Bio Medical Results of Apollo
Bio Medical Results of Apollo
Bio Medical Results of Apollo
Biomedical Results
of uP0110
Managing Editors
Richard S. Johnston, Lawrence F. Dietlein, M.D., and
Charles A. Berry, M.D.
Lyndon 6.Johnson Space Center
BioTechnology, Inc.
Editorial Board
The material submitted for "Biomedical Results of Apollo" was reviewed by a NASA
Editorial Review Board consisting of:
Page
Chapter 5.
Exercise
Nutritional Response
Studies ..................
................. 265
277 --_)_)
Chapter 6.
vii
viii Biomedical
Results of Apollo
Chapter 4. The Apollo 17 Pocket Mouse Experiment (BIOCORE) .... 381 _f/(//
Director
L yndon B. Johnson Space Center
iii
PREFACE
Introductory
' r.;,
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
by
Richard S. Johnston
Director of Life Sciences
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
The Apollo Program has been acclaimed as one of the greatest feats of exploration
and engineering development ever accomplished. Landing men on the moon and returning
them safely to Earth was considered impossible only a few decades earlier. No doubt the
vigor and determination which characterized the Apollo Program were largely attributable
to the challenge of President John F. Kennedy in 1961 that it be accomplished "before
this decade is out." It is also evident, however, that the events which culminated in
sending men to the moon were not brought forth de novo, to implement Presi-
dent Kennedy's proclamation. These events were in large measure an extension of
technology which made possible an achievement whose time had come.
There were three principal technology requirements imposed by the Apollo mission.
First, because the United States was committed to manned lunar exploration, it became
necessary to identify the means to ensure man's health and functional capability in a
hostile environment. Here, the program drew on the tremendous developmental advances
in full pressure suit and oxygen system technologies made during and immediately
folh, wing World WarlI. Second, bccausc habitable vehicles sufficiently large to
accommodate several men and their necessities would be used, a very complex and
powerful launch and transportation system was required. The technology of chemical
rocket propulsion, begun earlier in this century by Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, Oberth, and
others, with significant advances in World War II, was available. Third, because man
would participate, the mission would require the highest probability that the vehicle
would reach the moon and return safely. This requirement drew on the substantial
advances in rocket guidance and navigation technology begun in World War II and
extended during the Mercury and Gemini Programs.
Project Apollo, owing much to existing technology, repaid the debt many times with
dramatic technological and scientific progress in many fields, including medicine. The
contribution of Apollo to the biomedical sciences was twofold. First, there was
opportunity to study man performing useful work in the space environment. In dealing
with the health issues of a lunar exploration mission, the practice of space medicine
3
4 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
became a reality. Second, significant advances were made in life support systems,
biotelemetry techniques, and inflight monitoring methodology. The biomedical hardware
necessary to support space flight developed appreciably in functional capability, in
reliability, and in acceptability to the crewman.
The purpose of this book is to describe the biomedical program developed for Apollo,
to list the findings of those investigations which were conducted to assess the effects of
space flight on man's physiological and functional capacities, and to document significant
medical events in Apollo.
Biomedical Objectives
There were three principal objectives of the Apollo biomedical program. These three
distinct and rather separate goals, listed below, serw_d in large measure as a basis for the
functional organization of the biomedical effort.
1. Ensure the Safety and Health of Crewmembers. The Mercury flights showed that
man could safely withstand the stresses of space flight for limited periods. In the
Gemini 7 flight, the period of exposure was increased to 14 days with no major adw_rse
findings. Therefore, it was well established prior to the first Apollo flight that man could
be kept safe and healthy for the mission durations under consideration. However, there
remained a number of health issues to bc assessed. Principal among these was that of
inflight illness. During the orbital flights of Mercury and Gemini, it was always possible to
abort the mission and recover the astronaut within a reasonable time should an inflight
medical emergency occur. This alternative was greatly reduced during Apollo. A serious
illness occurring during circumlunar flight could not rcc_ive direct medical attention for
at least several days. For this reason, it was necessary to develop a program which would
keep the possibility of inflight illness at an absolute minimum and which would make
provision for emergency treatment during the course of the mission.
weightless flight, that is, whether stability was achieved for all physiological measures, or
whether significant changes occurred.
As a result of the change of emphasis of Project Gemini, there was an improved
opportunity to study the effects of space on man. There also was a requirement to
develop systems which would maintain man in space over much longer periods than flown
in Project Mercury. In the 14-day Gemini 7 flight, extensive observations were made of
the physiological and psychological response of astronauts to the stresses of space.
At the conclusion of the Gemini Program, approximately 2000 man-hours of
weightless experience had been logged by U.S. astronauts. The principal biomedical
conclusions were:
1. Extension of the Project Mercury finding that man could tolerate exposure to the
space environment quite well. No significant performance decrement was noted.
3. A decrease in red cell mass of the order of five to twenty percent was noted.
The techniques used for the study of man in the Gemini Program, and the life support
systems which were used, established the plan-of-action to be followed in Apollo.
the conventional medical concerns of diagnosis and care of the ill. Life scientists
concerned with manned space flight programs continually demonstrated an ability to
adapt to a new working environment and, throughout the various flight programs,
maintained a dedication to the health and safety of space flight crewmen.
And so, although the principal objectives of Apollo were manned lunar landing and
subsequent lunar exploration, a considerable body of useful biomedical information was
derived from the program. These findings are documented in this volume and, in part,
served as a basis for asking more incisive, more penetrating biomedical questions of the
forthcoming and very ambitious Skylab Program. This volume then may be regarded as "a
prelude to Skylab."
CHAPTER 2
APOLLO MISSIONS
by
Richard S. Johnston
Wayland E. Hull
Introduction
The manned Lunar Landing Program was the most complex and largest single
scientific exploration undertaken in the history of mankind. On the 20th of July, 1969,
Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. set foot on the moon. For two hours and
21 minutes, the two men, first cautiously and then boldly, negotiated their way about the
lunar terrain. They demonstrated to themselves and to the 500 million people viewing
their triumph throughout the world that movement on the lunar surface was a relatively
easy and even enjoyable thing. They set up scientific experiments and collected rock and
soil samples for return to Earth for subsequent analysis.
The Apollo Program ultimately placed twelve men on the lunar surface. It was a
major national event. During peak activity, more than 400000people and
20 000 companies were involved. Table 1 summarizes the manned Apollo flights, listing
the crews, landing sites, launch dates, and mission durations. This chapter precedes the
discussion of the biomedical results of the Apollo missions in order to give the reader
some historical perspective from which to view the Apollo findings. The Apollo systems
and highlights of each mission are presented.
The Apollo spacecraft launch and lunar landing configurations are pictured in
figure 1. The launch configuration of the assembly was 15 meters (48 feet) long and
consisted of five major segments: Launch Escape System, Command Module, Service
Module, Lunar Module Adapter, and Lunar Module.
The Launch Escape System consisted of the 10-meter (33-foot) tower weighing
3629_._g (8000 Ib) and a solid rocket motor 4.72 m (15.5 ft) providing 66 675 kg
(15_0 lb) of thrust. The Launch Escape System provided a means for escape during
raatm
10 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Apollo Missions 11
countdown or in the first 100seconds of the lift-off sequence, should a fire or other
abort situation develop. Upon activation, the escape tower would lift the spacecraft about
1.6 km (1 mile) clear of the launch pad and rocket. Descent would be provided by the
main parachute system.
Command Module
The basic structure of the Command Module (CM) was a pressure vessel encased in a
heat shield. The Module was conical shaped, measuring 3.48 m long (11.5 ft), with a base
diameter of 3.91 m (12 ft, 10 in.). The Command Module consisted of a forward
compartment cont&ping two reaction control engines and parachutes used for the Earth
landing system.' -The' crew compartment or inner pressure vessel contained crew
accommodations, controls and displays, and other spacecraft systems. The aft compart-
ment housed ten reaction control engines, propellant tanks, helium tanks, water tanks,
12 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
andtheCommand
Service
Moduleumbilicalcable.Thehabitable
volumeof the crew
compartment was 5.95 m 3 (210 ft3).
Within the Command Module the Commander, who operated the flight controls, was
positioncd at the left; the Command Module Pilot, who was responsible for guidance and
navigation, was couched in the center; and the Lunar Module Pilot, responsible for
management of subsystems, was on the right. The couches faced the display console.
The atmosphere of the Command Module was planned to be 100 percent oxygen at
34 x 103N/m 2 (5 psia) and was altered as a result of a spacecraft fire in 1967 to a 60/40
oxygen/nitrogen mixture at 103 x 103N/m 2 (15 psia) at lift-off. The cabin pressure was
allowed to equilibrate at 5 psia as altitude was reached. The atmosphere was enriched
with oxygen until the breathing gas approached 100 percent oxygen. Oxygen was used in
flight to furnish breathing gas as well as to make up for spacecraft leakage, resulting in an
oxygen-rich atmosphere. The thermal control portion of the environmental control
system maintained the cabin temperature of the spacecraft in a comfortable range of
294.15 ° to 297.15°K (21 ° to 24°C). The Command Module contained two hatches, one
at the side for entry and one at the top for use when the spacecraft was docked with the
Lunar Module. Five observation windows permitted extensive outside viewing and
photography during the missions.
Service Module
The Service Module (SM) was a cylindrical structure, 3.91 m in diameter (12 ft,
10 in.) by 7.49 m long (24 ft, 7 in.). This part of the spacecraft contained the main
propulsion system and provided stowage for most of the consumable supplies.
The Service Module remained attached to the Command Module on the flight to the
moon. During the return flight, separation occurred just before Earth atmosphere, reentry.
The service propulsion system was used for midcourse maneuvers and to reduce the
velocity of the spacecraft to enter lunar orbit.
A Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) was carried in the Service Module for the first
time on the Apollo 15 mission. The S1M accommodated eight experiments utilizing
spectrometers, panoramic and mapping cameras, a laser altimeter, and a subsatellite for
injection into lunar orbit. Figure 2 shows schematics and cutaway diagrams of the
Command and Service Modules.
This segment of the spacecraft served as a smooth aerodynamic enclosure for the
Lunar Module and provided the attachment for the Command Module to the launch
vehicle. The Lunar Module was extracted from the Adapter shortly after the spacecraft
left Earth orbit.
crew to the Command Module in lunar orbit. The Lunar Module ascent and descent stages
are shown in figure 3. The two stages were joined by four explosive bolts and umbilicals.
The ascent stage functioned as a single spacecraft for rendezvous and docking with the
Command Service Module at the conclusion of lunar surface missions. Because it was
designed to fly only in the vacuum of space, the LM was incapable of reentering Earth's
atmosphere.
ATTERY CB
PANEL I01 _
PANEL 226
HEATER CB
HEATER SWITCHES
PANEL 226
PANEL 2
BATTERY AND
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PANEL 2 VALVE SWITCHES
278
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The ascent stage was made up of three main sections: the crew compartment, the
midsection, and the aft equipment bay. The crew compartment and midsection were
pressurized. The habitable cabin volume was 6.7 m 3 (235 ft3). The ascent stage was
3.76 m long by 4.29 m in diameter (12 ft, 4 in. x 14 ft, 1 in.). Figure 4 (A and B) shows
the interior of the Lunar Module cabin.
The descent stage was the unmanned portion of the Lunar Module. It supported the
ascent stage for the landing on the lunar surface, and contained the propulsion system
14 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
S-BAND ANTENNA
RENDEZVOUS ANTENNA
RADAR ANTENNA
, DOCKING HATCH
GASEOUS
OXYGEN
FUEL
(RCS)
IELIUM
LIQUID
OXIDIZE OXYGEN
HELIUM
INGRESS-EG
OXIDIZER
HATCH
WATER
CREW CO_ FUEL (AEROZINE 50)
SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT
DIZER
WATER
OXIDIZER
(NITROGEN
3
JEL
Apollo Missions 15
ENVIRONMENTAL
ALIGNMENT
OPTICAL
TELESCOPE
PLSS
RECHARGE HOSE
LICALS
(B)
used to slow the spacecraft for a safe landing on the moon. During descent, four landing
gear struts were released from a folded stowage position to form the landing gear for the
vehicle. Each of the struts was filled with crushable aluminum honeycomb to absorb the
landing impact. Foot pads a t the ends of the legs contained sensing probes which signaled
the crew to shut down the descent engine upon contact with the lunar surface. The
landing radar provided information pertaining to the altitude and velocity of the Lunar
Module relative to the lunar surface. Four bays surrounded the descent engine and
contained the propellant tanks, the Modularized Equipment Stowage Assembly
(TV equipment, lunar sample containers, and portable life support systems), the Lunar
Roving Vehicle (LRV), and the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP).
Lunar Roving Vehicle. The Lunar Roving Vehicle was used for the first time with
great success on the Apollo 15 mission. Figure 5 shows the vehicle beside the Lunar
Module. The lunar payload capacity was several times the vehicle’s Earth weight. The
vehicle propulsion system was battery operated, each wheel of the vehicle being
individually driven by a one-quarter horsepower electric motor. The operational life was
72 hours during the lunar day, enough to easily provide a 9.65 km (6 mile) exploration
radius. It was transported to the moon folded tightly into a storage quadrant of the Lunar
Module and was deployed by pulling two nylon operating tapes and removing release
pins. The Rover was then unfolded for use.
Figure 6 is a diagram of the LRV. The T-shaped hand controller permitted the vehicle
to be operated by either of the two astronaut passengers. The LRV could climb and
descend slopes of 25 degrees inclination. It was equipped with a dead-reckoning
Apollo Missions 17
navigation system which the crew used to find their way back to the Lunar Module from
long explorations when out of sight of the home base.
CONTROL
UN ii CHA
COMMUNICATION
RELAY UNIT
T UNIT _ER
500-mm CAMERA
COLOR TELEVISION 16.remAND7
CABLE, ANDT0-mm FILM MAGAZINES _ -- /
FILM MAGAZINE
The LRV doubled traverse distance during lunar expeditions. A remotely controlled
television camera mounted on the vehicle enabled Mission Control and the public to
observe activities carried out during its use. The Lunar Communications Relay Unit was
carried on the LRV to provide for voice communications and transmission of portable life
support system data and biomedical data. In addition, the system provided color
television transmission which was observed by the mission controllers and, at certain
times, by the public. The Communications Relay Unit was a self-contained, battery
powered system, stowed in the Lunar Module descent stage at launch and placed on the
LRV for lunar surface operations. The television camera was mounted on a motor driven
gimbal system, controlled from the Earth to direct the camera at points of interest and at
the crew during exploration. At the conclusion of lunar surface missions, the television
system provided pictures of the breakaway of the ascent stage from the descent stage and
the rising of the ascent stage toward lunar orbit.
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package. The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment
Package (ALSEP) was a system of scientific instruments carried to the moon in the Lunar
Module and set up on the lunar surface by Apollo crews. Using a self-contained power
supply and communications equipment, each ALSEP collected and transmitted to Earth
18 Biomedical Results of Apollo
scientific and engineering data for several years following astronaut departure from the
lunar surface.
Because of power and weight limitations, no single flight could carry all the ALSEP
experiments. Certain elements of the total program were assigned to Apollo flights 12
through 17. On the Apollo 15 and 17 missions the experiment package included a
particles and fields subsatellite. The subsatellite was a 76.2 cm (30 in.) tall, 47.6 kg
(106 lb), solar-cell-powered spacecraft which was inserted into lunar orbit from the
Service Module. It carried a magnetometer, particle detector instruments, and a
transmitter, all of which were operated from Earth to collect and relay data on the
extralunar environment.
The space suit used by the crew in the lunar exploration program had its roots in
concepts reaching as far back as the late 19th Century. Jules Verne was probably the first
to conceive of pressure suits for protection against reduced barometric pressures of higher
altitudes. In 1872, he described closed circuit, extravehicular pressure suit operation for
flight around the moon. In August 1934, Wiley Post made the first aircraft flight in a
pressure suit. The suit was constructed of two layers, an inner rubber bag designed to
contain gas under pressure and an outer cloth fabric to maintain the desired suit shape.
Following World War II, both the Air Force and Navy continued development of space
suits.
The space suit worn by Mercury astronauts was similar to pressure suits used in high
altitude military jet aircraft flight. The Project Mercury suit consisted of an inner layer of
neoprene-coated nylon fabric and a strain-resistant layer of aluminized nylon fabric. The
aluminized coating was used to reject increased cabin heat during reentry. Biomedical
sensors were contained inside the suit to monitor body temperature, electrocardiogram,
blood pressure, and respiration rate. Urine was collected in a special bag within the suit.
The breathing gas, oxygen, was supplied to a fitting at the front of the torso and was then
distributed throughout the interior of the suit to be discharged into the helmet in such a
way as to sweep exhaled moisture from the visor portion of the helmet. The suit weighed
approximately 9.1 kg (20 lb). The Mercury suit was to be used as an emergency backup
to the spacecraft pressurization system in case of cabin system failure. A high degree of
mobility was not a requirement because of the restrictive volume of the Mercury space
capsule.
Because Project Gemini was to involve extravehicular activity, the structural
requirements for the space suit changed. Additional layers were added to afford the
needed protection in free space operations. The Gemini suit consisted of an outer layer of
temperature resistant nylon, a layer of "link-net" to provide pressurized mobility and to
control ballooning of the suit, a pressure-tight layer of neoprene-coated nylon, and an
inner aluminized layer of nylon for thermal and micrometeoroid protection. A removable
visor was added to the helmet to protect the inner visor from impact damage and to
provide additional protection from the increased levels of ultraviolet radiation
encountered outside the Earth's atmosphere. As before, the breathing gas was
100 percent oxygen and the suit was worn for the entire duration of the mission.
Apollo Missions 19
Apollo astronauts who performed EVA were provided with a self-contained Portable
Life Support System (PLSS) carried in a backpack unit. This permitted operation at great
distances from the spacecraft. The system supplied oxygen for pressurization and
metabolic consumption, and cooling water for operation of a liquid cooling under-
garment. The portable life support system also contained communications and telemetry
equipment, and a transmitter power supply. Mounted atop the PLSS was an oxygen purge
system which provided a contingency supply of gaseous oxygen lasting 40 minutes when
activated. The PLSS was a part of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU), which
consisted also of an extravehicular space suit, a liquid cooling garment, an oxygen purge
system, a lunar extravehicular visor assembly, and a special lunar overshoe.
The Apollo Extravehicular Mobility Unit gave man a completely self-contained mode
for moving about on the moon for a fixed period of time. The system worked extremely
well. There were no failures experienced with the suit on the lunar surface. The prospect,
however slim, of suit failure was extremely unnerving because it was not possible to build
the same degree of redundancy into certain parts of the space suit as could be built into
the spacecraft. Only one pressure bladder layer could be provided because redundant
layers would tend to make the space suit excessively stiff and hard. The total success of
the Apollo space suit system must be credited both to excellence in design and
meticulous testing.
Unmanned Missions
The way was paved for the manned Apollo Program by a series of unmanned flights.
The early flights were made by Surveyor spacecraft that were launched on Atlas-Centaur
launch vehicles. The first Surveyor flight was launched on May 30, 1966, from Cape
Canaveral, Florida, on a direct-ascent lunar trajectory. The Surveyor flights validated
several critical aspects of advanced soft landing techniques for later use by Apollo. They
provided essential data on the compatibility of the Apollo design with conditions
encountered on the lunar surface, and yielded information about the topography of the
lunar surface and its thermal environment. In addition to the Surveyor flights, three
20 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Lnnar Orbiter flights produced medium and high resolution photographs over broad
areas of the moon to aid in site selection for the Apollo manned landing program
(see figure 7).
Apollo/Saturn 201
The first Apollo/Saturn mission employed an unmanned Apollo spacecraft on a
suborbital flight that gathered data for qualifying the Apollo Command Module heat
shield, the Service Module prime propulsion system, and the first flight of the
Saturn I-B launch vehicle. The spacecraft was flown 8047 km (5000 miles) in a
suborbital flight on February 26, 1966. The engines of the upper stage of the launch
vehicle, the Saturn IV-B, were fired in flight for seven minutes to demonstrate the
5-2 liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen engine. The service propulsion system engine also
was fired twice to demonstrate engine restart capability. These two engine firings
were used to propel the spacecraft to a reentry velocity of 8071 meterdsecond
(26 481 feet/second) which is 299 meters per second (981 feedsecond) above orbital
velocity. By achieving this velocity, the capability of the Command Module heat
shield to withstand Earth reentry heating was demonstrated. Recovery of the
Apollo/Satur n 203
Apollo/Saturn 202
This unmanned suborbital mission was used to qualify the Command and Service
Modules and the uprated Saturn I launch vehicle for manned flight. The spacecraft
was launched on August 25, 1966, from the Kennedy Space Center and traveled
approximately 27 350 km (17 000 miles) to land in the Pacific Ocean. The Service
Module propulsion system was fired for 215 seconds to place the spacecraft into a
trajectory to provide a steep angle/high heating reentry. For the first time, the
Apollo guidance and navigation system provided the onboard control of spacecraft
attitudes and trajectory. This system automatically controlled the propulsion system
burns and guided the spacecraft through entry and landing.
Apollo 4
On November 9, 1967, an unmanned Earth-orbital flight test of the Saturn V
launch vehicle and Apollo Command Module was undertaken. The three stages of
the Saturn V placed into orbit a record payload of over 127 066 kg (280 000 lb).
Flawless performance of the launch vehicle on its first unmanned flight provided the
U.S. with a major operational capability for orbiting large payloads. The Saturn IV-B
engine was fired twice to place the Command and Service Modules into a 18 092 km
(9769 nautical miles) apogee at the end of the second orbit. The Saturn IV-B was
separated and the service propulsion system engine was burned twice to accelerate
the Command Module to a lunar return velocity of 10973 meters/second
(36 000feet/second). The mission qualified the Command Module ablative heat
snte,u
,.,, to __:.1
w_u,_tand
.... Earth reentry from t..... ............
s ,,_t .... _eeds. Apollo 4_ was the first
man-made Object to withstand reentry into the Earth's atmosphere at such an
extreme velocity.
Apollo 5
Apollo 5 was an unmanned flight and the first flight test of the Lunar Module.
The launch date was January 22, 1968. The primary objective of the flight was to
test the Lunar Module propulsion systems and the abort staging function for
manned flight. The test for both the descent and ascent stage propulsion systems
was successful, except for one descent engine shutdown during the first firing. The
abort sequencing was successfully demonstrated during the second and third descent
engine firings. This flight test qualified the Lunar Module for manned Earth-orbital
flights.
22 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Apollo 6
The last of the unmanned Apollo missions was a test of the Saturn V launch vehicle.
On April 4, 1968, the Apollo Command and Service Modules and the Saturn IV-B were
placed into an Earth orbit. Approximately two minutes after lift-off and during the first
stage boost, a major structural anomaly occurred in the spacecraft/launch vehicle adapter.
Oscillations induced by the launch vehicle in excess of spacecraft design criteria were
apparently the cause of the abrupt changes manifested in strain, vibration, and
acceleration measurements in the spacecraft and adapter. The S-II.second stage engines
shut off early and the Saturn IV-B stage engines were required to place the spacecraft into
orbit. Upon investigation, improper installation of signal wires was found to be the cause
of the premature engine shutdown. The Service Module propulsion system was fired for
seven minutes to place the spacecraft into a trajectory with a 19 312 km (12 000 mile)
apogee and a high speed Earth reentry. The reentry velocity was 10 006 meters/second
(32 830 feet/second) which was approximately 1219 meters/second (4000 feet/second)
less than planned. The test provided additional qualification data for the Command
Module heat shield. Based on the results of the unmanned flight program, Apollo moved
to the manned space flight phase.
Manned Missions
Apollo 7
Apollo 7 was the first manned orbital flight test of the Apollo spacecraft. On
October 11, 1968, a Saturn I-B launch vehicle placed the Command Module and Service
Module into a near-Earth orbit of eleven days duration. The crewmembers were
Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Commander; DonnF. Eisele, Command Module Pilot; and
R. Walter Cunningham, Lunar Module Pilot. The primary goal of Apollo 7 was to
demonstrate crew and spacecraft performance. The mission, unlike manned orbital flights
in previous programs, involved little scientific experimentation.
Prior to separation of the Command and Service Modules from the Saturn IV-B
launch stage, the crew manually flew the spacecraft/Saturn IV-B combination. The
spacecraft was then separated from the Saturn IV-B and a simulated transposition and
docking maneuver was completed. This maneuver simulated the spacecraft operation
required during a lunar mission to couple the Command Module with the Lunar Module,
and to separate the Lunar Module from the Saturn IV-B. Later, the Apollo 7 crew
successfully maneuvered the spacecraft for a re-rendezvous with the Saturn IV-B. Eight
planned maneuvers were successfully completed using the Service Module propulsion
system.
In general, all spacecraft subsystem performance was excellent. Real-time television
images were transmitted by the crewmen to Earth. These showed spacecraft interior
activities and views of the Earth. The crew suffered head colds during the mission which
hampered some spacecraft operations. For the first time, U.S. astronauts did not wear
space suit helmets during entry into the Earth's atmosphere.
All mission and scientific objectives were met by the flight of Apollo 7, qualifying
the Command and Service Modules for eleven-day manned missions. One of the most
significant findings of this flight was that the volume of the Command Module proved to
be quite adequate for a three-man crew operating in weightlessness. The crew enjoyed
relative comfort compared with the conditions prevailing in the Gemini spacecraft.
The flight of Apollo 7 ended with a splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean 260 hours and
9 minutes after launch from Kennedy Space Center (figure 8). The crew was retrieved by
helicopter and the spacecraft was later taken aboard the USS Essex. The successful flight
of Apollo 7 represented a major milestone in the U.S. manned space flight program.
The Apollo 7 mission and all subsequent manned missions are described in detail,
including biomedically significant findings, in the Apollo Mission Report series. These
documents are available through the Scientific and Technical Library, Lyndon B. Johnson
Space Center, Houston, Texas.
24 Biomedical Results of Apollo
I -
i
Apollo 8
Man's first lunar orbital flight began on December 21,1968, when a Saturn V launch
vehicle placed the Apollo 8 Command and Service Modules in Earth orbit. Frank Borman
was the Commander; James A. Lovell, Jr., the command Module Pilot; and
William'A. Anders, the Lunar Module Pilot. The Apollo 8 crew was the first to be
launched by the 2722rnetric ton (3000ton) SaturnV. The crew checked out the
spacecraft, and, after approximately three hours in Earth orbit, the Saturn IV-B stage was
I
f i e d for approximately five minutes to accelerate the spacecraft to an Earth-gravity
escape velocity of 40 233 krn/hr (25 000 mph) to begin its 370 149 km (230 000 mile)
coast to the moon. Following the translunar injection maneuver, the Apollo spacecraft
was separated from the Saturn IV-B stage.
During the transearth period, the crew transmitted live television pictures of the
spacecraft interior and of the Earth. The spacecraft velocity decreased during the coast
period due to the Earth's gravitational force. As the spacecraft neared the moon, it was
accelerated by the pull of lunar gravity, and the Service Module propulsion system was
fired to slow the vehicle to 6035 km/hr (3750 mph) and place it in lunar orbit.
Apollo 8 achieved lunar orbit on Christmas Eve. Lunar operations lasted for ten
orbits, at an altitude of 96.56 km (60 miles) above the lunar surface. The crew
transmitted television pictures of the lunar surface, studied potential Apollo landing sites,
and took excellent photographs, including those shown in figure 9 (A & B). They filmed
and photographed the far side of the moon, which had never before been seen by man. I
l
Apollo Missions 25
After approximately twenty hours of lunar orbital operations, the Service Module
propulsion system engines were fired for three minutes to accelerate the spacecraft to a
velocity sufficient to escape from the moon's gravitational force. The transearth coast
period lasted for approximately 63 hours. The spacecraft landed in the Pacific Ocean,
where the crew and spacecraft were recovered by the USS Yorktown, just eleven seconds
earlier than the time computed in the flight plan months before the mission. The
Apollo 8 mission had lasted six days.
With only minor discrepancies, the spacecraft and systems functioned with precision
throughout the mission. The accuracy of the onboard guidance and navigation control
system demonstrated that astronauts could return safely from the moon without the aid
of Earth-based tracking systems. Crew performance was excellent, despite some minor
illness early in the mission. All mission objectives were met. Apollo 8 qualified the launch
vehicle and spacecraft for lunar flight. The crew provided valuable information on the
lunar surface, and demonstrated the ability to recognize surface features needed in lunar
landing navigation. The Apollo 8 crew received this Nation's highest recognition,
including an appearance before a joint session of the United States Congress. The flight of
Apollo 8 was heralded as an odyssey without precedent in man's history.
Apollo 9
Apollo 9 was the first manned flight with the Lunar Module and the first mission
employing two manned spacecraft. The flight lasted ten days. The crewmen were
JamesA. McDivitt, Commander; David R. Scott, Command Module Pilot; and
Russell L. Schweickart, Lunar Module Pilot. The objectives of this mission were to
evaluate the Lunar Module under space flight conditions, perform an extravehicular
contingency transfer from the Lunar Module to the Command Module, and demonstrate
the capability to fly the two spacecraft on lunar landing type trajectories to achieve
rendezvous and docking.
The spacecraft was launched into Earth orbit by a Saturn V launch vehicle on
March 3, 1969. The Command and Service Modules were separated from the Saturn IV-B
stage which contained the Lunar Module (figure 10). The Command and Service Modules
were turned around to face the Lunar Module and docked with it. The two spacecraft then
separated from the Saturn IV-B stage. For the next several days, combined spacecraft opera-
tions were conducted, and Russell Schweickart carried out an abbreviated extravehicular
mission on the fourth day. The space walk was delayed because Schweickart suffered nausea
and vomiting early in the flight. He, along with the other two crewmen, suffered from colds
during the mission. In place of the space walk, he climbed out of the Lunar Module and
stood on its porch for approximately 47 minutes. On the fifth day of the mission, McDivitt
and Schweickart separated the Lunar Module from the Command Module and, using both
the descent and ascent propulsion systems, flew a simulated lunar landing and ascent trajec-
tory while Scott remained in the Command Module. The vehicles were separated for about
four hours at distances up to 351.9 km (190 nautical miles). When the two craft were
182 km (113 miles) apart, Schweickart and McDivitt jettisoned the descent stage to simu-
late takeoff from the lunar surface. They fired the ascent engine and the two spacecraft ren-
dezvoused and docked as planned. For the remainder of the ten-day mission, the crew per-
formed landmark tracking and photographic tasks.
Apollo Miseions 27
The spacecraft splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean only 4.8 km (three miles) from
the recovery aircraft carrier, the USS Guadalcanal. The recovery went extremely well.
The performance of both the spacecraft and its subsystems was nearly flawless, and
all mission objectives were met. The Apollo 9 mission qualified the launch vehicle, the
lunar landing spacecraft, the portable life support system (PLSS) backpack, and the flight
control techniques designed for manned lunar landing flights.
Apollo 10
Apollo 10 was the last planned manned lunar orbital flight. The Apollo 10 mission
lasted eight days and was, in effect, a dress rehearsal for the manned lunar landing. The
flight successfully demonstrated the complete Apollo spacecraft system, including Lunar
Module descent to within 14.4 km (47 400 ft) of the lunar surface. The crewmembers
were Thomas P. Stafford, Commander; John W.Young, Command Module Pilot; and
Eugene A. Cernan, Lunar Module Pilot. The launch date was May 18, 1969. After two
and one-half hours in Earth orbit following launch by the SaturnV vehicle, the
Saturn IV-B second stage was injected to place the spacecraft on a translunar trajectory.
The mission plan closely followed the Apollo 11 lunar landing flight plan. The
crewmen separated the Command Module from the Saturn IV-B stage, rotating the craft
180degrees and docking it with the Lunar Module which was extracted from the
SaturnIV-B. The docking operations were viewed via color television that was
28 Biomedical Results of Apollo
transmitted to Earth. The docked spacecraft were placed in lunar orbit and thirty-two
revolutions were made around the moon by the Command and Service Modules at a
distance of 97 km (60 miles) from the lunar surface.
On the fourth day of the mission, with Astronaut Young in control of the Command
Module, Stafford and Cernan undocked the Lunar Module and made a simulated landing
in the LM by descending to within 14 km (9 miles) of the lunar surface. The descent stage
propulsion system was used to slow the Lunar Module to begin the descent toward the
moon. The ascent engine was fired to place the Lunar Module into a trajectory to
rendezvous and dock with the lunar orbiting Command Module. After eight hours of
separation, the two spacecraft docked successfully, and the Lunar Module crew reentered
the Command Module for the return trip to Earth.
The Apollo 10 mission accomplished its primary aim of providing quantitative
operational data on the spacecraft and the experience in lunar landmark tracking needed
to ensure a high probability of success for the lunar landing mission. The Apollo 10
mission completed final qualification of the Lunar Landing Module by means of a
rigorous duplication of all aspects of the Apollo 11 mission profile, with the exception of
an actual landing.
Apollo 11
On .July 16, 1969, Apollo ll, the first lunar landing flight, was launched from
Kennedy Space Center, Florida, before an ousite audience of over one million people.
The mission Commander was Neil A. Armstrong, the Command Module Pilot was
Michael Collins, and the Lunar Module Pilot was Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.
The hmar landing was achieved by a method established in July of 1962. The method
ultimately chosen, demonstrated as feasible by the Apollo 10 mission, was a lunar orbit
rendezvous. This technique met the constraints of time, funds, safety, and technology.
The scheme was recommended to NASA management by John C. Houbolt, an
aeronautical engineer at the NASA Langley Research Center. In Houbolt's scheme, a
Saturn V rocket would launch the Apollo craft, a three-man crew, and a lunar landing
craft on a lunar orbital course. Once in orbit, two men would transfer to the lunar landing
spacecraft, undock from the mother ship, and descend to the lunar surface. After the
lunar visit, the crew would launch and rendezvous with the Command ship in lunar orbit,
leave the landing vehicle in orbit, and return to Earth. The selection of the method for
accomplishing the lunar landing was of great importance for the design of the spacecraft
and the launch vehicle. Lunar orbit rendezvous was ultimately selected based on a
tradeoff which considered launch weights and other operational considerations.
Three days after the launch to the moon, the Apollo 11 spacecraft was slowed by the
Service Module propulsion system from a velocity of 10 139 km/hr (6300 mph) to
6437 km/hr (4000 mph). On Saturday, July 19, 1969, the spacecraft achieved lunar
orbital insertion. The orbit ranged from 86.6 by 105.7 km (53.8 by 65.7 miles) from the
lunar surface. On Sunday, July 20th, with MichaelCollins remaining behind in the
Command Module, Columbia, Astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin entered the Lunar
Module, Eagle. On the 13th lunar orbit, the spacecraft separated and the Lunar Module
descent engine was fired. Astronaut Armstrong used the manual control mode to land the
craft. He had realized that the Sea of Tranquility was strewn with boulders, and he
Apollo Missions 29
wished to place the spacecraft down in a safe attitude. Over 500 million people heard the
first words from the moon, “Contact light. Okay, engine stopped ...Houston, Tranquility
Base here. The Eagle has landed.” Six hours after the successful landing, Astronaut
Armstrong set foot on the lunar surface. Twenty minutes later, he was followed by
Astronaut Aldrin (figure 11).
Figure 11. Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot,
stepping onto the lunar surface.
The astronauts quickly adapted to movement in lunar gravity, adopting a loping gait,
a kind of kangaroo hop, as the most efficient for negotiating the lunar surface. They
collected approximately 21 kg (46 Ib) of rock and soil samples and set up the Apollo
Early Surface Experiment Package (ESEP). The scientific payload consisted of a passive
seismometer, a direct Earth-moon communications link, a solar wind experiment designed
to isolate exotic gases in the solar wind, such as argon and krypton, for return to Earth
for analysis; and an array of optical reflectors serving as targets for laser pointing systems
on Earth, with the objective of more precisely measuring the distance between the Earth
and the moon. After two and one-half hours of work on the lunar surface, the astronauts
returned to the Lunar Module. Several hours later, the Lunar Module ascent stage was
launched; it docked about three and one-half hours afterwards with the Command
Module. During the return flight to Earth, the crew vacuum cleaned their clothing and
equipment and took numerous precautions as part of a quarantine program to avoid
carrying back to Earth any possible contamination from the moon. On Thursday,
30 Biomedical Results of Apollo
July 24, after an eight-day mission, the crew splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. They
donned biological isolation garments and were recovered by helicopter and transferred to
the recovery ship USS Hornet where they were placed in a Mobile Quarantine Facility, a
trailer modified for the purpose. They traveled in the MQF to the Lunar Receiving
Laboratory in Houston, where they were kept in isolation for 21 days after lift-off from
the lunar surface to preclude the possibility of contaminating the Earth with lunar
organisms or material. Extensive medical and biological tests determined that no harmful
organisms were present in any of the materials returned from the moon, and quarantine
was terminated.
The materials returned from the 1 533 225 km (952 700 mile) journey to the moon
and back were distributed to 144 scientists throughout the world. Figure 12 illustrates
material from lunar rock. Among the scientific findings reported was the fact that the
moon is approximately 4.6 billion years old.* The presence of minute deposits of gold,
silver, and rubies in the lunar rilles was established, and evidence was found indicating
that there were lava flows on the moon at one time. Additionally, three new mineral
elements were discovered in the Apollo 11 samples analysis.
.-
*For further information concerning lunar scientific discoveries, the reader is referred to the
Apollo 11 Lunar Science, Conference, Volumes 1-3 (Pergamon Press, 1970); the Proceedings of the
Second Lunar Science Conference, Volumes 1 3 (The MIT Press, 1971); and the Proceedings of the
Third Through Fifth Lunar Science Conferences (Pergamon Press, 1972-1974).
Apollo Missions 31
During the transearth trajectory, the Apollo 11 crew reported seeing streaks, points,
and flashes of light. These visual phenomena were observed with the eyes both open and
closed. It is believed that the effect was generated by extremely high energy particles of
cosmic origin. These phenomena were reported by all subsequent Apollo crews.
Apollo 12
On November 14, 1969, Apollo 12 began its 244.5-hour (10-day) mission. The second
lunar landing mission was crewed by Charles Conrad, Jr., Commander;
Richard F. Gordon, Jr., Command Module Pilot; and Alan L. Bean, Lunar Module Pilot.
During the launch, the spacecraft was struck twice by lightning, causing some
interruption in electrical power. Contact with Mission Control was lost briefly. This was
the first instance where any situation occurred that could have resulted in mission abort
during launch. After about two hours of electrical system checkout in Earth orbit, all
systems were pronounced in good working order.
The prime engineering objective of the Apollo 12 mission was to accomplish a point
landing of the Lunar Module. On the Apollo 11 mission, the objective was simply to land
in a safe general area, and the vehicle had touched down 6.5 km (4 miles) beyond the
planned target point. The landing site selected for the Apollo 12 mission was a point
305 m (1000 ft) east and 152 m (500 ft) north of the site where Surveyor 3 had
softlanded on the moon in 1967. Lunar orbit was achieved three days after launch. On
November 19, Astronauts Conrad and Bean piloted the Lunar Module to the target lunar
site. The Lunar Module, Intrepid, succeeded in touching down only 163 m (535 ft) from
the Surveyor 3 spacecraft in the Ocean of Storms (figure 13).
Despite some loss of visibility due to dust created by the descent engine, the
Apollo 12 Lunar Module landed with a reserve of propellants that was equivalent to
58 seconds of hover time. The Apollo 12 lunar surface crew made two extravehicular
excursions, remaining on the moon for 31 hours, seven and three-quarters of which were
spent exploring and working on the lunar surface. The first EVA was devoted to the
emplacement of an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP) (figure 14) and
the collection of lunar rock samples. The ALSEP experiments included a passive
seismometer to measure seismic events; a lunar atmosphere detector to determine the
den_i,%, of any atmosphere the moon might have ha& a lunar ionosphere detector to
provide information on the energy and mass spectra of the positive ions close to the lunar
surface, among other objectives; and a device to measure the amount of lunar dust which
accumulated on the ALSEP station.
The second lunar EVA, which lasted for three hours and 49 minutes, was devoted to
collecting additional lunar samples, taking photographs, and inspecting the Surveyor 3
spacecraft. The Surveyor had made a major contribution to the Apollo 12 flight by
sending back more than 6000 photographs of the Apollo 12 landing area. The Apollo 12
astronauts retrieved a television camera from the Surveyor, as well as sections of
aluminum tubing and bits of glass insulation and cables. The astronauts probed the lunar
surface to a depth of 81.3 cm (32 in.), bringing back rock samples from this layer of the
lunar crust. In all, 34 kg (75 Ib) of rock and soil samples were collected.
After ascent from the lunar surface and docking with the Command Module, the
Lunar Module ascent stage was intentionally jettisoned and allowed to crash into the
31 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Figure 14. Deployment of the Apoll, -mar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP)
during the Apollo 12 mission.
Apollo Missions 33
lunar surface in order to calibrate the seismometer. The Intrepid impacted the moon 64.4
km (40 miles) from the Apollo 12 landing site and the seism0meter installation, setting
off vibrations which continued for almost an hour. This occurrence suggested that the
moon was an unstable structure and that the impact had initiated a series of
"avalanches." Before leaving lunar orbit, the crew obtained extensive photographic
mapping data used for training future crews.
After a safe landing in the Pacific Ocean, the Apollo 12 crew, like the Apollo 11
crew, were quarantined while medical and biological studies were performed. Again, no
life forms were found in lunar materials. Another unqualified success in the space
program, the Apollo 12 mission provided data through the ALSEP experiments and lunar
sample collection that added greatly to man's knowledge of the moon.
Apollo 13
The harrowing odyssey of Apollo 13 ended in the South Pacific Ocean on April 17,
1970. The mission was launched from the Kennedy Space Center on April 11 with a crew
comprised of James A. Lovell, Jr., Commander; John L. Swigert, Jr., Command Module
Pilot (replacing Thomas K. Mattingly who was relieved of duty after exposure to German
measles); and Fred W. Haise, J r., Lunar Module Pilot.
Apollo 13 would have been the first lunar mission to be dedicated almost entirely to
geological research. The Lunar Module was to have landed on one of the roughest areas of
the moon yet to be explored. The lunar surface crew would have traversed greater
distances on the moon than any previous crews, with the distance being left to their own
discretion. They were scheduled to climb one of the ridges of Fra Mauro and descend into
a crater to check communications degradation, carrying a three-meter (10-ft) long drill to
withdraw a core sample from beneath the lunar surface.
Approximately four hours after launch, the Command Module was docked with the
Lunar Module. The hatches were opened between the spacecraft and the lunar surface
crew entered the Lunar Module to perform checkout operations. About 56 hours into the
mission, the crew reported that emergency alarms had sounded in the Command Module
and that they had heard a muffled explosion. "Okay, Houston. Hey, we've got a problem
here," the spacecraft transmitted. In rapid order, the spacecraft reported problems with
two of the three fuel cells in the Service Module. These cells supplied electrical power for
the spacecraft and produced oxygen and water as byproducts. They also reported venting
of gases from the Service Module. The existence of an extreme emergency was clearly
indicated.
An electrical short circuit occurring in oxygen tank number 2 caused combustion
within the tank. This combustion created a pressure and temperature rise and, within
seconds, rupture of the tank. This set off a pressure rise inside Service Module bay No. 4,
and the panel covering the compartment blew out. Oxygen required for breathing and for
the electricity-producing fuel cells was rapidly depleted. This was the most serious failure
ever experienced in manned space flight, particularly since the crew was on a lunar
trajectory and could not return to Earth for approximately four days.
Emergency procedures were rapidly developed by the crew and by ground control
teams. The plan adopted was for the crew to man the Lunar Module, which had not been
affected by the accident, and use the vehicle as a "life boat." The Lunar Module life
34 Biomedical Results of Apollo
support system was used to pressurize both spacecraft. Batteries in the Lunar Module
supplied power for essential communications and for operation of navigational
equipment. The Lunar Module descent stage propulsion system was to be used for
required maneuvers.
At first, the dearth of vital supplies was of great concern. Only about 38 hours of
power, water, and oxygen were available, and this was about half as much time as would
be needed to bring the craft home. However, ground-based personnel devised techniques
for powering down the systems to conserve supplies. This created a hardship on the crew
because the Lunar Module became uncomfortably cold, but it did provide an ample
safety margin for the return trip. One significant problem was that the Lunar Module
equipment could not extract sufficient amounts of carbon dioxide to make the
atmosphere safe to breathe. Improvised carbon dioxide removal systems conceived by
ground personnel were assembled by the crew, and these successfully resolved the
problem.
On April 17, the Lunar Module was jettisoned one hour before entry into the Earth's
atmosphere. The crew splashed down in the Pacific Ocean within 6 km (4 miles) of the
recovery ship and were onboard the carrier within 45 minutes of touchdown. Apart from
a urinary tract infection developed by one of the crewmen, the crew was in reasonably
good health. Six days and 1 001 933 585 km (541 000 856 nautical miles) after its
launch, the hazardous journey of Apollo 13 had come to an end.*
Apollo 14
The third successful lunar expedition was commanded by America's first man in
space, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., and lasted nine days. The mission's Command Module Pilot
was Stuart A. Roosa, and the Lunar Module Pilot was Edgar D. Mitchell. The mission,
launched on January 31, 1971, stressed geological studies and the emplacement of
experimental packages. The launch was the first in the Apollo series to be delayed, this
because the experience of Apollo 12 engendered caution when rain clouds were noted in
the Cape Canaveral vicinity. After insertion into the translunar trajectory, approximately
six attempts were required before successfully docking the Command Module with the
Lunar Module.
