This is mainly in the Zambezi valley and in the South-Eastern lowveld.
Prophylactic drugs
 Are drugs taken daily or monthly, as a preventive measure against malaria.
 Are taken before visiting malaria areas.
 Plasmodium may become resistant to the drugs hence there's a need to develop new ones.
Measures to prevent being bitten by mosquitoes

 Mosquito nets
 Mosquito repellent lotion/jelly
 Wire screens on windows
 Insecticidal sprays in the home
 Mosquito coils
 Wearing long sleeved shirts and trousers.

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Our bodies have several ways to prevent or fight infection.
 Tears cleanse the eyes.

 Saliva cleanses the mouth.
 Ears have wax and hairs to trap dust and spores.*
 Stomach walls produce acid that kills bacteria in food.
 The vagina also produces acidic secretions which kill pathogens.
 The skin acts a barrier to prevent many pathogens from invading the body.
 In the nose there is mucus and hairs that trap dust and pathogens.
Spores: are minute, typically single-celled, reproductive units characteristic of lower plants, fungi,
and protozoans, capable of giving rise to new individuals without sexual fusion.
White blood cells

 Engulf bacteria
 Produce antibodies
IMMUNITY
Immunity: refers to the ability of an organism to resist an infection by activating an immune
response.
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
 Naturally acquired active immunity
 Naturally acquired passive immunity
 Artificially acquired active immunity
 Artificially acquired passive immunity
1. Naturally acquired active immunity

 Is the immunity that a person acquires after they have been infected by a disease.
 The body produces antibodies to fight the infection.
 This results in the body developing resistance to that particular disease. For example chicken pox and
measles
.
2. Naturally acquired passive immunity
 A person receives ready-made antigens.
 For example in breast milk or across the placenta.
3. Artificially acquired active immunity

 Is given by injecting a person with a dead or weakened form [vaccine] of the disease.
 This is called vaccination.
 The body will then build up its own resistance to that particular disease.

P a g e | 131
4. Artificially acquired passive immunity

 It is temporary and does not last for long.
 A person is injected with the blood serum of an animal. The blood serum should have antigens
to fight an infection or poison.
Acquisition of immunity in infants

 Antibodies are transferred from the mother to the child through the placenta before birth.
 Infants also obtain antibodies in breast milk during breastfeeding.
 They are also vaccinated to get artificial immunity.
HIV
 Is the human immune-deficiency virus.
 It is currently incurable.
 Attacks white blood cells which are part of the body’s defence system.
 The victim has a weakened defence system and is easily attacked by opportunistic infections.
 HIV leads to AIDS.

P a g e | 132
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Testes The coiled tubules in each testis produce the male sex cells [sperm].
Produce testosterone. Testosterone is the male sex hormone.*
Scrotal sac Keeps the testes at a lower temperature than the body
The lower temperature is optimal for development of sperm cells
Epididymis This is where sperm cells are held temporarily
Sperm duct Sperm cells move from the epididymis and pass through the sperm duct during
sexual intercourse.
Prostate gland & Produce a fluid to nourish and lubricate the sperm cells.
Seminal vesicles
Urethra Receives nourishing fluid from the glands and also sperm cells from the sperm duct
and passes them into the female organ during sexual intercourse.
The nourishing fluid containing the active sperms is called semen.
* Hormones: are chemicals produced by specialised organs and transported in tissue fluid to regulate
the action of specific cells/tissues/organs.
Sperm cells: are the male sex cells [gametes]

Are released during ejaculation.
If they are not released they die and are recycled inside the body.
Structure of the sex cells

A human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes [to make 46].
Both ova and sperms contain a half set of chromosomes, i.e. 23 chromosomes each.
After fertilisation the zygote then has 46 chromosomes.
Sperms are quite mobile as they have to swim to the oviduct after being ejaculated into the vagina.

P a g e | 133
Only one cell can fertilise the ovum. A protective membrane forms around the ovum once one sperm has
fertilised it.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Parts of the female reproductive system:
Ovaries Produce the female sex cells. [Gametes]

Also produce female hormones.
Oviduct Receives an ovum from an ovary, each cycle, and passes it into the uterus.
Is where fertilization takes place
Uterus Receives the fertilised egg. The zygote attaches itself in the uterus and
develops into a baby.
Cervix It is the ‘mouth’ of the uterus.

