CRANK SHAFT

A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating

motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion;
whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts the rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the
conversion between two motions, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis
is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach.
It is typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes
a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the
crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.

Crankshaft is one of the most important moving parts in internal combustion engine. Crankshaft is a large component with a
complex geometry in the engine, which converts the reciprocating displacement of the piston into a rotary motion. This study
was conducted on a single cylinder 4- stroke diesel engine. It must be strong enough to take the downward force during power
stroke without excessive bending. So the reliability and life of internal combustion engine depend on the strength of the
crankshaft largely. And as the engine runs, the power impulses hit the crankshaft in one place and then another. The torsional
vibration appears when a power impulse hits a crankpin toward the front of the engine and the power stroke ends. If not
controlled, it can break the crankshaft.

CONNECTING ROD
In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to
the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a simple mechanism that converts
reciprocating motion into rotating motion.
Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion. Historically, before the
development of engines, they were first used in this way.[1]
As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull and so the rod may rotate the
crank through both halves of a revolution, i.e. piston pushing and piston pulling. Earlier mechanisms,
such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is only required to
push.[2]
Today, connecting rods are best known through their use in internal combustion piston engines,
such as automotive engines. These are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of
connecting rods, used in steam engines and steam locomotives.

Engine design and components

 
The engine is constructed from different parts. These parts are: bottom end, top
end, front end, oil pan, valve cover, and front cover.
Bottom End (short block): The bottom end includes the cylinder block with all of
its internal parts installed. The pistons, rods, crankshaft, and bearing would be in
the block. The term short block is often used to mean the same thing as bottom
end.
Long block: is a technician term that refers to the short block with just the heads
installed. Parts like valve covers, front cover, flywheel, mounts, etc. are not
included in the long block
Bare block: is a cylinder block with all parts removed. There would not be pistons,
rods, a crankshaft, nor other parts in the block.
  
Bottom (Lower) End Construction
 
• Cylinder block deck: is a flat machined surface for the cylinder head. Bolt holes
are drilled and tapped in the deck for heat bolts. Coolant and oil passages allow
fluids through the block, head gasket, and cylinder heads.
• Cylinders (cylinder walls): are large holes machined in the cylinder block for the
pistons. An integral cylinder is part of the block.
• Cylinder block sleeves (liners): is a separate part pressed into the block. There are
two basic types of cylinder sleeves: dry sleeves and wet sleeves.
• Cylinder bores: There are several bores in the block, lifter bores, cam bores, main
bore.
• Main caps: they are blot to the bottom of the cylinder block and form one-half of
the main bore. Large main cap bolts screw into holes in the block to secure the
caps to the block
• Main bearings: snap-fit into the cylinder block and main caps to provide an
operating surface for the crankshaft main journals.
• Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating of the pistons into a rotating motion. The
crankshaft fits into the main bore of the block The crankshaft has a crankshaft oil
passages, counterweights, crankshaft flange with the pilot bearing in the center to
support the manual transmission input shaft, and the crankshaft oil seals.
• Crank main journals: are precision machined and polished surfaces that ride on
the main bearings.
• Crank rod journals: also terms crankpins are also machined and polished
surfaces, but they are for the connecting rod bearings.
• Flywheel: is a large steel disc mounted on the rear flange of the crankshaft. The
flywheel has a large ring gear that allows engine starting.
• Connecting rod: fastens the piston to the crankshaft.
• Connecting rod cap: bolts to the bottom of the connecting rod body. It can be
removed to for disassembly of the engine.
• Connecting rod bearings: rid on the crankshaft rod journal.
• Piston pin: allows the piston to swing on the connecting rod. The pin fits through
the hole in the piston and the connecting rod small end.
• Pistons: transfers the pressure f the combustion to the connecting rod and
crankshaft. It must hold the piston rings and piston pin while operating in the
cylinder.
• Piston rings: Automotive pistons normally use three rings- two compression rings
and one oil ring.
• Balancer shafts: are used in some engines to reduce vibration. These
counterweighted shafts are generally mounted in the left and right side of the
engine block and are driven by a belt or chain.
 