The docked spacecraft were placed in very low lunar orbit, about 97 km (60 miles) at
the high point and 15 250 m (50 000 ft) at the low point. This was the lowest lunar orbit
executed in the docked configuration and another fuel saving maneuver for the lunar
landing. Following separation, the Command and Service Module was inserted into a
97-km (60-mile) circular orbit. Some problems were experienced with the abort system in
the Lunar Module landing radar after separation from the Command Module, but the
spacecraft was nonetheless brought to a safe touchdown on February 5. The first lunar
EVA lasted four hours and 44 minutes, during which an ALSEP package was deployed in
*Anon: The Apollo 13 Accident. Hearings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S.
House of Representatives. U.S. Government Printing Office (Washington, D.C.), June 16, 1970.
Anon: The Apollo 13 Mission Review. Hearings before the Committee on Aeronautical and Space
Sciences, U.S. Senate, 91st Congress, 2nd Session. U.S. Government Printing Office
(Washington, D.C.), June 30,1970.
Apollo Missions 35
the vicinity of Doublet Craters in the Fra Mauro region of the moon. During this EVA,
the astronauts took photographs of large boulders and collected geological samples. On
the next day, the lunar surface crew loaded hand tools onto a Modularized Equipment
Transporter (MET). With the two-wheeled, two-legged, rickshaw type device, the
astronauts set out for Cone Crater, 1.3 km (one mile) away. They were to bring the
device up the crater, 122 m (400 ft) to the rim, and roll stones down its inner side. After
two hours and ten minutes, 50 minutes behind schedule, the task had to be abandoned
because the crew was tiring seriously and their heart rates were elevated, to 150 beats per
minute in Shepard's case, and 128 in Mitchell's.
On February 6, the Lunar Module, Antares, lifted off from the moon to rendezvous
with the Command Module for return to Earth. Fortunately, no further docking
problems occurred. A record amount of lunar surface material, 43 kg (95 lb), was
returned for study on Earth.
The Apollo 14 crew was the last to be quarantined after space flight. Their quarantine
program, because of rigorous preflight procedures, was the most stringent observed. After
the exposure of the Apollo 13 crewman to a communicable disease, a special program was
designed to curtail the number of contacts with other individuals prior to flight. Only
wives and a group of about 150 people considered essential to the mission had any direct
contact with the prime and backup crews. Also, special air filtration equipment was
installed in buildings they used. Three weeks from the time they took off from the lunar
surface, the U.S. postlanding lunar quarantine program ended.
Apollo 15
The Apollo 15 mission was the fourth successful manned lunar landing mission, and
the first in a series of three lunar missions designed to maximally utilize man's capability
for scientific exploration of the lunar surface. Mission Commander, David R. Scott, a
veteran of the Apollo 9 and Gemini 8 missions; Lunar Module Pilot, James B. Irwin; and
Command Module Pilot/Lunar Orbital Science Experimenter, Alfred M. Worden, began
their twelve-day mission on July 26, 1971. The mission included extensive lunar
extravehicular activity and was the first to use the Lunar Roving Vehicle (figure 15).
Changes in extravehicular life support equipment extended EVA time from four to five
hours to seven to eight hours without rechar_ng. Further_ the l,unar Mnd,l_ was
modified to permit lunar surface stays of double the length of the previous 37-hour
maximum. The crew accomplished detailed orbital mapping of the lunar surface from
orbit using a three camera system and a laser altimeter, and placed a subsatellite in lunar
orbit designed to transmit data on the moon's environment for a period of one year.
The Apollo 15 Lunar Module, Falcon, landed on the moon approximately 549 m
(1800 ft) from its target, along the base of the Apennine Mountains, some of the highest
on the near side of the moon, whose peaks rise to 3658 m (12 000 ft) above the plains.
The landing site was selected to allow collection of lunar samples from a mare basin,
mountains, and a rille in one mission.
Astronaut Scott described the lunar features as very smooth. He reported that the
tops of the mountains were rounded, and that there were no sharp peaks or large
boulders. Scott and Astronaut Irwin made three lunar excursions, two for seven hours
duration and one for six. During the first excursion, the crew deployed the Lunar Roving
36 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Vehicle, set up the third lunar surface experiment package, and obtained lunar samples. A
color television camera was mounted on the Lunar Rover and remotely controlled by
Mission Control in Houston to permit engineers and scientists on Earth to follow the
crew’s activities. The crew exceeded the planned 8 km (5 mile) excursion radius and
drove nearly 10.3 km (6.4 miles) on their first EVA. In all, the astronauts spent
19%hours exploring over a distance of 27.9 km (1’7%miles) on the moon. They collected
an astounding 77.6 kg (171 Ib) of lunar material.
The Apollo 15 crew was the first to experience any serious physiological difficulty.
The crew’s reactions differed radically from those of other crews, and stand out as an
anomaly in the Apollo Program. Irregular heart beats were noted on the lunar surface
and, again, on the return flight to Earth. Bigeminies and premature auricular and
ventricular contractions were seen. In one instance, an arrhythmia recorded during a sleep
period was accompanied by a very low heart rate, 28 beats per minute. These arrhythmias
are believed to have been linked to potassium deficits and excessive workloads. There
may also have been a relationship between preexisting, undetected coronary artery
disease in one crewmember and the arrhythmias noted during the mission. The crew also
recovered more slowly upon their return to Earth than did any prior or future crew.
Sixty-seven hours after their lunar landing, Astronauts Scott and Irwin fired the
ascent stage engine and left the lunar surface to rendezvous with the Command Module,
Endeavor. After a successful docking, the Lunar Module was jettisoned and impacted the
moon at a previously determined target point to test the seismic equipment left behind.
Apollo Missions 37
The Command Module remained in lunar orbit for two days to continue and complete
scientific experiments. The subsatellite was successfully ejected from the Scientific
Instrument Module Bay (SIMBAY) at this time. Spectrometric measurements were
obtained of gamma ray, X-ray, and alpha particles to provide a geochemical
compositional map of the moon's surface. Astronaut Worden made a "space walk" during
translunar coast, spending some 90 minutes retrieving two film cassettes from the
SIMBAY. The tethered EVA was the first ever made for a practical working purpose
during a space mission. The crew splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on August 7.
Apollo 16
On April 16, 1972, after a delay of one month for technical problems, Apollo 16 was
launched. It was the fourth mission for JohnW. Young, Commander.
Charles M. Duke, Jr., served as Lunar Module Pilot, and Thomas K. Mattingly, II, was the
Command Module Pilot. Descartes Crater, the lunar landing site selected for Apollo 16,
was chosen because it afforded the opportunity to bring back samples representing the
oldest and youngest periods of the moon. Topographical features of this site indicated it
to be an area of lunar volcanic and chemical evolution.
Minor problems were encountered on the outward flight which caused the crew to
spend a significant amount of time troubleshooting. The first major crisis occurred after
undocking of the two spacecraft on the 12th lunar orbit. With just minutes to go before
starting their final descent to the lunar surface, Astronauts Young and Duke were ordered
to continue orbiting and to reduce the gap between themselves and the Command Module
for possible redocking because of an oscillation problem in the Service Module propulsion
system. Tests showed that the system was usable and safe, but the investigation of the
problem delayed the lunar landing about six hours.
The crew landed 270 m (886 ft) northwest of the planned landing site on a hilly and
furrowed edge of the Kent Plateau in the Central Lunar Highlands, among the highest
mountains on the lunar surface. With the aid of the Lunar Rover, Young and Duke
performed three excursions. The first lasted seven hours and 11 minutes. With an
improved drill, they were able to obtain three-meter (10-ft) deep core samples during this
EVA without the difficulty which had exhausted the Apollo 15 crew. On the second
extravehicular expedition, excellent television coverage permitted scientists on Earth to
observe the nature of the landing site. To their surprise, there was no evidence of volcanic
activity.
During the second EVA, the astronauts collected lunar samples at Stone Mountain
and several craters. On the third excursion, the crew drove the Lunar Rover to the rim of
North Ray Crater, photographing and obtaining samples. After a total of 71 hours on the
moon, including 20_A hours of extravehicular time, a journey of about 27 km (17 miles),
and the collection of 94 kg (207 lb) of lunar samples, Young and Duke ascended from the
lunar surface in the Orion. Ascent and docking went perfectly, but an incorrectly
positioned switch caused the Lunar Module to tumble immediately after jettisoning. An
evasive maneuver by the Command Module left the Lunar Module in lunar orbit, and it
did not impact the lunar surface until much later than planned. A second particles and
fields subsatellite, like that launched by Apollo 15, was successfully ejected from the
SIMBAY and placed in lunar orbit.
38 Biomedical ResuRs of Apollo
During the return to Earth, the crewmen participated in a light flash observation
session and took photographs for use in a Skylab Program study on the behavior and
effects of particles emanating from the spacecraft. The Command Module Pilot carried
out an extravehicular activity which included the retrieval of film cassettes from the
scientific instrument module cameras, inspection of the equipment, and activation of an
experiment designed to provide data on microbial response to the space environment.
As a result of improved work/rest schedules and other factors, the Apollo 16 crew did
not experience any of the physiological problems which characterized the Apollo 15
mission. No irregular heart beats were recorded, and the crew recovered their preflight
baseline physiological status in the normal period of time postflight. On March 28, one
day earlier than planned, Apollo 16 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. The mission had
lasted eleven days.
Apollo 17
On December 7, 1972, the last lunar landing mission was launched from the Kennedy
Space Center. The 14-day mission was manned by Eugene A. Ceruan, Commander;
Ronald E. Evans, Command Module Pilot; and Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt, Lunar Module
Pilot who was also a geologist. The launch, illustrated in figure 16, was the first night
launch. Taurus-Littrow was Apollo 17's lunar objective. The site was chosen in the hope
that samples found there would answer two key questions left unanswered by previous
mission samples. The first was whether the moon had been thermally inactive for the last
3.2 billion years. Secondly, it was hoped that the Taurus-Littrow landing site would
contain materials to bridge the critical gap left by previous samples, between 3.7 and
4.5 billion years.
After three hours in Earth orbit, the spacecraft were propelled by the Saturn IV-B on
their path to the moon. Eighty-six hours after launch, the spacecraft went into lunar
orbit. As on the four previous missions, the Saturn IV-B was maneuvered into position to
impact the lunar surface after separation from the docked spacecraft. Impact occurred
about 135 km (84 miles) from the planned site and was recorded by the passive
seismometers deployed by Apollo 12, 14, 15, and 16. After 21Yz hours in lunar orbit, the
Lunar Module was undocked, and about three and one-half hours after that, Astronauts
Cernan and Schmitt set their craft down on the southeastern rim of the Sea of Serenity at
the Taurus-Littrow site.
The crew remained on the lunar surface for about 75 hours, and made three
explorations, totaling 22 hours. Again, with the help of the Lunar Rover, large areas of
the moon were traversed. At the end of the mission, the astronauts had covered 34 km
(21 miles) of lunar surface. The crew's first task was to deploy the Lunar Surface
Experiment Package. This time, the ALSEP contained a heat flow experiment to replace a
comparable experiment which had suffered a failure on Apollo 16. The objective was to
measure heat flow from the interior of the moon to the surface to provide an
understanding of the moon's core temperature and, perhaps, the processes involved in its
formation and activity. Other experiments in the package included a lunar surface gravity
experiment, an atmosphere composition experiment, instruments to detect
micrometeorites, and seismic profile equipment for the measurement of moonquake
activity, magnetic fields, solar wind, and other parameters.
Apollo Missions 39
The scientific yield of Apollo 17 was perhaps the richest of any Apollo lunar landing
mission. The crew collected samples of a greater variety than any previously collected.
They discovered significant materials indicating lunar volcanic activity. On their second
EVA, the astronauts discovered a unique, orange colored surface material never before
observed on the moon. Postflight analysis indicated this material contained magnetite.
The site had a very large landslide that was also sampled by the crew. By the end of their
75-hour stay, the crew had collected 110 kg (243 lb) of lunar materials. This was a record
in the lunar exploration program.
On previous missions, the Command Module Pilot had taken photographs of the
moon with the panoramic and mapping cameras and had utilized the laser altimeter while
in lunar orbit during the period of lunar surface exploration. Three new experiments were
included in the Service Module of Apollo 17 and were the responsibility of the Command
Module Pilot. He conducted lunar atmospheric composition and density measurements
with an ultraviolet spectrometer, used an infrared radiometer to map lunar thermal
characteristics, and a lunar sounder for the acquisition of subsurface structural data.
The Lunar Module successfully mated with the Command Module and, as had been
done on previous missions, the former was jettisoned as part of the seismic experiment
after transfer of the crew. The Command Module remained in lunar orbit for two days to
complete the experiments begun by the Command Module Pilot. On December 20, the
Command Module, Endeavor, landed in the Pacific Ocean west of Hawaii. With this event,
the Apollo Program was brought to a conclusion.
40 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Concluding Remarks
The Apollo Lunar Landing Program spanned a seven-year period and included
seventeen missions. The 29 astronauts who flew in the Program spent a total of
7506 hours in flight. Twelve of them were placed on the moon for a total of more than
four man-weeks and all were returned safely to Earth. The Apollo Program is viewed as
one of the greatest scientific and engineering successes of man, a national event which
held the attention of millions of people in this country and the world, and required the
development of new and complex equipment ranging from the spacecraft itself to the
tools and clothing used by the crewmen. The Program made it possible to gather lunar
material that has begun to disclose clues about the origin of our solar system. And, at last,
we were certain that no life exists on the moon. The Apollo Program established that the
psychological and physiological effects of the space environment on man were not at all
as severe as had been predicted by some scientists. But, perhaps the greatest significance
of the Apollo Program lies in the fact that it provided information which will assist
scientists and engineers in developing the biomedical and technical support necessary for
man to venture still further into the solar system.
SECT,OO
II
Crew Health and
Inflight Monitoring
CHAPTER 1
by
Introduction
While the primary goal of the Apollo Program was to land men on the moon
and return them safely to Earth, there were other very important medical objectives.
The earlier Mercury and Gemini programs bad raised some concerns about the health
and safety of future crews. For example, the high metabolic energy expenditure of
extravehicular activity during the Gemini missions was unexpected. Before Apollo
astronauts could safely explore the lunar surface, reliable predictors of energy cost
and real-time monitoring techniques had to be developed. Physiological changes were
noted in individual crewmen, some more consistently than others. The most
important of these changes was in cardiopulmonary status demonstrated by
decreased exercise capacity, loss of red blood cell mass, and cardiovascular decon-
ditioning demonstrated by a decrease in the effectiveness of antigravity cardio-
vascular responses during postflight stress testing.
At the eIid of tile Gemini program, with 2000 man-hours logged in space, it was
clear that man could engage in relatively long space flight without any serious threat
to health. However, clarification was still required in many areas. First of all,
because of the small number of individuals who flew in space and because of the
variability of their responses, it was impossible to distinguish between space-related
physiological changes and individual physiological variations. Secondly, for those
changes which were directly related to space flight, the relatively short mission
durations precluded the identification of trends.
1. Ensuring crew safety from a medical standpoint. This objective required that
every effort be made to identify, eliminate, or minimize anything which
43
44 Biomedic',fl Results of Apollo
The program to ensure crew safety commenced long before the Apollo Program itself
with the development and implementation of the medical selection and screening
program for astronauts. Apollo astronauts were drawn from a pool of individuals who
were thoroughly screened to preclude any physical or physiological problems which
would jeopardize either the mission or the astronaut candidate. Later, special measures
were taken to further protect the health and enhance the safety of those astronauts
chosen for specific Apollo missions. These included preflight medical examinations, a
health stabilization program, drug sensitivity testing of astronauts for all medications
aboard the spacecraft, and other measures.
The preflight medical program was designed to preclude, as far as possible, the
development of any clinical medical problems during space flight. Since no preventive
medicine program, however carefully conceived, can ever guarantee the absence of illness
or disease, medications were carried onboard the Apollo spacecraft. The contents of the
medical kit were revised as need indicated throughout the Apollo Program. Onboard
bioinstrumentation was provided to monitor vital signs for rapid diagnosis of any
physiological difficulty in a crewmember and to provide medical information required for
mission management. Additional information was transmitted via voice communication
between the crew and the ground-based flight surgeons. During extravehicular activity,
methods were added to provide metabolic rate assessment. In addition to heart rate,
oxygen consumption was monitored along with inlet/outlet temperature of the liquid
cooled garment worn by the crewmen.
The sections which follow describe medical procedures and findings for Apollo
astronauts in the preflight, inflight, and postflight phases of the Apollo missions.
The procedures implemented in the preflight period for Apollo missions had five
major objectives. These were:
1. The discovery of latent illnesses during the procc_ of selection of astronauts and
preparation for missions.
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 45
4. Providing baseline data against which to compare postflight data for determi-
nation of space flight effects.
Medical Screening/Examinations
Preventive health care in a population which has been chosen for a particular job
begins with the medical selection of that population. Rigorous astronaut selection
standards were established to identify:
5. Vectorcardiographic study.
6. Phonocardiographic study.
7. Tilt table studies.
2. Was the change significantly different from that occurring in a control group?
3. What was the extent of the change?
4. What was the time course of the observed change?
5. Was it possible to provide causal interpretations?
The following sections provide details concerning the preflight physical examinations
and special baseline studies.
1. Preliminary examination at F-30 days. At this time, interval history, vital signs,
and a general physical examination were conducted.
• An interval history and detailed review of systems, vital signs - to include oral
temperature, blood pressure, and pulse rate.
• Examination of the eyes to include visual inspection and palpation of the lids and
lacrimal apparatus, visual inspection of the conjunctiva, sclera, and cornea, and
ophthalmoscopic examination of the lens, media, and fundus.
• " Neurological examination to include a brief examination of the cranial nerves and
motor, sensory and proprioceptive modalities.
• Interval history, vital signs, including height, weight, oral temperature, pulse rate,
and blood pressure.
• ENT Examination:
d. Eyes: Same as for preliminary examination, plus distant and near visual
acuity, near-point of accommodation, phorias, and visual fields.
Dental Examinations. Dental care was provided as a regular part of the ongoing
health care program of astronauts. However, special measures were taken prior to
missions to preclude, wherever possible, dental problems during flight. All crewmen were
evaluated at or about F-15. Because of the relatively short duration of the Apollo flights,
emphasis was placed on general observation rather than definitive quantitative research.
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 49
Table l
Conjunctival injection 3
Dermatitis 3
Dermatophytosis, feet 2
Folliculitis, abdomen 1
Furunculosis 2
Gastroenteritis 7
Gingival burn 1
Influenza syndrome 3
Keratosic plaque 1
Pyuria 4
Papules/pustules 5
Paronychia 1
Viral pharyngitis 3
Prostatitis 1
minea crura 1
pedis 1
Seborrhea 2
Viral rhinitis 3
Ringworm, arm 1
Beta-hemolytic pharyngitis 1
Ulcer, aphthous 2
Again, because mission duration was short, no special inflight dental treatment capability
was provided for Apollo. It was felt that the risk of a problem occurring was slight and,
when weighed against limitations of weight, space, and training time, providing an inflight
treatment capability was not indicated. Analgesic and antibiotic drugs were provided for
symptomatic treatment of any dental problems. As a further precaution, restorative
dental treatment was avoided in the three-month period prior to launch. The object of
this measure was to minimize the possibility of barodontalgia, a sudden, severe toothache
which can occur when barometric pressure is reduced as a result of expansion of air
entrapped in a dental restoration. When a dental problem arose in the three-month period
prior to flight and a restoration became necessary, the astronaut in question was
subjected to reduced barometric pressure to ascertain the condition of the tooth.
Dental problems that occurred among crewmembers during the Apollo Program
resulted in no appreciable mission impact. During the 90-day preflight period, five of the
thirty-three Apollo crewmen had dental problems requiring treatment. One preflight and
one postflight occurrence of pulpitis could have caused significant crewmember
impairment if the pulpitis had occurred during a flight. Pulpitis, an inflammation of the
dental pulp, causes severe pain that usually can be stopped only by root-canal therapy,
performed by a skilled dentist in a fully equipped dental suite, or by extraction.
Prediction of such occurrences is virtually impossible, although the preventive treatment
of known causative factors can lower the risk of occurrence. The only other preflight
problems were minor fractures of previously placed restorations or minor fractures of
part of a crown of a tooth. Inflight, no problems were experienced. No case of
barodontaigia ever occurred, although some astronauts had experienced this discomfort
during their flying careers.
Experience with Apollo astronauts in an intensive preventive dentistry program led to
the conclusion that the probability of a disabling dental emergency in the astronaut
population is one occurrence in 9000 man-days. The probability of dental problems of
lesser severity, but associated with significant discomfort, is one in 1500 man-days. These
figures are comparable to those recorded for Navy personnel on long submarine patrols.
From these estimations, it is obvious that a provision for emergency inflight dental care
must be made only for very long-duration missions.
Visual Function Testing. Visual function testing was a part of the pre- and postflight
physical examination of Apollo astronauts. Ten visual parameters were tested during the
Apollo Program:
• Unaided visual acuity, 7 m (20 ft)
• Amplitude of accommodation
• Near point of convergence
• Fusional amplitudes, base-in and base-out
• Horizontal phorias, 7 m and 33 cm (20 ft and 13 in.)
• Refraction
• Intraocular tension
• Color perception
• Depth perception
• Visual fields
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 51
One of the major considerations in flight was the amount of harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation to which the crewmen would be subjected during extravehicular activity. Prior
to Apollo missions, the UV threshold of the eye was unknown. Over a three-year period,
NASA-sponsored research determined these levels. The problem was, however, subse-
quently resolved with the development and use of Lexan in the extravehicular visor
assembly, since Lexan was opaque to UV radiation. A minimum of 2000 hours of
exposure would be required to produce a corneal "burn" through this plastic.
Table 2 gives the data ascertained for ocular thresholds to UV radiation.
Table 2
The harmful effects of UV radiation extend over an area slightly greater than the 215
to 315 nanometer range noted above; however, the relative effectivity outside these
extremes is very low. Summating these slight effects into the flux listed above could
possibly lower the total UV band threshold time to about two and one-half seconds in a
Zero Air Mass environment.
included swabs of various parts of the body, throat gargle, and urine and fecal samples.
These were collected on four occasions in the month prior to flight. Blood samples were
also collected on three occasions in this same time frame.
Baseline data were obtained on the cellular elements of the blood, the chemical
constituents of the blood and urine, and the humoral and cellular factors involved in
immunity. The hematological and chemical measurements of various blood constituents
were one portion of comprehensive examinations designed to disclose the state of
well-being or the presence of occult disease in the crews. Blood analyses furnished data
which, when integrated with facts obtained from histories and physical examinations,
permitted an objective assessment of the physical status of the astronauts and allowed for
remedial action if required. However, no values outside of the normal range were
observed.
Biochemical and hematological baseline information was obtained, in part to
quantitate the effect of the stresses inherent in space flight, and in part to aid medical
personnel in medical management of crews in the postflight period.
Cardiopulmonary evaluations and findings are discussed at length in Section III,
Chapter4 Apollo Flight Crew, Cardiovascular Evaluations, and Chapter 5, Exercise
Response. Preflight orthostatic tolerance tests and exercise response tests were performed
to provide baseline information to facilitate assessment of space flight effects.
Cardiopulmonary data were obtained to develop heart rate versus metabolic rate
calibration curves that would be used for estimating real-time work output during
extra'.,ehicular activity. Utilization of Douglas bags, a Tissot spirometer, and an oxygen
consumption computer or metabolic rate meter also made determination of
cardiopulmonary efficiency possible. Evaluation of cardiopulmonary data was
accomplished by observing how the dependent variables-workload, oxygen
consumption, blood pressure response, respiratory response, and EKG- changed in
response to the independent variable, heart rate.
The extent of cardiovascular system "deconditioning" was assessed also by
comparison with preflight baseline responses to the application of negative pressure to the
lower half of the body by means of the lower body negative pressure (LBNP) device.
Preflight evaluations were made at least three times in the month preceding flight. The
test procedures involved five minutes with the subject at supine rest in the LBNP device, a
total of fifteen minutes at negative pressures ranging from -40x 102N/m 2 to
-67 x 102N/m 2 (-30 to -50mm Hg), and five minutes of recovery. Because missions
involving postflight quarantine could not accommodate the size of the LBNP device in
the Mobile Quarantine Facility, a static stand-type of orthostatic tolerance testing was
substituted. This involved obtaining five minutes of electrocardiographic data while the
crewman was standing still with his back to the wall and his feet apart. Test conditions
were controlled and standardized to exclude unnecessary variables such as environmental
temperature, time of day, food intake, physical exertion, or venipuncture.
Health Stabilization
of time prior to launch offered indisputable advantages but was initially thought to be
infeasible because of the operational difficulties involved. Flight crews were required to
be in contact with large number_ of people and to move from place to place during the
last few weeks of their training in preparation for a space flight.
When clinical illnesses impacted preflight mission operations during Apollo 9 and 13,
it became apparent that some type of preflight health stabilization program was
imperative. Prior to Apollo 14, 57 percent of the Apollo crewmembers experienced some
illness of varying degrees of severity at some time during the 21 days before launch. Based
on observations of the first several flights and on the observation of crewmember
activities during earlier manned Mercury and Gemini missions, the Flight Crew Health
Stabilization Program was developed and implemented for the Apollo 14 mission and
subsequent missions. Such a program, rigorously enforced, can result in a significant
reduction of infectious disease hazard, although the hazard cannot be eliminated
completely.
Table 3 lists the illness events in Apollo crewmen and shows the dramatic reduction in
illness following the implementation of the health stabilization program.
Table 3
Apollo 14
15 m
16 m
conditions to determine his response to medical kit items carried onboard the spacecraft.
(The medical kit is described later in this chapter in the section concerning Inflight
Procedures and Findings.) After a medical history was obtained by a physician regarding
the experience of each crewmember with each medication under test, and it had been
determined that (1) no adverse reaction had been experienced, and (2) there was no
evidence of impaired health at the time of testing, the medication was administered to the
astronaut. The crewmember was observed by the physician for an appropriate period of
time following administration of the medication and was queried about subjective
responses. If positive subjective findings were reported, the test was either repeated with a
double-blind placebo method, or an appropriate drug was substituted for which no
undesirable side effects had been reported. Individuals were additionally tested for any
allergic reaction to the electrode paste.
Table 4 indicates the drug administration and observation constraints applied. All
medications used were treated in a similar fashion.
Medical Training
To perform their inflight tasks optimally, Apollo crewmen required an understanding
of the interaction of space flight stresses and their effects on the human organism,
including the manner in which the body adapts to space flight factors. Further, these
crewmen had to recognize any abnormalities in their health status and understand the
therapeutic measures which might have been prescribed for inflight problems. Medical
training began shortly after astronaut selection with a series of lectures concerned with
space flight physiology and therapeutics. The curriculum encompassed about 16 hours of
didactic instruction provided by experts in each area. The principal elements were as
follows:
The Role of Psychiatry in Crew Selection. Crew and dependents support, personal
considerations of long term confinement, group dynamics, and responses to various
stresses encountered in flight and on the ground.
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 55
Table 4
Frequency of
Route of
!tem Observation Constraints
Administration
by Physician
Meperidine HCI I.M. 1/4 dose 0-15 min; 2nd hour; No flying, driving, or
(Demerol) (25 mg) 4th hour other hazardous pursuit
for 8 hours
Table 4 (Continued)
Frequency of
Route of
Item Observation Constraints
Administration
by Physician
Description o[ Vestibular System. Its function and equilibrium, and testing thereof,
sensory organs, effects of acceleration and weightlessness on eye and visual system,
problems in space, such as light, ultraviolet trauma, high closing speeds, and depth
Refresher courses were required of each astronaut every three years in the technical
and practical aspects of altitude physiology and the medical aspects of survival.
Before each mission, a detailed medical briefing was provided by staff members of the
Johnson Space Center approximately one month before launch. The purpose of the
1. To acquaint the crewmembers with the pre- and postflight medical procedures
planned for their mission.
2. To discuss with the crew preventive medicine measures (related to diet, potential
sources of infection, and physical conditioning) recommended for their health
and comfort.
3. To acquaint the crew with the Apollo medical kit and its uses.
4. To review with the crew the flight food and hygienic supplies selected for their
flight.
5. To demonstrate the configuration and operation of the biomedical harness.
6. To achieve final coordination of procedures for logging or communicating medical
data during flight.
7. To familiarize the crew with toxicological considerations.
During the inflight phase of Apollo missions, medical care was limited to
long-distance biotelemetry monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment with the appropriate
onboard drugs. This treatment was carried out by the space crewmen themselves under
58 Biomedical Results of Apollo
the direction of ground-based flight surgeons. The weightless flight phase of Apollo
missions was characterized by certain transient adaptational difficulties, by a few clinical
illnesses, and by a limited number of physiological phenomena apparently related largely
to space flight factors. The following sections describe the clinical and medical aspects of
the inflight portion of Apollo missions.
Table 5
Infectious Diseases
Number of
Infection Cases
133
Upper respiratory
Influenza 33
Pneumonia 7
Sinusitis 19
Otitis media 1
Otitis externa 6
Gastroenteritis 29
Genitourinary 30
Bacterial dermatitis 9
Conjunctivitis 3
Blepharitis 1
Chalazion 3
Herpes zoster 1
Rubella 1
Total 301
Table 6
Neoplasms
Number of
Neoplasm Cases
Adenoma, thyroid 1
Fibroma 1
Total 8
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 59
Table 7
Number of
Disease
Cases
Hypercholesterolemia
Hyperlipemia
Idiopathic hyperbilirubinemia
Total
Table 8
Degcnerative Disorders
Number of
Disorder
Cases
Hearing loss 6
Presbyopia 6
Lenticular opacities 3
Total 21
rll_ L. 1 _ 13t
Allergic Problems
Number of
Allergic Response Cases
Angioneurotic edema 1
Urticaria 7
Drug rash 2
Total 16
6O Biomedical Results uf Apollo
Table 10
Traumatic Injuries
Number of
Trauma
Cases
Muscle strain 9
Sprains 9
Fractures 11
Burns 3
Contusions 3
Eye injuries 9
Dog bite 1
Concussive labyrinthitis 1
Total 64
Table 11
Number of
Cases
Cholecystitis or cholelithiasis 2
Hernia 2
Sperm granuloma 1
Hemorrhoids, symptomatic 5
Renal calculus 1
Meniere s syndrome 1
Thrombophlebitis 1
Migraine equivalent 1
Congestive prostatitis 2
Rectal fissure 1
Atrial fibrillation 1
Dysbarism, bends 1
Barotitis media 5
Total 25
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 61
Monitoring
When the United States space program first began, the concept of obtaining
continuous physiological data by instrumenting the human operator was a new one. No
sufficiently reliable off-the-shelf hardware was available. Since that time, sophisticated
and highly reliable biotelemetry devices have been developed.
Each Apollo crewman wore a biosensor harness which provided a means of
transmitting critical physiological data to the ground. Through this system, medical
personnel were able to evaluate physiological status during such critical phases as launch
and docking, extravehicular activity, and lunar explorations. This real-time telemetry of
vital biomedical information was also available for monitoring Apollo crewmen in the
event of inflight illness.
The operational bioinstrumentation system was designed as an individually adjustable
unit worn under the flight clothing. The biobelt assembly was an electronic system that
included sensors, signal conditioners, and telemetry interfaces. The system returned
electrocardiogram, heart rate, and respiratory pattern and rate data. A two-lead EKG with
synchronous phonocardiography provided an index of cardiac activity. Cardiotachometer
equipment made monitoring of instantaneous and average heart rate information possible.
Voice communications and real-time television observations, coupled with monitoring of
the vital signs, provided the medical basis for an inflight clinical profile of the Apollo
astronauts.
Data from the biotelemetry of the spacecraft were displayed at consoles at the launch
and mission control centers. The consoles were manned continuously by medical
personnel during the course of each mission. Heart and respiration rates were displayed in
digital form; electrocardiogram and impedance pneumogram data were presented on a
cathode ray oscilloscope.
In general, the equipment worked well, although some minor losses of data were
experienced throughout the program. Problems with breakage of bioharness leads and pin
connectors encountered on the Apollo 7 mission were corrected for subsequent flights.
Some degradation of physiological data was caused by loose biosensors, but restoration of
good data was usually obtained by reapplication of the sensors. Sponge pellet electrodes
were used in the biosensor harness for the first time on the Apollo 15 mission. This
modification reduced skin irritation that had earlier resulted from continuous wearing of
the electrodes.
The quality of the data obtained with the new electrodes was excellent. Some data
loss resulted because air became trapped under the electrodes during the Apollo 15
mission, but this was easily corrected by modifying the electrodes with small vents.
Additional data were telemetered during lunar surface extravehicular activity to per-
mit assessment of the portable life support system and, additionally, the determination of
the metabolic activity during lunar excursions. Metabolic rate was approximated by moni-
toring the inlet and the outlet temperatures of the liquid cooled garment. Heart rate and
oxygen usage were also monitored as metabolic rate indices. Of the three methods, the
thermal data and oxygen use methods proved to be reasonably accurate and significantly
more reliable as a means for determining metabolic rate than did heart rate data.
Further documentation of the Apollo bioinstrumentati0n system is reported in
Section VI, Chapter 3, Bioinstrumentation. Additional information concerning
62 Biomedical Results of Apollo
I n f l i t Medications
The initial philosophy regarding use of medication precluded usage except in a
medical emergency. Additional experience and the confidence gained thereby permitted
some alteration of this philosophy to the extent that certain drugs were prescribed during
Apollo missions when indicated. For example, hypnotics were prescribed when adequate
rest could not be obtained, particularly when sound sleep was important prior to critical
mission phases.
Medico1 Kit. The contents of the Apollo medical kit (figure 1) were selected based on
experience gained during earlier missions. The drugs were intended to treat the
contingency situations most likely to arise. As noted previously, crewmembers were
tested for sensitivity to all drugs in the medical kit and substitutions were made when
necessary.
Table 12 lists drugs and drug stowage and usage aboard the Apollo Command Module.
The contents of the medical kits were changed as more effective medications were
identified. For example, the combination scopolamine/Dexedrine was substituted after
Apollo 11 for the previously stowed Marezine after ground-based tests indicated it was
more effective for the treatment of motion sickness. Likewise, a short-acting barbiturate,
SeconaI, was added after reports of sleep difficulties by the Apollo 7 crew. The cardiac
arrhythmias experienced during the Apollo 15 mission dictated the addition of Pronestyl,
Lidocaine, atropine, and Demerol in missions subsequent to Apollo 15. Each Apollo
vehicle also carried a medical accessory kit in a compartment behind the Lunar Module
Pilot’s couch. Its contents are listed in table 13. An abbreviated version of the Command
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 63
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64 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 65
Module medical kit was carried in the Lunar Module (table 14). The adequacy of the kits
was reviewed after each flight, and appropriate modifications were made for the next
flight. The basic contents of the medical kits remained the same for each mission, but
there was no "standard" kit.
Table 14
Rucksack 1
Aspirin 12
Bandaids 6
Compress bandages 2
Pronestyl 12
Lidocaine (cardiac) 8
Atropine (cardiac) 4
Demerol (pain) 2
Pills and tablets in the medical kit were packaged in such a manner that the crewman
had easy access to the medication at all times. The pills were sealed individually in cells in
strips of 12 or 24 cells. Midway through the Apollo Program, the number of pills in the
puncturing each cell with a small pin; the hole made it possible for the air to vent when
likelihood of overdosage from a dropper bottle and the need for more uniform
General Adaptation
In general, Apollo astronauts adapted well to the world of zero gravity. It was, in
many respects, a boon. Astronauts were able to move effortlessly about the spacecraft,
and this enhanced the perceived volume of the vehicle.
The most frequently reported subjective sensation associated with initial orbital
insertion was a feeling of fullness in the head. This sensation, reported by all but two
crewmen, persisted for four hours to three days. Concomitantly, crewmen noticed a
roundness of the face in one another and engorgement of the veins of the head and neck.
One crewman reported that head fullness was similar to the feelings elicited by standing
on one's head or hanging upside down.
Crews of the Apollo 7, 12, 14, and 15 missions reported some soreness of the back
muscles. This condition was relieved by exercise and hyperextension of the back. No
calibrated inflight exercise program was planned for any of the Ilights; however, an
exercise device was provided. The crewmen typically used the exerciser several times a
day for periods of 15 to 30 minutes when they were in the Command Module.
Insomnia was another frequent crew complaint. The principal reasons for insomnia
were shifting the customary sleep time, altering circadian rhythm, and combating
operational problems. When one considers the unfamiliar environment of space and the
excitement this generated, as well as the onboard noise and other mission-related
disturbances, it is not surprising that the astronauts in some cases failed to obtain
sufficient restful sleep. Some crewmen found it was possible to obtain restful sleep with
the aid of hypnotics.
The first American space crews to report any symptoms of motion sickness were the
Apollo astronauts. The symptoms ranged from so-called "stomach awareness" to frank
nausea and, in a few cases, vomiting. In most instances, the nausea appeared to be related
to rapid body movement before adaptation to weightlessness occurred. Symptoms
subsided or were absent when crewmen moved slowly during the initial period of
weightlessness. Moreover, no recurrence of motion sickness symptoms was reported after
this adaptation period was completed. Increased susceptibility to motion sickness is
thought to be the result of the relatively enhanced effect of stimulation of the
acceleration-detecting nerve ends in the semicircular canals that occurs during weightless-
ness. The otolith, the gravity-sensing component of the inner ear, is thought to bias the
input of the semicircular canals to the brain center that controls vomiting. The removal of
this bias in the weightless condition results in an alteration of the input to the brain from
the semicircular canals. Then, in a susceptible individual, rapid head motions will result in
motion sickness.
Adaptation of the inner ear to weightlessness, which occurs fairly rapidly in most
individuals, can be hastened by appropriate head movements that produce a subthreshold
stimulation of the semicircular canals. This technique was taught to all Apollo crewmen
subsequent to the Apollo 9 mission. Although not all crewmen have used this technique
to assist their adaptation to weightlessness, those crewmen who have used it have
achieved fairly good results.
Considerable variation in susceptibility to motion sickness exists among individuals,
and a prediction of individual susceptibility is not precise. A thorough understanding of
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 67
the physiology of the inner ear is needed for better prediction and prevention of motion
sickness.
Table 15 lists medical problems experienced by Apollo crews in flight. The more
important of these are discussed below.
Apollo 7. Three days prior to the Apollo 7 launch, the Commander and Lunar
Module Pilot experienced slight nasal stuffiness and were successfully treated. They were
medically certified fit for flight when launch day physical examinations of the crew failed
to demonstrate any manifestations of illness.
Approximately 15 hours after lift-off, the crew reported that the Commander had
developed a bad head cold. The flight surgeon recommended aspirin for symptomatic
relief, and that one decongestant tablet (Actifed) be taken every eight hours until the
Commander either felt better or had exhausted the onboard supplies. The Commander
reported a normal temperature and no symptoms of sore throat, cough, or lung
congestion. The Command Module Pilot and Lunar Module Pilot also experienced cold
symptoms 24 hours later and the same treatment schedule was instituted.
The possibility of rupturing the eardrums during entry caused some concern because
it was considered necessary for the crew to wear pressure suits during entry. With helmets
on, the crewmen would not be able to perform the Valsalva maneuver and equalize
pressure within the middle ear cavities. Forty-eight hours prior to entry, the crew made
the decision not to wear helmets or gloves. The last nine decongestant tablets were taken
during the last 24 hours of flight. The times for taking the tablets were selected so as to
obtain the maximum benefit at the time of the deorbit maneuver and entry.
During entry, none of the crewmen had any difficulty in ventilating the middle ear
and the Valsalva maneuver was not required. In the postflight physical examinations, the
two crewmen who had experienced the most distressing inflight symptoms showed no
residual evidence of their colds. The other crewman did exhibit a slight amount of fluid in
the middle ear.
After the flight, the Commander stated that his cold symptoms began about one hour
after lift-off (six hours after his prelaunch physical examination). In the zero-gravity
environment, he reported, tbc drainage of nasal and sinus secretions ceases. The body's
normal means of eliminating such secretions is lost because of the absence of gravity.
There is no postnasal drip, and, because secretions do not reach the lower respiratory
tract, they do not produce coughing. Forceful blowing is the only method available for
purging nasal secretions, but blowing the nose is ineffective in removing mucoid material
from the sinus cavities.
vomited twice. After termination of this first sleep period, the Commander also became
aware of some increased gastrointestinal distress and was concerned that diarrhea might
occur.
Table 15
Number of
Symptom/Finding Etiology Cases
Barotitis Barotrauma
Fiberglass
Pharyngitis Undetermined
Dysbarism (bends) *
* Also occurred during Gemini 10; later incidences were reported by the same crewman
five years after his Apollo 11 mission.
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 69
As the mission progressed, the flight surgeon had the impression that the
Commander was experiencing an acute viral gastroenteritis. This tentative diagnosis
was based upon the delayed transmission of a recorded voice report that the
Commander had a headache, a sore throat, loose bowels, and had vomited twice. A
conversation between the Senior Flight Surgeon and the Commander verified that
the previous report was correct, but that the Commander was feeling much better.
The Commander also stated that he had not taken any medication for his illness,
which he described as a "24-hour intestinal flu." (Just prior to the Apollo 8 launch,
an epidemic of acute viral gastroenteritis lasting 24 hours was present in the Cape
Canaveral area.)
The Commander's temperature was 309°K (97.5°F) on two occasions subsequent
to his nausea and vomiting. The Commander was advised to take one Lomotil tablet
and to use Marezine if the nausea returned. Complete remission of the illness,
however, made the use of further medications unnecessary.
Apollo 9. Three days before the scheduled Apollo9 launch, the Commander
reported symptoms of general malaise, nasal discharge, and stuffiness. These common
cold symptoms were not present at the physical examination performed on the
previous day. The Commander was treated symptomatically and his temperature
remained normal throughout the course of the illness. Two days before the
scheduled launch, the Command Module Pilot and the Lunar Module Pilot also
became ill with common colds and were treated symptomatically. However, because
the symptoms persisted, the launch was postponed for three days. The crew responded
rapidly to rest and therapy and were certified fit for flight the day prior to the
rescheduled launch.
The Lunar Module Pilot experienced motion sickness and vomited twice, once while
preparing for transfer to the Lunar Module, and again after transfer. After about 50 hours
of flight, he was still not feeling well but had experienced no further vomiting. He
reported that his motion sickness symptoms subsided when he remained still. He was
advised to take a Marezine tablet one hour before donning his pressure suit for
extravehicular operations that were to be conducted at approximately 73 hours. The
nominal plan called for the Lunar Module Pilot to spend two hours a.d 15 ininutcs
outside the spacecraft, but, because of his symptoms, the plan was revised so that
only the tasks having the highest priority were to be performed. The principal
objectives were successfully accomplished in approximately 45 minutes. The Lunar
Module Pilot took Seconal several times during the mission to induce sleep.
Apollo 10. All three crewmen experienced irritation of the skin, eyes, and upper
respiratory passages when the fiberglass insulation in the Command Module tunnel
became loosened and particles of fiberglass became suspended in the cabin air. This
was treated symptomatically with good results. This crew complained of abdominal
rumblings caused by the ingestion of hydrogen gas present in the potable water.
Since they were concerned that diarrhea might develop, they decided on their own
initiative to take Lomotil tablets. Medically, the use of the drug was not indicated.
70 Biomedical Result_ of Apollo
Lomotil decreases the activity of the lower intestinal tract and reduces the amount of gas
that can be expelled. Aspirin was taken occasionally by all crewmen.
Apollo 11. The Apollo 11 Commander and Lunar Module Pilot each took one
Lomotil tablet to retard bowel movements before Lunar Module operations. They each
carried extra Lomotil tablets into the Lunar Module but did not use them. Four hours
before entry, and again after splashdown, the three crewmen each took
scopolaminc/dextroamphetamine (antimotion sickness) tablets. Aspirin tablets were also
taken, but the number of tablets per individual was not recorded. The Lunar Module Pilot
recalled that he had taken two aspirin tablets almost every night to aid his sleep. One
interesting medical event that occurred on this flight was reported by the Command
Module Pilot in his account of the Apollo Program. _ He revealed that he had experienced
dysbarism (bends) on his first space flight (Gemini 10) as well as on his second
(Apollo 11). He described symptoms involving the left knee as a sharp, throbbing ache
which gradually worsened and leveled off at a moderate, but very uncomfortable level of
pain. The symptomatology was less painful on Apollo 11 than it had been on Gemini 10.
Unfortunately this information was not made available to the medical team during either
the Gemini or Apollo Programs.
Apollo 12. The Commander developed a mild contact dermatitis from the biosensor
electrolyte paste. An analysis performed postflight on the batch of paste applied to the
affected skin areas during the mission failed to identify any constituent not present in
nonoffending batches of the electrolyte paste. To avoid similar occurrences, subsequent
Apollo crewmen were tested with all materials of known allergenic potential, as has
always been done with medical kit drugs. As a further precaution, the identical materials
to be used in flight were used in training to provide for scrupulous observation and
reporting of any skin reactions.
