CENTRE OF STUDIES FOR SURVEYING SCIENCE AND GEOMATICS

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

TITLE
REPORT OF LEVELLING AND GPS.

AP220 – Bachelor of Surveying Science and Geomatics

Programme :
(Honors)

Course : GLS 411- Introduction To Geomatics

1. Sharonlly Toumas @ Thomas (2019627834)

Name :
2. Siti Nurfikriah Farihah Binti Rahim (2019612354)

Group : AP220 1A

Lecturer’s Name : Dr Juazer Rizal Abdul Hamid

 Table of Content

1. Introduction 1
2. Levelling 2
3. GPS
4. Conclusion
References

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1. Introduction

The primary reference at water-level recording stations is a set of stable bench-marks,

installed in locations where their level should not change. Upon initial set-up of a station, the
levels of the relevant parts of the installation are established and recorded by means of
accurate levelling. At least every two years, the levels of the staff gauges, sensor level,
internal gauge, tower structure and benchmarks should be measured relative to each other as
a check that records are not in error due to bank subsidence or other movement. Accurate
levelling is thus a particularly important part of site establishment, installation and quality
assurance. All staff shall be thoroughly familiar with its theory and practice. Levelling and
surveying methods are also used for measurements of river channel and lake configurations.
Often, less accurate methods can be used for this work than for water-level recording stations,
although the techniques are common.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that consists of
24 orbiting satellites, each of which makes two circuits around the Earth every 24 hours.
These satellites transmit three bits of information – the satellite's number, its position in
space, and the time the information is sent. These signals are picked up by the GPS receiver,
which uses this information to calculate the distance between it and the GPS satellites. With
signals from three or more satellites, a GPS receiver can triangulate its location on the ground
(i.e., longitude and latitude) from the known position of the satellites. With four or more
satellites, a GPS receiver can determine a 3D position (i.e., latitude, longitude, and elevation).

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BASICS OF LEVELLING

Levelling (or Levelling) is a branch of surveying, the object of which is: i) to find the
elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and ii) to establish
points at a given or assumed datum. The first operation is required to enable the works to be
designed while the second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering
works. Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

USES OF LEVELLING

In the context of tidal measurements, levelling is used for the following purposes:

 Referencing of Tide Gauges: To determine and check the vertical stability of the tide
gauge bench mark (TGBM) with respect to reference points (benchmarks) in its
immediate vicinity. In order to isolate any local movements, there should be at least three
such benchmarks, and the levelling should be repeated on an annual or semi-annual basis.

 Connection to GPS Reference Points: To determine its regional stability and to separate
sea level rise from vertical crustal motion, the TGBM should be connected via GPS to
reference stations fixed in a global co-ordinate system. Generally speaking, the GPS
antenna cannot be directly placed on the TGBM and a GPS reference point must be
established a short distance away. This must be connected to the TGBM by levelling.

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Levelling Instruments

The instruments commonly used in direct levelling are:

1. The Automatic Level

2. The Levelling Staff

The Automatic Level

1. Gun sight
2. Circular level (pond bubble)
3. Levelling Screw
4. Base Plate
5. Objective Lens
6. Focusing Knob
7. Horizontal fine motion screw
8. Horizontal circle window
9. Horizontal circle setting ring
10. Reticle adjusting screw cover
11. Eyepiece

Setting Up an Automatic Level

1. Set up the tripod at just above chest height. Make sure it is stable, and mount the level
on the top.

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 2. Adjust the levelling screws until the pond bubble is centralised.
3. As long as the pond bubble is central, the automatic compensators are able to finely
level the instrument. To ensure this is the case, whilst looking through the
scope, gently tap the level. The view will waver for a few moments before steadying.
If this does not happen, the instrument is not level enough for the compensators to
cope, and needs adjustment.

Sighting

1. Sight towards the staff using the gun sight.

2. Look through the eyepiece and focus the reticle by gradually turning the reticle
focusing ring anti-clockwise.
3. Turn the focusing knob to focus on the staff.
4. Turn the fine motion screw to centre the staff in the field of view. Turn the focusing
knob to eliminate parallax between the staff and reticle.