Top (Upper) End Construction
 
* The cylinder head: bolts to the deck of the block and covers the top of the
cylinders. A head gasket seals the block and head surfaces to prevent oil, coolant,
and pressure leakage.
* Bare cylinder head: is a head casting, with all of its parts (valves, keepers,
retainers, springs, seals, and rocker arms) removed. The cylinder head consists of
combustion chambers, intakes ports, exhaust ports, oil passages, water jackets,
intake deck, exhaust deck, and dowel holes.
* Valve guides: are small holes machined through the top of the head, do into the
intake and exhaust ports. The two basic types of valve guides are the integral and
pressed-in.
* Valve seats: are round, machined surfaces in the port openings to the combustion
chambers. The valve seats can be part of the head or a separated pressed-in
component.
* Valves: open and close to control flow in and out of the combustion chamber. 
* Valve seals: prevent oil from entering the cylinder head ports through the valve
guides.
* Valve spring assembly: is used to close the valve. It basically consists of a valve
spring, retainer, and two keepers.
* Camshaft: opens the engine valves at the right time during each stroke.
* Camshaft gear: a camshaft sometimes has a drive gear for operating the
distributor and oil pump.
* Camshaft eccentric: An eccentric (oval) may be machined on the camshaft for a
mechanical (engine driven) fuel pump.
* Camshaft bearings: are usually one-piece inserts pressed into the block of
cylinder head.
* Valve lifters: also called tappets, ride on the cam lobes and transfer motion to the
rest of the valve train.
* Push rods: transfer motion between the lifters and the rocker arms. They are
needed when the camshaft is located in the cylinder block
* Rocker arms: can be used to transfer motion from the push rods to the valves.
They can be used in both OHC and OHV engines. In any engine, the rockers
mount on top of the cylinder head by various methods; rocker shaft, rocker stud, or
rocker pedestal. There are two types of rocker arms; adjustable rocker arms, and
nonadjustable rocker arms. Adjustable rocker arms provide a means of changing
valve train clearance. Nonadjustable rocker arms provide no means of changing
valve clearance. They are only used with some hydraulic lifters.
* Solenoid-operated rockers: are used on variable displacement (size) engines. The
solenoids can be turned on or off to deactivate or activate some of the engine
valves.
* Variable Valve Timing: alter valve timing as engine speed changes. This is done
to optimize engine power and efficiency at all operating speeds.
 
 Front End Construction
 
Camshaft drive mechanism also called timing mechanism, must turn the camshaft
and keep it in time with the engine crankshaft and pistons. Sometimes, it must also
power other units (balancer shaft, oil pump, distributor, etc.) There are three basic
types of camshaft drives: gear drive, chain drive, and belt drive.
• Gear drive: Timing gears are two helical gears on the front of engine that operate
the engine camshaft.
• Timing chain and two sprockets: the timing chain transfers power from the crank
sprockets to the cam sprockets. A crankshaft key is used to lock the crankshaft
sprocket to the shaft. A camshaft key or dowel is used to secure the cam shaft
sprocket on the cam, and assures that the sprocket does not spin on the camshaft
and go out of time. A chain tensioner can be used to take up excess slack as the
chain and sprockets wear. A chain guide may be needed to prevent chain
slap. Auxiliary chain and sprockets may be used to drive the engine oil pump,
balancer shafts, and other units on the engine. Oil slinger helps spray oil on the
timing chain to prevent wear. Engine front cover, also called timing chain or
timing gear cover, is a metal housing that bolts on the front of the engine. It
encloses the timing chain or gears to keep oil from spraying out. The cover holds
the crankshaft oil seal.
• Timing belt: Teeth axe formed in the inside of the belt. They mesh with the teeth
on the outside of the crank and cam sprockets. A belt sprocket normally has
square teeth. Timing belt tensioner is a wheel that keeps the timing belt tight on
its sprockets. Timing belt sensors detects excessive tensioner extension and timing
belt wear and stretch. When the sensor detects belt stretch, an indicator of possible
belt failure, it signals the ECU. The ECU can then illuminate a dash light to warn
the driver of the problem. An auxiliary belt sprocket, also termed intermediate
sprocket, can be used to operate the oil pump, water pump, distributor, etc. The
timing belt simply extends around this extra sprocket. A timing belt cover is
simply a sheet of metal or plastic shroud around the cam drive belt.
* Crankshaft pulleys: are needed to operate the alternator, power steering pump, air
conditioning compressor, air injection pump, and other devices.
* Engine balance shafts: are geared to the crankshaft or camshaft. The balance
shaft has bob weights that spin in the opposite direction of crankshaft rotation. This
cancels out torsional vibrations created by the crankshaft, providing a smoother
engine idle.
* Intake manifolds: is a metal casting or plastic part casting that bolts over and
covers intake ports on the cylinder head.
Exhaust manifold bolts to the cylinder head, over the exhaust ports. Valve cover
also called rocker cover or cam cover on OHC engines, is a thin housing over the
top of the cylinder head. It simply keeps valve train oil spray from leaking out if
the engine. The cover is sealed by a gasket or sealant.
Engine gaskets prevent pressure, oil, coolant, and air leakage between engine
components. They are; cylinder head gasket, valve cover gasket, oil pan gasket,
front cover gasket, thermostat housing gaskets, intake and exhaust manifold
gaskets, etc.
 