Is a ring of muscle that closes the uterus but it can expand greatly during
birth to allow the baby to pass through.
Vagina Receives the erect penis during sexual intercourse.

Expands for the birth of the baby.
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 Takes place in human females from puberty to menopause.*
 The uterus develops a lining which consists of blood & mucus in preparation to receive a fertilised ovum.
 The ovaries release an ovum (egg) into the oviducts around the 14th day of each cycle.
 If the ovum is not fertilised the prepared uterus lining breaks down & passes out as the menstrual flow.
 The ovum is receptive to sperm for about 24 hours. Sperms are active for about 48-72 hours after being
Ovulation: is the release of an ovum on or around the 14th day of the menstrual cycle.
The highest chances of falling pregnant are a few days before and a few days after ovulation.
Puberty: the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of
reproduction.
Menopause: the period in a woman's life (typically between 45 and 50) when she stops producing
ova.

P a g e | 134
From ejaculation to birth

 Ejaculation releases sperm into the vagina.
 Sperm cells swim to the oviducts where fertilisation takes place.
 The zygote [ball of cells] formed during fertilisation moves into the uterus where implantation takes
place.
 A placenta develops. The placenta is a flattened circular organ in the uterus of a pregnant woman,
nourishing and maintaining the foetus through the umbilical cord.
 The placenta separates the blood of the developing foetus from the blood of the mother.
 There is exchange of substances between the mother and baby through the placenta.
 Oxygen and food nutrients diffuse from the blood of the mother to that of the baby.
 Carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes diffuse from the blood of the foetus to that of the mother.
Fertilisation: fertilisation is the fusion of a male sex cell [sperm] and a female sex cell [ovum] to form a
zygote.
Implantation: is when the zygote becomes attached to the wall of the uterus.
Placenta: is a flattened circular organ in the uterus of a pregnant woman, nourishing and
maintaining the foetus through the umbilical cord. Inside the umbilical cord there is an
artery and a vein that are linked to the foetus’ circulatory system.

P a g e | 135
Amniotic fluid
A membrane called the amnion grows around
the foetus and encloses it in a fluid called the
amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid:
 Allows the baby to grow.
 Allows the baby to move.
 Protects the baby from the mother’s bumps
and falls.
 May be used by doctors to find out about the
baby’s health.
INFERTILITY
Is being unable to produce babies.
Causes of infertility
Males: low sperm count. I.e. few number of sperms produced leading to reduced chance of
fertilization.
Poor quality sperm that are not fully developed.
Damaged reproductive organs due to STI’s or cancer.
Sperm duct may be blocked.
Females: no ova being produced.

Ova being produced irregularly.
Blocked oviducts.
CONTRACEPTION METHODS
Contraception: is the use of artificial methods or other techniques to prevent pregnancy.
Method Effectiveness problems
Abstinence 100% None
Sterilisation 100% (excellent) Permanent/ very difficult to reverse
Artificial hormones Have some side effects such as:
[pills (oral), rods (inserted in the Headaches
arm)] increased menstrual flow
high blood pressure
Hormones prevent ovulation. reduced sex drive
gaining weight
One may forget to take them. (pills)
Intra-Uterine Device [IUD] Very good Increased menstrual flow
Is placed inside the uterus
Left in place for up to 10 years, the
woman doesn’t have to think about
it.

P a g e | 136
Method Effectiveness problems

Condoms fair Can break during sexual intercourse.
[barrier] Can come off during sexual intercourse.
Have to be put on before and taken off after sexual
intercourse.
Cap fair Have to be put on before and taken off after sexual
[barrier] intercourse.
Spermicides Poor Not readily available

Safe period Unreliable as it depends time of ovulation. The 28
Days 1-11 and 17-28 of the cycle. day cycle is not exact and ovulation may not occur
on day 14.
Withdrawal method Unreliable
Removal of penis from the vagina Difficulty of timing
just before ejaculation
Sterilisation: is the blocking or cutting of part of the male or female reproductive organ in order to
prevent pregnancy. Sperm ducts in males or oviducts in females are cut and tied.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Result from unprotected sex and promiscuity.
Gonorrhoea Syphilis Chancroid AIDS