All three crewmen used Actifed decongestant tablets to relieve nasal congestion at
various times throughout the flight. The Lunar Module Pilot also took Seconal
throughout most of the mission to aid sleep. Aspirin was taken occasionally by all the
crewmen. No motion sickness medications were taken prior to entry.
Apollo 13. The Lunar Module Pilot awoke on the second day of the mission with a
moderately severe headache. He took two aspirin tablets with only fair results. After
eating breakfast and engaging in physical activity, he became nauseated and vomited. His
symptoms began to subside over the next 12 hours as adaptation to weightlessness took
place. All crewmen took seopolamine/dextroamphetamine antimotion sickness
medication prior to entry.
A urinary tract infection in one of the crewmen could have resulted in a serious
inflight illness if the mission had lasted 24 hours longer. During the return flight following
the inflight accident, the combined stresses of cold, dehydration (caused by voluntary
rationing of water), and prolonged wearing of the urine collecting device (UCD) were
*Colhns, Michael: Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys. Farrar,Straus and Giroux (New York),
1974.
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 71
contributing factors. The other two crewmen had less serious problems, but the UCD was
not designed for prolonged wearing.
Apollo 14. No medications were used during the Apollo 14 mission other than nose
drops to relieve nasal stuffiness caused by the spacecraft atmosphere. On the third day of
flight, the Commander and the Lunar Module Pilot used one drop in each nostril. Relief
was prompt and lasted approximately 12 hours. The Command Module Pilot used the
nose drops three hours prior to entry.
Apollo 15. The Commander developed a dermatitis from the deerskin lining of a
communication carrier. This sensitivity was not recognized before the mission because a
concomitant skin disorder (seborrhic dermatitis) existed.
Aspirin and nose drops were the only medications used during Apollo 15. The
Commander took a total of 14 aspirin tablets over a period of days to relieve pain in his
right shoulder that developed after difficult deep core-tube drilling on the lunar surface.
The Command Module Pilot used nose drops just prior to Earth entry to prevent possible
middle ear blockage.
Apollo 16. The Lunar Module Pilot used three Seconal capsules for sleep induction
during the Apollo 16 mission. One capsule was taken on the night prior to lunar descent
and the other two capsules were used for the first and second lunar surface sleep periods,
respectively. In the postflight medical debriefing, the Lunar Module Pilot reported that
the Seconal was effective in producing a rapid onset of good sleep.
Apollo 17. More medications were taken on Apollo 17 than on any of the previous
missions. The intermittent use of Seconal for sleep by all three crewmen and the daily use
of simethicone for symptomatic relief of flatulence by the Commander were the principal
factors contributing to the high intake of medications. The Commander also took a
scopolamme/dextroamphe_ammc capsule on the second day of flight for "stomach
awareness."
The Command Module Pilot and the Lunar Module Pilot experienced one loose bowel
movement each, on the eleventh and twelfth days of flight, respectively. In each case,
Lomotil was taken and was effective.
Cardiac Arrhythmias
Apollo 15 was the first manned space flight in which cardiac irregularities other than
occasional benign premature ventricular contractions were observed. A historical account
precedes discussion of possible etiology and mechanisms.
An isolated premature ventricular contraction was observed on the Lunar Module
Pilot 41 minutes prior to launch. Subsequently, while the Lunar Module Pilot was being
monitored during the translunar coast phase of the mission, only infrequent premature
ventricular contractions (approximate rate one to two per hour) were observed. The_
events were not considered significant since the Lunar Module Pilot had demonstrated
occasional premature ventricular contractions during all of his ground-based altitude
chamber tests and training sessions. The frequency of the Lunar Module Pilot's premature
72 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
determined. However, salt-wasting mechanisms predictably would have been at their peak
during that period of the flight, thereby suggesting a total body potassium deficit
considerably greater than that registered postflight.
While salt-wasting compensatory mechanisms operate to reestablish fluid and osmotic
equilibrium in the adapted crewman, several other factors probably were operative which
could upset this balance and lead to transient states of decompensation. For example,
heavy workloads and the attendant heat stress could easily exacerbate the electrolyte
deficit experienced by the lunar surface crewmen. Emotional stress, altered work/rest
cycles, and fatigue are known to increase adrenal medullary activity and liberate large
quantities of epinephrine which further aggravate the salt loss. Commensurate with the
catecholamine-potentiated electrolyte loss, the resultant high epinephrine blood levels
would exert a positive inotropic effect on the myocardium. Furthermore, these
decompensating factors probably occurred in the presence of a marginal dietary intake of
mineral which resulted in a clinical deficit of total body electrolyte.
Therefore, frank, yet transient periods of hypokalemia were considered to be of
prime importance in the genesis of the observed arrhythmias. These postulates were
further substantiated by the greater postflight deficits in total body and serum potassium
recorded in the lunar surface crewmen and by the absence of cardiac irritability in the
Command Module Pilot.
Accordingly, it is speculated that the adaptive processes alone resulted in sufficient
salt loss (principally potassium) to have predisposed the crew to cardiac irritability, and
that the additional stress characteristic of lunar surface operations was sufficient to
enhance the electrolyte deficit and precipitate abnormal cardiac activity.
In order to prevent potassium deficits and to reduce the likelihood of inflight
arrhythmias, both Apollo 16 and 17 crews were provided a high potassium diet
commencing 72 hours prior to launch and continuing until 72 hours after recovery. As a
precaution, antiarrhythmic medications were included in the Apollo 16 medical kit for
tile first time. As an added precaution, daily, high-resolution electrocardiograms were
obtained for each crewman and an accurate metabolic input/output report was
maintained during flight.
No medically significant arrhythmias occurred during either flight. The postflight
exchangeable body potassium intake measurements indicated that a norntal potassium
balance had been maintained. The absence of arrhythmias in these last Apollo crews
may be attributed in part to high dietary potassium intakes, but perhaps the fact
that the Apollo 16 and 17 crews maintained a better fluid and electrolyte balance,
obtained more adequate sleep, and experienced a lower level of fatigue is of equal
or greater significance.
It must be noted that one of the Apollo 15 crewmembers who experienced a
cardiac arrhythmia had undetected coronary artery disease at the time of the
mission. Approximately two years after space flight, this particular astronaut suffered
an acute myocardial infarction from which he completely recovered. The undetected
coronary artery disease almost certainly interacted negatively with potassium
deficiency and fatigue to precipitate the inflight bigeminal arrhythmia experienced
by this astronaut.
74 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
Physical Examinations
The postflight physical examination involved obtaining a careful inflight history and a
complete review of body systems. Laboratory studies included the following:
Characterization of viral and mycoplasma flora was initiated with Apollo 14.
State-of-the-art procedures were utilized. These included challenging tissue cultures,
embryonated eggs, suckling mice, and mycoplasma media with specimens obtained at
various times in preflight and postflight periods.
The detailed results of microbiological studies are presented in Section II, Chapter 2.
In summary, considerable variation in the microfloral response was observed.
Staphylococcus aureus increased in number in some crewmen and transfers were effected
between crewmen. The variables of host susceptibility, external environmental factors,
and ecological relationships between competing species of microorganisms were
undoubtedly responsible for these findings. In one mission, an increase in the number and
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 75
spread of Aspergillus fumigatus and beta hemolytic streptococci were found. Microbial
analysis of samples obtained in the Command Module showed a loss of organisms during
the course of the mission. Intracrew transfer of microbes appeared to be a regular
occurrence. Finally, there was a buildup of medically important species, particularly
Proteus mirabilis on the urine collection device. Contamination of the urine collection
devices with this organism represented a significant medical hazard.
Clinical Findings
Weight loss was a consistent postflight finding for all crewmen except the Apollo 14
Commander and Lunar Module Pilot. These weight losses are shown in table 16. The
major portion of these weight changes was attributed to loss of total body water; the
remainder, to tissue mass loss.
Table 17 presents postflight medical findings and the following chronological list
provides details concerning these findings.
Apollo 7. The residual effects of an inflight upper respiratory infection was definitely
present in one of the Apollo 7 crewmembers at recovery.
Apollo 8. Six days after recovery, the Lunar Module Pilot developed a mild
pharyngitis which evolved into a common cold and nonproductive cough. He recovered
completely after six days of symptomatic therapy. The Commander developed a cold
twelve days after the flight.
Apollo 9. The Commander suffered from bilateral barotitis media. This condition
responded rapidly to decongestant therapy and cleared after two days. Four days after
recovery, the Apollo 9 Lunar Module Pilot developed an upper respiratory infection with
a secondary bacterial bronchitis. He was treated with penicillin and was well seven days
later. The Commander developed a mild upper respiratory syndrome eight days after
recovery. He was treated symptomatically and recovered four days later. The etiology of
both of these cases was determined to be type-B influenza virus.
Apollo 10. The Commander and Lunar Module Pilot had mild rashes on their
forearms which were caused either by exposure to the Fiberglas insulation or to the Beta
cloth in their flight suits. Four days after recovery, the Lunar Module Pilot developed a
mild infection in his left nasal passage which was probably caused by a small piece of
Fiberglas to which the crew was exposed in flight. This responded rapidly to symptomatic
therapy.
Apollo 11. The Commander had a mild barotitis media of the right ear; however,
since he was able to clear the middle ear satisfactorily, no specific treatment was
necessary.
Apollo 12. On initial examination, the Lunar Module Pilot had a small amount of
clear fluid with air bubbles in the middle ear bilaterally. This disappeared after 24 hours
of decongestant therapy. He also sustained a laceration over the right eye when a camera
76 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 77
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78 Biomedical Results of Apollo
broke loose from the impact of landing and struck him. The cut was sutured onboard the
recovery ship and healed normally. On the day after recovery, the Commander developed
an acute left maxillary sinusitis which was treated successfully with decongestants and
antibiotics.
Apollo 13. Postflight, all three crewmen showed extreme fatigue resulting from the
_vere environmental stresses imposed by their crippled spacecraft. The Lunar Module
Pilot suffered an acute pseudomonas urinary tract infection which required two weeks of
Table 17
Postflight Medical Findings in Apollo Mission Crews
Number of
Diagnosis Etiology Cases
Gastroenteritis Bacterial
Influenza A 2 virus
Laceration of the forehead Trauma
Prostatitis Undetermined
Pustules, eyelids
Rhinitis Viral
Total 41
Clinical Aspects of Crew Health 79
Apollo 14. The Commander and Command Module Pilot each exhibited a small
amount of clear, bubbly fluid in the left middle ear cavity with slight reddening of the
tympanic membrane. These findings disappeared in 24 hours without treatment. The
Lunar Module Pilot had moderate eyelid irritation in addition to slight redness of the
tympanic membranes. All crewmen showed a mild transient irritation from the micropore
tape covering their biomedical sensors (figure 2).
Apollo 15. The Commander had subungual hemorrhages of both hands and a painful
right shoulder. These hemorrhages were caused by an insufficient arm length of the
pressure suit forcing the fingertips too far into the gloves during pressurized suit
operation. The Commander purposely had the arm length of his pressure suit shortened
preflight to permit better tactile sensation and manual dexterity during mission EVA
operations. Pain in the Commander’s right shoulder was due to a muscle/ligament strain
which responsed rapidly to heat therapy.
Ap0110 16. All three crewmen suffered varying degrees of skin irritation at the
biosensor sites. This skin irritation resulted principally from the crew’s desire to wear the
80 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
Apollo 17. The two lunar surface crewmen developed subungual hematomas of both
hands because of insufficient arm length of their pressure suits as in Apollo 15. The
Commander also had a herpetic lesion on the right side of the upper lip, which was
approximately 72 hours old at the time of recovery.
Although numerous trends were noted, statistically significant changes between pre-
and postflight testing were found only in the superior, superior-nasal, and temporal visual
fields, each of which were constricted postflight. Only one other parameter approached
significance: the unaided seven-meter (20-ft) visual acuity, which also was decreased
postflight. Etiology of these changes is unknown at this time.
An additional point of interest is the result of a longitudinal study of changes in
intraocular tension for Apollo astronauts and astronauts participating in the Mercury
and Gemini missions. In the immediate postflight period, and for a short time
thereafter, a statistically significant decrease in intraocular tension was found in all
astronauts, when compared with their preflight tension. The postflight intraocular
tension reverted to its preflight value at a much slower rate than expected. The
reason for this slow return is unknown.
After Apollo 11, all crewmen except one observed bright flashes of light while
in orbit. Retinal photography was considered to determine whether the high energy
particles believed to be responsible for the phenomenon produced retinal lesions.
Photographs were first made of the Apollo 15 crew. Preflight photographs were
taken as part of the F-30 physical examination, and postflight photographs were
made three days after splashdown. Although no lesions were noted in the eye
grounds, some decrease was observed in the size of the retinal vessels. No statistical
comparison could be conducted, however, due to the low resolution of the film
used.
Retinal photography was again conducted on the Apollo 16 crewmen using high
resolution film. Comparison of the pre- and postflight films of this crew showed no
change for the Lunar Module Pilot in the size of either retinal veins or arteries at
approximately three hours postflight. The Command Module Pilot exhibited a
significant decrease in the size of both the veins and arteries about three and
one-half hours after flight, and the Commander showed a decrease in only the veins
after four hours. The degree of constriction of retinal vasculature in this crew was
greater and persisted for a longer time than could be accounted for by the
vasoconstrictive effect of atmospheric oxygen alone. The reason for this finding in
the crew of Apollo 16 is unknown.
Retinal photographs were not taken after the Apollo 17 flight because no lesions
had been found on previous missions.
Clinical
Aspects
of Crew Health 81
Special Studies
The results of the special studies conducted in the pre- and postflight periods are
detailed in Section III of this text. Only a brief summary of the significant findings in the
postflight examination are presented here.
The cardiovascular system showed the most significant and consistent changes in the
Apollo crews. Resting and stressed heart rates were elevated in most all crewmen when
compared to their preflight baseline tests. Blood pressures were labile; and the heart size
as measured by the cardiothoracic ratio was decreased by 1.02 (approximately five
percent). All crewmen demonstrated some degree of cardiovascular deconditioning during
the lower body negative pressure tests in the immediate postflight period as compared to
preflight measurements. They likewise showed a poorer work response on the bicycle
ergometer. In both instances, the time required for return to preflight baselines was
usually three days, but ranged from two days to one week. The Apollo 15 Commander
and Lunar Module Pilot demonstrated a different response to exercise on the bicycle
ergometer than observed in previous or subsequent flight crews. Their response at low
heart rate levels of work was comparable to their preflight baseline tests; but at the higher
heart rate levels of work on the ergometer, they showed the typical degraded work
performance capability.
CHAPTER 2
MICROBIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
by
James K. Ferguson, Ph.D.
Gerald R. Taylor, Ph.D.
Bernard J. Mieszkuc
Introduction
LvlI_IUUIUIU_I_gl _fllllijllll _ ul O_I_,L_,U olL_.O III _11_ _Ullllllfillu LvlUuuI_ _tva] vvflo IIIILI_L_U
in support of the quarantine program. These samples were also important from a medical
standpoint because crewmen would be exposed to microorganisms in the closed
spacecraft environment during space flight.
During lunar quarantine missions (Apollo 1 1 through 14), microbial screening was
accomplished for all support personnel to be isolated with the returning crewmen.
*The Interagency Committee on Back-Contamination included members from the Nalional Academy
of Sciences and representatives from the U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and U.S. Department of Interior. See Section V, Chapter 1, The Lunar Quarantine Program for more
detail.
83
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84 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Diagnostic microbiology was provided for all astronauts, their wives, and families; for
personnel in the lunar (sample) processing area, and for personnel in the quarantine area.
Microbiological support was also provided for the biological test systems used to screen the
lunar materials for life forms and for maintenance of sterile Class III biological glove box
systems.
Virology support for the Apollo Program consisted of characterization of the viral
and mycoplasma flora of the crewmembers; performance of viral serology for
crewmcmbers, crew contacts, and key mission personnel; and analysis of specimens
obtained as a result of crew illnesses and from the conduct of the mission personnel
surveillance program and the Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program. These programs
were designed to ascertain the nature of illnesses in personnel who were either in contact
with the crew or worked with lunar soil behind the biologic barrier. Serology studies were
initiated with the Apollo 14 mission. The mission personnel surveillance program was in
effect during the Apollo 11, 12, 13, and 14 missions, and the Flight Crew Health
Stabilization Program was in effect during the Apollo 14, 15, 16, and 17 missions.
Procedures
Crew Microbiology
Each flight crewman and backup crewman assigned to Apollo missions 7 to 12, was
sampled at four different time periods to provide the data needed to develop a catalog of
microorganisms: 30 and 14 days before flight (F- 30 and F- 14, respectively),
immediately before the flight (F - 0), and immediately upon recovery (R + 0). For the
Apollo 13 to 17 missions, sampling times were varied according to mission constraints.
Generally, an additional postflight sampling period was added at approximately
two weeks following recovery.
Eleven samples were obtained from each crewmember on the morning of each
preflight sampling date before initiation of personal hygiene activities, eating, or
urination. Postflight samples were collected on board the recovery vessel immediately
upon recovery and before other medical tests were performed. All specimens were
analyzed by the microbiology laboratories at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space
Center. The body surface sites generally sampled were as follows.
1. A 13-cm 2 area of the scalp below the hairline at the base of the neck.
2. The auditory canals. (Two revolutions were made with each swab in each ear
canal.)
3. The internal area of the umbilicus and a surrounding 13-cm 2 area. (Two
revolutions were made with each swab.)
4. A 6.5-cm 2 area below the hairline of each axilla.
5. An area from front to rear of the left and right side of the groin.
6. An area between the first and large toe of each foot.
7. A 6.5-cm 2 area on each palm.
Both nostrils of each crewmember were sampled by making two revolutions with each
swab in each nasal canal.
Microbiological
Investigations 85
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88 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Microbiological Investigations 89
Spacecraft Microbiology
Immediately before and after flight, swab samples were obtained from four selected
sites inside the Command Module. Sterile calcium alginate swabs were moistened with
0.85 percent saline containing 0.0003 molar phosphate buffer. Two swabs were used to
sample each of the following sites: (1) the total surface area of the mouthpiece of the
drink gun; (2) a 13-cm 2 area of each pistol grip of the Command Module Pilot (CMP)
maneuver controller; (3) a 13-m 2 area of each head strut; and (4) a 26-cm 2 area of the
floor beneath the foot of the center couch. After the sampling, one swab from each site
was placed in 5.0-ml TSB and another in 5.0-ml VIB. The tubes were maintained at
277°K (4°C) during transport to the laboratory. Each tube wag vortexed, and the
appropriate medium was used to serially dilute the contents. An aliquot of each TSB
dilution was plated onto five percent sheep blood agar and incubated aerobically at
308°K (35°C) for 48 hours. An aliquot of each VIB dilution was plated onto sheep blood
agar containing 10 mg/liter vitamin K and 5 mg/liter hemin. Gas Paks (Bio-Quest) were
used to obtain anaerobic conditions. The plates were incubated at 308°K (35°C) for
96 hours.
Four milliliters of the undiluted TSB samples were used for mycological analysis.
Each sample was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant from each was
mixed with 10 ml of yeast-malt broth containing 33 000 units/liter penicillin G and
62 mg/liter streptomycin. The sediment was sampled with sterile calcium alginate swabs.
The swabs were used to streak the surface of cornmeal-malt-yeast agar (containing
antibiotics), Sabouraud dextrose agar (containing antibiotics), and Czapek Dox agar. The
swabs were then placed into 10 ml of yeast-malt broth (containing antibiotics). All
mycological media were incubated at 298°K (25°C) for 120 hours.
Following identification of all microorganisms, the laboratory data on each isolate
were stored in a Univac 1108 computer. A computer program was developed to provide a
"match test" of all stored data with the data that would be gathered from a lunar soil
isolate. The program was dcsigucd to search thc catalog of data on known terrestrial
microorganisms and to select those microorganisms with the greatest number of like
characteristics and test results.
Throughout the Apollo missions, no microorganism was isolated from the lunar soil.
This result attests to the successful operation of the Lunar Receiving Laboratory and the
development of adequate aseptic techniques in the handling and processing of the lunar
soil.
90 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 1
A a B C A B A C
Axilla v 0 0 0 0 0
Umbilicus 0 0 +c 0 0 4- +
Inguinal 0 0 0 0 0 + ÷
Hands + 0 0 + 0 4- 0
Throat 0 4- 0 + 0 + 0
Scalp + 4- 0 0 0 + 0
Nasal 4- 4- 0 + 0 + 0
Urine 0 0 + 0 0 0 0
Toes o 0 0 0 0 4- 4-
Ears 0 0 + 0 0 + o
b+ = isolation.
Co = no isolation.
Table 2
Aa B C A C A B C
Axilla 1- 0t 0
Umbilicus + + 0
Inguinal + o +
Hands o 0 0
Feces 0 0 +
Urine 0 0 +
Throat o o +
Co = no isolation.
After the apparent transfer of microorganisms between cre, wmen during the Apollo 7
mission, strain-specific bacteriophage typing was developed in the laboratory and
performed on all S. aureus recovered from later missions to better substantiate the
suspected transfer.
An increased incidence of S, aureus did not reoccur until the Apollo 12 flight
(table 4). Although only two isolations of S. aureus were made from one crewmember
immediately before flight, seven of the twelve crewmember samples analyzed after flight
were positive for S. aureus. Six additional isolations were made from the clothing samples
and the internal Command Module samples. The organisms obtained immediately before
and after flight were phage typed (table 5). Both isolates of S. aureus obtained from
crewmemberA immediately before flight were typed 3A. The microorganism was
evidently transferred to crewmember B, to the urine collection device (UCD) of
crewmember C, and to the couch support struts of the Command Module. The S. aureus
phage type 187 was possibly a spacecraft contaminant. Although no inflight samples were
obtained and the pustules on the crewmen's skin had dried at the postflight examination,
S. aureus may have been the causative agent of the skin infections on the Apollo 12
flight.
92 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 3
A a B C A B C C
Scalp ÷1 v u v u 0
Umbilicus 0 0 0 0 0 +
Hands 0 4- 0 0 0 +
Inguinal 4- 0 0 0 0 +
Toes 0 0 0 + 0 +
Gargle 4- 0 0 + 0 0
Axilla 0 0 0 0 0 0
b4- = isolation.
Co = no isolation.
Table 4
Aa C B C A B C
Axilla +
Inguinal +
Scalp +
Toes 0
Hands 4- 0
Nasal 4- 4-
Throat 0 4-
Ears 4- 0
b+ = isolation.
CO = no isolation.
d_ = no culture made.
Microbiological Investigations 93
Table 5
A B C A B C
Toes 3A 0a _b
Hands 0 0 0 3A 0
Nasal 3A 0 3A 3A 187
Th roat 0 0 0 3A 187
Ears 0 0 0 3A 0
Gloves 0 0 3A 3A 0
UCD 0 0 3A 0 3A
a0 = no isolation.
b_ = not cultured.
An increase in S. aureus did not occur on the Apollo 8, 9, 10, or 11 missions, even
though, on two of these missions, at least one crewmember was carrying a nasal S. aureus.
The microorganism did not increase in number as observed on the Apollo 7 and 12
missions, and was not exchanged between crewmen.
During the Apollo 13 flight, the transfer of S. aureus was again demonstrated. The
Commander (CDR) and the Command Module Pilot (CMP) each carried S. aureus before
flight, but the organisms were of different strains. Both strains were recovered after flight
from the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP), who had not exhibited either strain before flight
(table 6).
The Apollo 15 flight was an example of a more common occurrence, in which one
crewmember, exhibiting multiple strains, probably acted as a reservoir to effect a transfer
of one strain to another previously uncolonized crewmember during the flight. The
transfer was from the CDR to the LMP, who spent more time with the CDR during the
mission than did the CMP (table 7). The occurrence of intercrew transfer of
microorganisms was demonstrated on many Apollo missions.
launch. Urine samplcs were evaluated periodically through the day of launch, and seven
different medically important microorganisms were isolated (table8). Of the
microorganisms listed, the Haemophilus species was the most likely to cause a
bacteria-mediated recurrent urethritis. Clinical symptoms were not expressed during the
Apollo 14 space flight, although Haemophilus species was again isolated two weeks
following recovery. As was usually the case, the presence of potentially pathogenic
microorganisms Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Herellea vaginicola in the
postflight urine reflected the similar buildup observed in the urine collection device.
Table 6
CDR I I
CMP II II
LMP Absent I and II
Table 7
Nasal 29/52 X a x X
CDR Throat 29 X 3A 29
Gargle X N.T.b 29 29
CMP N.A. c X X X
An inflight malfunction of the Service Module, which caused early termination of the
Apollo 13 mission, created a suboptimal environment and a stressful situation for the
crew. Examination of the crew immediately after flight revealed that the LMP had a
severe urinary tract infection from which Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated as the
Microbiological
Investigations 95
causativeagent.
Antibiotictherapy wasadministered
andclosely monitored for 48days
followingrecovery
(figure4). Viablemicrobes
haddisappeared in themidstream urine
sampleswithinninedaysfollowingsplashdown, althoughP. aeruginosa could still be
recovered following prostatic massage after 16 days.
Table 8
CMP Urinanalysis
Preflight Postflight
Microorganisms
by Month by Month
13 0 0.5
Micrococcus species
Corynebacterium species
Haemophi/us species +
Staphylococcus
epidermidis
Diphtheroid
Streptococcus species
(_-hemolytic)
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Proteus mirabilus
Herelea vaginicola
The illness occurrence illustr/ltes the types of infectious problems that can occur
when the life support system is operating suboptimally for even a short period. Another
example of the effect of unfavorable environmental conditions and poor hygiene was
observed with the increased incidence of pathogenic microorganisms on the body surface.
(figure 5). Whereas only three species (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and
Hereilea vaginicola) were recovered on the morning of launch, seven medically important
species were recovered immediately after splashdown. In addition, the number of isolates
of each species was generally higher after flight. Although there was generally a slight
postflight increase in the incidence of pathogens in other crews, the Apollo 13 increase
was significantly elevated. An average of 175 percent more medically important species
was recovered from the seven Apollo 13 postflight skin swabs as compared with an
average increase of only 33 percent for the same samples from the Apollo 14 flight.
It was not unusual to find at least one crewmember from each Apollo team harboring
the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans in the mouth. The presence of this species
generally does not pose a significant threat to healthy adults. However, the other fungi
that normally exercise a controlling influence on C. albicans populations through
96 Biomedical Remits of Apollo
Antibiotics Administered
A - Tetracycline (inflight)
B - Furadantin- Pyridium
C - Coly-Mycin B
104
c
I \
8 .( It \\
_ 10 3
_-_ / i II \\\
E
e- \\\ / \\
0
O
¢J 101 ? ,\
C_
100 i
0 10 20 30 40 50 6O
microbial competition have decreased dramatically during space flight. This population
shift creates a situation in which the natural resistance to infection may be decreased at a
time when clinical diagnosis and treatment are most difficult.
The presence of C. albicans, as well as other species of Candida that have similarly
been implicated in a variety of pathogenic situations, was carefully monitored during each
Apollo flight. No anomalies were noted among any of the Apollo crewmembers that
could be traced to yeast infections. Whether this lack of microbial competition could
mediate a disease state during missions of longer duration is a matter of conjecture, but
the Apollo data demonstrate the existing possibility.
The Apollo 17 Command Module Pilot exhibited a chronic dermatitis on the skin of
the groin and both feet before and after flight. The pathogenic fungus Trichophyton
rubrum was isolated as the causative agent at each sampling period. A similar dermatitis
was present on the skin of the Commander's toes, although the causative agent could not
be cultured. The presence of active dermatophyte infections on two of the Apollo 17
crewmembers afforded the opportunity to study the response of this type of disease
condition to short-term space flight. Analysis of the lesions after flight revealed no
discernible change from the preflight condition. Likewise, there was no evidence of
transfer of T. rubrum to other parts of the body.
A potential avenue of secondary infection was carefully monitored in the Apollo 17
crewmen. The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa was present on the toes
Microbiological Investigations 97
U
4_ .C
(.D
n n
t- ....
® E E
J E E
m N
m N t-"
m N
m _ 0
t,-,-
0
o
_J
_J
0
,<
0 0
e._
uafoql.e d
e-,
@
_ _ _ HI HI _-_ _=
__. _.
_ _,_ rt
Ill m
II _
RI ._ ,_
._, ._ _,_ _,- '_ _
-
._:
0
uafiottle d
98 Biomedical Results of Apollo
of the CDR before flight and spread to the toes of the CMP and the LMP during flight.
However, the presence of this species near the dermatophytic lesions did not result in a
secondary, P. aeruginosa mediated infection.
Spacecraft microbial samples from the Apollo 7 through 12 missions were evaluated.
The microorganisms obtained from the four preflight and postflight Command Module
samples were grouped according to morphological type (table 9). Although the sample
population was small, a definite trend of increased numbers of potential pathogens was
observed.
Table 9
Total Isolations
Morphological Type
Immediate Preflight Immediate Postflight
Gram-positive cocci 38 47
Baci/lus species 13 4
Diptheroids 8 13
Gram-negative rods 0 9
Filamentous fungi 14 9
Yeasts 6 3
o9
o9
¢9
°_
0
IIIlll I II
el
4-'
¢9 - d,,.,,. I I t-
0
o9
r_
el 2
t-
I I
_ I I I I I I
el O'6
_S
02rG_ PAG2
oF Poo2Q__
100 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table I 1
Microorganisms Recovered
a
Floor Micrococcus species 3
Micrococcus species 5
Micrococcus species 14
Pseudomonas maltophilia b
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Herelea vaginicola b
Klebsiella pneumoniae b
Proteus mirabilis b
Streptococcus faecalis b
The Apollo 14 data also illustrate the general phenomenon of buildup of medically
important species during the space flight. Only one potentially pathogenic species
(Pseudomonas maltophilia) was recovered from the Command Module sites before
lift-off, whereas four different potential pathogens, Herellea vaginicola, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Streptococcusfaecalis, were recovered after flight. This
same pattern was generally noted in each of the flights for which the appropriate samples
were collected.
from urine collection device analysis. Table 12 illustrates a common pattern with the
UCD samples. UCDs were first sampled in the clean room at the NASA John F. Kennedy
Space Center the morning of launch, and were generally free of microbes. However,
variety of contaminants. All but one species (Bacillus) of the microbes recovered after
Microbiological Investigations 101
flight from the Apollo 14 devices were potential pathogens. The buildup of Proteus
mirabilis on the UCD reoccurred throughout most of the Apollo missions. Close contact
of susceptible parts of the body with a contaminated UCD presented a significant medical
hazard.
Table 12
Bacillus species a 1
Klebsiella pneumoniae b 3
Proteus mirabilis b 1
Pseudomonas maltophilia b 2
Staphylococcus epidermidis 2
Paired t-tests were performed on the crew bacterial flora of the Apollo 7 to ll
missions to identify significant changes in the number or occurrence of microorganisms in
the postflight period as compared with the preflight period. Comparisons were made by
testing both the sum of actual bacterial counts within a genus and the sum of occurrence
of a particular genus at each sampling site. Times selected for comparison of the paired
genera in the identified groups were F-30 and F-0; F-30 and R+0; and F-0 and R+0. The
tests were performed on the microflora of the stool, urine, throat-mouth gargle, and
inguinal region samples. All body surface samples, which included the inguinal region
samples, were tested as a single group. The microflora of each sample area were further
divided into groups of aerobic gram positives, anaerobic gram positives, aerobic gram
negatives, and anaerobic gram negatives.
Significant alteration at the 0.05 level in the count, or occurrence, of microorganisms
during these missions was indicated only in the inguinal region by this test method.
Alteration of the microflora in this sample area was expected because of the poor
personal hygiene measures available to the Apollo crewmen following defecation. In
general, a high degree of variation was observed in the microflora between sampling
periods, between crewmen, and between missions. No other consistent alteration to the
microflora was observed by this test method.
Serological titers were determined preflight on crewmen, crew contacts, and key mis-
sion personnel to ascertain immune status to mumps, rubella, and rubeola. The immune
status of all astronauts to poliomyelitis virus types I, 2, and 3 was also determined. In
addition, complement-fixation antibody titers to influenza A, influenza B, ECHO virus
(group), adenovirus (group), parainfluenza, herpes simplex, Mycoplasma pneumoniae,
cytomega]ovirus, and respiratory syncytial virus were determined for the crewmembers.
102 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Poliomyelitis virus was isolated from the preflight stools of thc Apollo 11 crewmen
after the crewmen had been given poliomyelitis boosters. Herpes simplex virus was
isolated from the throat specimen collected immediately before flight from one
Apollo 15 crewmember. This virus was not isolated from postflight specimens.
An investigation of the postflight illness of Apollo 7 crewmen established A 2 Hong
Kong influenza as the causative agent by serological confirmation. Postflight illnesses in
two Apollo 9 crewmembers were confirmed as influenza B virus by virus isolation and
identification.
A study of the rubella virus exposure of the Apollo 13 crewmembers definitely
established that a backup crewmember was infected with rubella virus. The source of the
backup crewmember's exposure was also identified. After the immune status of the
Apollo 13 crew was determined, one crew reassignment was made and the scheduled
initiation of the flight was permitted. The following viruses were isolated from personnel
who either worked behind the biological barrier or were contacts of the crew: rhinovirus;
herpes simplex; adenovirus type 2 and type 5; Coxsackie A6, A24, B1, and B3; and
enteric cytopathogenic human orphan (ECHO) virus type 1. The crewmen remained free
from manifestations of similar illnesses.
Mycoplasma species were routinely isolated from preflight and postflight specimens
from all Apollo crewmen. Throat specimens frequently yielded Mycoplasma salivarium
and Mycoplasma orale I, and Mycoplasma hominis was isolated from the urine.
Mycoplasma laidlawii A was isolated from throat and urine specimens of Apollo 12
crewmen. Some evidence of cross infection was noted. Usually, Mycoplasma species were
isolated from one or two crewmembers, and the same species were isolated before and
after flight. The largest number of isolations was obtained from the Apollo 12 and 13
crewmen. Mycoplasma species were isolated from preflight and postflight specimens
obtained from all crewmembers of these missions.
The return of sterile lunar soil indicated the success of measures developed to prevent
lunar soil contamination. The likelihood of returning a lunar microorganism was
recognized as being very small. However, the possibility of lunar soil contamination with
terrestrial organisms was considerably greater. Had the soil become contaminated, the
catalog developed before flight of microorganisms carried to the moon would have been
extremely useful in identifying a terrestrial contaminant. The need for a premission
microbial catalog will exist for future manned missions to other planets unless substantial
advances can be made in the collection and transportation procedures of foreign soil, thus
ensuring the return of the soil in its original state.
Considerable variation in the microfloral response was observed on the Apollo
missions. The variables of host susceptibility, external environmental factors, and
ecological relationships among competing species of microorganisms were undoubtedly
responsible for the observed response of the microflora.
An increased incidence and spread of potentially pathogenic microorganisms between
crewmen was demonstrated on several missions. In all cases, the organisms carried by each
Microbiological Investigations 10 3
crewman were carefully monitored throughout the preflight and postflight phases in an
effort to prevent, or control, infectious disease events. A major consideration for future
missions of longer duration should be to develop improved preventive measures and
inflight monitoring and diagnostic systems. Such systems will provide coverage for
inflight illness events and will provide additional understanding of the microfloral
response and its relationship to illness events.
Preflight and postflight microbial analysis of samples obtained from the Command
Module showed a loss of the preflight microorganisms occurs during the mission.
Microflora isolated at sampling sites before flight were replaced by microorganisms from
the crew.
No observations made suggest the spacecraft environment predisposes the crewmen to
viral or mycoplasma-induced illness.
CHAPTER 3
by
J. Vernon Bailey
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
The solar and cosmic radiation found in space has long been recognized as a possible
danger in space travel. Exposure to such radiation has the potential of causing serious
medical problems. For example, radiation exposure can produce a number of significant
changes in various elements of the blood, making an individual more susceptible to
disease;also, ionizing radiations of the type found in space can produce significant damage
to the lens of the eye. Radiation exposure can also cause temporary or lasting damage
to the reproductive system ranging from rcduced fertility to permanent sterility. The
extent of damage dcpends upon the tissue involved, the duration of exposure, the dose
received, and other factors.
Apollo missions placed men for the first time outside the Earth's geomagnetic shield,
subjecting them to potentially hazardous particulate radiation of an intensity and
frequency not encountered in the Earth's environment. In addition, various aspects of
ground-based operations in support of Apollo missions involved some exposure to
radioactive materials, for example during manufacture, testing, and installation of
radioluminescent panels in the spacccraft. In flight, astronauts were exposed to both
manmade radiations and those occurring naturally in space. Of the two, space radiations
posed the larger hazard and were largely uncontrollable. Manmade radiation sources,
while of appreciable strength, could bc controlled.
The Apollo radiation protection program focused on both the natural radiations
encountered in space and manmade radiations encountered on the ground and in the
space environment. In both areas, the basic philosophy remained the same: to avoid
harmful radiation effects by limiting the radiation dose to the lowest level judged
consistent with the achievement of beneficial goals.
105
PRmED G PAGE
106 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The problem of protecting astronauts against the radiation found within the
Van Allen belts was recognized before the advent of manned space flight. These two
bands of trapped radiation, discovered during the Explorer I flight in 1958, consist
principally of protons and high-energy electrons, a significant part of which were, at that
time, debris from high-altitude tests of nuclear weapons. The simple solution to
protection is to remain under the belts [below an altitude of approximately 556 km
(_300 nautical miles)] when in Earth orbit, and to traverse the belts rapidly on the way
to outer space. In reality, the problem is somewhat more complex. The radiation belts
vary in altitude over various parts of the Earth and are absent over the north and south
magnetic poles. A particularly significant portion of the Van Allen belts is a region known
as the South Atlantic anomaly (figure 1). Over the South Atlantic region, the
geomagnetic field draws particles closer to the Earth than in other regions of the globe.
The orbit inclination of a spacecraft determines the number of passes made per day
through this region and, thus, the radiation dose.
8O
40
40
.,
Particles wit in the Van Allen belts, in spiraling around the Earth magnetic lines of
force, display directionality. This directionality varies continuously in angular relation-
ship to the trajectory of the spacecraft. Therefore, dosimetry instrumentation for use in
the Van Allen belts had relatively omnidirectional radiation Sensors so that the radiation
flux would be measured accurately. The Van Allen belt dosimeter (figure 2) was designed
specifically for Apollo dosimetry within these radiation belts.
their mission safely. I t is estimated that within the Command Module during this event,
the crewmen would have received a dose of 360 rads" to their skin and 35 rads to
their blood-forming organs (bone and spleen). Radiation doses to crewmen while inside
the thinly shielded Lunar Module or during an extravehicular activity (EVA) would be
extremely serious for such a particle event. To monitor particle activity, a nuclear-
particle-detection system (figure 3) was designed to have a relatively narrow acceptance
angle. I t measured the isotropic proton and alpha particles derived from solar-particle
events.
Figure 3. Nuclear-particledetectionsystem.
Cosmic Rays
Cosmic ray fluxes, consisting of completely ionized atomic nuclei originating outside
the solar system and accelerated to very high energies, provided average dose rates of
1.0 millirads per hour in cislunar space** and 0.6 millirads per hour on the lunar surface.
These values are expected to double at the low point in the 11-year cycle of solar-flare
activity (solar minimum) because of decreased solar magnetic shielding of the central
planets. The effect of high-energy cosmic rays on humans is unknown but is considered
by most authorities not to be of serious concern for exposures of less than a few years.
Experimental evidence of the effects of these radiations is dependent on the development
of highly advanced particle accelerators or the advent of long-term manned missions
outside the Earth's geomagnetic influence.
*Radiation absorbed dose. Correspondsto absorption of watts (100 ergs) per gram of any medicine.
bb
That region of space between the Earth and the moon or the moon's orbit.
Radiation Protection and Instrumentation 109
Neutrons
Neutrons created by cosmic rays in collision with lunar materials were postulated to
be a potential hazard to Apollo crewmen (Kastner et al., 1969). Two methods for
neutron-dose assessment were used. These techniques of whole-body counting and
neutron-resonant foil were initiated on the Apollo 11 mission. Later analyses indicated
that neutron doses were significantly lower than had been anticipated. Both methods
were retained because of the remaining potential for neutron production by solar-event
particles and because of possible crewman exposure to neutrons from the SNAP-27
radioisotope thermal generator used to power the Apollo lunar surface experiments
packages.
Detection Devices
To allow accurate determination of overall radiation exposure of the crewmen, each
carried a personal radiation dosimeter (PRD) (figure 4) and three passive dosimeters
(figure 5). The PRD provided visual readout of accumulated radiation dose to each
crewman as the mission progressed. I t is approximately the size of a cigarette pack, and
pockets were provided in the flight coveralls as well as in the space suit for storage. The
passive dosimeters were placed in the garments worn throughout the mission. By placing
these detectors at various locations (ankle, thigh, and chest) within the garments, accurate
radiation doses for body portions were determined.
SENSOR
0 7.1 cc TISSUE-EQUIVA
I O N CHAMBER
WEIGHT
0 0.4 LBS
VOLUME
0 5.46 IN.3
0 RANGE 4
0 0-1000 RADS I N 0.0
RAD INCREMENTS
0 OPERATING LIFE
e 2000 HOURS
5 b s - i x
Table 1
Onboard Radiation Instrumentation
Average radiation doses were computed for each mission (table 2). Individual readings
varied approximately 20 percent from the average because of differences in the shielding
effectiveness of various parts of the Apollo spacecraft as well as differences in duties,
movements, and locations of crewmen. Doses to blood-forming organs were
approximately 40 percent lower than the values measured at the body surface. In
comparison with the doses actually received, the maximum operational dose (MOD) limit
for each of the Apollo missions was set at 400 rads (X-ray equivalent) to skin and 50 rads
to the blood-forming organs.
Radiation doses measured during Apollo were significantly lower than the yearly
average of 5 rem _ set by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for workers who use
*Roentgen Equivalent, Man refers to the absorbed dose of any ionizing radiation which produces the
same biological effects in man as those resulting from the absorption of I roentgen of X-rays.
l t2 Biomedical Results of Apollo
radioactive materials in factories and institutions across the United States. Thus, radiation
was not an operational problem during the Apollo Program. Doses received by the
crewmen of Apollo missions 7 through 17 were small because no major solar-particle
events occurred during those missions. One small event was detected by a radiation sensor
outside the Apollo 12 spacecraft, but no increase in radiation dose to the crewmen inside
the spacecraft was detected.
Table 2
7 0.16
8 .16
9 .20
10 .48
11 .18
12 .58
13 .24
14 1.14
15 .30
16 .51
17 .55
One particular effect possibly related to cosmic rays was the light-flash phenomenon
reported on the Apollo 11 and subsequent missions. Although it is well known that
ionizing radiations can produce visual phosphenes (subjective sensations best described as
flashes of light) of the types reported, a definite correlation was not established between
cosmic rays and the observation of flashes during the Apollo Program. The light flashes
were described as starlike flashes or streaks of light that apparently occur within the eye.
The flashes were observed only when the spacecraft cabin was dark or when blindfolds
were provided and the crewmen were concentrating on detection of the flashes.
There is a possibility that visual flashes might indicate the occurrence of damage to
the brain or eye; however, no damage has been observed among crewmen who
experienced the light-flash phenomenon. During the Apollo 16 and 17 missions, a device
known as the Apollo Light Flash Moving Emulsion Detector (ALFMED) was employed
for the purpose of establishing if the flashes were indeed being caused by heavy cosmic
rays. Further information regarding the light-flash phenomenon is contained in
Section IV, Chapter 2 of this book.
Although Apollo missions did not undergo any major space radiation contingency,
procedures for handling radiation problems were ready. The development of spacecraft
dosimetry systems, the use of a space radiation surveillance network, and the availability
of individuals with a thorough knowledge of space radiation assured that any contingency
would be recognized immediately and would be coped with in a manner most expedient
Radiation Protection and Instrumentation 113
for both crewmember safety and mission objectives. The possible deterrent to manned
space flight by large radiation doses was successfully avoided in the Apollo missions. More
significantly, Apollo astronaut doses were negligible in terms of any medical or biological
effects that could have impaired the function of man in the space environment.
The two key problems affecting safe operations with manmade radiation were
resolved by design modifications. Leakage of radioactive materials from radioluminescent
switch tips was eliminated by a change in encapsulating material. The problem of
extensive emission of soft X-ray radiation from radioluminescent panels was resolved by
applying a layer of plastic to the panels.
Radiation was not an operational problem during the Apollo Program. Doses received
by the crewmen of Apollo missions 7 through 17 were small because no major solar-particle
events occurred during those missions. One small event was detected by a radiation sensor
outside the Apollo 12 spacecraft, but no increase in radiation dose to the crewmen inside
the spacecraft was detected. Solar-particle releases are random events, and it is possible
that flares, with the accompanying energetic nuclear particles, might hinder future flights
beyond the magnetosphere of the Earth.