Oil pan and sump
 
The oil pan, normally made of thin sheet of metal or aluminum, bolts to the bottom
of the engine block. It holds an extra supply of oil for the lubrication system. The
oil pan is fitted with screw-in drain plug for oil changes. The sump is the lowest
area in the oil pan where oil collects.
 
 
Single- and multi- cylinder engines
 
Power/weight ratio:
The engine power varies as the square of the bore (that is, with the piston area) but
the mass varies as the cube of the bore (that is, with the volume of material used).
Increasing power by using a large cylinder therefore results in a low power/weight
ratio, whereas increasing the number of cylinders maintains power and weight in
the same proportions.
 
Firing interval and torque fluctuation:
Since all the cylinders must fire in two revolutions of the four-stroke crankshaft,
the firing intervals is 7200 divided by the number of cylinders. The effective power
stroke occupies about 1350. With a. single cylinder the mass of a large flywheel is
required to absorb torque fluctuations and provide energy for the crankshaft. As the
number of cylinders increases, torque is smoother and less weight flywheel is
needed, aiding acceleration.
 
Cooling:
Large cylinders have long heat paths, such as from the piston center. Multi-
cylinder units are necessary for large power to avoid lubrication and detonation
problems due to overheating.
 
Balance and inertia loads:
The single-cylinder unit can only be imperfectly balanced and vibration will occur
at certain engine speeds. Four-cylinder in-line units have small secondary out-of-
balance forces, while horizontally opposed; six and eight-cylinder units can have
entirely satisfactory balance. The reduced reciprocating mass of the multi-cylinder
engine permits higher crankshaft speeds without inertia force problems.
 
Conventional car engine:
A part from the benefits of traditional experience in this type of unit, the four-
stroke, four-cylinder, in-line, water-cooled engine has inherent advantages.
* The two-stroke unit has unacceptable fuel consumption.
* The economy of the compression-ignition (CI) is offset by the lower power and
acceleration, with increased cost, noise, weight and (to some) more objectionable
fuel.
* Twin-cylinder engine have greater torque fluctuations, and
* Six cylinder units are an unnecessary expense under 2-2.5 L capacity.
* The V4 and the horizontally opposed four (HO4) are more expensive, and have a
lot of components compared to the in-line layout, and H04 has complicated
manifolds
and cooling arrangements.
* Air cooling in not suited to four-cylinder in-line units; it is noisier, requires
power to drive the large cooling fan, and complicated interior heating
 
 
Crankcase
n an internal combustion engine of the reciprocating type, the crankcase is the housing for
the crankshaft. The enclosure forms the largest cavity in the engine and is located below
the cylinder(s), which in a multicylinder engine is usually integrated into one or several cylinder
blocks. Crankcases have often been discrete parts, but more often they are integral with the cylinder
bank(s), forming an engine block. Nevertheless, the area around the crankshaft is still usually called
the crankcase. Crankcases and other basic engine structural components (e.g., cylinders, cylinder
blocks, cylinder heads, and integrated combinations thereof) are typically made of cast iron or cast
aluminium via sand casting. Today the foundry processes are usually highly automated, with a few
skilled workers to manage the casting of thousands of parts.
A crankcase often has an opening in the bottom to which an oil pan is attached with
a gasketed bolted joint. Some crankcase designs fully surround the crank's main bearing journals,
whereas many others form only one half, with a bearing cap forming the other. Some crankcase
areas require no structural strength from the oil pan itself (in which case the oil pan is
typically stamped from sheet steel), whereas other crankcase designs do (in which case the oil pan
is a casting in its own right). Both the crankcase and any rigid cast oil pan often have reinforcing ribs
cast into them, as well as bosses which are drilled and tapped to receive mounting screws/bolts for
various other engine parts.
Besides protecting the crankshaft and connecting rods from foreign objects, the crankcase serves
other functions, depending on engine type. These include keeping the motor oil contained,
usually hermetically or nearly hermetically (and in the hermetic variety, allowing the oil to be
pressurized); providing the rigid structure with which to join the engine to the transmission; and in
some cases, even constituting part of the frame of the vehicle (such as in many farm tractors).