Causative bacterium bacterium Virus [virus]
agent
Symptoms  Inflammation of  Rash  Small ulcers on  Loss of weight
penis  Fever reproductive organs  Fatigue
 Pain during  Sore throat  Soft sores or boils at  Fever
urination  Hair loss the base of the hairs  diarrhoea
 Leads to sterility if
untreated
Treatment antibiotics antibiotics No cure. Anti-

retroviral treatment
prolongs life.
POPULATION DYNAMICS
Mortality rate: is number of deaths per 1 000 people.
[Death rate]
Growth rate: is the difference between birth rate and death rate.
In many developing countries the death rate is lower than the birth rate. Infant mortality rate has been
falling steadily over the years due to improved healthcare. This has led to a high growth rate. Population
increases rapidly and there’s pressure on resources. There is need to reduce the size of families.
𝟕𝟎
Time for population to double =
% 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒕𝒉 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆

P a g e | 137
Dependency ratio: the number of dependant people to the number of those who are economically
active.
Dependant people are children under 5 and old people over 65.
In developing countries the dependency ratio is high due to high birth rates. There’s a large number of
children. The ratio will increase as healthcare improves. This will be as a result or more people being able to
live longer [Increased life expectancy].
Population pyramid
Is a diagram used to show the structure of the population of a particular area or country. It shows the
number of males and females in each age group at 5 year intervals.
Population pyramid of a developing country.
Broad base shows a young population

due to high birth rate.
Fewer old people due to low life
expectancy.
Effects of rapid population growth

 Environmental degradation,
 Pressure on social, educational and health facilities,
 Poverty.

P a g e | 138
As population grows waste generated is increasing. This waste needs to be disposed of properly. Dumping
waste elsewhere does not solve the problem. Burning waste causes air pollution.
Pollutant: a pollutant is any substance, activity or form of energy which affects living organisms in a
harmful way.
Problems caused by dumping waste

 Attracts scavengers, spreading diseases.
 Dumps are unsightly.
 Some of the waste is not biodegradable. It does not decay.
Wastes from homes include:
Leftover food Urine Faeces Metal Paper Plastic Glass
How to dispose of waste properly

1. Bio-degradable waste
Organic biodegradable waste can be used to make compost to improve soil fertility in our gardens. Such
waste includes leftover food. Organic waste can be broken down by bacteria and fungi and it decays.
2. Non-biodegradable waste
Paper, plastic and metal can be recycled. Some items, such as bottles, can be re-used.
Air pollution
Is caused by different pollutant gases being released into the atmosphere. In large urban centres the amount
of gases being released is enormous. This is due to the presence of manufacturing industries. Some people
have contracted diseases such as bronchitis and asbestosis as a result of the heavily polluted air. In some
cities smog can be seen in the morning rush hour.
Smog: is fog or haze intensified by smoke or other atmospheric pollutants. (Smoke and fog)
SEWAGE
 Sewage is human waste consisting of faeces and urine.
 It contains dangerous pathogens.
Disposal of sewage
1. Borehole latrine
 5m hole is dug.

P a g e | 139
 Is similar to the pit latrine as explained next, but narrower.

 Also has a longer life.
2. Pit latrine
 3 metre deep hole is dug.

 Increasing depth reduces flies.
 Hole has to be covered after use.
 Add water regularly. This helps with
decomposition/ decay of waste.
 Put cover and seat to improve hygiene.
 Clean surfaces using a disinfectant.
 Discontinue use of pit when waste
accumulates
 Never allow any disinfectants into the
pit
3. Blair pit toilet

 Was designed to reduce the fly problem.
 The vent pipe is warmed by the sun and it sets up convection currents to reduce odours.
 Spiral structure keeps interior darker than vent. Flies are attracted by the light and trapped in the
vent by the screen at the top.
 Pit is plastered but there is a leakage area about 1m below the top of the pit.
Water-Borne Sewage
Water from a flash toilet can be disposed of in one of three ways.
1. Cess Pits
 Waste collects in large underground tank.

 Water seeps out through the walls.
 Bacteria digests the waste.
 Pit eventually fills up and the waste has to be emptied.
 There are waste disposal companies that have large vehicles with suction pumps. They suck up all
the waste and dispose of it properly.

P a g e | 140
2. Septic tank
 Has a longer life than a cess pit.