Radiation protection for the Apollo Program was focused on both the peculiarities of
the natural space radiation environment and the increased prevalence of manmade
radiation sources on the ground and onboard the spacecraft. Radiation-exposure risks to
crewmen were assessed and balanced against mission gain to determine mission
constraints. Operational radiation evaluation required specially designed radiation-
detection systems onboard the spacecraft in addition to the use of satellite data, solar
observatory support, and other liaison. Control and management of radioactive sources
and radiation-generating equipment was important in minimizing radiation exposure of
ground-support personnel, researchers, and the Apollo flight and backup crewmen.
References
Anon.: Occupational Safety and Health Standards. Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations, part 1910,
,May 1971.
Anon.: Standards fGl" Protection Against Radiation. Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, part 20,
rev. July 15, 1971.
Kastner, Jacob; Oltman, B.G.; Feige, Yehuda; and Gold, Raymond: Neutron Exposure to Lunar
Astronauts. Health Phys., vol. 17, no. 5, Nov. 1969, pp. 732-733.
N76 12672
CHAPTER 4
by
J.M. Waligora
D.J. Horrigan
Introduction
Extravehicular activity, particularly on the lunar surface, was a key and essential part
of the Apollo Program. However, the physical capabilities of the crewmen in the
performance of extravehicular activity (EVA) and the physiological cost to the crewmen
were some of the significant uncertainties of the program.
The space environment imposed life support requirements during EVA: the
maintenance of a minimum oxygen pressure, the removal of expired carbon dioxide, the
provision for useful mobility, and the maintenance of body temperature. To meet these
requirements, a composite pressure suit of many layers and complex joints was
developed. * The result of the development was a pressure suit that provided excellent
thermal insulation in a vacuum, but imposed a much greater workload on the wearer in a
onc-g environment than the work required to perform the same activity without a suit. In
addition to the difficulty of working in a pressure suit, Apollo crewmen had to contend
with either zero g for the free-space EVA or one-sixth g for the lunar surface EVA.
Zero-g extravehicular activities were performed during five Gemini missions, and
considerable difficulty was experienced by the crewmembers. Crewmen experienced high
work rates and apparent overheating during Gemini 4, Gemini 9, and Gemini 11 EVAs.
The crewmen also encountered unexpected difficulty performing specific tasks on each of
the Gemini missions (Roth, 1968). After the particularly exhausting experience on the
Gemini 11 EVA, the Gemini 12 EVA was redirected to serve as an evaluation of zero-g
EVA capability and restraint technology. It was found that adequate body restraints,
The following individuals shared responsibility for development of measurement methods and
real-time data analysis during extravehicular activities: G.F. Humbert, L. Kuznetz, L.J. Nelson, A.P.
Schachter, S.J. Vogel, and R.J. Kelley.
115
PR]_CFj)ING
PAGE BLANK NO__
116 Biomedical Results of Apollo
realistic zero-g preflight training in a water immersion simulator and detailed preplanning
of activity were essential to insure task performance and reduce fatigue (Machel, 1967).
Although metabolic rates were not measured during the Gemini EVAs, it was clear in
several instances that crewmen worked at levels above the heat removal capability of the
gas cooled life support system (Kelley et al., 1968).
Several researchers reported on the effect of one-sixth g on the cost of work in a
pressure suit. The results were inconclusive. Wortz and Prescott (1966), Margaria and
Cavagna (1964), and Shavelson (1968) predicted metabolic costs would decrease with
subgravity walking. Roth (1966), Springer and co-workers (1963), and Shevelson and
Seminara (1968) indicated that a metabolic increase would accompany low traction
exercise. Another factor of uncertainty was the terrain and surface composition of the
moon and its effect on mobility and metabolic rate. In response to these uncertainties,
conservative biomedical estimates of the life support requirements were defined on the
basis of available data. Methods to measure metabolic rate during EVA were developed by
using operational data from the portable life support system (PLSS).
Because the pressure suit was well insulated to protect the crewman from external
high and low temperature extremes, the portable life support system of the pressure suit
had to dissipate the crewman's heat production. A liquid cooling system was developed to
accommodate high heat production in the suit as a result of the high EVA workloads.
This system consisted of plastic cooling tubes on the inside of an undergarment. The
garment could suppress sweating at work rates as high as 1670x 103J/hr
(= 400 kcal/hr) and allowed sustained operation at rates as high as 2090 x 103 J/hr
(_ 500 kcal/hr) (Waligora & Michel, 1968).
The PLSS used for the Apollo 9, 11, 12, and 14 missions could support a total
metabolic heat production of approximately 5020 x 103 J (1200 kcal), produced either
at 1670 x 103 J/hr (_400 kcal/hr) for three hours, or at 1260 x 103 J/hr (_300 kcal/hr)
for four hours. An expanded PLSS was used for the Apollo 15 through 17 missions that
could support a total metabolic heat production of 7530 x 103 J (_1800 kcal).
This system provided for EVAs of seven hours at 1050 x 103 J/hr (_250 kcal/hr) or eight
hours at 942 x 103 J/hr (=225 kcal/hr).
During the longer EVA periods a potential life support problem was dehydration. A
drinking bag containing 100 x 10 -5 m 3 of liquid was made available in the suit for
replacement of water lost in sweat and respiration.
During the Apollo 15 through 17 missions, zero-g extravehicular activities were
performed from the Command Module (CM) by means of an umbilical that provided
approximately 0.3 m3/min (10 ft3/min) of gas for cooling. These extravehicular activities
were limited to less than one hour.
Temperature Control
Suit temperature was controlled by a three-position manual valve that regulated the
temperature of the coolant water flowing through the liquid cooling garment (LCG).
Metabolism and Heat Dissipation During Apollo EVA Periods 117
During the Apollo 11, 12, and 14 missions, the valve positions provided cooling water at
temperatures of approximately 294°K (21°C) at the minimum position, 288°K (15°C)
at the intermediate position, and 280°K (7°C) at the maximum position. Typically
during these missions the temperature control valve was usually switched from minimum
to intermediate and back again. The Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot was the only crewman
who frequently used the maximum cooling position. The expanded portable life support
system used on the Apollo 15 through 17 missions had a diverter valve that provided
cooling water temperatures of approximately 300°K(27°C), 291°K(18°C),and
280°K (7°C). The minimum and intermediate cooling temperatures were increased to
avoid overcooling during riding of the lunar roving vehicle. These temperature settings
were quite satisfactory. Although the minimum and intermediate settings were most
commonly used, the maximum setting was frequently used during high workload periods
experienced during the Apollo 15 and 17 missions.
During two EVA periods, crewmen were instructed to change a diverter valve setting
from minimum to intermediate as a preventive measure, but no crewman ever appeared to
have a serious thermal problem. Despite variations in the frequency of diverter valve
changes, each crewman maintained a suitable average temperature during the EVA
periods. In all cases, 60 to 80 percent of the heat generated by metabolism was dissipated
through the LCG. The LCG used during the lunar surface extravehicular activities
undoubtedly minimized water loss from sweating and prevented dehydration and
excessive fatigue.
For the Command Module extravehicular activities performed during the Apollo 15
through 17 missions, the only cooling available to the crewmen was from gas
ventilation at a rate of 0.3 m3/min (_10 ft3/min). This ventilation rate could not
sustain prolonged work rates of more than 1050 x 103 J/hr @250 kcal/hr). Despite
this limitation, no overheating problems were experienced because good restraint
systems were available, training in the water immersion facility was adequate, and the
EVA periods were short.
Three methods were developed and used to estimate real-time metabolic rates:
1. The heart rate, counted from the electrocardiographic signal, was related to
metabolism on the basis of a correlation with bicycle ergometer workload which was
established before the flight (figure 1).
2. The oxygen usage, computed from the decrease in oxygen bottle pressure per unit
time, was related to metabolism. A correction was made for an assumed rate of suit
leakage.
3. The difference between the temperatures of the coolant water flowing into and out
from the liquid cooling garment was multiplied by an assumed water flow rate and related
to metabolism directly. This relationship is illustrated in figure 2, and it is based on the
assumption that the crewman is maintaining a comfortable LCG inlet temperature. A
second mode of computation was available in which crewman comfort is not assumed,
but a steady-state of the coolant inlet temperature is assumed. An example of this mode
of the LCG program is illustrated in figure 3. The basic difference between the two modes
of computation, then, is the fact that the LCG inlet temperature is used in the second
mode. This provided a greater degree of precision but required a constant inlet
temperature. An operational procedure was established to select the appropriate LCG
calculation mode as a function of the constancy of the inlet temperature.
In both the LCG computational modes, the metabolic rate was corrected by
subtracting an estimate of heat leaked into the pressure suit from the environment from
the total heat removed from the pressure suit.
After the mission was completed, the estimations made by each method of
calculation were independently reassessed with respect to the information gained during
the EVA including data on the sublimator feedwater remaining; real-time data were
recalculated when required. The best metabolic rate estimate for the EVA and for EVA
segments was then obtained by averaging the oxygen method and the LCG method.
Because of apparent changes in the correlation of heart rate with metabolism, the heart
rate method was not used independently. A postflight relationship of heart rate to
metabolism was defined using the average heart and metabolic rates as a point and basing
the slope of the relationship between heart rate and metabolic rate on the average of the
preflight and postflight slopes.
Two types of task-identification methods were used for separat!ng the activities
performed during the EVA periods. The metabolic rate monitors divided the operational
tasks into four types that were of interest to mission planners. These tasks consisted of
overhead activities (that is, tasks required for each EVA, such as egressing and ingressing
the vehicle, rather than those directed to a specific objective), deploying the Apollo lunar
surface experiments package (ALSEP), making geological surveys, and riding in the lunar
roving vehicle (LRV). Although these tasks were easy to separate according to time
required for completion, the subtasks within a major task varied considerably from
mission to mission. The oxygen and LCG methods could be used to obtain accurate
metabolic rates for these activites. A more extensive task separation was accomplished in
conjunction with a time and motion study.* This effort resulted in dividing the EVA
o
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timcline into as many definable activities as possible. Because of the short duration of
some of these activities, metabolic rates could be assigned only by using the postflight
heart rate method.
(Oc) OK
118.0) 291.2
114.4) 287.6
110.81 284.0
(.9
16.41 279.6
8
a
13.21 276.4
"3
0 273.2 I i i i [
527 1054 1581 2108 2635 3162 J/hr x 103
(1251 (250) (375) (500) (625) (730) (kcal/hr)
METABOLIC RATE
Figure 2. Example of mode 1 LCG program, metabolic rate plotted as a function of heat
picked up by LCG. Relationship is based on the assumption that crewman is maintaining
comfortable LCG inlet temperature.
(°C1 OK
(18.0) 291.2
I-
<1
z_ (14.4) 287.6
(3 (10.81 284.0
_) (6.4) 279.6
8
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0 273.2
527 1054 1581 2108 2635 3162 J/hr x 103
(1251 (250) (375) (500) (625) (730) (kcal/hr)
METABOLIC RATE
Figure 3. Example of mode 2 LCG program; metabolic rate plotted as a function of heat
picked up by the LCG for each of a family of inlet temperatures. Relationship is based
on the assumption that a steady-state exists; crewman comfort is not assumed.
Metabolism
andHeat Dissipation During Apollo EVA Periods 121
Preflight data during one-g training was quite valuable in assessing the validity of the
techniques of measurement but only of limited value in predicting actual workloads on
the lunar surface and during free-space EVAs. Table 1 shows some of the data obtained
prior to Apollo 15 as compared with the inflight data. As inflight data from previous
missions became available, it became the best indicator of workloads to expect on
succeeding missions.
Table 1
Energy Production
The metabolic rates experienced during the Apollo lunar surface extravehicular
activities are summarized in table 2. Representative data for the first Apollo 15 EVA are
given in table 3. The metabolic rates experienced during the EVA periods were lower than
had been predicted before the Apollo missions, and the crewmen were able to move easily
and confidently on the lunar surface. The overhead activities were the most energy
consuming tasks performed. These activities included egress, offloading and setup of
equipment around the Lunar Module (LM), ingress, and stowage of lunar samples. The
ALSEP deployment and geological survey resulted in lower metabolic rates than did the
overhead activity. This difference may have been attributable to the fact that the details
of these activities as a group were less predictable and required more time for judgment
and, in some cases, for precise manual manipulation.
The lowest metabolic rates occurred while astronauts drove and rode in the LIW
(figure 4). This was the most clearly defined operational activity. Metabolic rates for this
activity approached rates reported for shirt sleeve riding in an automobile (Webb, 1973).
The low metabolic rates experienced during this lunar activity were important factors
contributing to the success of the Apollo 15 through 17 missions through reduction in
both the use of consumables and the fatigue experienced by crewmen during the long
EVA periods.
The highest average metabolic rate during an EVA was exhibited by the Apollo 11
Lunar Module Pilot (LMP). This crewman had been assigned the task of evaluating modes
of locomotion and was quite active in performing this task. Several crewmen experienced
the minimum average metabolic rate of approximately 837 x 103 J/hr (200 kcal/hr) on
different missions. The highest metabolic rates experienced during the performance of
discrete activities were associated with LMP transport of the ALSEP pallet, LM ingress
122 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 2
Lunar EVA
Mission EVA ALSEP Geological Roving Total For Dura-
No. No. Crewman Deploy- Station Overhead Vehicle Activities tion
ment Activity Operations (hr)
1182 (282) 1153 (275) 1417 (338) 639 (152) 1159 (277) 6.53
1
1369 (327) 778 (186) 1226 (293) 435 (104) 1033 (247) i6.53
1019 (243) 1227 (293) 1202 (287) 624 (149) 1054 (252)
15 2 _7.22
1110 (265) 792 (189) 1116 (266) 414 (99) 854 (204) 7.22
1095 (261) 1013 (242) 1303 (311) 578 (138) 1086 (260) 4.83
3
962 (230) 788 (188) 981 (234) 447 (106) 854 (204) 4.83
869 (207) 9O5 (216) 1146 (273) 725 (173) 917 (219) :7.18
1
1081 (258) 1125 (268) 1154 (275) 666 (169) 1065 (255) 7.18
1192 (285) 1094 (261) 1267 (302) 506 (121) 1150 (275) 7.20
1
1166 (278) 1255 (300) 1193 (285) 472 (113) 1139 (272) 7.20
Mean 1018 (244) 1018 (244) 1123 (270) 518 (123) 980 (234)
CDR = Commander
LMP = Lunar Module Pilot
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
Metabolism and Heat Dissipation During Apollo EVA Periods 123
with lunar samples, and drilling and removal of drill bits. The flight surgeon never had to
limit the work rate of any crewman during an EVA. The lowest rates experienced for
discrete activities were associated with riding the LRV, picture taking, and with periods
Table 3
Duration i Average
End Time
Metabolic Rate
Surface Activity (hr:min) (min)
J/hr x 10 3 (kcal/hr)
During the Apollo 14 mission, which included some of the most extensive walking
traverses (figure 5), a specific effort was made to relate walking speed to metabolic rate.
Thc results of this effort are presented in table 4. These data indicate a very poor
correlation between traverse rate and metabolic rate. During these operational traverses,
the crewman apparefifiy maintained a comfortable walking effort, and, to a large extent,
,t
124 Biomedical Results of Apollo
the rate of travel at this level of effort varied with the terrain and the operational
requirements of each traverse.
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126 Biomedical Results of Apollo
In general, both the speed and the efficiency of lunar walking were greater than could
be achieved while wearing a pressure suit in a one-g environment; neither speed nor
efficiency was equivalent to that of a shirt sleeve operation at one g.
Operational film and kinescope were used in performing a time and motion study of
Apollo 15 and 16 activities. This study compared the facility for, and energy cost of
performing several specific activities at one g during training wearing the Apollo space suit
with one-sixth g on the lunar surface. One of the observations of this study was that tasks
were completed more rapidly at one g than at one-sixth g, but that greater metabolic
costs were involved (Kubis et al., 1972a; Kubis et al., 1972b).
In addition to the 14 periods of lunar surface activity, there were four periods of
zero-g EVA. The metabolic data from these EVA periods are summarized in table 5.
During the Command Module extravehicular activities performed during the Apollo 15
through 17 missions, the Command Module Pilot retrieved a film canister from the
Service Module while the Lunar Module Pilot tended his umbilical in the doorway of the
Command Module (figure 6). During the Command Module extravehicular activities,
heart rate was the only data available for estimating metabolic rate. Because the errors in
the heart rate method all tended to increase the metabolic rate estimate, these rates can
be considered maximum values. Voice contact with crewmen during these periods did not
indicate that they were working strenuously. The metabolic rates obtained from heart
rate data were not used to constrain extravehicular activities; in some cases, the actual
metabolic rates were much lower than the values obtained by means of heart rate
calibration data. Elevation of these heart rates was attributed more to excitement than to
exercise.
Table 5
Metabolic Expenditures
During Apollo Zero-G EVA Periods
Total 443
*Standup EVA
**Not measured
LMP = Lunar Module Pilot
CMP = Command Module Pilot
Metabolism and Heat Dissipation During Apollo E V A Periods 127
Figure 6. Apollo 17 CMP retrieving film canister from the Service Module.
Concluding Remarks
The Apollo crewmen were able to perform planned extravehicular activities and to
extend them to the maximum time allowable without medical problems. The metabolic
rates experienced during the lunar surface extravehicular activities were lower than
conscrative premission estimates.
A manually controlled liquid cooling garment was effectively used to minimize
fatigue and water loss from sweating during lunar surface extravehicular activities.
Gas cooling was adequate during the short zero-g extravehicular activities performed
from the Command Module.
The prediction of EVA workloads became more reliable as inflight data was
accumulatcd. The prediction of the average metabolic cost of an EVA was more reliable
than the cost of an individual short-term task.
References
Kelley, G.F.; Coons, D.O.; and Carpentier, W.R.: Medical Aspects of Gemini Extravehicular Activities.
Aerosp. Med., vol. 39, June 1968, pp. 611-615.
Kubis, J.F.; Elrod, J.T.; Rusnak, R.; and Barnes, J.E.: (Final Report) Apollo 15 Time and Motion
Study, NASA CR-128695, 1972a.
Kubis, J.F.; Elrod, J.T.; Rusnak, R.; Barnes, J.E.; and Saxon, S.C.: (Final Mission Report) Apollo 1 6
Time and Motion Study, NASA CR-128696,1972b.
i28 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Machel,R.M.,
ed:Summary ofGemini Extravehicular
Activity.
NASA SP-149,I967.
Margaria,
R.;andCavagna,G.A.:Human Locomotion in Subgravity.
Aerosp.Med.,
vol.35,Dec.
1964, pp.1140-1146.
Roth,E.M.:Bioenergetics
ofSpace SuitsforLunar Exploration.
NASA SP-84,
1966,pp.83-87.
Roth,E.M.,ed.:Compendium ofLunarResponses totheAerospaceEnvironment.
NASA CR-1205
(II),Nov.1968.
Shavclson,
R.J.:LunarGravitySimulationanditsEffectonHuman Performance.
Human Factors,
vol.10,Aug.1968,
pp.393-402.
Shavelson,
RJ.;andSeminara, J.L.:Effectof LunarGravity on Man'sPerformanceof Basic
MaintenanceTasks.
J.Appl. Physiol.,
vol52,1968, pp.177-183.
Springer,
W.E.;
Stephens,
T.L.;andStreimer,
I.: TheMetabolic
CostofPerforming
aSpecific
Exercise
inaLow-Friction
Environment.Aerosp.Med., vol.34,June
1963,pp.486-488.
Waligora,
J.M.;andMichel,E.L.:Application of ConductiveCooling
for Working
Menin the
ThermallyIsolated
Environment.Aerosp. Med.,vol.39,May1968,
pp.485-487.
Webb, P.:Work,Heat,andOxygen Cost.BioastronauticsDataBook.NASASP_3006, 1973,
pp.847-879.
Wortz,E.C.;
andPrescott,
E.J.:Effects ofSubgravityTractionSimulation
ontheEnergyCosts
of
Walking.Aerosp.
Med.,vol.37,Dec.1966,pp.1217-1222.
N76 12( 73
CHAPTER 5
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
by
E.L. Michel, M.S.
J.M. Waligora, M.S.-
D.J. Horrigan, M.S.
W.H. Shumate, Ph.D.
Introduction
Although many gaseous environments could have been used for the Apollo spacecraft,
technological constraints existing in the early manned space flight program dictated the
selection of the atmosphere ultimately used. Ideally, from a physiological point of view,
the optimum spacecraft atmosphere would have simulated normal or near-normal sea
level conditions. Because the state-of-the-art was not sufficiently advanced to cope with
the weight and volume penalty imposed by maintaining such an atmosphere, and since
spacecraft decompressions could not be precluded, compromises had to be made which
resulted in the choice of a spacecraft atmosphere that was not optimum from all points of
view, but which was adequate based on practical considerations and the results of
appropriate validation tests (Michel et al., 1963).
In addition to establishing the acceptable range of atmospheric composition and
pressure, consideration had to be given to the establishment of acceptable carbon dioxide
levels, to thermal comfort criteria, and to acceleration and impact limits.
The prime design requirements in any spacecraft system are minimum weight,
volume, and power usage; reliability, ease of maintenance, environmental compatibility,
integration with other systems, and crew compatibility. In Project Mercury, a 100 percent
oxygen, 34500N/m 2 (5psia) spacecraft atmosphere was selected. Although such
physiological considerations as maintenance of adequate oxygen partial pressure and
protection against decompression sickness were examined, the decision to use this
atmosphere was based primarily on the engineering considerations described above and
the fact that the longest Mercury mission was 34 hours in duration.
129
130 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
During initial planning for the Apollo Program, biomedical experts of the NASA
Space Task Group recommended a spacecraft atmosphere composed of 50 percent
oxygen and 50 percent nitrogen, at a pressure of 48 300 N/m 2 (7 psia). This recommen-
dation was approved, and contracts were awarded for the development of a suitable
environmental control system (ECS). Research involving mixed gas atmospheres was
initiated and mainly directed toward assessment of the potential dysbarism hazard
following either planned operational or emergency decompressions to the space suit
oxygen atmosphere of 25 500 N/m 2 (3.7 psia) (Damato et al., 1963).
Before the completion of Project Mercury, the decision was made to implement the
Gemini Program which would bridge the gap between Project Mercury and the Apollo
Program. The plan was one of minimum change and essentially involved enlarging the
Mercury spacecraft to permit occupancy by two crewmembers. The mission of the
Gemini Program was to obtain data and operational experience required for the Apollo
Program. From an engineering aspect, it was desirable to continue using the 34 500 N/m 2
(5psia), lOOpercent oxygen atmosphere, providcd that this atmosphere was
physiologically adequate for periods of as long as 14 days.
Several questions arose concerning the physiological acceptability of the pure oxygen
atmosphere for extended durations. At this time, the potential toxicity of oxygen at
34 400 N/m 2 (5 psia) had not been resolved. Additionally, it was felt that an inert gas
should be included in any artificial atmosphere as protection against atelcctasis.
Accordingly, a comprehensive validation program was instituted by NASA in cooperation
with the National Academy of Sciences Working Group on Gaseous Environments. Both
industrial and Department of Defense laboratories were used in the program. Data
obtained from fllese studies indicated that exposure of man for 14 days to the
100 percent oxygen, 34 500 N/m 2 (5 psia) atmosphere selected for the Gemini spacecraft
would not impose any physiological problem (Morgan et al., 1965; Welch et al., 1965;
Helvey et al., 1965; Mammen et al., 1965). As a result of these findings, the Apollo
Program Office elected to use this atmosphere in the Apollo spacecraft.
Subsequent atmosphere validation tests up to thirty days in duration indicated that
the 100 percent oxygen, 34 500 N/m 2 (5 psia) atmosphere was physiologically adequate
(Herlocher, 1964; Robertson et al., 1964; Zalusky, et al., 1964). These studies clearly
indicated, however, that this atmosphere was associated with nuisance findings such as
aural atelectasis, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. Medical investigations associated
with Gemini manned space flights resulted in suggestive, but not conclusive, evidence of
hematologic changes resulting from exposure to a single gas atmosphere (Fischer et al.,
1967). A consistent, time-related decrease in red cell mass was observed (Richardson
et al., 1972). Although the causes and implications of this decrease in red cell mass were
not completely understood they were not considered to be a deterrent to the use of
100 percent oxygen at 34 500 N/m 2 (5 psia) for Apollo spacecraft because of the limited
duration of these missions.
Apollo preflight checkout procedures initially encompassed an overpressurization of
the Command Module (CM) using 100 percent oxygen. After the Apollo fire, these
procedures were modified, and a mixture of 60 percent oxygen and 40 percent nitrogen
Environmental
Factors 131
lOO
A 9o
Z 8o
LIJ
>-
x
o
7o
0.30 kg/hr(0.67 Ib/hr)
The atmospheric pressure and composition after each launch remained between
32 406 and 35 164 N/m 2 (4.7 and 5.1 psia) at almost 100 percent oxygen for the
duration of each mission, including the time in the Lunar Module (LM). During
extravehicular activity (EVA), the s, its were pressurized to 26 546 +1034N/m2
(3.85 +0.15 psia) with 100 percent oxygen. No untoward atmospheric effects, such as
hypoxia, dysbarism, or oxygen toxicity, were experienced during any of the Apollo
missions.
theApollo13spacecraft.TheLunarModule environmentalcontrolsystemwasusedfor
approximately83hourson thismission,andthefirstlithiumhydroxide cartridge was
usedfor approximately83man-hours. Duringthistime,thecarbondioxidelevelwas
permittedto increase
to anindicated1981.7N/m2 (14.9torr).Subsequently,
fourCM
cartridgeswereusedin a specialarrangementdevised andtestedat the LyndonB.
Johnson Space Centerduringthemission.Byusingthisarrangement of four lithium
hydroxidecartridges,carbondioxidelevelsweremaintained between13.3 and
239.4N/m2 (0.1and1.8tort).
Space suitcarbondioxidelevelsweremaintainedwithinnominallimitsby proper
controlof oxygenventilation
flowaspredeterminedby laboratory
testing
(Micheletal.,
1969).Theconstantflowrateusedwas0.15m3/min(5.5ft3/min).
ThermalComfort
Thespace environment hasno knowneffectonthe thermoregulatory center,and
thereis noevidence thatanyeffectmightexist.However, it mustbeensured thatthese
environments do not exceedknownlimitswithin whichthermoregulation canbe
maintained.
Nomajorproblems in thermoregulationwereexperienced duringProject Mercury or
theGeminiandApolloPrograms. However, thermal stressmayhavecontributed to the
shortening of someGeminiextravehicular activity.Moreextensive EVAandlarger
vehiclesthatpermitmoreactivityareconditions thatwill complicate theheatremoval
system design forfuturemissions.
Thedesignrangefor temperature andhumiditycontrolin theApolloCommand
Modulewas294° to 300°K(70° to 80°F)witharelative humidityof 40to70percent.
Similarly,thedesign range fortheLunarModule was291° to300°K(65° to80°F)with
a relativehumidityof 40 to 70percent. Thermalcomfortandtolerance criteriawere
developed duringtheApolloProgram. Although thesecriteriadidnotreplace theApollo
specifications, they wereusedfrequentlyto assess the adequacy of pressure suit
temperature controlandin someinstances toevaluate theacceptability of contingency
cabin environments (Waligora,1970).Thesecriteriapredicteda slightlycoolerand
expanded comfortrangefor the Apollospacecraft environment compared to the
101356N/m2 (14.7psia)Earthenvironment.
Temperature in the CMwascontrolledthrougha combination of coldplate wall
radiatorsandacabin-gas heatexchanger.In practice, however, the gas heat exchanger was
neither effective nor necessary and because it increased the ambient noise level it was
seldom used. The ambient temperature sensor was located near the inlet to the heat
exchanger and it was necessary that the heat exchanger be operating to provide a
representative ambient temperature reading. Typically, when the heat exchanger was
turned on the temperature reading immediately rose 2.2 ° to 3.3°K (4 ° to 6°F), although
no constant offset can be assumed. The data from this sensor are presented in table 1.
No operational humidity measurements were made. Relative humidity was measured
with a portable device on the Apollo 7 spacecraft and was found to be within the design
range of 40 to 70 percent.
Environmental Factors 133
Table 1
Inflight
7 294.3 (70) 294.3 (70) 290.9 to 299.3 (64 to 79) 291.5 (65)
8 291.5 (65) 295.4 (72) 289.3 to 300.4 (61 to 81 ) 289.3 (61)
9 291.5 (65) 294.3 (70) 291.5 to 295.4 (65 to 72) 292.6 (67)
10 297.0 (75) 295.9 (73) 290.9 to 299.8 (64 to 80) 287.6 (58)
11 294.3 (70) 290.4 (63) 285.9 to 295.9 (55 to 73) 285.9 (55)
12 294.3 (7O) 292.6 (67) 287.6 to 299.8 (58 to 80) 288.7 (60)
13 294.3 (70) 290.9 (64) 287.6 to 294.8 (58 to 71) 297.0 (75)
14 294.3 (70) 296.5 (74) 288.7 to 298.2 (60 to 77) 288.1 (59)
15 294.3 (70) 293.7 (69) 288.1 to 300.4 (59 to 81 ) 288.1 (59)
16 294.3 (70) 294.3 (70) 287.0 to 299.8 (57 to 80) 287.0 (57)
17 294.3 (70) 293.7 (69) 289.3 to 300.4 (61 to 81 ) 289,8 (62)
Crew comments indicated that the Command Module was uncomfortably cool during
several missions, especially during sleep periods. These occurrences were noL serious
problems and crewmen compensated by increasing their clothing insulation.
During the Apollo 13 mission, the LM environmental control system provided a
habitable environment for approximately 83 hours (57:45 to 141:05 ground elapsed
time). Cabin temperature remained low due to low electrical power levels. This caused
crew discomfort during much of this time, with cabin temperatures ranging between 283 °
and 286°K (49 ° and 55°F).
During the Apollo 11 mission, the crewmen could not sleep in the Lunar Module
following EVA because they were too cool. Contributing to thc crewmen's discomfort
were the sleep positions on the floor of the vehicle, the use by the crewmen, for some
time after the EVA, of a cabin supply to their liquid cooling garments that had been
provided against a hot-case contingency; and vehicle temperatures between 288 ° and
290°K (58 ° and 62°F). Hammocks were provided for sleeping after subsequent Apollo
EVA's, and the cabin liquid cooling garment support system was not used before the
sleep period; therefore, the problem did not recur.
At the conclusion of each of the missions, the Command Module was precooled prior
to reentry to minimize the possible effect of the reentry thermal transients on the
internal temperature of the Command Module. No elevated cabin temperatures were
experienced during any of the reentries.
With the exception of Apollo 7, which used the Saturn IB, all Apollo missions used
the Saturn V launch vehicle. Launch acceleration loads were well within Apollo system
specifications, and crewmembers routinely reported that the launches produced no
I34 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
adversephysiological
stresses. A typical Saturn V launch profile is presented in
figure2.
g 3
w
.J
Saturn tl J_
Saturn IC
Ignition
Insertion
i i i J
i
O0 40 80 120 160 240 320 400 480 560 600
TIME (sec)
Maximum reentry G levels for all Apollo missions are shown in table 2. As may
be seen, deceleration levels for Earth orbital missions, Apollo 7 and 9, were about
one-half those of lunar missions. Neither reentry mode resulted in any medically
significant physiological stress. The greater reentry lift capability of the Apollo
spacecraft over its predecessors accounts for the much lower acceleration forces.
Reentry deceleration profiles of an Earth orbital and a lunar mission are presented
in figures 3 and 4.
Table 2
Maximum G
Flight at Reentry
Apollo 7 3.33
Apollo 8 6.84
Apollo 9 3.35
Apollo 10 6.78
Apollo 11 6.56
Apollo 12 6.57
Apollo 13 5.56
Apollo 14 6.76
Apollo 15 6.23
Apollo 16 7.19
Apollo 17 6.49
Environmental Factors 135
4.0
3.6
3.2
DrogUement
2.8
2,4
2.0
>
LU
--I
,5 1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
I I I I I
TIME (hr:min)
Drogue
_4
>
t,u
_d
_ j_oyment
I I ) I I I h _ I,
191:48 191:49 191:50 191:51 191:52 191:53 191:54 191:55 191:56 191:57 191:58
TIME (hr:min)
While nominal reentry G levels had been well tolerated by the crew and posed
n o severe constraints on crew performance, an Apollo launch abort could have
resulted in G, acceleration levels as high as 16.2 G with an oscillating 1/2 flz
component ranging from -1G, to t3.2 G,. Such abort acceleration levels in all
probability could have been endured without injury by crewmembers experienced in
acceleration tests and protected by the Apollo couch and restraint system. I t is very
doubtful that spacecraft control tasks could have been adequately performed under
such conditions and, for this reason, crew tasks were minimized during a launch
abort reentry. The Apollo spacecraft abort escape system was similar to that used in
the Mercury Project, consisting of an escape rocket separated from the attached
spacecraft by a tower. The rocket was provided, if required to lift the Command
Module away from the booster to an altitude high enough for safe parachute
deployment. The escape rocket can be seen at the very top of the spacecraft
(figure 5).
The Apollo spacecraft landing system employed three parachutes and the
repositioned Command Module system used in the Gemini Program (figure 6). The
spacecraft entered the water at a 27 1/2O angle on a nominal landing. The most
severe impact experienced in an Apollo space flight occurred with Apollo 12. It was
estimated that the Command Module entered the water a t a 20 to 22O angle which
resulted in a 15 G impact. This abnormal entry angle occurred when the wind
caused the spacecraft to swing and meet the wave slope at the more normal angle.
While the 15 G impact of Apollo 12 was described as very hard by the crewmen,
no significant physical difficulties were experienced. Apollo landing impact studies
involving 288 human tests were conducted on a linear decelerating device at
Holloman Air Force Base. These tests involved impact forces up to 30 G at various
selected body orientations. Although significant effects to the neurological,
cardiorespiratory, and musculoskeletal systems were recorded, none of the tests
resulted in significant incapacitation or undue pain (Brown et al., 1966).
138 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Summary
References
Allen, T.H.; Maio, D.A.; and Bancroft, R.W.: Body Fat, Denitrogenation and Decompression
Sickness in Men Exercising After Abrupt Exposure to Altitude. Aerospace Med., vol. 42,
no. 5, May 1971, pp. 518-524.
Brown, W.K.; Rothstein, J.D.; and Foster, P.: Human Responses to Predicted Apollo Landing
Impacts in Selected Body Orientations. Aerospace Med. vol. 37, 1966, pp. 394-398.
Damato, Morris J.; Highly, Francis M.; Hendler, Edwin; and Michel, Edward L.: Rapid Decompression
Hazards After Prolonged Exposure to 50 Per Cent Oxygen - 50 Per Cent Nitrogen Atmosphere.
Aerospace Med., Vol. 34, no. 11, Nov. 1963, pp. 1037-1040.
Fischer, Craig L.; Johnson, Philip C.; and Berry, Charles A.: Red Blood Cell Mass and Plasma Volume
Changes in Manned Space Flight. J. Am. Med. Assoc., vol. 200, no. 7 May 15, 1967, pp. 579-583.
Helvey, William M.; Albright, G.A.; Benjamin, F.B.; Gall, L.S.; et al.: Effects of Prolonged Exposure
to Pure Oxygen on Human Performance. NASA TN D-2506, 1965, pp. 99-474.
Herlocher, James, E.: Physiologic Response to Increased Oxygen Partial Pressure. Part I- Clinical
Observations. Aerospace Med., vol. 35, no. 7, July 1964, pp. 613-618.
Maio, Domenic A.; Allen, Thomas H.; and Bancroft, Richard W.: Decompression Sickness and
Measured Levels of Exercise on Simulated Apollo Missions. Aerospace Med., vol. 41, no. 10, Oct.
1970, pp. 1162-1165.
Maio, Domenic A.; Allen, Thomas H.; and Bancroft, Richard W.: Decompression Sickness in
Simulated Apollo Space Cabins. Aerospace Med., vol. 40, no 10, Oct. 1969, pp. 1114-1118.
Mammen, Robert E.; Critz, George T.; Dery, Donald W.; Highly, Francis M., Jr.; et al.: The Effect of
Sequential Exposure to Acceleration and the Gaseous Environment of the Space Capsule on the
Physiologic Adaptation of Man. NASA TN D-2506, 1965, pp. 475-518.
Michel, E.L.; Sharma, H.S.; and Heyer, R.E.: Carbon Dioxide Build-Up Characteristics in Spacesuits.
Aerospace Med., vol. 40, no. 8, Aug. 1969, pp. 827-829.
Michel, Edward L.; Smith, George B., Jr.; and Johnston, Richard S.: Gaseous Environment Considera-
tions and Evaluation Programs Leading to Spacecraft Atmosphere Selection. Aerospace Med.,
vol. 34, no. 12, Dec. 1963, pp. 1119-1121.
Morgan, Thomas E., Jr.; Cutler, Ralph G.; Shaw, Emil G.; lIIvedal, Frode; el al.: Physiologic Effects
of Exposure to Increased Oxygen Tension at 5 psia. NASA TN D-2506, 1965, pp. 25-56.
Richardson, B., ed.: Hematologic Response to a Continuous 30-Day Exposure to Hypobaric
Hyperoxia. Final Report. NASA MIPR 74401-G. USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks Air
Force Base, Texas, 1972.
Robertson, William G.; Hargreaves, John J.; Heflocher, James E.; and Welch, B.E.: Physiologic
Response to Increased Oxygen Partial Pressure, Part II- Respirator Studies. Aerospace Med.,
vol. 35, no. 7, July 1964, pp. 618-622.
Waligora, J.W.: Thermal Comfort and Tolerance Design Criteria. NASA JSC Report BRO DB-57-67B,
1970.
Environmental
Factors 139
Welch,
B.E.;
Cutler,
R.G.,
Herlocher,
J.E.,Hargreaves,
J.J.;etal.:Effect
ofVentilating
AirFlowon
HumanWaterRequirements.
NASATND-2506,1965,pp.57-85.
Zalusky,
Ralph;
Ulvedal,
Frode; Herlocher,
JamesE.;andWelch, B.E.:
Physiologic
Response
to
Increased
OxygenPartial
Pressure,
PartIII- Hematopoiesis.
Aerospace
Med.,
vol.35,no.7,July
1964,
pp.622-626.
N76 12674
CHAPTER 6
by
Bennie C. Wooley, Ph.D.*
Gary W. McCollum, M.S.
Introduction
When mission durations were increased during the Gemini Program, the possibility
that an infectious disease occurrence would adversely affect mission success also
increased. The problem did not seem one of major proportions for Project Mercury,
because the risk of developing and manifesting a disease during such short duration flights
was judged to be extremely low. Even so, crewmember activities were somewhat
restricted in terms of contact with persons not directly involved in flight activities. While
some cold and influenza symptoms were noted in crewmembers during the preflight
period, no inflight illnesses occurred during Project Mercury.
When the training phase of the Gemini Program began, medical personnel were still
providing active support for the Mercury flights. Little attention could, therefore, be
given to implementing any program of strict isolation of Gemini astronauts during the
prelaunch period. Medical personnel were successful in obtaining some reduction in the
number of persons with whom the crewmembers bad personal contact and were
succ_sfu!, to a limited extent, in having the flight crewmembers live in special quarters at
the launch site. During the prelaunch period, access to these living quarters was closely
controlled. While no direct illness erupted in flight, most Gemini crews experienced some
preflight illness including colds, influenza, Beta-hemolytic streptococcus infections, and
IrYlllm rb_
The authors are grateful to those who helped establish the requirements of the program and
participated in its successful implementation. Special acknowledgment is made to
Dr. Charles A. Berry, Mr. Richard S. Johnston, Dr. W.W. Kemmerer, Dr. Charles Ross, Dr. Jack
Teegen, Dr. John Elliott, Mr. Richard C. Graves, Dr. Howard Schneider, Mr. Larry Thompson,
Mr. DeArmond Mathews, and Mr. Paul Hilk. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Alfred E. Evans
of the National Academy of Sciences; Dr. Leslie Chambers, Dr. Harold Eitzen, Miss Kay Sue Blake,
University of Texas School of Public Health; Northrop Services, Inc.; the Kelsey-Seybold Medical
staff, Johnson Space Center; the Pan American Medical staff, Kennedy Space Center; Dr. T. Paul
Haney and the Brevard County Health Department, Rockledge, Florida; Mr. William F. Muller and the
Brevard County School Board, Titusville, Florida; and Dr. W.E. McConnell, USAF, who comple-
mented the programas a Dcpartment of Defense physician to the Kennedy Space Center.
*Currently with Becton, Dickinson, and Company, Rutherford, N.J.
141
During the early development of the Apollo Program, steps were taken by medical
personnel to document and implement a preventive medicine program to decrease the risk
of illness during the prelaunch and flight periods. Because of early operational problems,
no successful program could be developed for the Apollo 7 crewmembers. Perhaps in part
as a consequence of this, two Apollo 7 crewmembers developed upper respiratory tract
infections during the prelaunch period. These infections were successfully treated prior to
launch, ttowever, all crewmembers fell ill during the flight with symptoms which
continued into the postflight period.
As a result of the Apollo 7 experience, a medical plan was developed for application
to the prime and backup crews of future missions. The intent of the plan was to minimize
exposure of crewmen to infectious diseases during the two-week period prior to launch
for the crews of Apollo 8, 9, and 10, and during the three-week period preceding the
Apollo 11 lunar landing launch. The program was designed to ensure optimal immunity,
to reduce person-to-person contact, and to ensure rapid diagnosis and treatment of any
diseases that might occur prior to flight. However, as had been the case in the Gemini
Program, the Apollo training schedules had already been developed at the time a health
stabilization program was conceived, and flight crewmembers, in seeking to maximize
their training time and familiarity with spacecraft hardware, ran the risk of incurring
greater than desirable disease exposure.
During the Apollo 8 preflight period, all crewmembers suffered viral gastroenteritis.
Treatment appeared to be successful, and the spacecraft was launched on schedule.
However, viral gastroenteritis reoccurred in the Commander in flight. Before the flight,
crewmembers had attended a dinner at the White House, where, it later became known,
several guests had had symptoms of influenza. While no rigid health stabilization program
was to be established until the time of the Apollo 14 mission, increasing efforts in that
direction commenced after the Apollo 8 illness episode.
The emphasis of the post-Apollo 8 health stabilization efforts involved constraint of
crewmember activities that could impose the risk of disease exposure when such activities
were not directly related to flight preparation. The residence of the crewmembers was
limited to the crew quarters at the launch site, and control and screening were provided
for personnel who had access to the quarters and conference rooms. The use of laminar
airflow rooms for preflight press conferences was initiated in advance of the Apollo 11
mission. A proposed Presidential dinner prior to the Apollo 11 mission was cancelled
because of the potential risk to the health of the crew. Activities of the crewmembers
continued to be monitored closely. Despite these efforts, one of the primary Apollo 13
crewmembers was exposed to rubella by a backup crewman. Laboratory studies indicated
that the Command Module Pilot alone had no immunity to the disease and he had to be
replaced by one of the backup crew.
The Apollo 13 episode showed beyond question that the need existed for
implementation of a meticulously conceived and strictly enforced program for
minimizing and, hopefully, preventing exposure of flight crewmembers to infectious
diseases during the prelaunch period. Such a program was developed and conceived for
the Apollo 14 and subsequent missions. The program became known as the Flight Crew
Health Stabilization Program.
Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program 143
Purpose
The purpose of the Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program finally conceived and
implemented was to minimize or eliminate the possibility of adverse alterations in the
health of flight crews during the immediate preflight, flight, and postflight periods. The
elements of the program are indicated in figure 1. Each of these warrants discussion in
terms of the direction taken for implementation in the Apollo Program and for
subsequent missions.
Stabilization Program
Flight Crew Health
I
Clinical Exposure Epidemiological
Medicine Immunology Prevention Surveillance
Clinical Medicine
Because it is critical that all astronauts be maintained in good health, the Government
provided a clinical medicine program for Apollo crewmembers and their families and
continues to do so for the astronaut corps. This health program is a continual one. It is
initiated immediately upon selection of flight crewmembers _nd continues as long as
astronauts are on flight status. The program provides both routine and emergency
physical examinations. Rapid diagnosis and prompt effective treatment of any disease
event in crewmembers and their families are ensured by complete virological,
bacteriological, immunological, serological, and biochemical studies at the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. (Additional
detail concerning the program is given in Chapter 2 of this section.)
Immunology
Ideally, one would desire to immunize crewmembers and their families against all
disease agents to preclude the expression of disease symptoms. However, the number of
diseases for which there are satisfactory immunizations is extremely limited. Indeed,
immunizations are not available for the illnesses most likely to occur - viral and bacterial
infections of the upper respiratorY and gastrointestinal tracts. The immunizations listed in
144 Biomedical Results of Apollo
table 1 were those administered in conjunction with Apollo missions. These were selected
after careful review of all known immunizations by NASA medical personnel and a
microbiology advisory committee of the National Academy of Sciences. Other immuniza-
tions were excluded on the following bases: (1) questionable effectiveness; (2) traumatic
side reactions; and (3) low probability of disease agent exposure. Serological tests were
conducted to determine immunity levels prior to immunizations. Tuberculin skin tests
were given and serological tests were performed for tetanus, syphilis, typhoid, mumps,
polio, rubella, rubeola, and yellow fever.
Table 1
Required Immunization
Required Immunization
Disease of Family Members
of Astronaut
of Astronaut
Pertussis No Yes
Typhoid Yes No
Influenza Yes No
aSchedule recommended by personnel of the USPHS and of the American Public Health
Association.
blmmunization if no serologic response was obtained.