Small engines and crankcase compression engines[edit]

Two-stroke crankcase-compression petrol engine

For more details on this topic, see Crankcase-compression two-stroke petrol engine.

A large number of small two-stroke engines use a sealed crankcase as a compression chamber for

their mixture. These are hugely common as petrol or gasoline small engines for motorcycles,
generator sets and garden equipment. Both sides of the piston are used as working surfaces: the
upper side is the power piston, the lower side acts as a scavenging pump. As the piston rises, it
pushes out exhaust gases and produces a partial vacuum in the crankcase, which draws in fuel and
air. As the piston travels downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase
into the cylinder.[2]
Unlike larger engines, the crankcase does not contain only engine oil because it handles the fuel/air
mixture. Instead, oil is mixed in with the fuel supply as petroil, and this mixture provides splash
lubrication for the cylinder walls, crankshaft and connecting rod bearings. Using ball or roller
bearings for the bearings in such engines has always been more common than the oil-fed plain
bearings used for other engines, as these are more amenable to using this oil mist lubrication. These
engines have been used in larger sizes for small cars. They were considered in the 1980s as more
fuel efficient engines for larger cars, but the increased interest in engine emissions at this time
prevented their use: mixing their lubricating oil into the engine's intake mixture gave high HC
emissions and this problem was not overcome.
Small diesel engines may also use this type of crankcase compression. Such engines are still
uncommon, compared to petrol engines, but they are used for generators and industrial equipment
and are becoming available for diesel motorcycles

Four-stroke engines[edit]

Four-stroke engine

In a four-stroke engine, the crankcase is filled mainly with air and oil, and is largely sealed off from
the fuel/air mixture by the pistons.

Oil circulation[edit]
Oil circulation is kept separate from the fuel/air mixture, thereby preserving oil rather than burning it
as happens in two-stroke engines. Oil moves from its reservoir, is pressurized by an oil pump, and is
pumped through the oil filter to remove grit. The oil is then squirted into the crankshaft and
connecting rod bearings and onto the cylinder walls, and eventually drips off into the bottom of the
crankcase.[3] In a wet sump system, oil remains in a reservoir at the bottom of the crankcase, referred
to as the oil pan. In a dry sump system, oil is instead pumped to an external reservoir.[4]
Even in a wet sump system, the crankshaft has minimal contact with the sump oil. Otherwise, the
high-speed rotation of the crankshaft would cause the oil to froth, making it difficult for the oil pump
to move the oil, which can starve the engine of lubrication.[5] Small amounts of oil may splash onto
the crankshaft during rough driving, referred to as windage.[6]
In a wet sump system, the main dipstick reaches to near the bottom of the crankcase. The oil filler
cap covers a hole in the crankcase where oil can be added; it is typically located on the top of
the rocker cover (or if two, the one closer to the front of the vehicle).

Air ventilation[edit]
Main article: crankcase ventilation system

During normal operation, a small amount of unburned fuel and exhaust gases escape around
the piston rings and enter the crankcase, referred to as "blow-by".[7] If these gases had no controlled
escape mechanism, the gasketed joints would leak (as they "found their own way out"); also, if the
gases remained in the crankcase and condensed, the oil would become diluted and chemically
degraded over time, decreasing its ability to lubricate. Condensed water would also cause parts of
the engine to rust.[8] To counter this, a crankcase ventilation system exists. In all modern vehicles,
this consists of a channel to expel the gases out of the crankcase, through an oil-separating baffle,
to the PCV valve, into the intake manifold. In a non-turbo engine, the intake manifold is at a lower
pressure than the crankcase, providing the suction to keep the ventilation system going.
A turbo engine usually has a check valve somewhere in the tubing to avoid pressurizing the
crankcase when the turbo produces boost.
 If an engine is damaged or enters old age, gaps can form between the cylinder walls and pistons,
resulting in larger amounts of blow-by than the crankcase ventilation system can handle. The gaps
cause power loss, and ultimately mean that the engine needs to be rebuilt or replaced.[7] Symptoms
of excessive blow-by include oil being pushed up into the air filter, out the dipstick,[9] or out the PCV
valve. In rare cases of serious piston or ring damage, the oil filter housing's sheet metal can even
burst at its seam.
Tapered roller bearings
 are rolling element bearings that can support axial forces (i.e., they are good thrust bearings) as well as radial forces.