The Levelling Staff

Reading the Staff

The staff starts at zero, on the ground. Every 10 cm is a number, showing (in meters to one
decimal) the height of the bottom of what appears to be a stylised E (even numbers) or 3 (odd

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numbers), 5 cm high. The stems of the E or 3 and the gaps between then are each 10mm high.
These 10mm increments continue up to the next 10cm mark.

To read the staff, take the number shown below the reticle. Count the number of whole 10mm
increments between the whole number and the reticle. Then estimate the number of mm
between the last whole 10mm block and the centre of the reticle. The diagram above shows 4
readings:- 1.950, 2.000, 2.035 and 2.087.

The person holding the staff should endeavour to hold it as straight as possible. The leveller
can easily see if it is tilted to the left or right, and should correct the staff-holder. However, it
cannot easily be seen that the staff is tilted towards or away from the leveller. In order to
combat this possible source of error, the staff should be slowly rocked towards and away
from the leveller. When viewing the staff, the reading will thus vary between a high and low
point. The correct reading is the lowest value.

Methods of levelling

Three principle methods are used for determining differences in elevation, namely,
barometric levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit levelling.

Barometric levelling

Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference in elevation between two
points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these points. A barometer,
therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different points would yield a measure of
the relative elevation of those points.

At a given point, the atmospheric pressure doesn’t remain constant in the course of the day,
even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little used
in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory survey.

Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect Levelling)

Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations of

points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field,
just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric

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relations. In a modified form called stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the
difference in elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are directly computed
from the measured vertical angles and staff readings.

Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling)

It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line
(perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative difference in
elevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface at
any point is readily established by means of a spirit level or a level vial. In spirit levelling, a
spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are
measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the points. The method is also known as
direct levelling. It is the most precise method of determining elevations and the one most
commonly used by engineers.

PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

Differential levelling provides a means of accurately measuring height differences between

points some tens of meters apart. A level is set up on a tripod and levelled so that the line of
sight is horizontal:

A graduated staff is held vertically over the first point and a reading made of the intersection
of the cross-hair with the image of the staff (back sight - b). The same (or an identical) staff is

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then held vertically over the second point and a further reading made (foresight - f). The
difference between the two readings is the difference in height between the two points:

h = b - f

If b is greater than f then h is positive (i.e. there is a rise in elevation in moving from the first
to the second point).

This process can be repeated - the level can be moved to beyond the second point and the
height difference between the second and a third point measured by the same process. Further
repetitions will allow the height difference between widely separated points to be determined
by accumulating the height differences between (temporary) intermediate points. The
distance from level to staff is dictated by the steepness of the terrain and the clarity of the
image viewed by the observer. Usually the maximum sight length is restricted to 50-60m.

The sketch below shows a schematic illustration of a basic level:

The level is mounted on a tripod, and has three levelling screws that (in conjunction with a
circular bubble) allow the level to be levelled. These screws have a limited range and the
tripod head must be set approximately level beforehand by adjusting the tripod legs.

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 The upper part of the level consists of a telescope tube with an objective lens and an eyepiece
with a cross-hair. The line of sight (collimation axis) is defined by the line joining the centre
of the cross-hairs with the focal point of the objective lens. The telescope is mounted on an
axis that allows it to be rotated in the horizontal plane.

The circular bubble is not very sensitive and is not the sole means of levelling the level. Older
levels will have tubular bubbles attached to the side of the telescope, and the foot screws are
used to level this bubble, which then provides a horizontal line of sight in the direction of the
collimation axis.

TYPE ERROR IN LEVELLING

There are following types of Errors in Levelling :-

Instrumental Errors
Collimation Error
Error due to Curvature & Refraction
Other Errors

Instrumental Errors

1. Collimation error
 Correction: Check before use and equalise sights.
2. Under sensitive bubble.
3. Errors in staff graduation
 Correction: Check 
4. Loose tripod head.
5. Telescope not parallel to bubble tube
 Correction: Permanent adjustment.
6. Telescope not at right angles to the vertical axis
 Correction: Permanent adjustment.

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Collimation Error
Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly horizontal when the
instrument is level. The effect is illustrated in the sketch below, where the collimation axis is
tilted with respect to the horizontal by an angle a.