Exposure Prevention
Disease exposure prevention was the most important aspect of the Apollo preventive
medicine program. If exposure to infectious diseases had not been minimized or
eliminated, the program would have been unsuccessful regardless of the effectiveness of
all other aspects combined. Diseases can be transmitted by fomites (contaminated
inanimate objects), contaminated consumables (air, food, water, etc.), and personal
contacts. Fomites probably represented the least important source of infectious diseases.
Nevertheless, the precaution of using separate headsets, microphones, and so forth, for
crewmembers was observed. Contaminated consumablcs posed a greater danger. To
Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program 145
prevent transmission of an infectious disease through the air, a closely controlled living
environment was provided during the pre!aunch period.
All areas in which crewmembers resided or worked were equipped with ultra-high
efficiency bacterial filters in all air supply ducts. This precluded exposure to microbial
agents from adjacent non-medically controlled areas and individuals. Air conditioning
systems were also balanced to provide air pressure in those areas inhabited by
crewmembers, as compared with areas outside. Air leakage around windows, doors,
floors, walls, and ceilings was directed outward rather than inward toward crewmembers.
The food supply consumed by flight crewmembers was a source of potentially
infectious microorganisms. As a precautionary measure, no set or publicized pattern of
food procurement was established. Crew quarters food procurement was supervised by
members of the medical team. Portions of each lot of food were subjected to
microbiological evaluations and all food preparation areas were inspected daily for
cleanliness and maintenance of satisfactory sanitary conditions. Drinking water sources
were limited to drinking fountains provided in the quarters and working spaces. Water
samples were taken daily from all areas visited by the crewmembers and subjected to
microbiological evaluations.
By far the most important means of preventing crew exposure to infectious diseases
was to minimize exposure to personal contacts during the critical preflight period. The
areas which could be visited by crewmembers were strictly limited and the number of
individuals allowed contact with the crewmembers was reduced to slightly over one
hundred people with mission-related responsibilities. A medical surveillance progra m of
primary contacts was conducted to ensure that those people who did have contact with
the flight crewmembers represented a low probability of disease transmission. Addi-
tionally, crewmembers were isolated from potential carriers, such as transient populations
(launch site visitors), high incidence groups (children), and uncontrolled contacts
(maintenance and other personnel about whom no medical information was known).
Launch site visitors came from all over the United States and from many foreign nations
and brought with them a flora that differed significantly from that normally experienced
by the astronauts. Children are the most common carriers and transmitters of upper
respiratory and gastrointestinal infections. Astronauts were therefore isolated for 2l days
---:_llul-- to lll_lltgl:_Lt _v_.Jt
..... tromC rt._:ut_tr
o;vn cttildr_n.L"
. T_.
.........-,,a ,_,¢_".t,:o,...o
..,_._._°_°"'"
,,,=o..__
.......h,,_,_
,,,,t_.b)'
epidemiological data obtained during initial implementation of the health stabilization
program.
Several options were available to minimize crew exposure to infectious agents.
Building facilities to house crews and primary contacts for the prelaunch period or
modifying existing ones to this end would have been effective approaches, but they were
economically prohibitive. The more economical solution provided for strict isolation of
flight crewmembers, both prime and backup, in crew quarters and limiting their contacts
to medically approved individuals only. These latter individuals were permitted to
maintain their residence at home. However, their health status was continually monitored
to minimize the possibility of their exposing flight crewmembers to any infectious disease
agent. This monitoring of primary contacts resulted in the epidemiological surveillance
program.
146 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
Epidemiological Surveillance
The medical surveillance program, initiated three months prior to launch, began with
the taking of medical histories and other critical information from each primary contact.
Each was then subjected to an extensive physical examination approximately 60 days
prior to launch, and microbiological samples were obtained to identify carriers. Based on
this information, certain individuals were medically approved for access to flight
crewmembers during the 21-day prelaunch period.
Each primary contact and all his family members were subjected to medical
surveillance during the F-21 (flight day minus 21 days) period. Primary contacts were
instructed to report to the medical examination facility whenever they or any of their
family became ill or had been exposed to any infectious diseases. Reports of illness
events were also obtained from all schools attended by primary contacts' or astronauts'
children. Daily reports were solicited from each school of interest concerning the total
number of absences, including absences of the children of any crewmember or primary
contact. Additional daily reports were obtained from public health authorities in the
launch site area to determine trends and incidence of specific disease events within the
population where primary contacts may have had exposure. A computerized data
processing system was developed to maintain complete and up-to-date records on all
crewmembers, primary contacts, and their families. The system linked the medical
analyses laboratories at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas,
with the Medical Surveillance Office at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Medical
information on any individual was immediately available by this system.
Results
o ¢0 Q co I I I
I I
tO _ CN ('9 _
$._-=
LO 0 0% _D 0% _
E_
z_-
0
0 tO _ O0 0 I._ l.O
-.=--
_z ,'-
• 0%
m ._o
_6 E_
D-
_._ -
0a o
w
O _. " _
<
Z
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_ o_o
0
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@ @ @ @
e,
g •g =..-_ =.
_ o o 8 8 8 _
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148 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 3
Mission Number
Illness
14 15 16 17
Gastrointestinal infections 12 1 28 24
Ear infections 7 3 5 2
Chicken pox 3 0 3 0
Pneumonia 3 1 1 1
Measles 0 1 0 0
References
Downs, T.D.; Eitzen, H.E.; and Labarthe, D.R.: Apollo 16 Surveillance Report (NAS 9-12640).
University of Texas School of Public Health (Houston, Texas), June 1, 1972.
Eitzen, H.E.: Apollo 15 Final Surveillance Report (NAS 9-11384). University of Texas School of
Public Health (Houston, Texas), September 1, 1971.
Eitzen, H.E.: Apollo 14 Fhght Crew Health Stabilization Program Analysis (NAS 9-11384). University
of Texas School of Public Health (Houston, Texas), March 1, 1971.
Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program 149
McCollum, G.W.: Apollo 17 Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program Mission Report. NASA
(Houston, Texas), January 17,1973.
Wooley, B.C.: Apollo Experience Report - Protection of Life and Health. NASA TN D-6856, 1972.
N76 2 ,75
CHAPTER 7
THE ROLE OF TOXICOLOGY IN THE APOLLO SPACE PROGRAM
by
Wayland J. Rippstein, Jr.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
It had been determined from experiences with manned chamber tests and submarine
operations that human exposure to trace levels of a significant number of gases presented
a threat, both to man and to the successful completion of closed-loop operations. It was
therefore of major concern that adequate protection be provided for space crews. This
protection could be accomplished by eliminating, or at least minimizing, crew exposures
to possible harmful levels of trace contaminant gases contained in the spacecraft cabin.
A review of the offgassing characteristics of nonmetallic materials used in the
manufacture and fabrication of pre-Apollo spacecraft indicated that, without proper
safeguards, a potential toxicological problem could develop in the Apollo spacecraft
cabin. The offgassing from man and nonmetallic materials, such as surface coatings,
adhesives, elastomers, cleaning agents, solvents, and spacecraft fluids systems (heat
exchanger liquids, fire extinguishers, etc.), were all known to contribute to the overall
spacecraft trace contaminant burden. The trace contamination problem in the spacecraft
atmosphere was further complicated by the introduction of a new gc,lcration of fire
rctardant materials following the Apollo 204 fire. Most of these materials were of the
halogenated polymeric type and had undergone few or no toxicity investigations.
Toxicological Considerations
When toxicology is discussed, lethality is generally the major concern. It was equally
important, however, in the Apollo Program, to ensure that a crew's exposure to a
contaminated atmosphere created no irreversible physiological changes. Irreversible
decrements in any physiological function were considered completely unacceptable. Had
this criterion not been met, the ability of the crew to properly perform their duties
throughout the mission could have been seriously hampered and the success of the
mission jeopardized.
Most of the available inhalation toxicity information concerning man is based on the
eight-hour work period of the industrial worker. Such data presumes an eight-hour daily
151
During the initial phases of the Apollo Program, a procedure was adopted that served
as a toxicological screening test for spacecraft candidate nonmetallic materials. This test
was used to determine the toxic effects of the offgassed products on laboratory animals.
The test consisted of heating materials to 341°K (68°C) and allowing the offgassed
products to flow over rats and mice for a period of 14 days. Weight losses of each
material were recorded, and the exposed animals were observed for their responses. The
animals were observed periodically for 30 days after exposure, and histopathological
studies were made.
In all, 150 materials were tested at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Toxicology
Facility. Approximately 10 percent of the materials tested were rejected because they
produced unsatisfactory responses in animals. Approximately 90 percent of the materials
tested offgassed significant amounts of carbon monoxide.
*A.A. Thomas: Man's Tolerance to Trace Contaminants. AMRL-TR-67-146, Aerospace Medical Research
Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Jan. 1968.
154 Biomedical Results of Apollo
With the change of materials specification after the Apollo 204 fire, only about
20 percent of the information previously obtained was applicable for the fabrication of
subsequent spacecraft. The revised materials program emphasized the requirement for
low flammability characteristics. At that phase in the program, there was insufficient time
to conduct toxicological studies on the newly developed materials as had been done
earlier. A new screening test was adopted that included offgassing considerations so that
appropriate information would be available for the selection of the candidate materials.
As before, the candidate material was heated to 341°K (68°C) but animal exposures were
replaced with analytical analyses. The material was kept at 341°K (68°C) for 72 hours in
a dessicator filled with oxygen to a pressure of 337 x 102N/m 2 (253 mm Hg). At the end
of the 72-hour period, samples of the dessicator atmosphere were withdrawn for
determination of the amounts of total organics (TO) and carbon monoxide (CO). Results
were reported as micrograms of TO or CO per gram of material offgassed. Any material
tested was considered acceptable if it offgassed less than 100ttg TO or 10ttg CO per gram
of material.
An odor test was also employed to test for those materials considered undesirable
because they generated offensive odors. This test was accomplished by allowing a
specially qualified panel of laboratory personnel to grade their odor responses to an
administered sample of the atmosphere from the candidate material.
In cases where it was known that a candidate material might undergo overheating in
the actual spacecraft application, pyrolysis studies were employed using laboratory
animal exposures and analytical chemistry. The final decision, from a toxicological
standpoint, was then made for the data obtained.
Materials Acceptance
One of the main functions of the Johnson Space Center Toxicology Laboratory was
to provide a rapid response capability for handling emergency toxicity problems. Most
often the emergency problems resulted in one of three resolutions. A material usage or
procedure was either (1) approved, (2) disapproved, or (3) approved after modification.
During the Apollo Program some thirty of these emergency problems were resolved.
Some examples are listed below:
Approved. Ethylene glycol was selected as the candidate heat exchanger fluid for the
Command/Service Module. It was feared that even a minute leak in the spacecraft coolant
loop could result in a hazardous breathing atmosphere. A series of contractual and
in-house studies proved the problem could be handled by training the astronauts to detect
trace levels of the glycol vapor. Several paints and adhesives were found to offgas excess
quantities of total organics. These materials were all approved for usage after a qualitative
analysis proved the offgassed species to be nontoxic at the levels offgassed.
Approved After Modification. A special paint developed for the space program was
found to offgas excessive quantities of total organics and carbon monoxide. The paint
The Role of Toxicology in the Apollo Space Program 155
was approved for usage by employing a procedural change in the curing process. A quartz
window was installed in the Command/Service Module for conducting special ultraviolet
photographic work. The quartz window permitted the production of ozone in the cabin
atmosphere when the spacecraft orientation allowed sunlight to pass into the interior of
the vehicle. The use of the quartz window was allowed by requiring the use of an
ultraviolet filter over the window when photographic work was being done.
In general, the time required to conduct these special toxicity assessments was from
two to six weeks. The investigation on the use of ethylene glycol was the major
exception. Approximately 18 months were required for the ethylene glycol evaluation.
Atmospheric Assessment
Preflight Assessment
Prior to the first Earth orbital flights of the Apollo spacecraft, a series of solar
simulator-altitude chamber tests was accomplished to determine the overall performance
characteristics of the spacecraft systems. This included testing of the prototypes of the
Command/Service Module (designated as 2TV-1) and the Lunar Module (designated
LTA-8). These tests were conducted at the Johnson Space Center's High Altitude
Chamber Test Facility. During the testing of both vehicles, trace contaminant analyses
were performed on the crew cabin atmospheres to ensure the safety of the test crew and
to assess the performance of the spacecraft's environmental control system in maintaining
an acceptable breathing gas environment.
The atmospheric samples were taken both by whole gas sampling and by cryogenic
trapping techniques. Chemical analyses were accomplished by employing the latest
methods in gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, and infrared spectrophotometry.
The final atmospheric assessment of the flight Command and Lunar Modules was
accomplished at the Kennedy Space Center during final checkout of the spacecraft.
Atmospheric samples were taken from both vehicles prior to their acceptance for
space flight. Sampling and analytical methods similar to those described previously were
employed at the Kennedy Space Center for assuring the atmospheric quality of these
spacecraft.
Postflight Analyses
Inflight cabin trace gas composition was determined by chemical analysis of the
activated carbon canisters returned from the Apollo 7 through 17 spacecraft. The carbon
dioxide concentration calculated from conversion of lithium hydroxide in the canisters
was utilized to study crew metabolic performance.
Samples of activated carbon were removed from each of the canisters for trace gas
analysis. The trace gas samples were obtained by employing high vacuum and thermal
desorption techniques. Both qualitative and relative quantitative chemical data were
obtained by performing gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analyses on the
activated carbon desorbate. A list of the identified compounds from Apollo 7 through 17
is presented in table 1. (An' "X" under the mission number indicates that the compound
listed was present in the desorbate taken from that mission.)
156 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 1
Contaminant Name I E) 10 14 5 _ 17
Amyl Alcohol
Butyl Alcohol X X X X X X X X X '(
Capryl Alcohol X
Ethyl Alcohol × X X (
Isoamyl Alcohol X K
Isobutyl Alcohol X X x K
Isopropyl Alcohol x X x K
Methyl Alcohol X x X K
Propyl Alcohol X X (
Sec-Butyl Alcohol X X
Tert-Butyl Alcohol x X
Acetaldehyde X x
Butyraldehyde X
N-Butane
Cycl ohexane x x
Cyclopentane X
Ethane
Heptane X x
Hexane X x
I sobu ta ne
Isopentane X X
Methylcyclohexane x x
Methylcyclopentane X
N-Octane X
Pentane x x
propane
Trimethylbutane X
l'rimethylhexane X
Allene
Benzene X X
1,3,-Butadiene
1-Butene
2-Butene (cis)
2-Butene (trans)
Cyclohexane X
Cyclopentene X
Ethylbenzene X
Ethylene X X
2-Hexene
Indene X X
Isoprene
Mesitylene X
Methylacetylene
1-Pentene X
2-Pentene
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
The Role of Toxicology in the Apollo Space Program 157
Table 1 (Continued)
Apollo Spacecraft Contaminants
) 1: 3 17
Dichloroethane X X X
Dichloroethylene X X
Dichlorofluoromethane X X
Difluoroethylene x
Ethyl chloride X X X X
Ethylene dichloride
Ethyl fluoride X X X
Fluoroethane X X
Fluoropropane X X
Freon 11 X X
Freon 12 X X X x
Freon 22 X X X
Freon 113 X x X x
Freon 114 X
Methylchloride X X x
Methylchloroform X X X
Methylene chloride X X X X
Mono-Chloroacetylene X
Pentafluoroethane X X X X
Tetrachloroethane X
Tetrachloroethylene X x X X
Tetrafluoroethylene X x X X
Trichloroethylene X X X X
Trifluorochloroethylene X
Tetrahydrofuran X
Methylfuran X
Freon 21 x
Hexafluoroethane x
Trifluoroethylene X X X X X
Trifluoromethane X X X
Trifluoropropane x X X
Trifiuoropropene X X X
Vinyl Chloride X X X X X
Vinylidene Chloride X X X X X X
Dimethyldiflu rosilane x x X
Trimethylfluorosilane X x X X X X
Diethyldisulfide x
Dimethyldisulfide K X
Dimethylsulfide X X K X X
Vinyl Fluoride X X X
1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane X K X X
Tetrafluorochloroethane X
Chlorodifluoroethylene X K
Naphthalene x K
Pentyl alcohol X X
Cellosolve acetate x
Decahydronapthanlene X
0RIGLNALPAG m
POOR
158 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table l (Continued)
Apollo Spacecraft Contaminants
) I 1: ) 13 ) 17
Propylene X
Styrene X
Toluene X
Trimethyl Benzene
M-Xylene X
O-Xylene X
P-Xylene X
N-Propyl Benzene
Ethylacetylene
Trimethylbenzene
2-Methyl Pentane
Dimethyl Butane
3 Methylpentane
Acetylene x X
Octyne X X
Diisopropylamine
Butyl Acetate
Butyl Lactate X
Ethyl Acetate X
Ethyl Lactate X X
Methyl Acetate X X
Propyt Acetate X
Dimethyl Ether x
Dioxane X X
Furan X x
Sulfur Dioxide
Acetone X x
Cyclohexane
Methyl lethyl Ketone X X
2-Pentanone
Acetonitrile X
Chlorobenzene X
Chlorofluoroethylene X
Chloroform X
Chloropropane
Chlorotetraflu oroethane X
Chlorotrifluoroethylene X
Dichlorobenzene x
Dichlorodifluoroethylene x
The Role of Toxicology in the Apollo Space Program 159
Table 1 (Continued)
Apollo Spacecraft Contaminants
10 17
Chlorotrifluoromethane X
Fluoroform X
Trifluoroacetonitride X
Octalfluorobutane X
Propadiene X
Dichlorodifluoroethane X
Dimethylcyclohexane X
Cyclohexyl alcohol X
1-Hexene X
Octafluoropropane X
Ethyl fluoride X
Hexafluoropropene X
Vinylidenefluoride X
Summary
This chapter has presented some of the major considerations that governed the
formation and application of the toxicology program employed in support of the Apollo
Program. The overriding concern of the program was the safety of crews exposed to trace
contaminant gases for extended periods of time. The materials screening program
employed, in conjunction with a well designed spacecraft environmental control system,
helped to attain the goals set forth for the Apollo Program.
The knowledge gained from working with the toxicity problems and the identifica-
tion of compounds in the space cabin atmosphere are of much importance for continued
efforts in the realm of manned space flight.
SECTION III
Preflight and Postflight
Medical Testing
CHAPTER 1
ENDOCRINE, ELECTROLYTE, AND FLUID VOLUME CHANGES
ASSOCIATED WITH APOLLO MISSIONS
by
Introduction
As a result of medical observations during the American and Soviet manned space
flight programs, it is now known that complex physiological changes occurred in crew-
men returning from space missions (Berry & Catterson, 1967; Kakurin, 1971). These
changes have been associated with severe operational demands coupled with exacting
mechanical tasks, acceleration, weightlessness, sleep loss, changing circadian rhythms,
confinement, periods of relative inactivity alternating with strenuous physical activity,
and a cabin atmosphere which is both hyperoxic and hypobaric. The urgent need to
study the physiological changes in exact mechanistic terms led to the development of the
endocrine/metabolic program in support of manned space flight.
Before the Apollo7 mission, considerable knowledge had been accumulated
concerning the fluid and endocrine changes associated with Mercury and Gemini
F, arth-nrhital mi_ion_ /l._ach 1071: Dietlein & [tarri_ 1Q(_(_) It wa_ knr}wn that
astronauts always weighed less after a mission than they did before the mission. This
decrease in weight was associated with modest decreases in plasma volume. These results
showed that, although cardiovascular deconditioning resulting from space flight was
similar in extent to that found after bed rest, the weight changes after space flight were
greater but the plasma volume changes were smaller. There is evidence from Gemini
The authors would like to thank Drs. Edgar Haber, John Potts, Bonnalie Campbell and Myron Miller
for their scientific consultations. Additionally, the following individuals are responsible for the
conduct of the analyses in this report: Margaret Patton, Libby Troell, Vemell Fesperman, Dorothy
Hatton, Sylvia Wilson, Sandra Seals, Charles Shannon, Richard Long, Douglas Fogel, George Green,
Theda Driscoll, Karen Windier, Karen Swensen and Lee Bertam.
163
studies that the reentry sequence is associated with a sudden increase in epinephrine
release as shown by a short-lived granulocytosis. This finding indicated that reentry for
Gemini crewmen was a stressful experience. Before Project Mercury, certain segments of
the scientific community were apprehensive that certain aspects of weightlessness might
produce life-threatening conditions including hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria. This
apprehension subsided when no evidence of a calcium abnormality was found. Even after
the 14-day Gemini 7 mission, X-ray bone densitometry showed absent to slight loss of
bone mineral (Mack et al., 1967).
Using this background, more extensive endocrine and metabolic studies were planned
for the Apollo Program. As with other portions of the medical program, these studies
were designed to provide data relative to the maintenance of flight crew health and
well-being during a mission. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize and discuss the
endocrine and metabolic results obtained before and after the Apollo missions and the
results of the limited inflight sampling. From these studies, it is possible to obtain an idea
of the nature and the extent of endocrine rcsponses by the crewmen who flew the Apollo
missions.
As part of the overall operational medical program, the endocrinological and
metabolic studies were designed to evaluate the biochemical changes in the returning
Apollo crewmembers. The areas studied were balance of fluids and electrolytes,
regulation of calcium metabolism, adaptation to the environment, and regulation of
metabolic processes.
Methods
The same general protocol was followed for most of the Apollo missions. Deviations
from the procedures occurred when the quarantine program was imposed upon the
Apollo 11,12, and 14 missions.
With the crewmembers reclining for 30 minutes, approximately 45 ml of peripheral
venous blood were drawn three times (thirty, fifteen, and five days) before space flight.
Blood was drawn approximately two hours after recovery (as soon as possible) and one,
seven, and fourteen days later. All blood samples were drawn with the subject fasting from
midnight until 7:00 a.m. except for the postrecovery sample, which was drawn regardless
of the time of day or prior food intake by the crewmen. Generally, the crewmen had not
eaten for six hours before recovery and had been awake for at least eight hours. For the
preflight control samples, the crewmen had been awake less than one hour.
The 24-hour urine samples were collected preflight and postflight from each crewman
on the same days as were the blood samples. The pooled urine was collected without
additive, aliquoted, stablized with acid, and frozen for analysis. Urine samples were
collected inflight by means of a biomedical urine sampling system (BUSS). Each BUSS
consisted of a large (four liters) pooling bag in which urine was collected. Each contained
10 gm of boric acid for stabilization of certain organic constituents. One entire 24-hour
urine sample from each Apollo 16 crewman was returned. For Apollo 17 collections, a
sampling bag was used. In this bag a sample of urine (as much as 120 cm 3) was stored for
later analysis. The collection bags contained 30 mg of lithium chloride. The final lithium
concentration was used to estimate total urine volume.
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Changes Associated with Apollo Missions 165
Ground control subjects were used during each mission to determine the effects of
collection and transportation of blood and urine samples. The control results showed that
transportation of the endocrine samples to the NASA laboratories produced no change in
values. Analyses of the blood samples (plasma or serum) included osmolality, sodium,
potassium, chloride, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), angiotensinI, cortisol,
human growth hormone (HGH), insulin, parathormone thyroxine, and triiodothyronine.
The 24-hour urine samples were analyzed for electrolytes, osmolality, volume,
aldosterone, cortisol, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), total and fractionated ketosteroids,
and amino acids. Procedures for these analyses have been previously reported (Leach
et al., 1973; Alexander et al., 1973). Radionuclide studies were performed according to
the schedule shown in table 1. The methods used for the radionuclide studies were
described by Johnson and co-workers (1973). Table 2 contains the calculated radiation
exposures from these radionuclide studies. The data in table 2 indicate that these
exposures added only modestly to total radiation exposure of the astronauts and that the
exposure levels are well within occupationally prescribed limits. All preflight data were
averaged, and the standard error (SE) of the mean was calculated. The data taken
immediately postflight were also averaged, and the percent deviation from the preflight
level given. Inflight data are presented in figures 1 to 16. Prolonged exposure to increased
temperature and to the boric acid preservative made the urine voided inflight unsuitable
for catecholaminc or ADH analyses.
Table 1
30 days preflight
15 days preflight X X X
B days preflight
As soon as possible
after recovery X
1 day after recovery X
7 days after recovery X
Table 2
0.3050
166 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Results
Postmission body fluid losses have been found in both American and Russian space
flight crewmen (Webb, 1967). Apollo crewmen showed an average of five percent
decrease in body weight after flight when the mean of the preflight results (thirty, fifteen,
and five days) was compared to the individual postflight values. The average loss was
3.51 kg, approximately one-third of which was regained within the first 24 hours after
recovery. These data are given in table 3.
Table 3
Percent
Mean, kg Postflight Mean Postflight Mean Change
(Ib) kg (Ib) kg (Ib)
Preflight _-i Immediate One Day
75.96 (167.50) 72.45 (159.75) -- --4.6
Body weight changes indicate significant fluid changes among all crewmembers
exposed to weightlessness. Loss of fluid does not seem to be related to the duration of
the mission. Because of this fact, studies were undertaken to investigate cations and
anions, both of which have critical roles in the regulation of fluid volume. Serum
electrolyte data from the Apollo crewmen are summarized in table 4. Significant
differences were observed in a 7.3 percent decrease in potassium and a 4.5 percent
decrease in magnesium immediately after flight. These changes were accompanied by no
significant change in serum sodium or chloride.
Table 4
The 24-hour urine electrolyte results are given in table 5. These samples exhibited
significant decreases in sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium values. The results
from Apollo 17 inflight collections are shown in figures 1 to 4.
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Chan_es Associated with Apollo Missions 167
Table 5
Apollo Twenty-Four Hour Urine Electrolyte Results
300
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To aid in the understanding of water and electrolyte balance and of renal function,
renin activity was measured as angiotensin I in blood samples, and aldosterone was
measured in urine. Table 6 contains these results. The plasma angiotensin I values show a
488 percent increase in the crewmen tested on the day of recovery. This elevation was
followed by a significant increase (57 percent) in urinary aldosterone during the first day
following recovery. In figures 5 and 6, the inflight aldosterone results for the Apollo 16
and 17 missions, respectively, are shown.
Table 7 contains summary data on urinary volume, ADH, and osmolality. These
results indicate a 32 percent decrease in urine volume after flight with significant
increases in osmolality (20 percent) and ADH (152 percent). The inflight volume and
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Changes Associated with Apollo Missions 169
t.O
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osmolality values for the Apollo 17 mission are shown in figures 7 and 8, respectively. A
summary of the measured body fluid volumes is given in table 8. These same data are also
expressed as milliliters per kilogram of body weight. Table 9 contains the total body
exchangeable potassium data as measured by potassium-42. Table 10 contains blood urea
nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine clearance data. The creatinine clearance results show no
significant change in renal function after flight as indicated by this test. A slight but
significant increase in BUN was found. Apollo 17 infli_ht creatinine values are shown in
figure 9.
The calcium, phosphorus, and parathormone (PTH) changes are summarized in
table 11. It is believed that the calcium, phosphorus, and PTH results not only reflect
normal bone metabolism but would seem to reflect normal renal function. These results
are in agreement with the results of photon absorptiometrv studies performed on several
Apollo flights which s showed small to insignificant losses of bone calcium after flight
(Vogel, 1971).
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Changes Associated with Apollo Missions 171
5000 -
4000 -
3000-
(p
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1000 t
0 _ d
flight
Pre-I ,nfhght [ fPi;_ti fPi;h t [ Infhght J Pi_t fP;ht [ Inflight Post-
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CDR CMP LMP
1800
1600
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200
Infligh t
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Table 8
Volume ml/kg
Immediately One Day >7 Days Immediately One Day >7 Days
After After After After
Postflight Post flight
Recovery Recovery Recovery* Recovery
Plasma volume --4.4±1.7 +4.8±2.2 +3.4±1.4 --0.1 ± 1.4 +8.2 ± 1.9 +5.3±1.6
Total body water --2.4±0.4 --0.1±0.6 --0.5±0.3 +1.6 ± 0.4 +2.9 ± 0.8 +1.2±0.6
Extracellular fluid --2.7±1.0 +0.2±1.3 --0.5±0.8 +1.1 ± 0.9 +2.8 ± 1.5 +1.5±1.4
Intracellular fluid --2.1±0.8 +0.2±1.1 --0.6±0.9 +1.9 ± 0.9 +3.2 ± 1.2 +0.8±0.7
Interstitial fluid --2.2±1.0 --1.3±1.6 --1.5±1.1 +1.7 ± 1.0 +1.6 ± 1.8 +0.3±1.6
Table 9
Apollo
Apollo 17
15 I --16.3
--15.3 -- 5.2
--13.8
Table l0
Immediate Percent
Test Mean ± SE Postflight Mean Change
Creatinine clearance N*
29 ] Preflight
151 ± 8 133 ± 8 --12
(liters/24 hr)
3000
2000
ii
'_ 1000
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Table 11
Plasma cortisol and ACTH results are given in table 12. Although no significant
change was found, a mean decrease was demonstrated in both hormones. The urinary
normonal
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a 24percent increase, whereas the total 17-hydroxycorticosteroid excretion was
decreased 30 percent. The inflight values for these measurements for Apollo 17 crewmen
are shown in figures 10 and 11. Both catecholamine compounds show decreases after
flight when the data from all crewmen are grouped for analysis. Some individual preflight
values are often elevated. This is believed to be due to premission stress. The total and
fractionated ketosteroid data are given in table 13. These results demonstrate a
30 percent decrease in the total component, which is spread over four fractions:
Table 12
(#g/100 ml)
(#g/vol)
(/_g/vc I)
(#g/vol)
(mg/vol)
200-
175
_= 150
125
t
_ 75
_ 25
c
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In fl ht - Pre- Inflight Post-
Pre L Infhght ]Pi_t fhght flight' flight
flight
CDR CMP LMP
The serum and plasma values for various hormones and related parameters are
summarized in table 14. Glucose showed a 10 percent increase after flight, and insulin in-
creased 32 percent after flight. Human growth hormone demonstrated a 304 percent
increase after flight. The postflight increase in thyroxine was statistically significant,
whereas slight change was noted in percentage of triiodothyronine binding.
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Changes Associated with Apollo Missions 175
.'g
o 3°
I
25
20-
15-
_o
10-
Table 13
mg/Total Volume
!
First Day Percent
Compound N _
Mean + SE Postflight Mean + SE Change
Table 15 is a summary of the urinary amino acid results for six representative amino
acids from a total of 39 analyzed. The comparison of postflight to preflight control levels
has been variable. However, taurine has been consistently elevated after flight
(140 percent). The inflight data for Apollo 17 crewmen are presented in figures 14 to 16.
176 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Discussion
After considering all previously mentioned data together with the clinical condition
of the returning Apollo crewmen, the following hypothesis was proposed to explain the
changes. As a crewman enters the weightless environment, his circulating blood volume
and extracellular fluid shift from the extremities and the lower abdomen and are
redistributed equally throughout the vascular space. This alteration of the blood volume
is interpreted as a relative volume expansion. The fluid redistribution necessitates a
compensatory change in water balance with a net loss of fluid and electrolytes. The
extent of the fluid and electrolyte loss is related also to food consumption, which has
been variable and generally below basal requirements during the first 24 hours of a
mission. The changes in water balance are believed to occur principally in the first or
second day of flight just as they do in bed rest (Hyatt et al., 1970). This theory explains
why crewmembers showed weight decreases even after short duration Mercury and
Gemini missions 0Vebb, 1967). On return to Earth and the one-g environment, a portion
of the weight loss is regained within the first 24 hours. A rapid weight gain of this
magnitude indicates a renal and endocrine response to the new environment. The
remainder of the weight loss could be attributed to tissue loss. Consistently measured
decreases in red cell mass and decreases in individual cell electrolyte content, determined
by the electron microprobe, add support to this hypothesis. Furthermore, significant
decreases in serum magnesium during the postflight period suggest previous losses of
intracellular electrolyte, since magnesium is concentrated in the intracellular space along
with potassium.
Postflight decreases in total body potassium of the Apollo 12 to 14 crewmen were
determined by gamma spectrometric measurement of the total body potassium-40. Seven
of the nine men showed a significant decrease (three to ten percent) for this measurement
(Benson & Bailey, 1971). Beginning with the Apollo 15 mission, total body exchangeable
potassium was measured (Leach et al., 1972). The results are expected to differ from
total body potassium because slow-to-equilibrate pools may not be completely exchanged
in the 24- and 48-hour periods analyzed. However, because comparisons of measurements
before and after space flight of the same individuals are being made, the relative changes
are meaningful. Crewmembers of the Gemini 7 mission demonstrated positive potassium
baiance before and after the flight and negative balance during the flight. Results from
Gemini missions and data available from Apollo crewmen confirm that aldosterone is
elevated during space flight. This elevation could have been produced by decreases in
renal blood flow or in carotid artery or right-heart pressures: the specific etiology must
await further experimentation.
All Apollo missions were followed by a change in the plasma volume of returning
crewmen. The overall mean of the crewmen's plasma volume decrease for the Apollo
missions was considerably less than the 10 percent mean decrease associated with an
equivalent period of bed rest. Only three of the twenty-one crewmembers tested showed
losses greater than the average bed rest results. A smaller decrease in plasma volume could
be one manifestation of an inflight increase in adrenal activity, particularly aldosterone
secretion. Because no plasma volume measurements for Apollo missions were taken
during flight, it was not known whether plasma volume was actually lower during flight
180 Biomedical
Results of Apollo
and increased slightly before being recorded immediately after flight or whether plasma
volume remained essentially stable after the 4.4 percent decrease (table 8) had occurred.
Even with adequate calories available, most crewmen showed a weight loss after
flight. Part of this weight loss was made up during the first 24 hours after recovery, but it
took from several days to weeks for crewmen to return fully to their premission weight.
This fact suggests that part of the weight loss during a mission is tissue and another part
fluid. Only fluid loss could be made up in the first 24 hours; recovery of tissue losses
takes considerably longer. Weight loss from short term dieting is generally followed by an
increase in extracellular fluid, which compensates for the tissues lost. This extra fluid is
ordinarily lost by diuresis at irregular intervals of several days to several weeks. The in-
creased extracellular fluid volume seen after these missions could be explained as a com-
pensation for tissue losses. The water retention associated with weight loss is probably ac-
complished by increased aldosterone secretion.
During recovery operations, crewmen were exposed to increased ambient tempera-
tures in the spacecraft, in the helicopter, and on the carrier deck because of the tropical
location of recovery operations. The crewmen did not eat or drink between the time they
left the spacecraft and the time of blood sampling; thereafter, they could eat or drink
anything they desired. The postrecovery diet was generally high in salt, protein, and calo-
ries. The postrecovery urine generally showed increased osmolality with a decrease in
electrolyte content, a combination that indicated increased excretion of nonelectrolyte
osmotic substances. Part of this increase in osmolality might have been a result of the in-
creased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) found after recovery. The clinical laboratories found
postflight elevations in uric acid. Because of the increased environmental temperatures
during the first fourhours after recovery, a slight increase in serum sodium was to be ex-
pected then, and in osmolality later. However, serum sodium was actually less after flight
than before flight, and osmolality was unchanged; therefore, serum sodium may have been
even lower before reentry. This discovery, coupled with the BUN change, suggests that renal
blood flow is decreased during weightlessness, and this decrease could be partly responsible
for the increased aldosterone excretion by way of the renin-angiotensin system.
Balakhovskiy and others (1971) have suggested that the postflight weight loss in
American astronauts was due to dehydration caused not by space flight but by environ-
mental temperatures in the tropical recovery zones. Apollo data do not substantiate de-
hydration as the causative factor for the fluid/electrolyte results because serum sodium
and osmolality were not increased at recovery.
Prolonged bed rest is associated with a negative calcium balance beginning in the sec-
ond week (Deitrick et al., 1948). It was postulated that exposure to weightlessness would
produce similar losses of calcium from the skeleton. The results of the Apollo missions
did not appear to indicate significant changes in calcium metabolism. First, no change in
parathormone was found in recovery specimens; second, urine and serum calcium were
elevated; and third, bone densitometry failed to show consistent decreases in bone mass.
Therefore, for missions of 14 days or less, it was apparent that significant calcium losses
did not occur. Hypercalcemia does not account for the loss of sodium, as has been sug-
gested (Griffith, 1971). However, if changes in calcium dynamics had occurred, they
would have probably just begun during the last few days of the missions.
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Changes Associated with Apollo Missions 181
The Apollo 16 mission was the first after Gemini 7 in which inflight urine samples
were returned for analysis. The 17-hydroxycorticosteroids were found to be significantly
decreased during the 14-day Gemini 7 mission (Lutwak et al., 1969). Likewise, total
17-hydroxycortieosteroid values were decreased in second-day inflight specimens from
Apollo 16 crewmen and were normal to decreased in the more comprehensive sample
collection of the Apollo 17 mission. Ordinarily, if total 17-hydroxycortieosteroid
excretion decreases, a decrease in eortisol is to be expected; however, eortisol excretion
during the inflight phase of both missions was normal to elevated or, stated differently,
no value was lower than preflight or postflight values. This divergence of results could be
related either to a sample storage program that affected the 17-hydroxycortieosteroid
analyses or, possibly, to changes in blood flow to the liver that altered the conjugation
rate of the free hormone resulting in decreased excretion of 17-hydroxycorticosteroids.
In several endocrine-related diseases, the determination of urinary 17-ketosteroids,
either fractions or total, has been helpful in both diagnosis and understanding the
pathophysiology of these diseases. The decrease in the total 17-ketosteroid fraction agrees
with the decrease in the total 17-hydroxycorticosteroid data. The mechanism is believed
to be related to the liver conjugation of these steroids. The inflight increase in specific
fractions reflects the heightened adrenal activity during the flight phase. The
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) increases shown on the Apollo 16 and 17 missions
inflight are considered significant since they had been shown to occur in potassium-
depletcd subjects (Leach et al., 1973). The exact function of this steroid is not known,
but it appears to be related to stress responses as well as to nitrogen and mineral
metabolism.
Bed rest, the most frequently used analog of we_htlessness_ Mtar_ glucose metabolism
(Lipman, 1970). Studies have shown that glucose and insulin are elevated after two weeks
of absolute bed rest. Apollo results suggest that space flight may have a similar effect with
an apparent decrease in the efficiency of insulin to lower plasma glucose concentrations.
However, increased growth hormone may be a factor in these observed increases. A
significant change in plasma thyroxine (T4) may represent the thyroid gland's response to
increases in plasma proteins.
To assess metabolic responses in the area of nutrient use as well as stress, human
growth hormone (HGH) was measured. This hormone was significantly increased
(table 14) postflight. Because HGH acts to increase blood sugar and plasma-free fatty
acids, and to lower plasma amino acids by incorporating them into proteins, these results
after space flight are compatible with the evidence of muscle breakdown discussed
previously.
182 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The changes in amino acid excretion patterns are thought to be related to diet as well
as to muscle metabolism. However, as in every study of amino acid excretion, renal
threshold, glomerular filtration rate, and cellular use enter into the full explanation.
Furthermore, the relationship between adrenal steroid activity and amino acid excretion
must be considered because adrenal steroids alter urinary excretion patterns of amino
acids (Zinneman et al., 1963). Glycine, significantly elevated in the inflight samples, is
required by the body for formation of nucleic acid, porphyrins, creatinine, hippuric acid,
and bile acid conjugates (Searcy, 1969). Therefore, the increased excretion of this amino
acid could be related to cellular mass loss or to the suspected decrease in liver blood flow.
The significant increases in taurine after flight could be an indication of a decrease in bile
acid formation and hence in liver function. Sarcosine, another amino acid that was
increased during flight, is related to muscle protein and is believed to be a further
indication of muscle breakdown during flight.
Summary
Biochemical analyses were performed on samples of blood and urine obtained from
astronauts at various intervals before and after each Apollo space mission. During the
Apollo 16 and 17 missions, urine samples from the inflight phase were also obtained, and
a similar series of biochemical analyses was performed.
The observed universal loss in body weight was accompanied by decreases in
intracellular water and by increases in extracellular water after flight with a resultant net
loss in total body water. Water losses, however, appeared to account for only about
one-third of the total mass loss. That losses in cellular mass also occurred was evident
from decreases in the body's potassium-40 content and in its exchangeable potassium
pool. The loss of tissue was further supported by increases in blood and urinary
nitrogenous components after flight as well as in decreases in serum potassium and
magnesium.
The observed losses in potassium and retention of fluid were generally reflected in
appropriate postflight elevations in renin activity, aldosterone, and antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). Changes in excretion patterns inflight were also observed. Elevation of
aldosterone during flight supports the concept that the electrolyte changes were
hormonally induced. Hydroxycortisone was normal to increased, whereas total
17-hydroxycorticosteroids and total 17-ketosteroids were low normal to decreased during
flight. A change in the metabolism of these hormones is suggested by these results.
The following hypothesis is presented to explain the mechanisms underlying the
observed electrolyte and fluid compartment changes. In a weightless environment, there is
a tendency for plasma volume to be distributed more evenly within the vascular system
and away from the gravity-dependent extremities. This shift is interpreted by receptors,
probably in the right atrium, to be an increase in vascular volume. The increase in vascular
volume is counteracted by an increased water loss, followed by a compensatory,
adrenal-pituitary-mediated retention of water and sodium and by a continued loss of
potassium. Other hormone changes observed are tentatively ascribed to the stresses
associated with the condition of the Apollo space flights, to the well-known consequences
of hypokinesis, and to the metabolic effects of hypocaloric nutritional intake.
Endocrine, Electrolyte, and Fluid Volume Changes Associated with Apollo Missions 183
References
Alexander, W.C.; Leach, C.S.; Fischer, C.L.; Lambertsen, C.J.; and Johnson, P.C.: Hematological,
Biochemical, and Immunological Studies During a 14-Day Continuous Exposure to 5.2% 0 2 in N 2
at Pressure Equivalent to 100 FSW (4ata). Aerospace Med., vol. 44, no. 7, July 1973,
pp. 850-854.
Balakhovskiy, I.S.; Natochin, U.V.; and Kozyrevskaya, G.I.: Status of Water-Salt Metabolism Under
Space Flight Conditions. NASA TT F-14029, 1971.
Benson, R.E.; and Bailey, V.: Personal Communication. March 15, 1971.
Berry, C.A.; and Catterson, A.D.: Pre-Gemini Medical Predictions Versus Gemini Flight Results. Sec-
tion 16 of Gemini Summary Conference, NASA SP-138, 1967, pp. 210-218.
Deitrick, J.E.; Whedon, G.D.; and Shorr, E.: Effects of Immobilization Upon Various Metabolic and
Physiological Functions of Normal Men. Am. J. Med., vol. 41, no. 1, Jan. 1948, pp. 3-36.
Dietlein, L.F.; and Harris, E.: Experiment M-5, Bioassays of the Body Fluids. Section 42 of Gemini
Midprogram Conference, NASA SP-121, 1966, pp. 403-406.
Griffith, D.P.: Immobilization Hypercalciuria: Treatment and a Possible Pathophysiologic Mechanism.
Aerospace Med., vol. 42, no 12, Dec. 1971, pp. 1322-1324.
Hyatt, K.H.; Smith, W.M.; Vogel, J.M.; Sullivan, R.W.; Vetter, W.R.; Calder, B.E.; Bohnn, B.J.; and
Haughton, V.M.: A Study of the Role of Extravehicular Dehydration in the Production of Cardio-
vascular Deconditioning by Simulated Weightlessness (Bedrest), Part II. Final Report.
NASA CR-114809, 1970.
Johnson, P.C.; Driscoll, T.B.; Alexander, W.C.; and Lambertsen, C.J.: Body Fluid Volume Changes
During a 14-Day Continuous Exposure to 5.2% 02 in N 2 at Pressure Equivalent to 100 FSW
(4 ata). Aerospace Med., vol. 44, no. 7, July 1973, pp. 860-863.
Kakurin, L.I.: Medical Research Performed on the Flight Program of the Soyuz-Type Spacecraft.
NASA TT F-14026, 1971.
Leach, C.S.: Review of Endocrine Results: Project Mercury, Gemini Program, and Apollo Program.
Proceedings of the 1970 Manned Spacecraft Center Endocrine Program Conference,
NASA TM X-58068, 1971.
Leach, C.S.; Alexander, W.C.; Fischer, C.L.; Lambertsen, CJ.; and Johnson, P.C.: Endocrine Studies
During a 14-Day Continuous Exposure to 5.2% 0 2 in N2 at Pressure Equivalent to 100 FSW
(4 ata). Aerospace Med., vol. 44, no. 7, July 1973, pp. 855-859.
Leach, C.S.; Alexander, W.C.; and Johnson, P.C.: Adrenal and Pituitary Response to the Apollo XV
Crewmembers. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., vol. 35, no. 5, Nov. 1972, pp. 642-645.
Leach, C.S.; and Campbell, B.O.: Hydrocortisone and ACTH Levels in Manned Spaceflight. Rhythms
in Special Environments. Proceedings of the International Society for the Study of Biologic
Rhythms (Little Rock, Arkansas), Nov. 1971.