Tapered roller bearings have tapered inner and outer ring raceways and tapered rollers.
They are designed to accommodate combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and
axial loads. The projection lines of the raceways meet at a common point on the bearing
axis (fig. 1) to provide true rolling and low friction. The axial load carrying capacity of
tapered roller bearings increases with increasing contact angle α. The size of the angle is
related to the calculation factor e (→ product tables): the larger the value of e, the larger the
contact angle. A single row tapered roller bearing is typically adjusted against a second
tapered roller bearing.
Single row tapered roller bearings are separable (fig. 2), i.e. the inner ring with roller and
cage assembly (cone) can be mounted separately from the outer ring (cup).
Oil pump 
The oil pump in an internal combustion engine circulates engine oil under pressure to the rotating
bearings, the sliding pistons and the camshaft of the engine. This lubricates the bearings, allows the
use of higher-capacity fluid bearings and also assists in cooling the engine.
As well as its primary purpose for lubrication, pressurized oil is increasingly used as a hydraulic
fluid to power small actuators. One of the first notable uses in this way was for hydraulic tappets in
camshaft and valve actuation. Increasingly common recent uses may include the tensioner for
a timing belt or variators for variable valve timing systems.

An oil filter 
is a filter designed to remove contaminants from engine oil, transmission oil, lubricating oil, or hydraulic oil. Oil filters are
used in many different types of hydraulic machinery. A chief use of the oil filter is in internal-combustion engines in on- and
off-road motor vehicles, light aircraft, and various naval vessels. Other vehicle hydraulic systems, such as those
in automatic transmissions and power steering, are often equipped with an oil filter. Gas turbine engines, such as those on
jet aircraft, also require the use of oil filters. Aside from these uses, oil production, transport, and recycling facilities also
employ filters in the manufacturing process.

Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among
other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings.
In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston
rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for
the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering
and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.
 Piston engines[edit]
Main article: Reciprocating engine

Internal combustion engines[edit]

Internal combustion engine piston, sectioned to show the gudgeon pin.

An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding combustion gases in
the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through
the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a
swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted within the piston: unlike the steam
engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big two stroke engines).
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the connecting rod. A
few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented
from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron rings, fitted
loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point in the rim,
allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used:
the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have narrow edges and a U-
shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary and detail design features
associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may
be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine
balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion
temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, specifically
for use as pistons.
A few early gas engines[i] had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal
combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano[ii] was
fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke diesel engine.
Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated.

A piston ring
 is a split ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter of a piston in a reciprocating engine such
as an internal combustion engine or steam engine.
The three main functions of piston rings in reciprocating engines are :

1. Sealing the combustion chamber so that there is minimal loss of gases to the crank case.
2. Improving heat transfer from the piston to the cylinder wall.
3. Maintain the proper quantity of the oil between the piston and the cylinder wall
4. Regulating engine oil consumption by scraping oil from the cylinder walls back to the sump
The gap in the piston ring compresses to a few thousandths of an inch when inside the cylinder bore. Piston rings are a
major factor in identifying if an engine is two stroke or four stroke. Three piston rings suggest that it is a four stroke engine
while two piston rings suggest that it is a two stroke engine. Most piston rings are made of a very hard and somewhat
brittle cast iron.

A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels.
 Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is
[1]

typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (lined with a

harder metal) or sleeveless (with a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil). A sleeveless engine may also be referred to as
a "parent-bore engine".[2]
What is a cylinder liner?

Figure 1. Cross-section of a cylinder in an

internal combustion

A cylinder liner is a cylindrical part to be fitted into an engine block to form a cylinder. It is
one of the most important functional parts to make up the interior of an engine. 
This is called Cylinder liner in Japan, but some countries(or companies) call this Cylinder
sleeve.These are main functions of Cylinder Liners.
(1)Formation of sliding surface
The cylinder liner, serving as the inner wall of a cylinder, forms a sliding surface for the piston rings while
retaining the lubricant within. The most important function of cylinder liners is the excellent characteristic as
sliding surface and these four necessary points.