 Consists of a large underground tank and a soak away.
 The soak away is an outlet for semi-processed fluid.
 Bacteria breaks down wastes.
 Requires large area.
 Mainly found in low density areas.
3. Sewage works
 Is ideal for large residential and industrial urban areas which produce large quantities of human waste.
 All waste is delivered at a sewage treatment works by a large pipe.
 The sewage undergoes physical and biological treatment.
i) Physical separation of solids and grit from the fluid.

ii) Precipitation of suspended solids to form sludge. This is done in settling tanks. The sludge is later
digested by anaerobic bacteria.
iii) Liquid from settling tanks is treated by aerobic bacteria. Ammonia is converted into nitrates and
nitrites.
iv) The ‘clear’ water still contains some solid waste. This is removed in settling tanks.

P a g e | 141
v) Effluent is discharged to river.

If the activated sludge method is not used, the effluent may be used to irrigate pastures as it contains
nutrients (nitrates and phosphates). It must not be discharged into rivers since it would cause
eutrophication.
Eutrophication: this is when a water body contains a lot of nutrients.

This results in rapid growth of algae which blocks light for other algae and water
plants below the water surface. The plants beneath die and decompose using up
oxygen. All living organisms in the water die due to a lack of oxygen.
Activated sludge method ensures water can be discharged into rivers by eliminating nutrients which would
otherwise cause eutrophication.
Digestion of sludge
 Is carried out by anaerobic bacteria in the digester.
 Methane gas is produced.
 The solid leftovers from digestion of sludge are used as farm fertiliser.
WATER TREATMENT
 Operates in two ways, physical and chemical.
 Water is allowed to settle to remove solid waste.
 Flocculant is added to speed up sedimentation.
 The remaining solid particles are removed through sand filters.
 Chlorination is now carried out to kill micro-organisms in the water.
 Water is stored in reservoir until it is pumped to houses.
Ensuring safe water supply in rural areas

 If water is obtained from rivers, toilets should be located downstream from the points where water is
obtained.
 Wells should be uphill from living areas and toilets.
 Toilets should be a safe distance away from water sources.
 Wells should be covered.
 The interior of the well should be lined with bricks.
 Water can also be boiled to kill micro-organisms.

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Page |1

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

Water: is drawn in from the soil through the roots.

TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

EXPERIMENTS TO PROVE THE NECESSITY OF SUNLIGHT, CARBON DIOXIDE AND

1. THE NECESSITY OF SUNLIGHT

Conclusion: Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

2. THE NECESSITY OF CHLOROPHYLL

3. THE NECESSITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Conclusion: Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

THE CROSS-SECTIONAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

HOW THE LEAF IS ADAPTED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

THE FATE OF THE END PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

[The organic end product of photosynthesis is glucose]

EXPERIMENT: TO SHOW THAT THE GAS PRODUCED DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS OXYGEN

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

Mineral element Functions Deficiency symptoms

Nitrogen  Protein synthesis  Stunted growth

Potassium  Fruit and flower  yellow/brown leaf margins.

CULTURE SOLUTION EXPERIMENTS

 Culture solution experiments are

 The purpose of the opaque (dark)

 During the first few weeks there is no

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

1. Tissue eating pests

Examples: locust, grasshopper, grub, caterpillar, millipede, snail

2. Sap sucking pests

Examples: aphids, red spider mite.

Safe use and handling of chemicals

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

 Keep chemicals locked away from the reach of children.

Warning symbols used on pesticide containers

CAUTION It represents the least toxic LEAST TOXIC

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

Transverse section through a bean stem Transverse section through a root

Kinetic theory of matter:

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

So osmosis is a special type of diffusion concerning water molecules only.

A semi-permeable membrane may also be called a selectively-permeable membrane or partially-permeable

VISKING TUBING EXPERIMENTS

Set up Result and conclusion

TRS WESTBROOKE INSTITUTE

EGG MEMBRANE EXPERIMENTS

Osmosis has taken place.

Osmosis has taken place.

TURGIDITY AND PLASMOLYSIS

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EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING POTATO TISSUE

2. If potato strips are immersed in concentrated sugar or salt solution:

 The lower part of the potato is peeled.

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Transpiration: is the loss of water vapour from the leaves of a plant.

Factors affecting transpiration rate

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