Leach, C.S.; Hyatt, K.H.; and Johnson, P.C.: Increased Dehydroepiandrosterone Excretion During a
Low Potassium Diet. Clin. Res., vol. 21, no. 1, 1973, p. 87.
Lipman, R.L.: Impairment of Peripheral Glucose Utilization in Normal Subjects by Prolonged Bedrest.
J. Lab. Clin. Med., vol. 76, no. 2, Aug. 1970, pp. 221-230.
Lutwak, L.; Whedon, G.D.; LaChance, P.A.; Reid, J.M.; and Lipscomb, H.S.: Mineral, Electrolyte and
Nitrogen Balance Studies of the Gemini-7 Fourteen-Day Orbital Space Flight. J. Clin. Endocrinol.
Metab., vol. 29, no. 9, Sept. 1969, pp. 1140-1156.
Mack, P.B.; LaChance, P.A.; Vose, G.P.; and Vogt, F.B.: Bone Demineralization of Foot and Hand of
Gemini - Titan IV, V, and VII Astronauts During Orbital Flight. Am. J. Roentgenol., vol 100,
no. 3, July 1967, pp. 503-511.
Searcy, R.L.: Diagnostic Biochemistry. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1969, p. 50.
Vogel, J.M.: Bone Mineral Measurement, Apollo XV. NASA T-93591, 1971.
184 "E_iomedical
Results
of Apollo
Webb, Paul: Weight Loss in Men in Space. Sci., vol. 155, no. 3762, Feb. 1967, pp. 558-560.
Zinneman, H.H.; Johnson, J.J.; and Seal, U.S.: Effect of Short-Term Therapy with Cortisol on the
Urinary Excretion of Free Amino Acids. J. Clin. Endocrinol., vol. 23, no. 10, Oct. 1963,
pp. 996-1000.
N76 12677
CHAPTER 2
CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY
by
W.C. Alexander, Ph.D.
Carolyn S. Leach, Ph.D.
Craig L. Fischer, M.D.*
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
The authors wish to especially thank the following technical personnel in the Clinical Laboratory at
the Johnson Space Center for their support throughout the many missions of the Apollo Program: A.
Carmona, K. Brown, E. Coleman, N. Funderburk, C. Johnson, M. Johnson, H. Knippa, Jr., C. Lassiter,
R. Landry, H. Owens, N. Pettit, Jr., J. Potter, J. Terrell, L. Wallace, N. Whitecotton, and J. Wright.
185
186 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
The preflight samples of blood were acquired depending on the location of the crew.
Normally the serum, acquired at Johnson Space Center, or Kennedy Space Center was
frozen immediately and transported to the JSC Clinical Laboratories for analysis. The
immediate postflight samples were acquired on the Prime Recovery Ship, stabilized and
returned to JSC for analysis. In both instances time critical analyses were performed prior
to freezing in remote site laboratories.
The biochemical studies in Apollo varied somewhat between missions depending on
overall mission objectives. In general, Apollo missions 7, 8, 9, and 10 were supported in
the same manner, except that the number of 24-hour urine collections increased as the
importance of these data became more evident. Apollo missions 11, 12, and 14 were
characterized by a postflight quarantine and therefore received similar laboratory
emphasis. Apollo missions 15, 16, and 17 were supported with an expanded protocol
characterized by an increasing number of biochemical studies. The general methods
included the withdrawal of 20 ml of venous whole blood at least three times,
approximately thirty, fifteen, and five days before each mission. Similar amounts of
blood were withdrawn within two hours after recovery, one day, six days, and thirteen
days later. Fasting blood samples were obtained with the crewman recumbent and at
approximately the same time each day except for the sample immediately after splash-
down. The crews' intake of food and water prior to splashdown was varied, and
operational considerations dictated the actual time and place of recovery.
The crews generally consumed a conventional diet during the pre- and postflight
periods and Apollo flight food throughout the mission. Fluids were available ad libitum
during all phases. In order to evaluate the data obtained, certain information from the
clinical history of each crewman was required. This information included medication
history one month prior to, during, and postflight; radiation; exposure to toxic products,
if known; and description of the pertinent history and physical examination findings.
Approximate dietary intake, and the amount and time of any alcohol consumption were
also noted. The biochemistry program was judged successful based on the criteria that the
Clinical
Biochemistry 187
Results
the astronaut population for the variables considered. However, when postflight values
were compared with preflight levels, significant changes were found, as listed in table 4.
This comparison described consistent and significant decreases in potassium, magnesium,
lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine phosphokinase (CPK), albumin, uric acid,
triglycerides and cholesterol. Increases were described in creatinine, total protein, blood
urea nitrogen (BUN), and glucose.
The 24-hour urine results are shown in table 5. Since the diet consumed in the pre-
and postflight phases was not controlled, there was variation between means which
resulted in large standard deviations; however, significant changes did occur, as shown in
table 6. Significant postflight increases were measured in specific gravity and osmolality.
Decreases were measured in the 24-hour urine volume, and in the 24-hour excretion of
sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, and uric acid.
188 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 1
Serum Chemistries
Urine Chemistries
OI_IGINAL PAGE IS
POOR QUAi2
Clinical Biochemistry 189
Table 2
A. Serum
Glucose 98 85.4-111.5
Triglycerides 86 26.9-195.9
(LKB} 66 134.1-263.0
67 9.5-22.i
(LKB) 62 2.6-110.7
B. Urine
Magnesium 88 -30.5
190 Biomedical Results of Apollo
0 t'NI
m
_.¢q.
t,_
+I +I
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+I +i
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.< 0 'I:I"
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E E E E E E E E E E E E _
5
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+ I I I
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+ I + +
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8
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_, , _-_
gg_°oo
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'_ "_ 'z
, _'_
¢'_ "_ _ , _'
192 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 4
Potassium Decreased
Magnesium Decreased
Creatinine Increased
Albumin Decreased
Glucose Increased
Triglycerides Decreased
Cholesterol Decreased
Discussion
I I I + I + + + + + I
+1 +1 .i +1 +b .i +1 +_ +l +l +p
o
,2
I + I I I I + I I I I
<_
tD tD ¢'_
+_ +l +t +_ +l +_ +l +l +1 +h +l
I tD
O
rr *o'_ I
<3
=
+_ +_ +1 +1 +1 +_ +1 +_ +1 ÷_ +_
CO
¢9
4-
<3
o 0 CO
m
+l +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +l +1 +1 +,
tS E
+1 +t +t +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 E
o m. _.
-6 ._=
*-, f2.
_ _EEEEEEEE
_.':- _ _ = _'_.__ _ o
ORIGINAL
OF POOR
194 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 6
• . . a&
The serum creatine phosphokinase (CPK) levels were reduced immediately postflight,
and mild elevations were evident by 24 hours after recovery. This alteration was probably
a result of muscle inactivity incident to weightlessness and to increased muscular activity
during the first 24-hour postflight interval. The decrease in LDH could not be as readily
explained, since this enzyme would be expected to increase with exercise (Halonen &
Koltinen, 1962). However, it is likely that preflight LDH levels were atypically elevated
due to rigorous physical conditioning by the crew, such that the postflight reduction in
LDH may simply have been a return to normal enzyme balance.
The postflight elevation of blood glucose may have been related to stress associated
with reentry. In support of this prediction the epinephrine and steroid increases
correlated well with the hematologic findings of a transient postflight neutrophilia,
eosinopenia, and lymphopenia. However, short-term bedrest is associated also with
glucosemia (Lutwak & Whedon, 1959), which raises the possibility that the increased
glucose seen after the Apollo missions was not entirely a result of stress. As in bedrest,
the finding may be a result of diminished uptake of glucose by inactive muscle cells
(Lipman, 1970).
The decrease in cholesterol, triglycerides and uric acid may have been a result of
the low residue, high fat and carbohydrate diet consumed during the Apollo flights
However, these values did not return to preflight levels in two weeks after the
mission, even though the crewmen began eating a conventional diet immediately
after recovery. This fact suggested possibly that other metabolic consequences were
involved. Adrenal steroids have been shown to be elevated during flight which may
have accounted for the decrease in the stores of precursor cholesterol, particularly if
not replaced by the diet (see Section III, Chapter 1). The decreased cholesterol was
in agreement with elevated thyroxine levels, and contributed to the evidence for
increased thyroid function during flight (Sheinfeld et al., 1975); (see also Section III,
Chapter 1 of this book).
Clinical Biochemistry 195
The increase in total protein at recovery, and subsequent decrease in the days
following, portrayed the immediate postflight state of hydration of the individual
crewmen and the redistribution of fluid compartments which occurred throughout the
postflight interval. The immunological proteins were elevated also in many of the
crewmen, which perhaps contributed also to total protein elevation (Fischer et al., 1972);
(see also Section III, Chapter 3).
Summary
The objectives of the biochemical studies conducted for the Apollo Program were
(1) to provide routine laboratory data for assessment of preflight crew physical status
and for postflight comparisons; (2) to detect clinical or pathological abnormalities which
might have required remedial action preflight; (3) to discover as early as possible any
infectious disease process during the postflight quarantine periods following certain
missions; and (4) to obtain fundamental medical knowledge relative to man's adjustment
to and return from the space flight environment. The accumulated data suggest that these
requirements were met by the program described. All changes ascribed to the space flight
environment were subtle, whereas clinically significant changes were consistent with
infrequent illnesses unrelated to the space flight exposure.
References
Fischer, C.L., Gill, C.; Daniels, J.C.; Cobb, E.K.; Berry, C.A.; and Ritzmann, S.E.: Effects of the
Space Flight Environment on Man's Immune System: I Serum Proteins and lmmunoglobulins.
Aerospace Medicine, vol. 43, 1972, pp. 836-860.
Halonen, P.I.; and Koltinen, A.: Effect of Physical Exercise of Some Enzymes in the Serum. Nature,
vol. 193, pp. 942-944.
Leach, C.S.; Johnson, P.C.; and Alexander, W.C.: The Endocrine, Electrolyte and Fluid Volume
Changes Associated with Apollo. In: Apollo Medical Experiments. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1974.
Leach, C.S.; Alexander, W.C.; and Fischer, C.L.: Compensatory Changes During Adaptation to the
Weightlessness Environment. Physiologist, voi. 13, 1970, p. 246.
Lipman, R.: Impairment of Peripheral Glucose Utilization in Normal Subjects by Prolonged
Bedrest. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, vol. 76, 1970, pp. 221-223.
196 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Lutwack, L.; and Whedon, G.D.: The Effect of Physical Conditioning on Glucose Tolerance. Clinical
Research, vol. 7, 1959, p. 143.
Sheinfeld, M.; Leach, C.S.; and Johnson, P.C.: Plasma Thyroxine Changes in the Apollo Crewmen.
Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, vol. 46, no. 1, 1975, pp. 47-50.
Snedecor, G.W.: Statistical Methods. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 1956.
12678
CHAPTER 3
HEMATOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY STUDIES
by
Introduction
The authors would like to thank the following individuals for their technical and scientific support of
these studies: J. Bailey, L. Brannon, L. C. Bums. H. R. Cantu, E. K. Cobb, H. Conrad. B. S. Criswell, J.
Daniels, T. Driscoli, B. Edwards. C. Gill, P. C. Gouch, M. Graham, R. C. Hirasaki, L. Hollaman, T.
Jefferson, H. Jordan, A. D. LeBlance, J. Lopez, T. D. Rogers, H. Sakai, C. Tuchman, D. G. Winider.
197
198 Biomedical Results of Apollo
calculated red cell mass deficits of about 12 percent after four days in orbit. Based on this
observation, direct measurements of red cell mass were performed on the crew of
Gemini 5 using a 51Cr tag. The data derived from this study showed a 20 percent de-
crease in red cell mass following eight days in orbit, accompanied by an abnormally low
red cell 51Cr half-life in both pilots. These studies suggested that a hemolytic process was
responsible for the observed red cell loss.
Affirmation of a hemolytic reduction in red cell mass was obtained from the crew of
the 14-day Gemini 7 mission. In this case, one pilot showed a modest decrease in red cell
mass, whereas the other crewman lost 20 percent. Special hematology, tests, accompany-
ing the isotope studies, revealed that the reduetion in red cell mass was associated with in-
creases in mean corpuscular volume and osmotic fragility. Reticulocyte counts before and
after the mission revealed no actual depression of bone marrow activity incident to flight;
however, no reticulocytosis appeared until the fourth day after landing. These data imply
that the erythropoietic mechanisms were insensitive to the red cell mass reduction which
occurred over the 14-day interval. The red cell mass was recovered in both men by three
weeks postflight.
Additional biochemical analyses of blood samples from returning Gemini crewmen re-
flected significant decreases in plasma alpha-tocopherol levels, total red cell membrane
lipids, specifically the long chain of fatty acids of cephalin and lecithin, and red cell
phosphofructokinase activity. All of these compounds influence red cell integrity. Indeed,
the Gemini findings provided a new impetus in red cell investigation, with emphasis di-
rected at the red cell membrane itself and not solely at intracellular enzyme systems.
The Gemini findings formed the basis of a working hypothesis for the influence of
space flight on red cell function and survival. This hypothesis, comparable to that of
Jacob (1969) for microspherocyte formation, proved to be actually applicable only to the
Gemini environment, but it strongly influenced both the selection and interpretation of
test data of the earlier Apollo flights. As more information was collected in the later
Apollo missions, it became apparent that the hemolytic damage characteristic of the
Gemini flights was not the only hematologic consequence of space flight.
Hematology Studies
Table l
Reticulocyte count
Hemoglobin
Oxyhemoglobin
Carboxyhemoglobin
Methemoglobin
Hematocrit
Table 2
R BC Metabolism
Hexokinase
Phosphofructokinase
Giucose-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
Phosphoglyceric kinase
Pyruvate kinase
Adenosine triphosphate
2, 3-diphosphoglycerate
Reduced glutathione
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
Lipid peroxides
Cellular Analysis
RBC electrolyte distribution (electron probe analysis)
RBC hemoglobin distribution (microspectrophotometry)
RBC morphology and ultrastructure (electron microscopy)
RBC age density separation
RBC sodium/potassium flux (isotope exchange)
RBC sodium/potassium concentration
RBC volume distribution
0I .IG] 1J
200 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 3
(Values in ml)
Fluid and
Sample Clinical Chemistry Type and
Hematology Immunology Electrolyte
Day Endocrinology Cross-Match
Isotope
F-30 c 25 10
F -29
F-15 d 25 10 12 b
F-14
F -5 c 25 10 20
F-4
R+O d 25 10 12 b
R+I c 25 10 12 b
R +6 d 25 10 12 b
R+7
R+I 3 d 25 10 12 b
days
R+14
aFrom Apollo 16, Medical Requirements. NASA Document MSC-05259, February 17, 1972.
bK42(radioactive potassium).
On each mission, a group of three male subjects of comparable age, weight, and
general physical condition to the crew formed a ground-based control group. These
individuals were examined simultaneously with the crew to ensure that the sampling
schedule, transfer of blood samples from remote sites, and the overall medical protocol
did not influence laboratory results. The data from these subjects will be referred to as
control data or simply "controls" throughout the following discussion, and should not be
confused with laboratory "standard samples" which were routinely used to verify
procedures.
Routine Hematology
Routine hematological data from the Apollo missions are summarized in table 4.
Details concerning some of the results mentioned here are presented in subsequent
sections of this chapter. There were no changes in RBC count or hematocrit following the
flights. However, there was a modest (significant in one-third of the crewmen) elevation
Hematology and Immunology Studies 201
O
202 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Blood Volume
Measurement of red cell mass was of particular interest in the early Apollo flights
because of the significant decreases observed in red cell mass during the Gemini flights.
The procedures used to measure red cell mass and plasma volume have been reported
previously (Fischer et al., 1967; Johnson et al., 1971). The red cell mass loss in the first
two Apollo flights was negligible in five of six crewmen tested. This deviation from the
pattern of the Gemini crewmen was attributed to a change in the Apollo spacecraft
atmosphere composition at launch - from 100 percent oxygen in Gemini to a 60 percent
oxygen 40 percent nitrogen mixture at 346 × 102N/m 2 (260 torr) in Apollo. Therefore,
the Apollo 7 and 8 missions were characterized by an oxygen concentration of less than
100 percent during the entire flight interval, though it did approach the 95 percent level
by the end of the flight.
On the Apollo 9 mission, the crew opened the spacecraft hatches to perform
extravehicular activity. Even though denitrogenation began at the time of repressurization
and the crew lived in 100 percent oxygen for the next five days, only a seven percent
mean decrease in crew red cell mass was observed. This was a significant, but not
dramatic, change. However, the crew was not denitrogenated before the mission in the
manner of the crews in the Gemini Program. Gemini crewmen breathed 100 percent
oxygen at 101 x 103N/m 2 (760 torr) for three hours before the mission, again on the
launch complex for several hours before lift-off, and then proceeded with a mission in
which a 100 percent oxygen, 346 × 102N/m 2 (260 torr) atmosphere was used. Thus, the
Hematology
andImmunology
Studies 203
HYPEROXIA
DIRECT
PLASMA
DISRUPTION
OF RBC
MEMBRANE INHIBITION
1
OF RED CELL INHIBITION OF ACTIVE
MEMBRANE SULFHYDRYL GROUPS ---]I,.- CATION TRANSPORT
ATTAINMENT OF CRITICAL
STIMULATION OF Na-K PUMP
VOLUME
MEMBRANE LIPIDS
MICROSPHEROCYTE FORMATION
(FRAGMENTATION?)
Figure 1. Hypothesis to explain loss of red cell mass as a result of a hyperoxic breathing atmosphere.
Hyperoxia can cause peroxidation of red cell lipids (all membrane-bound), resulting in
one or both of the following: (1)the plasma vitamin E and vitamin A levels can be
reduced by virtue of the fact that these sterols are lipid antioxidants and are consumed in
this type of reaction, and (2)peroxidated lipids can physically compromise red cell
membrane integrity. Lipid peroxides are very effective and efficient red cell membrane
sulfhydryl group inhibitors, as is oxygen directly. Thus, if red cell lipid peroxides were
formed, inhibition of red cell membrane sulfhydryl groups would be expected. The
sulfhydryl groups are essential in maintaining the integrity of passive red cell membrane
cation transport. If active cation transport is poisoned by the same mechanism, one
204 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Changes in plasma volume following space flight have been more variable, but with a
general tendency to be reduced following the Apollo flights. The rapidity with which the
plasma volume can equilibrate, combined with the varying length of time following
recovery at which the plasma volume was measured and the less than optimal conditions
for these tests on the recovery vessel, make these results somewhat less meaningful
relative to the inflight condition. Nevertheless, the reduction in plasma volume after space
flight might be expected based on similar studies of subjects during comparable periods of
bed rest (Hyatt, 1969).
In contrast to the Gemini flights, the red cell survival (as measured by the 51Cr
half-life) was not significantly altered during the inflight or postflight phases of the
Apollo flights.
To summarize, table 5 compares the percent change in red cell mass, plasma volume,
and red cell survival of the crews of the Apollo and Gemini missions in which these
studies were performed. The red cell mass decrease of the Apollo 7 and 8 crews was
significantly less than the decrease after the lunar missions 14 through 17. The flight
duration of the Apollo 7 and 8 missions was less than the average duration of the moon
landings; however, it is improbable that flight duration was the reason for the difference
since large red cell mass decreases were found after the shorter Gemini 5 mission.
Table 5
Gemini 4 -- 9 -13"
Gemini 5 -- 7 - 21
Gemini 7 +il -14
Apollo 7-8 -- 8 -- 2
Apollo 9 -- 9 - 7
Apollo 14-17 --4+2 --10+ 1
Apollo Controls +10 +-2 -- 1+-1
Apollo 7-8 25 28 25
Apollo 14-17 24 23 27
*Calculated
Apollo 7 and 8 also differ from other Apollo missions in that the Lunar Module purged
the Command Module's atmosphere of nitrogen. After that maneuver, the Apollo atmo-
sphere was equivalent to a Gemini atmosphere. Small amounts of residual nitrogen were
206 Biomedical Results of Apollo
present throughout Apollo 7, the only mission in which atmosphere composition was mea-
sured. The difference between these two types of missions was further evidence to support
thc concept that a nitrogen-free atmosphere was the cause of the red cell mass decreases. The
red cell survival as measured by 51Cr half-life was not shortened to the extent found in three
of four Gemini crewmen, suggesting that hemolysis did not occur or was very slight.
While it was not possible within the framework of the Apollo Program to test this
hypothesis extensively, all of the Apollo, Gemini, and supporting ground-based studies
can be ranked according to the mean red cell mass loss that was measured in the subjects
(table 6). These data include the percent loss, the atmosphere composition, the number
of subjects, and the exposure duration. What is noteworthy is that anytime a 100 percent
oxygen atmosphere was used, significant red cell mass loss occurred. However, if a diluent
gas wa - present, no significant red cell loss was observed.
The initial hypothesis (figure 1) predicted an intravascular hemolysis of the cells as a
result of failure to maintain osmotic balance. Based upon additional data collected in
support of the Apollo Program, this hypothesis may need to be modified. The consistent
elevation of haptoglobin in all of the crewmen following Apollo flights is inconsistent
with intravascular hemolysis. Red cell survival was not significantly shortened in the
Apollo flights, and this finding does not support the concept of intravascular hemolysis.
It is possible that the alteration of red cell membrane lipids and/or sulfhydryl groups
would alter the cells' structural configuration leading to fragmentation of cells and their
subsequent destruction by the reticuloendothelial system. Shape changes have been
observed in red cells collected inflight (Kimzey et al., 1974).
However, the lack of any change in the 51Cr survival time suggests that the loss may
not be due to red cell destruction at all, but to a reduction in the production of cells.
Regardless of the exact cause of the red cell mass decrease, compensatory erythropoiesis
is not evident. There are data from later flights to suggest that initiation of the recovery
of red cell mass after completion of the mission may be delayed for up to two weeks
(Johnson et al., 1974; 1975). In order to account for the loss seen in some of the Apollo
flights, red cell production would have to be totally inhibited for the duration of the
flight (assuming a normal loss of approximately one percent per day), and even this could
not account for the large loss in the Gemini missions. It is obvious that the exact
mechanism of this red cell mass loss has not been established; oxygen undoubtedly is a
contributory agent, but is probably not the only one.
Special Hematology
The measurement protocol for red cell glycolytic enzymes and intermediate
compounds varied from mission to mission. Operational constraints associated with
quarantine prevented this protocol from being applied with any degree of consistency.
The changes in red cell metabolic function during space flight as determined by analysis
of selected compounds are summarized in table 7.
The energy-related enzymes in general showed a postflight elevation, but adeno-
sine triphosphate (ATP) levels were unchanged. The stability of red cell
2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2, 3-DPG) is indicative of the maintenance of normal
Hematology and Immunology Studies 207
Table 6
Summary of Red Cell Mass Data
Atmospheric Oxygen
% RBC Mass Change Partial Pressure
Exposure No. of
Study
Mean Range % Oxygen (Psia)* (days) Subjects
(minimum-maximum}
"t = p_la
_.;. = 60x
, 103N/m 2
Studies are arranged in order of increasing loss of red cell mass. The atmospheric oxygen profite is
based on estimates in most cases instead of actual measurements. All results were collected using the
51Cr procedure (Fischer et al., 1967 and Johnson et al., 1971) except Gemini 4, which was
estimated from measurement of plasma volume and the hematocrit.
Although some moderate changes were observed during Apollo in some of the
glycolytic enzymes, no trend was evident and the magnitude of the changes did not
represent a significant alteration in the functional capacity of the cells.
Decreases were observed after the Apollo 9 mission in the plasma vitamin E and
vitamin A levels, as compared with three controls. The reductions in the plasma
vitamin E are statistically significant. Concomitant changes in the red cell membrane
vitamin E or vitamin A were not observed. Total phospholipid, neutral lipid, and
fatty acids of several major phospholipids of the red cell membrane were measured.
208 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The red cell lecithin, a major component of the red cell membrane, showed a
dramatic change both quantitatively and qualitatively. There was a quantitative
change in the phospholipids and a qualitative change in the fatty acids of the
phospholipids. These changes did not appear to bc related to diet. Lecithin and
other phospholipids showed a shortening of the fatty acid chains, particularly the
long-chain, unsaturated fatty acids, such as C24 ' C22, and C18, suggesting lipid
peroxidation.
Table 7
Apollo Mission
m
Parameter
T 14 15 16 17
Hexokinase +
Phosphofructokinase 0 ND ND ND +
Glucose-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 0 + ND ND ND +
Phosphoglyceric kinase + -- ND ND ND +
Pyruvate kinase ND ND ND ND ND 0
Adenosine triphosphate 0 0 0 0 0 0
2, 3-diphosphoglycerate ND ND 0 0 0 0
Reduced glutathion + ND ND ND
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase ND ND ND ND ND 0
Lipid peroxides 0 0 ND ND 0 0
have a higher enzyme activity overall. However, both of these suggestions remain
speculative in the absence of additional data.
In Apollo 13 through 17, the erythrocytes were examined individually by electron
probe microanalysis for cellular sodium (Na), potassium (K), and sulfur (S) content.
These procedures were designed to evaluate changes in the population distribution of the
two major osmotically active cations (Na and K) of the red blood cell. In general, the
method consisted of focusing a beam of high energy electrons onto a single red cell and
determining the Na, K, and S content by detection of the resultant characteristic X-ray
photons emitted from the red cell structural matrix (figure 2). The precision and
usefulness of the technique for analyzing blood cells have been described in detail
elsewhere (Kimzey & Burns, 1973; Bums & Kimzey, 1973).
m DEWAR---...J
/ / [
Li DRIFTED _
SI DETECTOR_ i
CRYSTAL t
A _/e- BEAM _iSpI JERSIVE _
SYSTEM
"_ TARGET
Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of X-ray detection systems utilized to examine red blood cells
with an electron probe microanalyzer.
The results of these studies on Apollo 13 and 14 showed a transient postflight shift in
the red cell Na/K ratios, reflecting an elevated cellular Na content and/or reduced cellular
K. This change was not detected on Apollo ] 5. A significant transient drop in erythrocyte
K, as measured by electron probe microanalysis, occurred postflight in all three crewmen
of Apollo 16; K levels returned to preflight values within one day following recovery. A
reduction in erythrocyte S (representative of cellular hemoglobin content) occurred at
R+0 on this mission and continued through R + 1 in samples obtained from one of the
three crewmen. No change was observed in the other two.
Evaluation of K/S ratios showed that a highly probable direct relationship existed in
all three crewmen at R+0. In view of the reduction in cellular K seen at R+O, these data
implied either the increased presence of smaller cells in the erythrocyte population or a
concomitant loss of hemoglobin at this sampling period.
210 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
On Apollo 17, rcd cells were analyzed individually with the electron probe to
determine the intracellular content of K, S, and P as well as to measure the relative
mass-density of the cell by X-ray absorption. The trend in Apollo 17 was different from
that noted on previous Apollo flights. For this flight, the cells were separated prior to
analysis by density centrifugation, using a modification of the procedure of Herz and
Kaplan (1965), into a young cell fraction (lightest 10 percent fraction of red cell column)
and an old cell fraction (heaviest 10 percent fraction). Thirty cells from each fraction on
each sample day were examined individually for their K, S, and P X-ray intensities. The
cells' ability to absorb silicon (Si) X-rays from the substrate was also measured as
representative of the cell dry mass. These four measurements were made simultaneously
on each cell. The S X-ray intensity (reflecting the cellular hemoglobin moiety) and P
X-ray intensity (primarily cellular metabolites and phospholipids) did not change
significantly during the mission in either the young or old cell fractions. The older cell K
did show a postflight drop from a steady increase during the preflight period, but these
changes were paralleled by shifts in red cell dry mass (ASi intensity).
When the K intensity was corrected for cellular dry mass (thereby reflecting
concentration), there was essentially no change following the flight. Red cell K was also
measured by conventional emission flame photometry using an internal Li standard.
These data for Apollo 17 whole blood, young cells, and old cells were consistent with the
results of X-ray microanalysis.
Previously, visualization of red cell shape and structure has been limited to the use of
the light microscope with a resolution of .2 micron. Transmission electron microscopy,
while providing information on intracellular ultrastructure, is of no help in delineating the
three-dimensional structure of the cell. With the use of the scanning electron microscope,
details of the cell can be visualized with a tenfold greater resolution .01 to .02 micron
than with the light microscope, and with a large depth of field.
Because of the physiological importance of the red cell shape and the variety of
pathological conditions in which red cells can undergo shape changes, a characterization
system for red blood cells using the scanning electron microscope was established during
the latter Apollo missions to evaluate changes in red blood cell morphology. This
classification scheme is similar to that described by Bessis (1973) and is reported in detail
elsewhere (Kimzey et al., 1974).
Six categories of red cell morphology were defined from examination of normal
human red cell preparations; these cell types and representative photographs are indicated
in table 8 and figures 3 through 7. Baseline data were obtained from control subjects, the
backup crew, and prime crewmembers preflight. No significant abnormalities were found
as a result of the space flight exposure to Apollo. However, extensive examination of red
cell shape changes in other studies has indicated that red cell morphological alterations do
occur during space flight (Kimzey et al., 1974). These changes were rapidly (within
hours) reversed after recovery. Thus, with only the pre- and postflight sampling
characteristic of the Apollo Program, any inflight changes might not be detected.
Examination of postflight crew and control buffy coat (leukocyte) samples by
transmission electron microscopy indicated no noticeable changes in intracellular
ultrastructure as compared with preflight samples. Mitochondria were intact, cytoplasmic
Hematology and Immunology Studies 211
granules were well preserved, nuclear membranes were intact, and cell membranes
appeared normal.
Table 8
results is that man’s red cell function was n o t compromised during space flight a n d that
t h e formed elements of the blood had n o compromising structural abnormalities.
Immunology Studies
T h e assessment of man’s immunologic integrity is of particular importance in
evaluating the health status of potential space flight crewmen prior to launch and in
214 Biomedical Results of ApoUo
1
I
Figure 6. The upper SEM image is a knizocyte (“pinched” cell) and the lower one is a
codocyte with a very deep depression. These cells normally comprise less than 2 percent
of the circulating red cells.
216 Biomedical Results of Apollo
determining the medical consequences of space flight. The objectives of the immunology
program were to assess the health status of the crews during the preflight period to assist
in determining fitness for flight, and, in doing so, to establish individual baseline data for
later comparisons. Another objective was to detect any aberrations in immune function
resulting from exposure to the space flight environment, both from the standpoint of a
response to the environment and the capacity for an adequate immune response after the
flight.
The immune system is usually considered as being composed of two basic functional
branches. The humoral system consists of immunoglobulins, complement factors, related
serum proteins, and the B-lymphocytes. The T-lymphocytes, which when sensitized are
capable of performing the tasks of antigen recognition and repulsion, are a major
component of the cellular immune system. The T-lymphocytes are responsible for
delayed allergic reactions and the initiation of graft-versus-host reactions. They play a
major role in the body's defense against certain microorganisms and are also important in
the detection and destruction of malignant cells.
Like most biological systems, neither the humoral nor the cellular irrmune system
functions independently of the other. The response to certain antigens requires both
T-cell and B-cell interactions to achieve antibody synthesis. Although the differentiation
of the immune system into separate classes is somewhat artificial, it will be utilized in the
following discussion for the purposes of organization and clarity.
Humoral Immunology
The serum proteins were assayed serially before flight, immediately after recovery,
and for varying periods of time (up to two weeks) after flight. Serum protein
clectrophoretic patterns were obtained by cellulose acetate electrophoresis, from which
albumin, _2-globulin and 7-globulin fractions were computed. Individual serum proteins
were quantitatcd by radial immunodiffusion (RID), using specific antisera
(Ritzmann et al., !973). Proteins assayed by RID include immu:!oglobu!ins G, A, and M
(IgG, IgA, IgM), the third component of complement (C3), the carrier proteins
transferrin, haptoglobin and ceruloplasmin, the antiproteases, Ctl-antitrypsin and
a2-macroglobulin, and al-acid glycoprotein. The results of the serum protein assays
conducted during the Apollo 7 through 17 missions are summarized m table 9
(Fischer et al., 1972a).
The total concentration of serum proteins is typically increased after spacc flight,
with the o_2-globulin fl'action responsible for this change. It is of significance that the
mean concentrations of the albumin fraction and the total "y-gl0bulin fraction remained
unchanged in postflight as compared with preflight values. This elevation was statistically
significant in some individuals, but the overall assessment of any meaningful change was
complicated by substantial individual variation. Alterations in the plasma volume during
the first few hours postflight also contributed to some of the variations observed.
The immunoglobulin profiles in the Apollo astronauts showed a varied response to
space flight. Serum levels of IgG and IgM were unchanged over the flight intervals.
Individual crewmen occasionally demonstrated IgG values in the low normal range, but
these levels were consistent throughout the mission timeline. Serum IgA, which includes
218 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Hematology and Immunology Studies 219
Transferrin possibly tended to decrease toward the end of the second week of postflight
observation. The mechanisms responsible for these observed changes are unknown.
While these patterns prevailed for the astronauts as a group, individual astronauts
demonstrated interesting exaggerations or mitigations of these mean changes. One
crewman exhibited a marked increase of acute phase reactants such as haptoglobin and
0t1-antitrypsin, with a depression of transferrin levels. This pattern contrasted with that of
the other astronauts in the group, for which changes in ¢qantitrypsin were insignificant.
This crewmember had experienced a pyclonephritis secondary to a Pseudomonas
infection. Another crewmember experienced an episode of mild otitis media which was
coincident with a decrease of IgG to approximately two-thirds of normal levels. The
possibility cannot be excluded that this reduced IgG level may have contributed to this
individual's susceptibility to infection.
It would appear that there were no consistent abnormalities relative to the humoral
immune system as a result of exposure to the space flight environment of the Apollo
missions. There were unexplainable characteristic alterations in some of the proteins,
haptoglobin and a2-macroglobulin in particular. However, the medical consequences of
these changes relative to man's immune competence during and after space flight would
appear to be minimal. There were no indications from these data to suggest that the
functional capacity of the immune system is restrictive to man's participation in lunar
and orbital space flights of the duration and type of the Apollo missions.
Cellular Immunology
Techniques for assessing the cellular immune status utilize the ability of small
lymphocytes to undergo morphologic changes in response to in vitro antigenic
stimulation. These morphological alterations are accompanied by characteristic patterns
of biochemical changes which provide a useful measure of cellular immunocompetence.
The studies discussed here represent the application of such methods to lymphocytes
obtained from Apollo astronauts in an attempt to evaluate the effects of the environment
of space flight on cellular immunity.
Lymphocytes from astronauts and control subjects were analyzed for their in vitro
antigenic responsiveness by quantitating the rates of synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
and dioxyribonucleic acid (DNA) both in the presence and absence of the mitogen,
phytohemagglutinin P (PHA). The details of this technique have been previously
described (Daniels et al., 1970a; Fischer et al., 1972b). Lymphocytes were separated from
heparinized venous blood by a nylon reticulum column and cultured, with and without
PHA, in appropriate media. At the times of maximal RNA and DNA synthesis, 24 and 72
hours respectively, cultures were pulsed for one hour with either 3H-uridine or
3H-thymidine; and incorporation of radioactivity into the lymphocytes measured by
liquid scintillation spectrometry. Lymphocyte viability at the time of harvest was assessed
by supravital fluorescent staining. The results were calculated as 3H-disintegrations per
minute (DPM) per million viable cells. This technique, with appropriate modifications for
maintaining cellular functional capacity, yields valid data in the face of the various modes
of transport over considerable distances necessary for collecting lymphocyte samples
from the Apollo crews (Daniels et al., 1970b).
Hematology
andImmunology
Studies 221
Absolute lymphocyte counts were determined for each of the 33 astronauts three
times during thc 30 days prior to launch (at approximately F-30, F-I 5, and F-5), as soon
as possible after recovery (R+0), and various days after recovery. The lymphocyte counts
of individual astronauts fluctuated rather widely, but there was a definite trend in many
of the crewmen (18 of 33) to exhibit a postflight lymphocytosis at either the R+0 or R+I
sampling periods. However, because of individual variations, this increase was not
statistically significant when all flights were considered.
Normal in vitro lymphocyte synthesis of nucleic acids, in both the basal unstimulated
state and in response to the stimulating agent PHA, tended to remain well confined
within relatively narrow ranges of variability, irrespective of the lymphocyte counts in the
individual astronauts. The RNA and DNA synthesis rates for lymphocytes cultured before
and after flight from the astronauts of Apollo 7 through 13 remained well within the
normal ninetieth percentile ranges (Fischer et al., 1972b).
In Apollo flights 14 through 17, the data were somewhat less consistent. The data for
the crews of Apollo 14 and 17 were all within normal ranges, both pre- and postflight,
and therefore fit the general trend. The data from Apollo 15 were confusing and were
complicated by sample handling problems.
Evaluation of the cellular immune response of lymphocytes from pre- and postflight
blood samples of the Apollo 16 crew strongly suggested the presences of a subclinical
viral infection in both the prime and backup crewmen. These indications were based on
(1) abnormal rates of RNA and DNA synthesis in unstimulated lymphocytes as indicated
by radioactivity count levels above and below the normal ranges, and (2) abnormal high
or low values for rates of RNA and DNA synthesis in PHA stimulated lymphocytes.
Electron microscope studies of lymphocytes from the prime crew (R+3 sample) provide a
supplemental evidence of subclinical viral infection, based on increased protein-
synthesizing capacity (increase in number of polyribosome aggregates and rough
cndop!asmic reticu!um) (Bethard, !974). These conclusions were supported by preflight
and postflight incidences of lymphocytosis and a high percentage of atypical
lymphocytes.
The second parameter studied was the ability of small lymphocytes to respond to
antigenic stimulation by the kidney bean extract phytohemagglutinin (PHA) with
increased synthesis of RNA and DNA. The phenomenon, associated with characteristic
morphologic changes, is generally accepted as an in vitro indicator of in vivo
immunocompetence of T-cells. These morphologic alterations are paralleled by functional
changes, such as increased RNA and increased DNA synthesis rates.
The rates of spontaneous unstimulated and PHA-stimulated synthesis of both RNA and
DNA by lymphocytes cultured preflight and postflight from the Apollo astronauts remained
with the ninetieth percentile normal ranges with the exception of the Apollo 15 and 16,
crews which were discussed. The most meaningful mode of data presentation for such deter-
minations, which are based on liquid scintillation counting of radiolabeled nucleotide pre-
cursor incorporation, is absolute radioactivity per million viable lymphocytes.
While lymphocyte numbers fluctuated significantly shortly after return from space
flight and tended to exhibit a delayed increase, the immunocompetence of these cells, as
judged by in vitro stimulation techniques, remained stable throughout the preflight and
postflight observation periods. This finding is of significance in engendering confidence
that the human immune system, particularly such vulnerable components as circulating
antigen-sensitive small lymphocytes, can maintain functional integrity in the environ-
ments of space flights of the duration of the Apollo missions (10 to 12 days). The
influence of longer duration space flights may be more complicated and could influence
the lymphocyte responsiveness postflight (Kimzey et al., 1975a, 1975b).
Cytogenetic Studies
It has been appreciated for some time that increased frequency of chromosomal aber-
ration occurs in man following exposure to ionizing radiation. Structural chromosomal
aberrations are also known to occur following exposure to other environmental factors
such as viruses (both DNA and RNA), to various chemicals such as benzene, and to nu-
merous drugs, including aspirin.
Concern over the possible harm of low levels of radiation exposure centers mostly
around it's association with hereditary damage or malignancy. Essentially no information
is available concerning radiation effects on the chromosomes of gonadal or meiotic cells
of man, and estimates of hereditary damage are based in large part on theoretical views. It
should be remembered that one cannot extrapolate findings in somatic cells (in the case
under discussion, circulating lymphocytes) to gametic chromosomal patterns. However,
studies of patients receiving irradiation treatments as a part of a therapeutic profile
suggest a strong correlation between irradiation, chromosome damage, and cancer
(Buckton et al., 1962; Bender, 1969).
It is clearly established that many agents which produce tumors in man and animals
can also produce chromosomal aberrations in their cells. This information, coupled with
the fact that in several rare human disorders (Bloom's syndrome, Fanconi's anemia and
ataxia telangiectasia) there is a constitutional predilection for increased chromosomal
aberrations as well as an increased incidence of leukemia and lymphoma, has suggested
that an increase in structural chromosome aberrations cannot be ignored.
Hematology
and Immunology Studies 223
Chromosomal aberrations of concern are structural in nature, that is, they arise
through breakage of the strands of chromatin. These breaks may occur either in one or in
both chromatids of a single chromosome, or multiple breaks may occur in several
chromosomes within an individual cell. Following such accidents, the strands may or may
not recombine with themselves, and the broken ends of several chromosomes may
combine with each other. Two general types of aberrations occur depending on the stage
of the cell cycle in which the break occurs. If the cell is in the pre-DNA synthesis period,
chromosome strands are single (chromatids); if the accident occurs after synthesis, the
chromosome consists of two chromatids. Chromosomes are technically examined in the
metaphase stage of division because that is when they can be separated as individuals, so
replication may not have occurred when the chromosomes of peripheral lymphocytes are
examined, depending in part on the time in culture. Generally, these two types of
aberrations may be morphologically separated. However, in several instances it is
impossible to tell whether the break occurred in the pre-DNA synthesis, and was
replicated, or whether both strands were affected after replication. A break will produce a
fragment that is generally lost in the next cell division. Separation of the aberrations into
chromatid-type chromosome-type is useful, since the type of structural defect occurring
in humans as a response to a specific exposure has varied with the agent to which the
person is exposed.
The results of the Gemini Program have been summarized elsewhere (Gooch & Berry,
1969). The percentage of breaks before flight ranged from zero to 9.5 percent, with a
mean of 4.4 percent. The postflight values ranged from 0.5 to 11 percent, with a mean of
8.3 percent or almost twice the preflight mean. More significantly, there were eleven
values which increased, five values which decreased, and one value which remained
unchanged.
The Apollo flights were marked by a greater magnitude increase in postflight
chromosome breaks in every crewmember tcsted. However, cultures obtained from the
missions associated with lunar quarantine did not yield sufficient well-spread mitoses for
analyses.
In the Apollo studies, peripheral blood samples were collected and heparinized. After
centrifugation, the buffy coat was preserved for chromosome cultures and the serum and
erythrocytes were used for other laboratory experiments. The cultures were harvested
after 66 hours incubation at 310°K (37°C). Slides were prepared by the air-dry method
and the cells stained with Giemsa. Preflight blood samples were collected from 30 days to
one day prior to lift-off. Postflight samples were drawn on the day of recovery or within
four days postrecovery. From 200 to 1000 metaphase cells were scored for each
individual.
Chi-square tests on preflight versus postflight aberration rates showed that approxi-
mately 50 percent of the crewmen tested had significant increases in chromatid-type
changes postflight. Fewer tests showed significant chromosome-type increases. If the
Apollo astronauts are divided into two groups based on the presence or lack of previous
flight experience, an interesting fact emerges. Only one out of six astronauts who were on
their first mission had a preflight value above four percent, whereas all but one of the
nine experienced astronauts had preflight values of four percent or more.
224 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
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Bender, M.A.: Human Radiation Cytogenetics. Advanced Radiation Biology, vol. 3, 1969,
pp. 215-275.
Bessis, M.: Red Cell Shapes. An Illustrated Classification and Its Rationale. In: Red Cell Shape, M.
Bessis, R.I. Weed and P.F. Leblond (eds.), Springer Verlag (New York), 1973, pp. 1-25.
Bethard, B.A.; Granholm, N.A.; Sakai, H.A., and Ritzmann, S.E.: Ultrastructural Alterations in
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Buckton, K.E.; Jacobs, P.A.; Court Brown, W.M.; and Doll, R.: A Study of the Chromosome Damage
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Space Flight Environment on Man's Immune System: lI. Lymphocyte Counts and Reactivity.
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1969, pp. 610-614.
Herz, F., and Kaplan, E.: A Microtechnic for the Separation of Erythrocytes in Accordance with their
Density. Amer. J. Clin. Path., vol. 43, 1965, pp. 181-183.
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Johnson, P.C.; Driscoll, T.B.; and Fischer, C.L.: Blood Volume Changes in Divers of Tektite I.
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Johnson, P.C.; Driscoll, T.B.; and LeBlance, A.D.: Blood Volume Changes. Proc., Skylab Life Sci.
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CHAPTER 4
by
G. W. Hoffler, M.D.
Robert L. Johnson, M.D.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
The Apollo Program was designed to fulfill the specific operational goals of landing
man safely on the moon, enabling him to explore the lunar surface, and successfully
returning him to Earth. The engineering and operational complexity of this effort
necessarily limited inflight physiological studics of man to those measurements
considered vital to crew safety and health assessment. Limited availability of astronaut
time during busy preflight and postflight periods constrained evaluations significantly;
therefore, only examinations believed to have the greatest relevance to the understanding
of man's physiological responses to the space flight environment were undertaken.
Reductions in orthostatic tolerance following space flight were first observed with the
late flights of Project Mercury. Tilt table tests revealed moderate orthostatic hypotension
in the Mercury-Atlas 9 Pilot after only 34 hours of orbital flight. Because of this finding,
tilt table tests for orthostatic tolerance were incorporated into routine preflight and
postflight evaluations and continued throughout the Gemini Program. The results of these
tests confirmed consistent but variable losses of orthostatic tolerance following three- to
fourteen-day flights. Elevated heart rate, reduced pulse pressure, and increased pooling of
fluid in the lower extremities were found consistently dnring 70 ° upright tilts in the early
postflight period. Responses to this stress usually returned to normal within 50 hours
after splashdown, regardless of flight duration (NASA, 1963; 1967).