1. High anti-galling properties

2. Less wear on the cylinder liner itself
3. Less wear on the partner piston ring
4. Less consumption of lubricant
(2)Heat transfer

Figure 2. Heat transfer

The cylinder liner receives combustion heat through the piston and piston rings and transmits the heat to the
coolant.
(3)Compression gas sealing

Figure3.Providing airtightness of cylinder liner

The cylinder liner prevents the compressed gas and combustion gas from escaping outside.
It is necessary that a cylinder liner which is hard to transform by high pressure and high temperature in the
cylinder.
A cylinder wall in an engine is under high temperature and high pressure, with the piston
and piston rings sliding at high speeds. In particular, since longer service life is required of
engines for trucks and buses, cast iron cylinders that have excellent wear-resistant
properties are only used for cylinder parts.
Also, with the recent trend of lighter engines, materials for engine blocks have been
shifting from cast iron to aluminum alloys. However, as the sliding surface for the inner
cylinder, the direct sliding motion of aluminum alloys has drawbacks in deformation during
operation and wear-resistance. For that reason, cast iron cylinder liners are used in most
cases.

Shot Blasting
What is shot blasting?
Shot Blasting is a surface finishing technique that involves rapidly impacting the
surface of an object with a controlled stream of abrasive shot material. It is faster and
more effective than filing for removing flash that my remain on a part after the casting or
stamping process.
Shot Blasting is also used for removing burrs, scale and rust that may interfere with the
part's integrity, appearance or definition. Shot blasting can also prepare the surface of a
part for coating by removing surface contaminants and provide a surface profile for
increased coating adhesion.
Shot Blasting is different than Shot Peening which is used to induce compressive
stresses on a part's surface for increased fatigue life, increasing the part strength or
preventing fretting.

What is the difference in flywheels used in single

cylinder and multi cylinder engine?
1 Answer
 Vigneshwarraj, ✻Craze for Car and Know few aspects about them✻
Answered Nov 12, 2015
Flywheel
 Flywheel is a mechanical element capable of storing  kinetic energy .And its capable of
delivering it when required.
Requirement of flywheel
 In a conventional Petrol or diesel engine power is only produced during a power stroke.
The power required to execute Intake ,compression and exhaust stroke is delivered by a
flywheel.
 This energy from flywheel is actually the excess energy produced during power stroke.
The difference between a single and multi cylinder engines flywheel-
 A single cylinder will have a heavy flywheel ,as there is only one power stroke for
every two revolution of crankshaft.
 In a multi cylinder engine the number for power strokes for every two revolution  of
crank is  given by no of cylinders. ie for a four cylinder engine its 4 power strokes for 2
revolution of crankshaft,and for 6 cylinder its 6 power strokes

 So if you see from above graph ,the 6 cylinder engines graph is closer to average torque
line.
 This is because in a multi cylinder engine , take an example of 4 Cylinder
(4 stroke engine.) Assume firing order as 1-4-3-2 .Here when there is power
stroke in cylinder 1 , There will be compression stroke in cylinder 4 and
exhaust stroke in cylinder 3 and intake stroke in cylinder 2 .Hence the
energy required for executing a compression (in cylinder 4), exhaust (in
cylinder 3) ,intake (in cy 2) comes from excess energy from power stroke in
cylinder 1
 Hence the requirement of a flywheel to store energy is less .The energy stored in
flywheel is related to mass moment of inertia of flywheel.
 So a multi cylinder engine does not require a heavy flywheel.
Single cylinder diesel 

Two cylinder diesel

From the above two image, the engine with Single cylinder has a thicker rim (so it will be heavier
flywheel)

Cylinder head
In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head (often informally abbreviated to just head) sits above the cylinders on
top of the cylinder block. It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the combustion chamber. This joint is sealed by a head
gasket. In most engines, the head also provides space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, and that allow
the exhaust to escape. The head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors.
 Valves