Error due to Curvature & Refraction

Curvature of the earth:

The earth appears to “fall away” with distance. The curved shape of the earth means that the
level surface through the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the
telescope as the line of sight proceeds to the horizon.

This effect makes actual level rod readings too large by:

Where D is the sight distance in thousands of feet.

Effects of Curvature are:

1. Rod reading is too high

2. Error increases exponentially with distance

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 Atmospheric Refraction:

Refraction is largely a function of atmospheric pressure and temperature gradients, which

may cause:

The bending to be up or down by extremely variable amounts.

There are basically three types of temperature gradient (dT/dh):

1. Absorption: occurs mainly at night when the colder ground absorbs heat from the
atmosphere.
 This causes the atmospheric temperature to increase with distance from the
ground and dT/dh > 0.
2. Emission: occurs mainly during the day when the warmer ground emits heat into the
atmosphere, resulting in a negative temperature gradient, i.e. dT/dh < 0.
3. Equilibrium: no heat transfer takes place (dT/dh = 0) and occurs only briefly in the
evening and morning.
4. The result of dT/dh < 0 is to cause the light ray to be convex to the ground rather than
concave as generally shown.
 This effect increases the closer to the ground the light ray gets and errors in
the region of 5 mm/km have resulted.
The atmosphere refracts the horizontal line of sight downward, making the level rod reading
smaller. The typical effect of refraction is equal to about 14% of the effect of earth curvature.

Combined Effect of Curvature and Refraction in Survey

The combined effect of curvature and refraction is approximately

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 The formula for computing the combined effect of curvature and refraction is:

C + R = 0.021K2

Where C = correction for curvature

R = correction for refraction

K = sighting distance in thousands of feet

How to eliminate error due to Curvature and Refraction

1. Proper field procedures (taking shorter shots and balancing shots) can practically
reduce errors
2. Wherever possible, staff readings should be kept at least 0.5 m above the ground,
3. Using short observation distances (25 m) equalized for back sight and foresight
4. Air below is denser than air above Air below is denser than air above, Line of sight is
bent downward which Negates earth curvature error by 14%.
5. Simultaneous Reciprocal Trigonometerical Heightening.
6. Observations made at each station at exactly the same time, cancels the effects of
curvature and refraction.

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Other Errors

Type of Error Correction

1. Incorrect setting-up of instrument.  

2. Movement of staff from position when  Training the staff men.

changing level station.  Experienced/Skilled Staff men.

 Hold rod firmly; Use head/body to

3. Staff not held vertically.
support it.

4. Parallax: Instrument knocked or moved

 Adjust parallax error if any.
during back sight-foresight reading

 Shorten the length of shots Shorten

the length of shots.
5. Ground heating causes chaotic refraction Keep measurement 2 Keep
of light measurement 2- -3 ft above ground 3 ft
above ground
 Avoid levelling during noon hours.

 Quick measurements between rods

Quick measurements between rods.
 Avoid muddy or thawing ground
6. Tripod or rod settles between Avoid muddy or thawing ground.
measurements e.g Bubble off center  Avoid hot asphalt Avoid hot
asphalt.
 Don’t exert pressure on turning
point.

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Conclusion

Write your conclusion here.

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References

Generate Press, 2019, Types of Levelling, http://www.civilprojectsonline.com/surveying-

and-levelling/types-of-levelling-instruments-definitions-in-levelling/ Accessed on 15
November 2019.

Jamal, Haseeb. 22 January 2017, Levelling Tools and Equipment,

https://www.aboutcivil.org/levelling-equipment.html Accessed on 15 November
2019.

N. Priyanka, 2019, 5 Main Sources of Error in Levelling,

http://www.engineeringenotes.com/surveying/levelling/5-main-sources-of-error-in-
levelling-surveying/13910 Accessed on 15 November 2019.

The Constructor, 2019, Types of Levelling Method,

https://theconstructor.org/surveying/types-of-leveling-methods/14679/ Accessed on
15 November 2019.

Wikipedia, 26 September 2019, Levelling, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelling Accessed

on 15 November 2019.

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