The advent of the Apollo Program presented new questions and uncertainties.
Fundamental differences in the Apollo spacecraft, in its operational environment, and in
program goals were expected to produce physiological responses that differed from those
The authors are grateful for the technical assistance of R. A. Wolthuis, J. T. Baker, M. E. Taylor,
D. P. Golden, and M. M. Ward. The authors also thank T.A. Beale, S.A. Bergman, J. Day, J. A.
Donaldson, J. G. Groves, M. M. Jackson, N. A. Lee, S. McKamie, A. E. Nicogossian, R. A. Schiffman,
and E. Sloan. All associates of various tenure were affiliated with the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space
Center Cardiovascular Laboratory during the Apollo Program.
227
228 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
The Command Module Pilot (CMP), his backup erewmember, and two control
subjects were fitted for Jobst waist-length leotards bcforc the flight of Apollo 16. These
garments were to be donned during postflight orthostatic evaluations to assess their
antihypotensive effect. A garment employing the capstan principle for the application of
lower body positive pressure was designed to be worn by the Apollo 17 CMP during
postflight tests.
The following subsections will describe the methodological aspects and conditions
affecting orthostatic evaluation with and without the use of countermeasure garments.
Lower Body Negative Pressure Device. The device for accomplishing LBNP consisted
of a chamber of sufficient size to accommodate the lower body, an airtight waist seal, and
230 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 231
a regulated vacuum source OVolthuis et ai., 1970; Wolthuis et al., 1972). The LBNP
device is shown in figure 1. The type of physiological measurements taken during the
LBNP protocol varied slightly from mission to mission. Measurements made in
conjunction with the Apollo 7 to 9 missions included continuous axillary and sternal lead
electrocardiograms, indirect blood pressure taken every 30 seconds by the Korotkov
sound technique [using the NASA Gemini blood pressure measuring system (NASA,
1968) ], and changes in calf circumference measured by double-strand, mercury-in-Silasfic
strain gages.
at the ankle of 40 to 45 mm tig (53 x 102 to 60 x l02 N/m 2) that decreased linearly to
approximately 10 mm Hg (13 x 102 N/m 2) at the waist. To accommodate the reduction
in limb size expected to occur during flight, garments in three separate sizes were made
for the CMP. They were, respectively, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 cm smaller in circumference at the
calf with proportionate reductions throughout the lower limbs.
A lower body garment using the capstan principle to apply pressure to the lower
limbs was designed, fabricated, and sized for the Apollo 17 CMP to use following
splashdown. The garment is pictured diagrammatically in figure 2. Capstan pressure was
read from an aneroid gage and the capstan was inflated with a hand bulb, both of which
were concealed in a zippered pocket. The capstan exerted the pressure of the garment
over the skin at the ankle in a 2:lratio. This pressure diminished linearly to
approximately 10 mm Hg (13 x 102 N/m 2) at the waist. Preflight testing with pressure
sensors between the garment and the skin verified the ratio and the diminishing gradient
of pressure from ankle to waist. To accommodate anticipated loss of limb girth, laces
were provided for reducing the garment size slightly before stowage in the Command
Module. The capstan itself accommodated moderate changes (+-2.5 cm) in limb girth.
Physical Examinations
Major medical examinations of space flight crewmembers were performed at
approximately 30, 15 and 5 days before flight (F-30, F-15 and F-5, respectively).
Orthostatic tolerance evaluations performed as an integral part of these medical
examinations provided baseline information for comparison with postflight evaluation
results. These preflight orthostatic tolerance evaluations took place at the NASA
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) Cardiovascular Laboratory, llouston, Texas, and
at the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Medical Operations Facility, Kennedy
Space Center, Florida. As part of the major medical examinations, postflight orthostatic
tolerance evaluations were performed shortly after splashdown and at intervals of
approximately 24-hours thereafter. The number of postflight evaluations and the time at
which they were performed (table 2) were dictated partly by operational constraints and
partly by the length of time required for individual crewmembers to regain their preflight
status. As indicated in table 2, either two or three postflight orthostatic evaluations were
completed on each crewman; a fourth evaluation of the Apollo 15 to 17 crewmembers
differed in that it did not necessarily include orthostatic stress tests. Immediately
postflight, the first evaluations took place on the recovery ship; subsequent postflight
evaluations were performed on the recovery ship, at KSC, or at the JSC Cardiovascular
Laboratory.
Control Subjects
To ensure comparability of test conditions and operability of test equipment, several
members of the attending support team assigned to each Apollo mission participated in
preflight and postflight orthostatic evaluations identical to those used on crewmembers.
These control subjects were evaluated a day or two before the Apollo crewmen were
evaluated. The data collected helped ensure the validity of postflight changes observed in
space flight crewmembers and the operational readiness of test teams and equipment.
Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 233
'..Ji.'
t _ 400-2 DU R R ETT
i _ PRESSURIZING SYSTEM
i" i
DONNING TAB
CAPSTAN
DONNING
covi a,
ZI PPE RS _ COVE R ED WITH
_I .u _,c_oc_
400-16 DURRETT
SIZING ADJUSTMENT
l _..-CAPSTAN TUBES
, S'_----CAPSTAN TAPES
j
)
Figure 2. Lower body positive pressure garment
employing the capstan principal.
234 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 2
CDR 3 34
CMP 2 35
LMP 5 32
CDR 3 26 51
CMP 4 27 53
LMP 5 26 52
CDR 2 31 53
CMP 4 33 55
LMP 3 32 54
CDR 2 26
10 CMP 3 27
LMP 2 28
CDR 6 25
11 CMP 7 25
LMP 8 26
CDR 3 43 73 122
15 CMP 4 42 71 121
LMP 5 44 72 137
CDR 4 24 68 162
16 CMP 6 26 70 162
LMP 5 25 71 162
CDR 6 24 48 90
17 CMP 5 26 50 91
LMP 7 25 51 91
Test Protocols
The protocols for the two orthostatic stress procedures are shown in figure 3. The
period at each of three distinct reduced-pressure levels, and a five-minute recovery period.
The first five-minute period of reduced pressure included one minute at -8 mm Hg
(-11 x 10 2 N/m 2) and one minute at -16 mm Hg (-21 x 10 2 N/m2), followed by three
minutes at -30 mm Hg (-40 x 102 N/m2). The two short-duration, relatively low levels of
responsiveness of lower limb capacitance vessels. The three levels of sequentially applied
reduced pressure used were chosen on the basis of previous experience in the JSC
LBNP protocol produced physiological responses for each level of reduced pressure
Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 235
applied and ensured a measurable, quantitative stress response in both the normal
50 mm Hg (67x102 N/m 2)
I
40 mm Hg [
(53x102 N/m 2)
REDUCED-PRESSURE
STRESS (LBNP)
30 mm Hg
I (40x102 N/m 2)
16 mm r._]
TIME, MINUTES
PASSIVE
VERTICAL
STAND
SUPINE
RESTING
CONTROL
I
0 5 10
TIME, MINUTES
The passive stand protocol consisted of a five-minute resting supine control period
followed by a five-minute passive stand. For the passive stand, the subject leaned against a
wall in a relaxed manncr with his heels spaced 15 cm (6 in.) away from the wall.
Physiological measurements made during this protocol included continuous sternal and
axillary lead ECG's, and indirect blood pressure taken by the Korotkov sound technique
at 30-second intervals.
236 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
TheApollo16tests,utilizingtheJobstleotard,wereperformed pre-andpostflight.
Passivestandtestswereperformed attheF-15testsontheCommand Module Pilot,the
backupCMP,andthe two controlsubjects, andwererepeated on theCMPandthe
controlsattheirrespective recovery dayexaminations. Thetestsfollowed theLBNPtest
andconsisted ofa five-minute supine restperiodfollowedby afive-minute standperiod
in themanner of theearlierApollopassive standtests.Theleotards werethendonned,
and,aftera ten-minute periodof supinerest,thestandtestwasrepeated. Bloodpressure
andheart-rate datawereobtained byusingtheinstrumentation oftheearlierLBNPtest.
Approximately one-half
hourbeforeApollo17deorbit,theCommand Module Pilot
donned but did not intlatetheantihypotensive garment.Aftersplashdown, whilestill
recliningin the couch,he inflatedtile capstanto a pressure of 130 mm Hg
(173x 102N/m2) and,thus,furnished65mmHg (87x 102N/m2) pressure overthe
ankleregion. Thispressure wasmaintained untilastandtestcouldbeperformed. Thesuit
wastestedby performing a standtestfourhoursaftersplashdown andbeforeLBNP
testing.Crewtime restraints prohibitedrepetitionof the preflightprotocol,which
included separate testswithandwithoutthegarment, eachseparated byanappropriate
recovery period.Therefore, thecrewman spentfiveminutes in thesupine positionwith
thecapstan inflated,fiveminutes passivestandingwiththecapstan inflated,
fiveminutes
standing with thegarment depressurized,andfourminutesstanding withthecapstan
reinflatedto theoriginalcapstan pressureof 130mmHg(173x 102N/m2).Thetotal
durationoftilecontinuous standwas15minutes, including
approximately 45seconds for
reinflationof thecapstan. Heartratewasobtained continuously fromtheVCG;blood
pressurewasmeasured every30seconds byaSkylab automaticbloodpressure measuring
system.
AncillaryIndicators
of OrthostaticTolerance
Accessorycardiovascularandrelatedmeasurements weremadein conjunction with
orthostaticevaluations.
Beforeorthostaticevaluation
of theApollo7 to 11and15to 17
crewmen, thecircumferenceofthecalfatitsmaximum girthwasmeasured duringsupine
rest.An assessment of total lowerlimbvolumemadeon the Apollo16 and 17
crewmembers consistedof multiplelegcircumference
measurements atdiscrete intervals
fromtheanklesto thegroinwhilethecrewman wassupinewiththelegsextended and
slightlyelevated.Limb volumewascomputedby summing sequential,truncated,
assumed-circularcones.Standard 1.8-m(6-ft)posterior-anterior
chestX-raysweretaken
of everycrewmember athislastmajorpreflightmedical examination
andfirstpostflight
evaluation.Thecardiothoracic(C/T)ratiowasdetermined by standardclinicalmethods.
Theambienttemperature andthe oraltemperature andbodyweightof eachcrewman
wererecorded ateachevaluation.
Ambient ConditionsandOtherVariables
Ambienttemperatures andoraltemperatureswererecorded duringpreflightand
postflightorthostaticevaluations
because
sufficientlyhigh temperaturescanaffect
orthostatictestsin an adverseway.Whileambienttemperatures duringpreflight
orthostaticevaluationswereacceptably
low,temperatures duringthe first postflight
Apollo
Flight
Crew
CardiovascularEvaluations 237
The various physiological measurements were recorded in real time on a strip chart
recorder and on frequency modulation magnetic tape. The strip chart data wcre used for
real-time assessment of crewmember well-being and safety. The appearance of
presyncopal symptoms in some crewmen during orthostatic stress caused early termina-
tion of the procedure. Analog tape data were subsequently converted to digital data and
analyzed by specially developed software on a Sigma 3 computer system.
Minute heart rates were derived from an analysis of electrocardiogram or vector-
cardiogram R-R intervals; systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure values were
read at the appearance of the first and last Korotkov sounds, respectively, on the
calibrated descending arm cuff pressure ramp. Percentage change in calf volume was
measured by calculating the change from initial, resting-calf circumference and converting
this value to percentage change in calf volume using the method of Eagan (1961). Two
238 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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ORIGIXqAL PAGE 18
OF POOR QUALITY
Apollo Flight Crew CardiovascularEvaluations 239
successive heart sound complexes were analyzed from the vibrocardiogram each minute;
computation of stroke volume followed the method of Agress and co-workers (1967).
For each crewman evaluation, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood
pressure, pulse pressure, and stroke volume values were averaged within each of the five
five-minute LBNP periods and within the two five-minute passive stand periods to
produce the respective mean values within each of these periods. These mean values for
each crewmember, during each period and by each measurement, were subsequently used
as the best estimate of measurement within that period in the compilation of data tables.
In the case of percentage, maximal calf volume change rather than mean values within
each level of LPNP was used.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed statistically by individual crewmember and by group mean. For
individual crewmembers, the mean and the standard deviation of the three preflight
values for each measurement in each distinct protocol condition were calculated
(preflight summary). From these values, fiducial limits of the normal range at the
95-percent confidence level were determined. Individual postflight values lying outside
these limits were defined as statistically significant changes and are indicated
appropriately in the tables. Group means and standard deviations were calculated for each
discrete measurement within each protocol condition for every evaluation day and for the
preflight summaries. Preflight summary group means were compared with each postflight
counterpart by using the independent t-test.
It should be noted that four astronauts flew two Apollo missions each. The Apollo 8
Command Module Pilot (CMP) flew as the Apollo 13 Commander (CDR); the Apollo 9
CMP flew as the Apollo 15 CDR; the Apollo 10 CMP flew as the Apollo 16 CDR; and the
Apollo 10 Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) flew as the Apollo 17 Commander.
Results
Heart Rates
accurate and predictable values. Table 4 contains heart-rate data on individual crew-
members during three conditions of orthostatic stress evaluations: (1) resting supine
control, (2) the highest level of LBNP [-50 mm Hg (-67 x 102 N/m2)], and (3) passive
standing. Resting supine heart rate is elevated significantly in 13 of 24crewmen
(54 percent) at the first postflight evaluation; the group response is elevated at the
two-percent level of confidence. A trend toward preflight values is subsequently evident.
By the third postflight evaluation, only three of fifteen individuals (20 percent) show
significant elevations in resting supine heart rate, and the group mean value is not
statistically different from the preflight group mean heart rate (n = 15, paired).
Following the same comparisons, the application of -50 mm Hg (-67 x 102,N/m 2)
LBNP produced significantly elevated heart rates in 14 of 17 Apollo crewmen
(82 percent) at the first postflight evaluation, with a group elevation significant at the
0.1-percent level. The Apollo 15 LMP experienced presyncope during the last seconds of
240 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 243
-40 mm Hg (-53 x 102 N/m 2) LBNP and was not tested at -50 mm Hg (-67 x 102 N/m 2)
LBNP on recovery day. Five other crewmembers (the Apollo 8 CMP, the Apollo 8 LMP,
the Apollo 9 LMP, the Apollo 16 CMP, and the Apollo 16 LMP) developed presyncopal
symptoms at some point before protocol completion during their immediate postflight
-50 mm Hg (-67 x 102 N/m 2) stress; the Apollo 15 Commander experienced similar
symptoms during his second postflight evaluation. Although more crewmembers,
immediately postflight, demonstrated a larger heart rate increment over preflight values
during LBNP stress than during the resting control period, statistically significant group
differences disappeared by the third postflight evaluation. Passive vertical standing results
indicated a similar increase in heart rate immediately postflight, with eight of nine
crewmembers (89 percent) having heart rates above their 95-percent preflight envelope,
and the group mean value being elevated at the 0.1 percent level.
In table 5, heart rates of Apollo crewmembers are compared with those of control
subjects for three protocol conditions. Significant "postflight" heart rate changes among
the control subjects onboard the recovery ship were not observed. Although the control
subjects were exposed to similar environmental conditions, all had a five- to ten-day
acclimatization period onboard the recovery ship preceding their evaluations.
Table 5
Condition
Protocol Apollo
Group Response , First Second
N X" SD i SDt N I _" p N _ p
Resting supinet Crew 24 61.6 I 8.60 1.06 24 ! 69.7 0.02 I 24 67.2 0.05
- Control 22 69.7 6.93 1.00 22 69.4 n.s. 10 70.4 n.s.
_50
mm Hg* Crew 18 17
*--67 x 102N/m 2
Note: N = Number of subjects
X = Group mean
SD i = Standard deviation of crewmember preflight summary means
SDt = Standard deviation of three preflight group means
p = Probability level
among the three preflight group means. Accompanying each postflight evaluation group
mean is the t-test probability that it differs from the preflight summary group mean. For
the resting supine control condition, heart rate is significantly elevated at the first
and second postflight evaluations. The reciprocal of this response is seen in the
stroke volume data. No significant differences are noted after flight in the resting
systolic, diastolic, or pulse pressures. During the three conditions of reduced pressure
[-30, -40, and -50 mm Hg (-40 x 102, -53 x 102 and -67 x 102 N/m 2) LBNP], heart
rates are significantly elevated at the first postflight evaluation, with a trend toward
preflight summary response values in subsequent postflight evaluations. Again, stroke
volume followed a reciprocal pattern. Significant decreases in systolic and pulse
pressures are seen during LBNP only in the first postflight evaluations. Changes
during the passive stand condition parallel changes during LBNP. Postflight changes
during the recovery condition are not significant. All postflight alterations return to
preflight summary values by the third postflight evaluation.
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248 Biomedical Result,_ of Apollo
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250 Biomedical Results of Apollo
contains values of the average of both calves for individual crewmembers at each test
date. In the first postflight evaluation, 16 of 24 crewmembers (67 percent) showed
significantly reduced calf circumference. Group mean values showed a statistically
significant probability (p < 0.05) immediately postflight of a decrement of l.l cm
(3 percent) that was not totally regained at approximately 120 hours after splashdown by
two of the three crewmen tested at that time.
Total leg volume was calculated for the six crewmen of the last two Apollo missions
(Apollo 16 and 17). The last section of table 9 contains data on total leg volume as the
sum of both legs. Although not statistically significant, a one-liter (5.8 percent) group
mean decrement was seen in the first two postflight evaluations. No clear trend toward
restitution was seen as late as 90 to 160 hours after splashdown; subsequent measure-
ments were not performed.
Cardiothoracic Ratios
To determine whether a change in heart size had occurred, cardiothoracic (C/T) ratios
were calculated. Once before and once after flight, posterior-anterior chest X-rays were
taken of each crewmember. The C/T ratios given in table 10 provided a measure of heart
size to amplify the preceding weight and leg-size data. Accurate cardiothoracic ratios
could not be obtained from three postflight films. Synchronization at peak systolic and
peak diastolic cardiac phases for X-rays taken on the last six Apollo crewmembers
(Apollo 16 and 17 missions) enabled achievement of greater accuracy by providing two
films for each preflight and postflight comparison, and by eliminating random X-ray
exposure in the cardiac cycle. Twenty-four of thirty crewmembers (80 percent) showed a
decrease in postflight C/T ratios with a group mean cardiothoracic ratio decrement of
0.021 (5 percent), highly significant at p < 0.001. The Apollo 17 CMP, who showed a
postflight increase in C/T ratio, wore a special antihypotensive pressure garment from
splashdown until LBNP evaluation five hours later.
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Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 253
Table 10
control subjcct 1, and 303°K (30°C) for control subject 2. The results of their tests also
appear in table 11.
Table 11
Preflight and Postflight Passive Stand Test Data With and Without
Jobst Antihypotensive Garment
Supine Heart rate, bpm 45.8 +_0.96 57.8 -+0.84 44.8 -+ 0.84 54.6 +- 0.89
SBP, mm Hg* 113.5 4- 2.64 119.2 + 4.80 117.9 + 7.09 112.6 -+6.17
DBP, mm Hg* 74.3 -+ 2.00 80.8 + 2.90 67.2 + 4.21 67.5 + 3.89
Erect Heart rate, bpm 55.8 + 1.79 87.6 + 0.89 55.2 +- 3.56 78.4 -+ 1.34
SBP, mm Hg* 121.6 + 5.62 112.6+_6.17 117.8 + 4.02 110.2 +- 5.24
DBP, mm Hg* 77.2 + 4.37 67.5 -+3.89 77.8 +- 5.27 75.2 + 6.02
Control Subject 1
Supine Heart rate, bpm 77.6 + 0.89 60.2 + 1.30 81.4 + 1.52 63.4 + 2.70
SBP, mm Hg* 118.0+ 2.71 102.8 + 4.77 118.4 +- 2.50 111.3 + 4.47
DBP, mm Hg* 57.4 + 2.95 62.1 + 2.81 58.0 + 4.45 58.4 + 4112
E rect Heart rate, bpm 85.8 +- 0.84 76.8 + 1.48 78.4 + 2.70 70.4 + 1.34
SBP, mm Hg* 119.1 + 0.72 104.4 +- 8.38 122.7 +-4.79 109.6 +- 3.95
DBP, mm Hg* 74.9 +- 2.66 75.8 +-4.02 75.1 +-3.60 76.5 +- 3.24
Control Subject 2
Supine Heart rate, bpm 67.2 + 0.84 72.4 + 0.89 64.0 + 1.87 71.2 +- 1.30
SBP, mm Hg* 134.3 +_3.11 127.7 + 5.58 137.1 + 2.85 124.2 -+ 5.55
DBP, mm Hg* 71.8 -+ 5.03 74.9 -+ 5.21 81.3 + 5.01 75.0 + 1.63
Erect Heart rate, bpm 76.8 +- 2.05 92.2 +-2.17 70.6 -+ 1.95 85.0 -+ 1.22
SBP, mm Hg* 145.0 + 7.44 132.7 -+8.74 149.7 +- 5.25 136.0 -+ 8.01
DBP, mm Hg* 82.8 + 2.57 81.4 + 5.52 90.4 + 3.47 84.4 + 7.95
--SUPINE_, ERECT
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Table 12
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LI .... •t £t_ttu
[lual. D_ __r]
dllU utOO ju tDFessui-e r_ _.Lit
Lilt
Supine Erect
Heart rate, bpm 70.1 + 3.50 98.3 +- 3.43 105.2 +-3.82 103.5 _+3.72
SBP, mm Hg* 115.5+8.28 128.8 + 3.27 131.0 -+3.89 1 29.1 -+ 5.92
DBP, mm Hg* 64.6 + 3.92 82.7 -+ 4.22 84.4 +_4.93 85.4 + 2.88
Pulse pressure, mm Hg* 49.4 +_6.90 46.9 +- 7.25 46.6 + 5.46 43.3 + 7.16
Discussion
2. Crewmen were physically more active in the time periods immediately preceding
and following splashdown. This activity tended to augment any postflight thermal
stress.
4. Returned crewmen were exposed for varying time periods to ortbostatic stress in
one-g prior to orthostatic testing.
5. Vestibular effects associated with readaptation to the one-g environment were
compounded by sea motion (not expressly evaluated).
6. Neurohumoral forces were altered by the excitement and the emotion of return
to Earth.
These stresses and uncontrolled variables undoubtedly affected the postflight cardio-
vascular changes reported here.
Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 257
Certain relationships suggest that all the factors listed contributed significantly. A
positive, though statistically insignificant, correlation (r = 0.27) exists between change
(preflight to postflight) in resting heart rate and change in oral temperature (figure 5).
Also, there is a significant positive correlation (r = 0.52) between postflight change in
orthostatically stressed heart rate and postflight change in resting heart rate (figure 6). In
concert with similar data from Gemini crew evaluations, these Apollo findings suggest
that, for flights of eight to fourteen days, postflight resting or orthostatically stressed
heart rates do not increase in conjunction with increasing mission duration.
4o
I-
Z
iii
(J
n-. 30
LU
O-
UJ
I"-
< 2O
rr"
I.- J
(.9
Z
I
I.-
ILl
0
CE
Y= 10.3X+9.6
Z
I r = 0.27 (NOT SIGNIFICANT)
LU
-lO $ n = 24
z Q
"1-
--20 t t i i a t i I
-N4
-. -0.2 n
v 0.2 0.4 n=
v._ 0.B In
i .v 12.
Weight loss was a universal finding among Apollo flight crews, but the cause and the
specific body tissues involved are not readily apparent. A positive correlation between
weight loss and change in total blood volume (r = 0.77) was obtained from Apollo data.
Fluid losses or changes, however, did not fully explain the weight loss. The relatively
inactive role of the lower extremities during space flight predisposes them to significant
loss of tissue substance, especially in muscle; consistent postflight reductions in maximal
calf girth on 24 Apollo crewmen and in total leg volume on the last six Apollo crewmen
showed significant soft-tissue decrements (table 9). The magnitude of these decrements in
the maximal calf circumference measurement taken immediately after recovery showed a
positive correlation (r = 0.42) with the time of the measurement following splashdown
258 Biomedical Results of Apollo
(figure 7). Assuming rapid changes to be due to fluid shifts to the lower extremities
postflight, a better correlation would be expected had the physical activities of the
crewmen between splashdown and time of calf measurement been controlled. Continued
decrements in leg size for several days after splashdown indicate that they were not
exclusively caused by fluid changes. On the other hand, a true flight-related tissue
the decrement in calf size and the length of exposure to weightlessness (figure 8). When
both Apollo data and Gemini data (from missions shorter and longer than Apollo
missions) are used, weight loss reveals a leveling off with flight duration, if not a reversed
trend, after a peak at approximately 200 hours of flight time (figure 9). The relative
contributions of muscle, fatty, and interstitial tissues to weight loss have not yet been
determined.
I--
Z
"' 80
0
CC
5u Y = 0.57X + 30.7
r = 0.52 (p < 0.01)
_ 70
I.-- n = 24
<
LBNP
I- STAND
_ 60 • .... ;o:
<
W
I
a
"' gO
uJ
¢r
m 40
.J
.J
<
_ 30
<
F-
o-I- 20
I.--
n_
0
z_ 10
LU
z
< 0 I I I I I I
"1-
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
CHANGE IN RESTING HEART RATE, PERCENT
Perhaps more specific arc data obtained from preflight and postflight chest
roentgenograms. Although a decrease in the frontal plane cardiac silhouette size may
Apollo
Flight
Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 259
-6
7 t
UJ
(.)
a" -5
-4
er
UJ
..
6 -3
Pr
< -2
Z -1
<
_Z
0 2I 3i 4I I
5 6I I
7
-5 •
. Y = -0.012 + 0.013 •
z_
(_ L." I I I I I I I I
4- GEMINI •
• APOLLO
I-
Z
W
O
r¢
w -4
tl_
_3
o
.M
I- -2
I
L3
I I I I I I I
I !
Figure 9. Apollo and Gemini data indicating a leveling off of weight loss
after 200 hours of flight.
Apollo Flight Crew Cardiovascular Evaluations 261
o -0,1o X MERCURY
4" GEMINI
• APOLLO
rr -0.08 i
0 -i- LUNAR WALKER
-0.06
c_ -0.04
z -0.02
0
-r
o
w
0.02
J
o
I I I I I i I
rn 0.04 I
<
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Of the two garments designed to offer protection against orthostatic hypotension: the
garment employing the capstan principle proved to be the more suitable for use in the
space flight environment. Although the elastic garment worn by the Apollo 16 CMP
appeared to furnish moderate protection against orthostatic hypotension following
weightless flight and heat stress, this type of garment seemed to be unsuitable for use in
the operational setting. The crewman was unable to don the leotards in zero g before
reentry or following splashdown in the confined volume of the spacecraft. Consequently,
any protection the garment afforded could not be made available until the postflight
testing phase. It was also impossible to ensure a garment of proper fit for postflight use
262 Biomedical Results of Apollo
because the decline in limb girth was neither uniformly distributed nor predictable in
magnitude.
The design of the pressurized garment used by the Apollo 17 CMP included features
intended to overcome the difficulty of predicting change in limb girth during flight. The
CMP reported that the garment was easier to don in flight than he had anticipated, due in
part perhaps to a relatively large reduction in limb girth. He wore the garment for more
than four hours and reported it relatively comfortable.
The heart rate while reclining with the suit inflated was ten beats per minute
slower than during the preflight test 15 days before launch (70.1 -+ 3.5 compared to
81 +- 2.12 beats per minute). Although uncommon, a reduction of the supine resting
heart rate from preflight values had been seen previously in Apollo crewmen. Mean
heart rate during the first five minutes of standing with the garment inflated after
flight was 98.3 -+ 3.43 beats per minute compared to 91 -+2.35 beats per minute in
the preflight test.
When the garment was deflated, heart rate increased and was still increasing after
five minutes. Garment reinflation, which required approximately 40 seconds, was
associated with an interruption of the rising slope of heart rate and a modest
reduction of mean heart rate, suggesting a protective effect from the garment.
Aside from the antihypotensive effect of using the garment, other physiological
processes that occurred during readaptation to one g may have been modified. The
Apollo 17 CMP was the only crewman of the 18 tested whose mean heart rate at R+0
during exposure to a pressure of -50 mm Hg (-67 × 102N/m 2) was within the preflight
envelope. In the other stress procedure, bicycle ergometry, he again showed no decrement
of performance from preflight levels. His pattern of postflight limb volume changes,
estimated from multiple circumferential measurements, was somewhat different from
that shown by the other five crewmen who received such measurements. Postflight
X-rays, taken before deflation of the garment, showed an increased cardiothoracic ratio in
contrast to the other 20 Apollo crewmen exposed to continuous weightlessness, for
whom data exist demonstrating postflight decreases in C/T ratios.
The priority of operations during Apollo missions did not allow optimal control over a
number of important variables during preflight and postflight evaluations. Preflight
evaluations had to be scheduled and completed within narrow time limits and in
competition with the training and launch preparation of crewmembers. Postflight
evaluations were performed among intensive debriefing sessions, public appearances, and
other ceremonies. Relative degrees of sleep loss and high ambient temperatures also
undoubtedly influenced the findings.
Wearing of a lower body positive pressure garment during the reentry and immediate
postflight period appeared to offer some protective benefit by way of reducing
extravascular lower body pooling of fluid. It would, however, be premature to conclude
that the garment was the primary factor responsible for improved orthostatic tests for the
Apollo 17 Command Module Pilot. As was the case in all missions and for all crewmen,
individual variables cloud interpretation of the data. Other studies will be necessary to
determine the effects of such protective garments under space flight-type readaptive
conditions.
References
Agress, Clarence M.; Wegner, Stanley; Fremont, Robert P., Mori, lzumi; and Day, Dixie J.:
Measurement of Stroke Volume by the Vibrocardiogram. Aerospace Med., vol. 38, no. 12, Dec.
1967, pp. 1248-1252.
Berry, Charles A.: Weightlessness. Bioastronautics Data Book. Second ed. NASA SP-3006, 1973,
pp. 349-415.
Brown, Ellen; Goei, J.S.; Greenfield, A.D.M.; and Plassaras, G.C.: Circulatory Responses to Simulated
Gravitational Shifts of Blood in Man Induced by Exposure nf the Body 8e!ow the !!iac Crests to
Sub-Atmospheric Pressure. J. Physiol., vol. 183, no. 3, Apr. 1966, pp. 607-627.
Eagan, C.J.: The Physics of the Mercury Strain Gauge and of its Use in Digital Plethysmography.
Alaskan Air Command, Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory Tech. Note AAL-TN-60-17, 1961.
Gilbert, Charles A.; Bricker, Lee A.; Springfield, W. Thaxton, Jr.; and Stevens, Paul M.: Sodium and
Water Excretion and Renal Hemodynamics During Lower Body Negative Pressure. J. Appl.
Physiol., vol. 21, no. 6, Nov. 1966, pp. 1699-1704.
Hoffler, G.W.; Wolthuis, Roger A.; and Johnson, Robert L.: Apollo Space Crew Cardiovascular
Evaluations. Aerospace Med., vol. 45, no. 8, Aug. 1974, pp. 807-820.
McCally, Michael S.; Pohl, Shirley, A.; and Sampson, Plummer A., Jr.: Relative Effectiveness of
Selected Space Flight Deconditioning Countermeasures. Aerospace Med., vol. 39, no. 7, July 1968,
pp. 722-724.
Miller, Perry B.; Hartman, Bryce O.;Johnson, Robert L.; and Lamb, Lawrence E.: Modification of the
Effects of Two Weeks of Bed Rest Upon Circulatory Functions in Man. Aerospace Med., vol. 35,
no. 10, Oct. 1964, pp. 931-939.
264 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Miller, Perry B.; Johnson, Robert L.; and Lamb, Lawrence, E.: Effects of Four Weeks of Absolute Bed
Rest on Circulatory Functions in Man. Aerospace Med., vol. 35, no. 12, Dec. 1964,
pp. 1194-1200.
Murray, Raymond H.; Krog, John; Carlson, Loren D.; and Bowers, John A.: Cumulative Effects of
Venesection and Lower Body Negative Pressure. Aerospace Med., vol. 38, no. 3, Mar. 1967,
pp. 243-247.
Musgrave, F. Story; Zechman, Fred W.; and Mains, Richard C.: Changes in Total Leg Volume During
Lower Body Negative Pressure. Aerospace Med., vol. 40, no. 7, July 1969, pp. 602-606.
Musgrave, F. Story; Zechman, Fred W.; and Mains, Richard C.: Comparison of the Effects of 70 ° Tilt
and Several Levels of Lower Body Negative Pressure on Heart Rate and Blood Pressure in Man.
Aerospace Med., vol. 42, no. 10, Oct. 1971, pp. 1065-1069.
NASA, MSC: Mercury Project Summary, Including Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital Flight.
NASA SP-45, 1963.
NASA, MSC: Gemini Blood Pressure Signal Conditioner. NASA SP-5054, 1968, pp. 29-30.
Samueloff, Shlomo L.; Browse, Norman L.; and Shepherd, John T.: Response of Capacity Vessels in
Human Limbs to Head-up Tilt and Suction on Lower Body. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 21, no. 1, Jan.
1966, pp. 47-54.
Stevens, Paul M.: Cardiovascular Dynamics During Orthostasis and the Influence of lntravascular
Instrumentation. Am. J. Cardiol., vol. 17, Feb. 1966, pp. 211-218.
Stevens, Paul M.; and Lamb, Lawrence E.: Effects of Lower Body Negative Pressure on the
Cardiovascular System. Am. J. Cardiol., vol. 16, Oct. 1965, pp. 506-515.
Stevens, Paul M.; Miller, Perry B.; Gilbert, Charles A.; Lynch, Theodore N.; Johnson, Robert L.; and
Lamb, Lawrence E.: Influence of Long-Term Lower Body Negative Pressure on the Circulatory
Function of Man During Prolonged Bed Rest. Aerospace Med., voi. 37, no. 4, Apr. 1966a,
pp. 357-367.
Stevens, Paul M.; Miller, Perry B.; Lynch, Theodore N.; Gilbert, Charles A.; Johnson, Robert L.; and
Lamb, Lawrence, E.: Effects of Lower Body Negative Pressure on Physiologic Changes Due to
Four Weeks of Hyperoxic Bed Rest. Aerospace Med., vol. 37, no. 5, May 1966b, pp. 466-474.
Vogt, Fred B.; and Johnson, Philip C.: Effectiveness of Extremity Cuffs or Leotards in Preventing or
Controlling the Cardiovascular Deconditioning of Bed Rest. Aerospace Med., vol. 38, no. 7, July
1967, pp. 702-707.
Wolthuis, Roger A.; Hoffler, G.W.; and Johnson, R.L.: Lower Body Negative Pressure as an Assay
Technique for Orthostatie Tolerance: Part I. The Individual Response to a Constant Level
(-40 mm Hg) of LBNP. Aerospace Med., vol. 41, no. 1, Jan. 1970, pp. 29-35.
Wolthuis, Roger A.; Hoffler, G.W.; and Johnson, R.L.: Lower Body Negative Pressure as an Assay
Technique for Orthostatic Tolerance: Part II. A Comparison of the Individual Response to
Incremental vs. Constant Levels of LBNP. Aerospace Med., vol. 41, no. 4, Apr. 1970, pp. 419-424.
Wolthuis, Roger A.; Hoffler, G.W.; and Baker, Joseph T.: Improved Waist Seal Design for Use With
Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) Devices. Aerospace Med., vol. 42, no. 4, Apr. 1971,
pp. 461-462.
N76 26so
CHAPTER 5
EXERCISE RESPONSE
by
Introduction
Inherent in the successful completion of the Apollo Program was the necessity for the
lunar surface crewmen to engage in long and strenuous periods of extravehicular activity
(EVA). Even though reduced gravity was expected to make some tasks less arduous,
reduced suit mobility and a complex timeline indicated that metabolic activity would
exceed resting levels for extended periods of time. Because the type and extent of
physiological dysfunction that could result from habitability in a zero-g environment had
not been established, appropriate physiological tests were performed within Apollo Pro-
gram constraints to ascertain whether the physiological response of the crewmen to
exercise was altered as a result of space flight.
Early planning for the Apollo Program had provided that some indication of these
factors would be measured in flight; however, the Apollo spacecraft fire and the resultant
program redirection eliminated this capability. The next approach was to conduct only
preflight and postflight exercise response studies and to assume that these findings would
document any changes of cardiopulmonary status resulting from space flight. Obviously,
with such an endeavor, there were circumstances that could not be experimentally con-
trolled. First, the readaptation process would be expected to begin immediately after
reentry into the Earth's gravitational field and to introduce or modify responses that
might have been measured in null gravity. Additionally, required crew recovery pro-
cedures presented perturbations which precluded a well controlled experimental design;
the crewmen spent variable amounts of time in a hyperthermal spacecraft while it was in
the water; orbital mechanics constraints dictated recovery times which precluded
assurance that postflight testing would be accomplished in the same circadian time frame
in which preflight testing was performed. The influence of these conditions and that of
other physical and emotional stresses could not be isolated from the response attributed
to zero-g exposures. However, not attempting to provide information relating
265
266 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
physiological responses to exercise stress would have been an unsuitable alternative for
maintaining management of the medical aspect of the Apollo Program.
This section contains the preflight and postflight exercise findings. Preliminary results
were summarized previously (Berry, 1969; Berry, 1970; Rummel et al., 1973).
Methods
From the many methods that have been used to conduct exercise stress tests
(Bruce et al., 1965; Bruce et al., 1969; Blackburn et al., 1970; Rochmis & Blackburn,
1971; Taylor et al., 1969), the bicycle ergometer and a graded stress protocol were
selected for the Apollo Program. The selection of a bicycle ergometer as the stress device
(Rummel et al., 1973) was influenced mainly by the fact that it had been chosen for the
Skylab exercise program. The bicycle ergometcr was the only device capable of enabling
quantitation of the work level and of providing a basis for experimental evaluation
inflight. The Apollo experience provided a data pool and background information for the
Skylab inflight exercise response testing.
A graded exercise test permitted a progressive evaluation of physiological control
system response and provided a better understanding of safe stress limits. Heart rate was
used for determining stress levels (Maxfield & Brouha, 1963; Burger, 1969). By maintain-
ing the same heart rate levels before and after flight, the same relative cardiovascular
stresses were imposed.
Although the exact duration of each stress level was adjusted slightly (one to two
minutes) for the late Apollo missions to accomplish additional measurements, the graded
stress protocol comprised exercise levels of 120, 140, and 160beats per minute,
corresponding to light, medium, and heavy work, respectively, for each individual. For
the Apollo9 and 10 missions, a stress level of 180beats per minute was also
accomplished. The entire test protocol was conducted three times within a 30-day period
before lift-off. Postflight tests were conducted on recovery day, as well as 24 to 36 hours
after recovery.
During each test, workload, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory gas exchange
(oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and minute volume) measurements
were made. For the Apollo 15 to 17 missions, cardiac output measurements were
obtained by the single-breath technique (Kim eta|., 1966). Arteriovenous oxygen
differences were calculated from the measured oxygen consumption and cardiac output.
Figure 1 shows an exercising control subject at the Kennedy Space Center launch
facilities. This same equipment was packed and moved to the recovery ship for postflight
testing.
Each preflight test was treated separately, and a mean value (Rummel et al., 1973)
was computed for each subject for each mission with the crewman serving as his own
control. A preflight mean and variance estimate for all Apollo crewmen was then
computed, and a similar statistic was computed for the separate postflight examinations.
Statistical evaluations were made by means of standard t-test criteria. Although three
members of the medical operations team were tested in the same time sequence in which
the crewmembers were tested, these subjects essentially served as instrumentation
controls.
Exercise Response 267
Results
The applicable data for each test on each crewman are given in table 1. Because
these data were voluminous, only summaries and statistical considerations are
presented. Testing, as noted earlier, was conducted both preflight and postflight.
Test protocols were divided into three basic categories: prestress, exercise stress, and
poststress.
Prestress Data
Significant changes in the sitting heart rate were observed immediately after
flight; the mean difference was an approximate 16 beats per minute increase. This
variable was not significantly elevated hy the second postflight test (R+l). The only other
significant changes observed were a slight increase in minute volume on the day of
recovery and on Rt1, and an increase in the resting respiratory gas exchange ratio on
Rtl.
268 Biomcdic',d Rcsulls of Apollo
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V V
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eo. o r,-
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t,,O 0 _1 0 04 CO
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Exercise Response 269
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270 Biomedical Results of Apollo
>.
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Exercise Response 271
Several significant changes for this period were noted after flight. The relationship
between heart rate and oxygen consumption (O 2 pulse) was significantly altered at all
heart rate levels, whether evaluated on an absolute basis (liters per minute) or corrected
for body weight (liters per minute per kilogram). There were no significant changes in the
oxygen required for a given workload immediately after flight, although a small increase
was noted during the R+I examination.
Both the systolic and diastolic blood pressures attained at a given heart rate level were
significantly decreased immediately after flight but returned to normal by R+I. There
were no significant changes in the relationship between blood pressure and levels of
oxygen consumption or cardiac output.
The interrelationships of respiratory parameters (O 2 consumption per minute volume
and O 2 consumption per CO 2 production) indicated no significant changes immediately
after flight. Results of the R+I examination indicated that minute volume increased
minimally.
A statistically significant decrease of large magnitude (-36 percent), was noted after
flight in the cardiac output at a heart rate of 160 beats per minute. This variable had
returned to preflight levels by the time of R+ 1 examination.
Poststress Data
Only heart rate data collected during the second minute of recovery are presented.
None of the measured variables changed significantly after the flight.
Discussion
EFFICIENCY
___ MECHANICAL
NUTRITION
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
VENTILATORY
• EF'FICIENCY
DIASTOLIC SYSTOLIC
NERVOUS
CONTROL
VOLUME VOLUME
VENOUS
_._ _USCLE_"
RETORN
_--_ O-VECTO_l CONTRACTION ],il
BLOOD
VOLUME
MEASURED E_:_CALCULATED
LEGEND I
ORIGINAL PAGE I_
OF POOR QUAIXi_
Exercise Response 273
relationship, which has been called the ventilatory equivalent for oxygen. At a rate of two
liters per minute oxygen consumption, no significant change in the resulting minute
volume was observed. The value of 2.62 liters minute volume per 100 cm 3 of oxygen
consumption agrees with previously reported values of 2.7 (Higgsetal., 1967),
approximately 2.5 (Hermansen & Saltin, 1969), and 2.2 to 2.5 liters (Cunningham,
1963). Cunningham (1963) reviewed fourteen studies in which this relationship was
evaluated.
The circulatory responses required to support increased metabolic activity are striking
and involve a complex system of varying physical properties and feedback control loops.
Oxygen consumption requirements are equal to the cardiac output times the
arteriovenous oxygen difference (A-V 02). Although the relationship between oxygen
consumption and cardiac output (and thus a change in A-V 0 2 difference) appeared to
change in some individuals, the overall means for the nine subjects indicated no
significant changes (table 1). The absolute preflight values for cardiac output are
approximately 20 to 25 percent greater than previously reported (_strand et al., 1964;
Ekblom et al., 1968; Hermansen, 1970; Gilbert & Auchincloss, 1971) for this level of
exercise. Itowever, an evaluation of cardiac output/heart rate relationships indicated
highly significant decreases in stroke volume immediately after flight. This decrease had
returned to normal at the R+I" examination. These interrelationships explain the
significant reduction in oxygen pulse (0 2 consumption/heart rate relationship)
immediately after flight. The reduced cardiac output for the same heart rate may be
responsible for the significant reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure
immediately after flight.
The mechanism responsible for the reduced stroke volume is unknown and cannot be
evaluated from the available data. The possible alternatives are a decrease in the systolic
volume caused by myocardial contraction changes or a decrease in diastolic volume
caused by decreased venous return. Changes in the latter could be caused by changes in
the circulating blood volume, by redistribution of blood volume to the lower extremities,
or by both of these mechanisms.
Based on the above physiological responses to exercise measured after space flight, it
can be assumed that there was no significant change in mechanical or respiratory
J'e- • TI . ' 'g" .1 I • 1 .1 I
eu]c[ency, rate
13cart
s]gmncanuy
was
etevateu for tne same oxygen consumption; wnen
coupled with a reduced stroke volume, increased heart rate maintained the same cardiac
output/oxygen consumption relationship. The decreased cardiac output for the same
heart rate could explain the observed reduced pressure in the systemic arteries, ttowever,
two points need to be considered. First, this general statistical response is different in
some individuals, and the possibility of separate or different mechanisms operating in
these separate cases should be recognized. For instance, some crewmen appeared to have
had changes in peripheral resistance. Thus, each individual must be evaluated on the basis
of his own particular response. Second, these responses were measured after recovery in a
temporal and physical environment that was not controlled with sufficient precision to
enable definition of the physiological response directly associated with the zero-g
exposures.
These studies were extremely beneficial in assuring the success of the Apollo Program
and have provided alternative hypotheses for inflight study during the Skylab missions.