As the airflow passes various components and stages of the intake system,
different properties and characteristic of the intake charge have been modified to
achieve the overall goals of the air management system. The intake air filter
ensures that air cleanliness is adequate, the charge air composition and oxygen
content is controlled by introducing EGR to the intake air and the compressor
and charge air cooler ensure that intake manifold pressure and temperature
objectives are met and that intake charge density is within design limits. A few
final aspects of air management are achieved after the intake charge exits the
intake manifold and enters the cylinder. Valves or ports control the timing of air
flow to the cylinder. Also, the passage between the intake manifold and cylinder
can have a significant influence on the flow as it enters the cylinder and can be
used to impart a suitable bulk motion and kinetic energy to the charge to support
the mixing of air, fuel and intermediate combustion products in-cylinder.
In four stroke engines, intake gas enters the cylinder through a port located in the
cylinder head and past a valve used to open and close the port. In two stroke
engines—discussed elsewhere—ports in the cylinder liner that are alternately
covered and uncovered by the piston are commonly used.
Gas flow into and out of the cylinder in 4-stroke engines is controlled almost exclusively by poppet-
style valves (Figure 1). While other valve designs have been used or proposed, none appear to be
able to match the reliability and sealing ability of the poppet style valve. The most common poppet
valve construction in automotive use is the one-piece valve where the entire valve is made from the
same material. However, other variations are available including:

Diesel generator pump

Diesel engine and centrifugal pump. Drawing: WHO.

Diesel generators are frequently used as a stationary power source. The main parts of the engine
are the cylinders, pistons, valves and crankshaft. Air is compressed by a piston inside a cylinder and
diesel fuel is injected into it by a high pressure pump, which results in an explosion that moves the
piston. In turn, the piston turns a crankshaft, which can be put to use, for example, by driving a pump
or electricity generator. Valves in the cylinder regulate the inflow of fuel and air, and the outflow of
exhaust gases.
Diesel engines differ from petrol engines in that they do not have spark-plugs to ignite the fuel
mixture, and work at much higher pressures. Diesel engines need less maintenance that petrol
engines, and they are more efficient. Diesel engines can differ in size (from 1–6 cylinders or more)
and speed (revolutions per minute), and by the number of engine cycles (2-stroke, or 4-stroke). In
general, low-speed four-stroke engines last longer, and high-speed two-stroke engines produce
more power per kg of engine weight. Water-cooled engines generally need less maintenance than
air-cooled engines.
  Diesel engines are well-suited for stationary, high-power output;
 with good maintenance they are dependable energy sources;
 it is important to select a brand that has a good reputation, and for which servicing and spare
parts are locally available.

Camshaft
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part

Timing[edit]

A steel billet racing camshaft with noticeably broad lobes (very long duration)

The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical
importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, they
must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston. For this reason,
the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a
belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the
cost. The frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle
which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 (1954)
used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent and to last the life of the engine.[9] Where
gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in
racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a short life span and must be
replaced regularly, much like a timing belt. In some designs the camshaft also drives
the distributor and the oil and fuel pumps. Some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven
by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the
fuel injectors. Honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750
due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive.
An alternative used in the early days of OHC engines was to drive the camshaft(s) via a vertical
shaft with bevel gears at each end. This system was, for example, used on the pre-World War
I Peugeot and Mercedes Grand Prix cars. Another option was to use a triple eccentric with
connecting rods; these were used on certain W.O. Bentley-designed engines and also on
the Leyland Eight.
In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve is opened once for every rotation of the
crankshaft; in these engines, the camshaft rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft. In a four-
stroke engine, the valves are opened only half as often; thus, two full rotations of the crankshaft
occur for each rotation of the camshaft.
The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce better low RPM torque, or retarded for
better high RPM power. Changing cam timing moves the overall power produced by the engine
down or up the RPM scale. The amount of change is very little (usually < 5 deg), and affects valve to
piston clearances. Refer to this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hz1RE0ugcfU

Bore gauge
A bore gauge is a convenient term for the measuring or transfer tools that are used in the process
of accurately measuring holes.

Snap gage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Snap go/no go gauge and indicator snap gauge

A snap gage is a form of Go/no go gauge. It is a limit gage with permanently or temporarily fixed

measurement aperture(s) (gaps) which is used to quickly verify whether an outside dimension of a
part matches a preset dimension or falls within predefined tolerances. The surfaces which define the
edges of the aperture are the anvils, which may be made of separate pieces of hard material such
as tungsten carbide for wear resistance. 

A micrometer 
(/maɪˈkrɒmᵻtər/ my-KROM-ə-tər), sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device
incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for precise measurement of
components[1] in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades, along
with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers are
usually, but not always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a frame), which is
why micrometer caliper is another common name. 
A vernier scale

 is a visual aid that allows the user to measure more precisely than could be done unaided when reading a uniformly divided
straight or circular measurement scale. It is a scale that indicates where the measurement lies in between two of the
graduations on the main scale. Verniers are common on sextants used in navigation, scientific instruments used to conduct
experiments, machinists' measuring tools (all sorts, but especially calipers and micrometers) used to work materials to
fine tolerances, on theodolites used in surveying, and in absolute encoders to measure linear or rotational displacements.

Plug gauge[edit]

Hardened and ground plug gauge

 Replaceable thread and plug gauges

These gauges are referred to as plug gauges; they are used in the manner of a plug. They are
generally assembled from standard parts, where the gauge portion is interchangeable with other
gauge pieces (obtained from a set of pin type and a body that uses the collet principle to hold the
gauges firmly. To use this style of gauge, one end is inserted into the part first, and depending on
the result of that test, the other end is tried.[3]

Tachometer
A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of
a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine.[1] The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a
calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common. The word comes from Greek ταχος (tachos "speed")
and metron ("measure"). Essentially the words tachometer and speedometer have identical meaning: a device that
measures speed. It is by arbitrary convention that in the automotive world one is used for engine and the other for vehicle
speed. In formal engineering nomenclature, more precise terms are used to distinguish the two.

Dynamometer
A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for measuring force, torque, or power. For
example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover can be calculated
by simultaneously measuring torque and rotational speed (RPM).
In addition to being used to determine the torque or power characteristics of a machine under test
(MUT), dynamometers are employed in a number of other roles. In standard emissions testing
cycles such as those defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA),
dynamometers are used to provide simulated road loading of either the engine (using an engine
dynamometer) or full powertrain (using a chassis dynamometer). In fact, beyond simple power and
torque measurements, dynamometers can be used as part of a testbed for a variety of engine
development activities, such as the calibration of engine management controllers, detailed
investigations into combustion behavior, and tribology.
In the medical terminology, hand-held dynamometers are used for routine screening of grip
and hand strength, and the initial and ongoing evaluation of patients with hand trauma or
dysfunction. They are also used to measure grip strength in patients where compromise of the
cervical nerve roots or peripheral nerves is suspected.
In the rehabilitation, kinesiology, and ergonomics realms, force dynamometers are used for
measuring the back, grip, arm, and/or leg strength of athletes, patients, and workers to evaluate
physical status, performance, and task demands. Typically the force applied to a lever or through a
cable is measured and then converted to a moment of force by multiplying by the perpendicular
distance from the force to the axis of the level.[1

Rotor (electric)
The rotor is a moving component of an electromagnetic system in the electric motor, electric generator, or alternator. Its
rotation is due to the interaction between the windings and magnetic fields which produces a torque around the rotor's axis.
[1]

Operating principle[edit]
In a three-phase induction machine, alternating current supplied to the stator windings energizes it to
create a rotating magnetic flux.[10] The flux generates a magnetic field in the air gap between the
stator and the rotor and induces a voltage which produces current through the rotor bars. The rotor
circuit is shorted and current flows in the rotor conductors.[5] The action of the rotating flux and the
current produces a force that generates a torque to start the motor.[10]
An alternator rotor is made up of a wire coil enveloped around an iron core.[11] The magnetic
component of the rotor is made from steel laminations to aid stamping conductor slots to specific
shapes and sizes. As currents travel through the wire coil a magnetic field is created around the
core, which is referred to as field current.[1] The field current strength controls the power level of the
magnetic field. Direct current (DC) drives the field current in one direction, and is delivered to the
wire coil by a set of brushes and slip rings. Like any magnet, the magnetic field produced has a north
and a south pole. The normal clockwise direction of the motor that the rotor is powering can be
manipulated by using the magnets and magnetic fields installed in the design of the rotor, allowing
the motor to run in reverse or counterclockwise.[1][11]

Three-phase slip-ring rotor windings

Machines for small rated power levels are designed as round-wire windings, medium to large rated
power levels are designed as bar windings. Depending on the size and weight of the rotors, in
addition to lifting equipment, certain winding, cutting, straightening and taping machines may be
necessary. In addition, special welding methods for different material properties are an important
quality criterion of the technological feasibility.
Three-phase slip-ring rotor windings