274 Biomedical Results of Apollo
References
O
Astrand, Per-Olof: Aerobic Work Capacity During Maximal Performance Under Various Conditions•
Supplement I to Circulation Research, Vols. XX and XXI, March 1967.
o
Astrand, P.; Cuddy, T.E.; Saltin, B.; and Stenberg, J.: Cardiac Output During Submaximal and
Maximal Work. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 19, no. 2, 1964, pp. 268-274.
o
Astrand, Per-Olof; and Rodahl, Kaare: Textbook of Work Physiology. McGraw-Hill Book Company
(New York), 1970.
Berry, Charles A.: Preliminary Clinical Report of the Medical Aspects of Apollos VII and VIII.
Aerospace Med., vol. 40, 1969, pp. 245-254.
Berry, Charles A.: Summary of Medical Experience in the Apollo 7 Through 11 Manned Space Flights.
Aet._space Med., vol. 41, 1970, pp. 500-519.
Blackburn, H.; Winckler, G.; Vilandre, J.; Hodgson, J.; and Taylor, H.L.: Exercise Tests. Medicine and
Sport, Vol. 4: Physical Activity and Aging. Karger (Basel/New York), 1970, pp. 28-36.
Bruce, R.A.; Rowell, L.B.; Blackmon, J.R.; and Doan, A.: Cardiovascular Function Tests. Heart
Bulletin, vol. 14, 1965, pp. 9-14.
Bruce, R.A.; and McDonough, J.R.: Stress Testing in Screening for Cardiovascular Disease. Bull. N.Y.
Acad. Med., vol. 45, no. 12, December 1969, pp. 1288-1305.
Burger, G.C.E.: Heart Rate and the Concept of Circulatory Load. Ergonomics, vol. 12, no. 6, 1969,
pp. 857-864.
Christensen, E.H.; Hedman, R.; and Holmdahl, I.: The Influence of Rest Pauses on Mechanical
Efficiency. Aeta Physiol. Scand., vol. 48, 1960, pp. 443-447.
Cunningham, D.J.C.: Breathing in Exercise. Brit. Med. Bull., vol. 19, no. 1, 1963, pp. 25-30.
Davies, C.T.M.; and Musgrove, J.: The Aerobic and Anaerobic Components of Work During
Submaximal Exercise on a Bicycle Ergometer. Ergonomics, vol. 14, no. 2, 1971, pp. 257-263.
Ekblom, B.; _strand, P.; Saltin, B.; Stenberg, J.; and Wallstrom, B.: Effect of Training on Circulatory
Response to Exercise. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 24, no. 4, 1968, pp. 518-528.
Gilbert, R.; and Auchincloss, J.H., Jr.: Comparison of Cardiovascular Responses to Steady- and
Unsteady-State Exercise. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 30, no. 3, 1971, pp. 388-393.
Henry, F.M.; and DeMoor, Janice: Metabolic Efficiency of Exercise in Relation to Work Load at
Constant Speed. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 2, no. 9, 1950, pp. 481-487.
Hermansen, Lars; Ekblom, Bjorn; and Saltin, Bengt: Cardiac Output During Submaximal and Maximal
Treadmill and Bicycle Exercise. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 29, no. 1, 1970, pp. 82-86.
Hermansen, Lars; and Saltin, Bengt: Oxygen Uptake During Maximal Treadmill and Bicycle Exercise.
J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 26, no. 1, 1969, pp. 31-37.
Higgs, B.E.; Clode, M.; McHardy, GJ.R., Jones, N.L.; and Campbell, E.J.M.: Changes in Ventilation,
Gas Exchange and Circulation During Exercise in Normal Subjects. Clin. Sci., vol. 32, 1967,
pp. 329-337.
Kim, T.S.; Rahn, H.; and Farhi, L.E.: Estimation of True Venous and Arterial PCO2 by Gas Analysis
of a Single-Breath. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 21, 1966, pp. 1338-1344.
Maxfield, Mary E.; and Brouha, Lucien: Validity of Heart Rate as an Indicator of Cardiac Strain. J.
Appl. Physiol., vol. 18, no. 6, 1963, pp. 1099-1104.
Rochmis, Paul; and Blackburn, H.: Exercise Tests: A Survey of Procedures, Safety, and Litigation
Experience in Approximately 170 000 Tests. JAMA, vol. 217, no. 8, 1971, pp. 1061-1066.
Rummel, J.A.; Michel, E.L.; and Berry, C.A.: Physiological Response to Exercise After Space
Flight - Apollo 7 to Apollo 11. Aerospace Meal., vol. 44, no. 3, 1973, pp. 235-238.
Exercise Response 275
Taylor, H.L.; Wang, Yang; Rowel, L.; and Blomqvist, G.: The Standardization and Interpretation of
Submaximal and Maximal Tests of Working Capacity. Pediatrics, vol. 32, no. 10, 1963,
pp. 703-722.
Taylor, H.L.; Haskell, W.; Fox, S.M., III; and Blackburn, H.: Exercise Tests: A Summary of
Procedures and Concepts of Stress Testing for Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Function Evaluation.
Measurement in Exercise Electrocardiography. Ernst Simmonson Conference, part 4, H. Black-
burn, ed., Charles C. Thomas (Springfield, Illinois), 1969, pp. 259-305.
Wasserman, Karlman; Van Kcssel, Antonius L.; and Burton, George, G.: Interaction of Physiological
Mechanisms During Exercise. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 22, no. 1, 1967, pp. 71-85.
Whipp, Brian J.; Seard, Charles; and Wasserman, Karlman: Oxygen Deficit-Oxygen Debt Relationships
and Efficiency of Anaerobic Work. J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 28, no. 4, 1970, pp. 452-456.
N76 lz6sa
CHAPTER 6
NUTRITIONAL STUDIES
by
Introduction
The control studies by DeRrick, Whedon, and Shorr (1948) of the immobilization of
four young, healthy men for as long as seven weeks dearly demonstrated that
immobilization in body casts led to marked increases in urinary calcium. These levels
more than doubled in five week._ and were accompanied by negative calcium balances as
well as by related changes in nitrogen and phosphorus metabolism. In addition, a decrease
in the mass and strength of the muscles of the lower extremities occurred, and
deterioration in circulatory reflexes to gravity resulted within one week.
Other studies with immobilized subjects indicated that the clinical disorders most
likely to be encountered during prolonged space flight are primarily a consequence of an
imbalance between bone formation and resorption. As a result of these conditions, there
is a loss of skeletal mass, which could eventually lead to hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria,
osteoporosis, and possibly nephrolithiasis (Issekutz et al., 1966).
277
Since the most meticulous work has disclosed that the greatest loss of calcium during
bed rest is a result of increased urinary excretion, studies in which only urine calcium was
measured are pertinent. The total evidence indicates that a one to two percent per month
loss of body calcium is a reasonable prediction for persons in a weightless environment
(Hattner & McMillan, 1968).
With the advent of space flight, additional studies have been performed on the effects
of simulated weightlessness on skeletal metabolism. Graybiel and co-workers (1961)
found there was no increase in urinary calcium excretion after one week of almost
continuous water immersion. Negative balances of small magnitude and changes in bone
density of the calcaneus during bed rest are indicated by Vogt and co-workers (1965).
The role of simulated altitude in modifying the metabolic effect of bed rest has been
investigated (Lynch et al., 1967). In a study of 22 healthy men, four weeks of bed rest at
ground-level atmospheric pressure conditions resulted in expected increases in urinary and
fecal calcium and in urinary nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, and chloride. In similar
metabolic studies performed with another 22 subjects at bed rest at simulated altitudes of
3000 and 3700 meters, urinary calcium losses were significantly less as the altitude
increased (Lynch et al., 1967). Urinary losses of phosphorus, nitrogen, sodium, and
chloride were less at a simulated altitude of 3700 meters than they were during bed rest
studies at ground level. Results of these studies indicate that diminished atmospheric
pressure, or perhaps a decreased partial pressure of oxygen or a change in pH, may have a
preventive effect on mineral loss from the skeleton. Limited data available from inflight
studies tend to support the use of immobilization as a terrestrial model to simulate
alterations in calcium metabolism during space flight. During the 14-day Gemini 7 flight,
loss of calcium occurred in one of the two astronauts, and the changes in phosphorus and
nitrogen balance also indicated a loss of muscle mass (Lutwak et al., 1969; Reid et al.,
1968).
As evidenced from bed rest studies lasting from 30 to 36 weeks, mineral losses are
likely to continue unabated during prolonged space flight. In balance studies (Vogel &
Friedman, 1970; Donaldson et al., 1970), calcium losses from the skeleton during bed
rest averaged 0.5 percent of the total body calcium per month. In the same subjects,
tenfold greater rates of localized loss from the central portion of the calcaneus were
detected by gamma-ray-transmission scanning.
Inflight weight losses were experienced throughout Project Mercury, Gemini, and the
Apollo missions. Such weight losses were attributed, in part, to losses in body water.
Since weight was not regained completely in the 24-hour period immediately postflight, it
was probable that tissue had also been lost. What part of these losses was brought about
by insufficient caloric intakes was unknown.
Speculation on the theoretical energy requirements of man during space flight began
before the United States Project Mercury and the Soviet Vostok flights. At one time, it
had seemed logical to assume that activity in a weightless environment would require less
energy than at one g because work associated with counteracting the force of gravity
would be eliminated. However, caloric requirements are affected by numerous variables
including age, physical and mental activity, stress, body size and composition, together
with relative humidity, radiation, pressure, and environmental temperature. During the
Nutritional
Studies 279
Approach
Food Analysis
With very few exceptions, all foods used during the Apollo Program were analyzed for
nitrogen, fat, carbohydrate, crude fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium,
and magnesium content. Some composite Apollo menus were analyzed for water- and
fat-soluble vitamins. It was not always feasible to analyze the same lot of food that was
actually used during the mission, and the variation in analytical values from one lot to
another and from one item to another must be considered when the intake data are
reviewed.
Dietetics
• ,,_...........
"rL m_nu_ u_u J ,y
...........
tile _xpono astronauts were iormulateo Iron fiigh t- qua lift e d
Apollo foods in combinations that complied with the personal preferences of the
crewmen and that met the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (NAS, NRC, 1968).
The menus were primarily composed of dehydrated foods that could be reconstituted
before eating. The foods were consumed in a prearranged sequence but could be
supplemented by a variety of additional items that were packaged in an individually
accessible form.
The quantity of individual nutrients consumed during all Apollo missions is presented
in table 1 as a composite estimate derived from numerous measurements. The crewmen
were provided with pLcl_ackaged meals that were normally consumed in a numbered
sequence. Foods omitted or incompletely consumed were logged. During the Apollo 16
280 Biomedical Results of Apollo
and 17 missions only, these deviations from programmed menus were reported to flight
controllers in real time. Snack items consumed that were not in the programmed
prepackaged menus were also recorded in the flight logs. On all Apollo flights, most food
residue and unopened food packages were returned; the residue was weighed only to
provide more precise information on inflight food consumption and to verify inflight
logging procedures. For the Apollo 16 and 17 missions, nutrient intake information was
obtained for 72 hours before flight and for approximately 48 hours after flight.
Table 1
Mission
Mission Nutrient, gm
Duration,
Number
Days Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber
7 10 84 69 269
8 6 64 40 229
9 10 77 53 257
10 8 51 31 211
11 10 81 64 279
12 10 64 47 264 3.9
13 7 58 49 234
14 8 83 75 286
16 11 73 61 272 4.9
17 12 91 86 285 4.8
Average, all
76 61 269 5.4
Apollo missions
For the Apollo 17 mission, a five-day metabolic balance study was performed
approximately two months before the mission by using the flight menus and collecting
urine and fecal wastes. Low residue diets were generally used commencing three days
before each Apollo flight in order to reduce fecal mass and frequency during the first few
days of flight.
Fecal Measurements
Fecal samples were returned from all Apollo flights and analyzed for a variety of
constituents either by nuclear activation analysis or by wet chemistry techniques.
Metabolic Balance
Analysis of blood obtained postflight on early Apollo missions, together with certain
measure urine volume and bring back samples of urine on Apollo 16. During this mission, it
was also possible to continue to return fecal samples and to continue to measure nutrient
intake. Sufficient data were therefore available to conduct a partial metabolic study.
Nutritional Studies 281
For a more detailed metabolic balance study in conjunction with Apollo 17, accurate
measurements of fluid intake and output were performed approximately two months
before the mission. A five-day food compatibility/metabolic study was performed in
which the three Apollo 17 prime and backup crewmembers consumed their flight foods,
and metabolic collections were performed. The study was designed to obtain baseline
data on the excretory levels of electrolytes and nitrogen in response to the Apollo 17
flight menus. The crewmembers consumed the flight menu foods for five complete days.
During the last three days of this test, complete urine and fecal collections were made.
Beginning 64 hours before Apollo 17 lift-off and continuing throughout the mission
until 44 hours following recovery, all food and fluid intake was measured. For the Lunar
Module Pilot, these collections continued until suit donning; for the Commander and the
Command Module Pilot, collection continued until approximately 12 hours before
lift-off. All urine was collected, measured, sampled, and returned for analysis. Urine was
collected before and after flight in ]2-hour pools. Complete stool collections were
performed.
All deviations from programmed food intake were logged and reported. All foods
were consumed according to preset menus arranged in four-day cycles. Every food item
used during the flight was derived from a lot of food that had been analyzed for the
constituents to be measured. Inflight water consumption was measured by use of the
Skylab beverage dispenser. During the preflight and postflight periods, conventional meals
were prepared in duplicate for each astronaut. One duplicate of each meal was analyzed
in addition to the residue from the other duplicates to measure intake and output.
Apollo 17 inflight urine samples were collected by means of a biomedical urine
sampling system (BUSS). Each BUSS consisted of a large pooling bag, which could
accommodate as much as four liters of urine collected during a day, and a sampling bag,
which could accommodate as much as 120 cc. The BUSS was charged with 30 mg of
lithium chloride. The lithium chloride concentration in the sample bag was used as a
means of determining total urine volume. Each BUSS also contained boric acid to effect
_,_,,,,zat_on of certain organic constituents.
The inflight urine collection periods began with suit doffing at approximately
00:07:00 ground elapsed time (GET). The collection periods were the times between
scheduled effluent dumps and were approximately 24 hours each. During undocked flight
of the Command Module, urine was collected only from the Command Module Pilot.
During periods in which the crewmen were suited, urine was collected in the urine
collection and transfer assembly and subsequently dumped overboard without sampling.
However, urine collected in the Commander and Command Module Pilot assemblies
during the Command Module extravehicular activities (255:00:00 to 260:00:00 GET)
was also returned. For the Apollo 17 mission, the periods during which urine was not
collected are as follows:
2. Command Module Pilot - Lunar Module activation and lunar descent (108:00:00
to 114:30:00 GET)
495
450 = percent fat
body density
Changes in calculated lean body mass and total body fat were converted into caloric
equivalents by means of standard values of 37.6 kJ/gm _ for fat and 16.7 kJ/gm for protein.
Total body water was measured by means of potassium-42 dilution (Johnson et al.,
1974). Lean body mass was calculated as follows.
Findings
The nutritional composition of the typical Apollo inflight diet is given in table 2. This
diet, which is characteristically high in protein and carbohydrate and low in residue and
fat, was not necessarily consumed by all astronauts in its entirety.
Table 2
Percent of
Nutrient
Dry Weight
Protein 18
Fat 17
Total carbohydrate 61
Fiber 1.0
Minerals 3.0
A typical Apollo diet was analyzed for vitamins, and results were compared with
Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (NAS, NRC, 1968). The data indicate the
Apollo diet provided an excess of some vitamins (A, E, C, B12, B6, and riboflavin) and
marginal amounts of others (nicotinate, pantothenate, thiamine, and folic acid).
The average intake of protein, fat, and carbohydrate for the Apollo 7 through 17
crewmen is given in table 3. Fiber intake measurements are given for the Apollo 12, 15,
16, and 17 missions.
The quantity of energy supplied by dehydrated food for the Apollo 15 to 17 missions
is given in table 4. The average energy intake of each Apollo crewmember is given in
table 5. These energy values were calculated from the composition of the food consumed.
Average energy intakes expressed on the basis of body weight are given in table 6. For
comparison, the average energy intake of selected Apollo crewmembers during a mission
and on the ground is given in table 7.
The average intakes of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium for each Apollo
crewman are given in table 8. Diets for the Apollo 16 and 17 missions were fortified with
potassium gluconate. The contribution of supplementary potassium gluconate to the total
in_ke for the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 crewmen is given in table 9.
Inflight fecal samples were analyzed for inorganic constituents using nuclear
activation analyses and wet chemistry techniques. The findings were summarized by
Brodzinsky and co-workers (1971). Inflight fecal samples were also analyzed for total fat,
fatty acids, and conjugated and unconjugated bile acids (tables 10 and 11). Data on fat
absorption in flight (Apollo 16 and 17) are given in table 12.
The input and output of various elements, particularly potassium, were carefully
examined in the Apollo 16 balance study and a detailed assessment of energy metabolism
was made (Johnson et al., 1974). The average daily inflight potassium intake for the
Commander was 113.6 miUiequivalents. During the mission, potassium was lost by the
fecal route at a rate of approximately 6.4mEq/day, whereas approximately
18.8 mEq/day were lost before the flight and 20.5 mEq/day after the flight. During the
mission, absorbed potassium levels were 107.2 mEq, whereas preflight and postflight
levels were 94.8 and 77.6 mEq, respectively. During the extravehicular and lunar surface
periods, the Commander consumed a maximum of 152.4 mEq daily.
(___-,
284 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 3
Mission
Mission Nutrient, gm
Duration, Crewman
Number Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber
Days
10 CDR 81 259
CMP 96 280
LMP 74 268
CDR 59 231
CMP 80 240
LMP 52 217
10 CDR 86 280
CMP 78 240
LMP 66 252
10 CDR 58 213
CMP 46 213
LMP 49 208
11 10 CDR 79 290
CMP 71 224
LMP 94 322
13 CDR 59 239
CMP 57 235
LMP 57 228
14 CDR 90 309
CMP 79 230
LMP 81 319
Table 4
Crewman
Apollo
Mission
CDR CMP
Number LMP
Table 5
Crewmen
Apollo
Mission Number CDR CMP LMP
The average daily inflight potassium intake for the Lunar Module Pilot was
114.7 mEq, compared with an average daily preflight intake of 110.5 mEq and an average
daily postflight intake of 97.5 mEq. During the preflight, inflight, and postflight phases,
the average daily fecal losses were 33.5, 11.1, and 31.0 mEq, respectively. The absorbed
daily potassium levels for preflight, inflight, and postflight phases were 77.0, 103.6, and
66.5 mEq, respectively. Although these levels were less than the recommended levels of
150 mEq per day, they were adequate for ground-based requirements. A peak level of
148 mEq per day was consumed by the Lunar Module Pilot during lunar" surface
activities.
286 Biomedical
Resuli_
ofApollo
Table 6
Crewmen
Apollo
Mission Number CDR CMP LMP
Table 7
Mission
Crewman Ground-Based Intake * Inflight Intake **
Number
For the Command Module Pilot, average daily preflight, inflight, and postflight
dietary potassium intakes were 94.3, 79.9, and 82.4 mEq, respectively. Fecal samples for
the same periods indicated that potassium levels were 27.6, 6.3, and 26.2 mEq,
respectively. Available daily preflight, inflight, and postflight potassium levels were,
therefore, 66.7, 73.6, and 56.2 mEq, respectively.
Nutritional Studies 287
O
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _ _
tt
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ORIGEqAL PAGe- !S
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288 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 9
Potassium Intake
(Values in milliequivalents)
15 CDR 91.1 0
CMP 69.7 0
LMP 74.9 0
16 CDR 114.2 23
CMP 81.8 26
LMP 106.9 26
17 CDR 77.2 10
CMP 88.5 18
LMP 98.1 19
Input and output data on sodium, chloride, and calcium levels for the Apollo 16
crewmembers are summarized in table 13.
In the analysis of the balance study performed for the Apollo 17 mission, inflight
metabolic data were compared with those obtained during the five-day control study
conducted approximately two months prior to flight. Rigorous intake and output
measurements were accomplished immediately before the flight and after the flight to
detect gross changes; however, the duration of these periods was not sufficient to
establish reliable metabolic baselines.
For the Apollo 17 Command Module Pilot, water consumption from all sources was
considerably lower during the flight than during the control balance study (table 14).
Inflight urine outputs were also proportionately lower for all three crewmembers than
those established during the control study. When the conditions of temperature and
humidity that prevailed during the flight are considered, it is estimated that in insensible
water loss of 900 to 1200 cc/day occurred. This loss was equivalent to the preflight loss.
Total body water measurements also did not support the tendency toward negative water
balance (see Section III, Chapter 2, Clinical Biochemistry).
Based on numbers adjusted for equilibrium during the control phase and insensible
losses, all three crewmembers were in negative calcium balance during the inflight period
(table 14). The negative balance was particularly pronounced for the Command Module
Pilot. For two of the crewmembers, the negative calcium balance persisted after the
flight. All crewmembers had exhibited a pronounced positive balance during the five-day
control period study possibly because the flight diets contained a higher calcium level
than did the customary daily intake of these crewmembers (table 14). As can be expected
from the negative calcium balance, phosphorus balance was generally negative during the
flight.
All three crewmembers demonstrated a sustained negative nitrogen balance during the
flight (table 14). Occasional negative nitrogen balances of small magnitude were also
detected before the flight. Diminished nitrogen retention is supportive evidence for the
Nutritional Studies 289
•_I ,_,
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290 Biomedical Results of Apollo
p_
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CO 0 qD LO CO tO 0
Pc i_. LO Pc O_ 0
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Nutritional Studies 291
Table 12
1 Sample Number
Measurement ]2 3] 41516
Apollo 16 mission
Sodium intakes during the flight were all less than 250 mEq/day. Intake and output
measurements for sodium indicated positive balances for this element, during the flight for
all three crewmembers (table 14). However, sodium output in sweat was not measured
and this route of excretion could have accounted for all the apparent "positive balance"
and even have resulted in a slight negative balance for sodium. Sodium balance was
positive during the flight for all three crewmembers (table 15) if insensible losses are
neglected.
........ t' ....... with prcvious rccommendations based on obser;ed inf!ight p_-;"m
deficits, inflight potassium intakes were maintained above normal ground-based intakes
(73 to 97 mEq/day) (table 15). Potassium retention during the flight was significantly less
than that established during the control study. A summary of overall metabolic ljalance
for Apollo 17 crewmembers with all numbers adjusted to reflect equilibrium during the
control period is presented in table 15.
Anthropometric Measurements
A summary of body weight changes based on the mean of the weights on 30, 15, and
5 days before lift-off compared to those obtained immediately after recovery is presented
in table 16. The weight changes during the 24-hour period immediately following
recovery are also given.
Body volume was measured before and after the Apollo 16 mission by
stereophotogrammetry. An analysis of densitometric data is presented in table 17.
292 Biomedical Result_ of Apollo
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Nutritional Studies 293
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294 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Nutritional Studies 295
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296 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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Nutritional Studies 297
Table 14
Balance of Water, Calcium, Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Sodium
During the Apollo 17 Mission
ntakem
126
Water
Water
3734
Urine,
1228
2143
Feces, ml
270
227
ml
absorbed,
absorbed,
ml
10.6
Calcium
2516
1072
146
13.9
1279
73
916
12.1
I 1120
t
955
68
11.8
I
I
I
I
1518
1045
142
13.5
1162
992
116
15.3
Ur,neN Oa I.o
Nitrogen m
Feces, N/day/gm
absorbed, N/day/gm
2.1
1.1
2.2
2.4 -
1.6
2.3 I --
1.4
3.9 I --
1.9
1.8 I 1oo --
2.1
3.4
_VUlg,,i
Table 15
Crewman
Parameter
CDR CMP LMP
Discussion
Most of the Apollo crewmembers did not eat all the food available. Among the
reasons for reduced appetite were decreased hunger, a feeling of fullness in the abdomen,
nausea (Berry & Homick, 1973), and preoccupation with the critical mission tasks.
Dislike of the food and inadequate rest during the mission were minor problems (Berry,
1970). The evidence suggests that either weightlessness or some other aspect of the
mission environment caused the crewmen to restrict their food intake below quantities
available and below quantities necessary to maintain body weight.
To quantitate the metabolic energy demands throughout the mission and to help
define body composition changes, efforts were made during the Apollo 16 mission to
control nutrient intake at a constant level throughout the preflight, inflight, and
postflight periods. It was believed that stabilizing dietary intake would afford maximum
opportunity for detecting body composition changes caused by adaptation to
weightlessness.
The mean loss in body weight between the day of the preflight total body water
determination and the day of recovery was 3.9 kg. Measurements of total body water loss
by tritiated water dilution indicated a mean decrease of 1.77 liters.
Nutritional Studies 299
Table 16
Crewman
Total 17
Apollo 16
Densitometric Data Uncorrected for Lung Volume
When body water loss was converted into lean body mass lost, it was determined that
the three crewmembers lost fat in addition to lean body mass because the lean body mass
loss does not equal the recorded weight loss. The daily caloric expenditure of the
Apollo 16 crewmen can be calculated from the known caloric value of metabolized fat
(37.6 kJ/gm and of lean body mass(16.7 kJ/gm). For the three crewmembers, the mean
daily caloric expenditure was 17 347 kJ.
Changes in total body potassium measured both by radioactive (potassium 42)
dilution and by balance techniques did not reveal a significant loss of lean body mass, an
indication that a fat and fluid loss occurred rather than a lean body mass loss. If only
body fat were lost, the energy requirement for the three Apollo 16 crewmen would be
21 556, 12 043, and 14 291 kJ/day, with a mean of 15 963 kJ (Johnson et al., 1970).
In an alternate method of summarizing the data, each crewman's body mass loss was
calculated from the differences between his mean body weight obtained 30, 15, and
5 days before flight and his weight immediately after flight.
Total body water lost was defined as the mass regained by each astronaut during the
24-hour period following recovery. In this instance, it was assumed that the mean weight
loss that was not due to either water or protein loss was due to loss of fat. By this
method, a larger loss in body fat was calculated to have occurred in all crewmembers.
Because of difficulties in controlling the respiratory cycle during body volume
measurement (Peterson & Herron, 1971), the calculated changes in body composition
included the effect of respiration as a random variable; thus, the data have too large a
variance for calculation of individual changes in body fat.
During the Apollo 17 mission, a complete collection of urine and feces samples was
added to a record of dietary intake so that metabolic balance measurements could be
made. By using the results of this study, the energy balance of each crewmember during
the Apollo 17 mission was estimated. Each crewmember decreased his intramission
energy intake. During the mission, this intake decreased from a mean of 141.3 kJ/kg
body weight to 109.1 kJ/kg and represented a 23 percent decrease in the caloric intake of
the crewmen. This decrease would result in a net mean deficit in caloric intake of
30 129 kJ throughout the mission (Johnson et al., 1974).
The mean weight loss of the Apollo 17 crewmen was 3.3 kg. Nitrogen balance data
reveal a loss of approximately 1 kg of protein, and the" remaining loss can be attributed
to fat. A mean caloric deficit of approximately 104 500 kJ is, therefore, assumed to have
occurred (Johnson et al., 1974; Leach et al., 1974).
Body tissue losses were first calculated for each astronaut by averaging successive
body weights obtained before the mission and subtracting the body weights measured
24 hours after recovery (Rambaut et al., 1973). It had been assumed that any decrease in
body mass between the preflight weight and the weight recorded 24 hours after recovery
represented water lost. An average of 1.5 kg weight was not regained during this 24-hour
period. If this loss was composed entirely of fat, it would represent an additional inflight
expenditure of approximately 5643 kJ/day. Commencing with Apollo 16, food and fluid
intake, urinary and fecal output, and total' body water were measured for each crewman
before, during, and after the flight. From these measurements were derived estimates of
protein loss, lean body mass, and total body fat. Body volume was estimated by
Nutritional Studies 301
stereophotogrammetry, and body density was calculated. From all these data, it became
apparent that crewmembers had lost fat in addition to losing lean body mass.
Losses of musculoskeletal constituents (Rambaut et al., 1973; Vogel et al., 1974) and
a variety of fluid and electrolyte anomalies have been detected by biochemical
investigations associated with the Gemini, Apollo, Voskhod, and Soyuz flights. The
electrolyte anomalies were particularly pronounced during the Apollo 15 mission and
may have been associated with inflight cardiac arrhythmias and postflight changes in
exercise performance and cardiovascular responses.
Certain therapeutic measures including the elevation of dietary potassium intake were
partly responsible for the lack of significant metabolic disturbances following the
Apollo 16 mission. Similar elevations in dietary potassium were effected for the
Apollo 17 crewmembers.
The negative nitrogen and potassium balances that were observed during the
Apollo 17 mission are indicative of a loss in the body mass.
Summary
Ututt tt t_ t _t_ttL.
References
D_. _ A . _ ........ ¢ _A_A;_a! Irvp_,-i_nrp in the Apnlln 7 ThroH_h 11 Manned Space Flights.
Aerospace Med., vol. 41, 1970, pp. 500-519.
Berry, C.A., and Homick, G.L.: Findings of American Astronauts Bearing on the Issue of Artificial
Gravity for Future Manned Space Vehicles. Aerospace Med., vol. 44, 1973, pp. 163-168.
Brodzinsky, R.L., Rancitelli, L.A.; Huller, W.A.; and Dewey, L.S.: Calcium, Potassium and Iron Loss
by Apollo 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 Astronauts. Aerospace Med., vol. 42, 1971, pp. 621-626.
Dietrick, J.E., Whcdon, G.D.; and Shorr, E.: Effects of Immobilization Upon Various Metabolic and
Physiologic Functions of Normal Man. Am. J. of Med., vol. 4, no. 3, 1948.
Donaldson, C.L.; Hulley, S.D.; Vogel, J.M.; Hattner, R.S.; Bayers, J.H., and McMillan, D.E.: Effect of
Prolonged Bed Rest on Bone Mineral. Metabolism, vol. 19, 1970, pp. 1071-1084.
Fischer, C.L.; Johnson, P.C.; and Berry, C.A.: Red Blood Cell Mass and Plasma Volume Changes in
Manned Space Flight. JAMA vol. 200, 1969, pp. 579-583.
Grayhiel, A; and Clark, B.: Symptoms Resulting from Prolonged Immersion in Water: The Problem of
Zero G Asthemia. Aerospace Med., vol. 32, 1961, pp. 181-196.
302 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Hattner, R.S.; and McMillan, D.E.: The Influence of Weightlessness Upon the Skeleton. Aerospace
Med., vol. 39, 1968, pp. 849-855.
Heidelbaugh, N.D.; Smith, M.C.; and Rambaut, P.C.: Food Safety in NASA Nutrition Programs.
J. Am. Vet. Med. Assn., vol. 163, 1973, pp. 1065-1070.
Issekutz, B.; Blizzard, J.; and Birkhead, N.C.: Effect of Prolonged Bedrest on Urinary Calcium Output.
J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 21, 1966, p. 1013.
Johnson, P.C.; Leach, C.S.; and Rambant, P.C.: Estimates of Fluid and Energy Balances of Apollo 17.
J. of Aerospace Med., vol. 44, 1970, pp. 1227-1230.
Johnson, P.C.; Rambaut, P.C.; and Leach, C.S.: Apollo 16 Bioenergetie Considerations. Nutrition and
Metabolism, vol. 16, 1974, pp. 119-126.
Leach, C.S.; Rambaut, P.C.; and Johnson, P.C.: Adrenal Cortical Responses of the Apollo 17
Crewmembers. Aerospace Med., vol. 45, 1974, pp. 529-534.
Lutwak, L.; Whedon, G.D.; LaChanee, P.A.; Reid, J.M.; and Lipscomb, H.S.: Mineral, Electrolyte, and
Nitrogen Balance Studies of the Gemini VII 14-Day Orbital Space Flight. J. Clin. Endoerinol. and
Metabolism, vol. 29, 1969, pp. 1140-1156.
Lynch, T.N.; Jensen, R.L.; Stevens, P.M.; Johnson, R.L.; and Lamb, L.E.: Metabolic Effects of
Prolonged Bed Rest: Their Modification by Simulated Altitude. Aerospace Med., vol. 38, 1967,
pp. 10-20.
NAS, NRC: Recommended Dietary Allowances. Seventh revised ed. National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council, Food and Nutrition Board, Publication 1964 (Washington, D.C.),
1968.
Peterson, C.R.; and Herron, R.E.: Stereophotogrammetry Applied to Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation. Sou. Med. J., vol. 64, 1971, pp. 281-284.
Rambaut, P.C.; Heidelbaugh, N.D.; and Smith, M.C.: Calcium and Phosphorus Mobilization in Man
During Weightless Flight Activities. Report 25 (Research and Development Associates for Military
Food and Packaging Systems, Inc.), 1973, pp. 1-7.
Rambaut, P.C.; Heideibaugh, N.D.; Reid, J.M.; and Smith, M.C.: Caloric Balance During Simulated and
Actual Space Flight. Aerospace Med., vol. 44, 1973, pp. 1264-1269.
Reid, J.M.; Lutwak, L.; and Whedon, G.D.: Dietary Control in the Metabolic Studies of the
Gemini VII Space Flight. J. Am. Dietet., A., vol. 53, 1968, pp. 342-347.
Vogel, J.M.; and Friedman, R.J.: Mineral Content Changes in the Os Calcis, Ulna, and Radius Induced
by Prolonged Bedrest. In: Bone Mineral Conference, CONF-700515, USAEC (Chicago),
May 22-23, 1970, pp. 408-423.
Vogel, J.M.; Rambaut, P.C.; and Smith, M.C.: Bone Mineral Measurements from Apollo
Experiment M-078. NASA TMX-58110, Jan. 1974.
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Bedrest on Various Parameters of Physiological Function. NASA CR-182, 1965.
' N76 12682
CHAPTER 7
SKELETAL RESPONSE
by
Paul C. Rambaut, Sc.D.*
Malcolm C. Smith, Jr., D.V.M.
Introduction
1. The pulling forces that are exerted on bone by its attached muscles.
2. The forces that are exerted along the longitudinal axis of the skeletal system by
gravity.
This complex set of stimuli is balanced to provide a bone structure capable, by its
chemical composition as well as by its architectural deployment of these materials, of
supporting the organism and resisting the forces against which the organism must
function. Bone is a living organ that is continuously remodeling itself. When mechanical
forces applied to the skeleton during normal activity in a one-g environment are removed,
bone mineral is lost because bone resorption is allowed to outstrip bone formation. This
factor represents a danger not only because of the risk of fracture in demineralized bones,
but also because the associated increased urinary calcium excretion might lead to the
formation of kidney stones.
3O3
304 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The rectilinear bone mineral scanner designed and built for the Apollo missions was
compact, easily disassembled, and had the capacity for operation in two configurations:
heel scanning (figure 1) and arm scanning (figure 2). The unit consisted of a scanning
yoke, an apparatus for moving the yoke, and devices for positioning the limb to be
scanned.
The scanning yoke held a collimated source and collimated detector 13 cm apart with
the apertures aligned in direct opposition. The source contained 1480 x 1010 disintegra-
tions/second (400-millicurie) iodine-125 and was shielded, except for a 3 mm-diameter
collimator output hole. The detector was a sodium iodide scintillator mounted in a
housing collimated to 3 mm. The limb to be scanned was placed between the source and
detector. The yoke was attached to a movable ram by means of a special mounting stud
that allowed for two different mounting configurations [figures l(a) and 2(a)].
Rectilinear scanning was accomplished by moving the yoke sequentially in two
directions. First, a traverse of the ram into and out of its housing constituted a row
during which data were collected (X-axis). Second, a movement by the Y-axis unit at the
completion of each row constituted an increment during which no data were collected.
Skeletal Response 305
The beam of radiation was oriented parallel to the Z-axis. The conversion of the scanner
from one configuration to the other required a 90 ° rotation of the frame with respect to
the base and a 90 ° rotation of the yoke with respect to its mounting stud.
Y-axis
jt x
X-axis
Arm_ .
A row of data collected during the X-axis traverse contained 256 points, each point
representing an interval of 0.397 mm for a total row width of 10.16 cm. After the
completion of each row, the ram and yoke were moved by 3.0 mm increments along the
Y-axis. (This length is standard for Y-axis increments.) A full scan was completed when
16 rows of data or 4096 data points had been collected.
The devices that held the limbs stable and in position for scanning consisted of two
interchangeable tables on a common base that slid on the scanner legs for positioning.
The base was locked into position by locking thumbscrews.
Skeletal Response 307
All scans were made of the left os calcis, with the heel resting in a foot mold mounted
in a plastic box on a table [figure l(b)]. The plastic foot mold was fashionedfroman
impression of each subject's foot made before the study. The box was filled with water to
provide a constant tissue-equivalent path length. The scan was started at a point
determined from an initial radiograph to include the entire central os calcis in 16 parallel
rows, each spaced 3 mm apart (figure 3).
...... s arm
r_...;._ scanning, ,,,_ arm 1ay ,,,.,,,,_v,,t,_,,y
.L. k^.;-_--_-.ll .........between two -10_a_,_
'--_:- Vel'tl_itl-'_ I upngnts
' ! .
on the arm table top [figure 2(b)]. Pegs in a movable handrest positioned and held the arm
with the ulnar styloid opposite a reference point in the upright. To maintain a constant
tissue-equivalent path length, the arm was surrounded by Superstuff (Oil Center
Research, Lafayette, Louisiana) and covered with a thin sheet of plastic. Sixteen rows
were scanned at 3-mm intervals beginning 2 cm proximal to the level of the ulnar styloid.
Bone scans using the photon absorptiometry technique were made for the crews of
Apollo 14, 15, and 16 approximately one month, two weeks, and one week before flight.
Four postflight measurements were made for each crew. No bone studies were performed
on the crews of Apollo 9 through 13. During the postflight period of Apollo 14, because
of the space restrictions in the Mobile Quarantine Facility and the isolation restrictions of
the Lunar Receiving Laboratory, only a single scanner could be deployed in each of these
areas. For this reason, arm and heel scans were performed separately using the same
308 Biomedical Results of Apollo
scanner in each of the two configurations. The scanner sctup was performed by the Flight
Surgeon. The data acquisition electronics were located outside of the quarantine area
with passthrough cable connectors installed previously in the bulkhead of the Mobile
Quarantine Facility and the wall of the crewmen's communication and visiting area of the
Lunar Receiving Laboratory. On the two subsequent missions, arm and heel studies were
performed simultaneously both preflight and postflight, because quarantine was no longer
required.
Results
In general, no mineral losses were observed in the os calcis, radius, and ulna during the
lO-day Apollo 14 flight (tables 1, 2, and 3). The Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) had a change
of mineral in the central os calcis of +3.5 percent when immediate preflight and postflight
measures were compared, in contrast to the -0.7 percent for the Commander (CDR), and
+ 1.5 percent for the Command Module Pilot (CMP). The preflight measurements varied
from +0.8 to -1.1 percent of mean baseline for all three crewmembers. In contrast, there
was a greater variation in the three controls of +1.8 to -2.8 percent. Postflight
measurements for control subjects 1, 2, and 3 were +2.9, -3.1, and -1.0 percent of mean
baseline.
Table 1
R--8 -- .5 + .9
R--2 .0
R + 10"* -- .4 +3.7 + .5
R + 30** +3.3
*Based on hydroxyapatite equivalency in mg/cm2: mean value for nine rows scanned.
**Hours.
The radius measurements postflight ranged within the values obtained preflight
(table 2). When immediate preflight values were compared to postflight values, there were
-0.7, +2.2, and -0.3 percent changes for the CDR, LMP, and CMP, respectively.
The ulna mineral content was somewhat more variable, but postflight values were
essentially within the preflight range (table 3). When immediate preflight and postflight
Skeletal Response 309
values were compared, there were -3.6, -2.9, and -5.2 percent changes for the CDR, LMP,
and CMP. These changes appear to be large; however, there was a +2.5 to 3.0 percent
variation preflight for the CDR and LMP and a -7.2 to +5.7 percent variation for the
CMP. This latter variation appears to be instrumental rather than real.
Table 2
**Percent values in parenthesis based on only 2 baseline values; the first being omitted.
Table 3
Apollo 14 Right Ulna Mineral Content Change
(Percent change from mean baseline*)
**Percent values in parenthesis based on only two baseline values; the first being omitted.
***No match in ulna width. Data not valid.
310 Biomedical Resulls of Apollo
A significant increase in fat was observed on the plantar side of the os calcis. Changes
were seen in all crewmen immediately postflight. The most significant change was in the
CMP's measurement at ten hours after recovery (R+ 10). There was a 34 percent increase
in fat equivalence when compared to the immediate preflight measurement. This increase
would have resulted in a 4.3 percent overestimation of bone mineral if the soft tissue
contribution had not been measured. In contrast, the CDR had an 8.4 percent increase
and the LMP an 8.1 percent increase with a potential 2.2 to 2.5 percent overestimation in
mineral.
As with the Apollo 14 crew, no mineral losses were observed during the ll-day
Apollo 16 flight. The left os calcis mineral values immediately postflight were +1.2, +0.4,
and +0.4 percent of mean baseline for the CDR, CMP, and LMP, respectively (table 4).
The four controls measured on the day before recovery were -0.6, +1.5, +2.5, and
-0.3 percent of mean baseline. Therefore, no changes can be attributed to the flight.
Table 4
R--2 + .4 -- .3 0 -- .1
R+4to7* +1.2 + + .4
R + 24* --1.0 + 1.4
R+3 -- .4 -- ,8 -- ,7 -- .2 + .5 --1.1
*Hours
The distal radius mineral measurements immediately postflight were + 1.0, +2.1, and
+1.5 percent of mean baseline for the CDR, CMP, and LMP, respectively (table 5). The
four controls were +0.1, +0.1, +0.5, and 0.0 percent of mean baseline on the day before
recovery. These values are within the +2 percent accuracy of the technique, and no radius
mineral losses can therefore be attributed to the flight. The distal right ulna values
immediately postflight were -2.2, -3.5, and -3.3 percent of mean baseline for the CDR,
CMP, and LMP, respectively (table 6). Similar values (-2.8, -2.9, -0.5, and -2.7 percent)
were observed in the controls on the day before recovery. It is, therefore, reasonable to
conclude that there were no significant changes from preflight in the Apollo 16 crew.
The Apollo 15 data differed somewhat from that obtained on Apollo 14 and 16 in
that two crewmen lost mineral from the left central os calcis during this mission (table 7).
Skeletal
Response 311
When compared with the mean baseline values, there were -6.6, -7.3, and
-0.5 percent changes in the CDR, CMP, and LMP, respectively. The changes for
control subjects 1, 2, and 3 were +0.3, -0.2, and -2.8 percent, respectively. The CDR
regained his mineral more rapidly than the CMP, and both were near baseline values
by the end of two weeks. The magnitude of these losses must be evaluated in terms
of the variability in the controls observed during the postflight period. Taken in this
context, the losses exhibited by the CDR and CMP could more likely reflect losses
of about 5 to 6 percent.
Table 5
*Hours
There were essentially no changes in radius mineral during flight, namely -1.1,
-,.._, ,,,,u -.._, p,=,,,,¢ for the _.no _ ¢tatJl_
for control subjects 1, 2, and 3 were -1.6, -0.9, and +0.1 percent, respectively. Also,
the crew's ulna mineral changes were not significant when compared with the
control subjects (table 9). Immediate postflight values differed from the mean
preflight by -1.4, -3.6, and -1.8 percent for the CDR, CMP, and LMP, respectively.
Changes for control subjects l, 2, and 3 were +0.6, +0.1, and -2.2percent,
respectively. The -3.6 percent mineral change in the CMP may be significant, but he
was +1.4 percent of the mean baseline the following day. As noted in the Apollo 14
and 16 crews, there is a greater variation in the ulnar mineral determinations, the
cause of which is unknown.
Whereas there were signficant changes in the soft tissue composition in the CMP
of Apollo 14, there were no significant changes in any of the Apollo 15 or 16
crewmembcrs.
312 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 6
*Hours
Table 7
F--13 -- .2 + .4 -- .2 + .6 +2.0 + .3
F--5 + .1 + .5 + .1 + .1 -- .3 -- .3
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of weightlessness on bone
during prolonged space exploration. Ground-based studies designed to mimic the altered
physiologic state were used to constt'uct a time-effect curve. Bed rest, which most closely
models the weightless state at least as far as the musculoskeletal system is concerned, has
served as an experimental model to assess the bone mineral changes observed during bed
Skeletal Response 313
rest periods of up to 36 weeks, and to determine what remedial measures might be used
to stem the tide of bone mineral loss. The loss of bone mineral in the bedridden patient
has long been recognized. Contrary to previous reports, total recovery does occur
weightlessness, losses of bone mineral in flight were expected to be, if anything, more
severe than were seen in bed rest.
Table 8
Table 9
The early reports of significant bone mineral losses in the five- to fourteen-day
Gemini and Apollo flights served to emphasize the need for correlating the bed-rest-
induced mineral losses with those observed during varying periods of weightlessness.
Time-effect curves for both situations needed to be established so that better estimates
could be obtained on the risk of prolonged space flight as translated from the
ground-based bed rest studies.
Using a gamma photon absorptiometric technique, a time-effect curve was con-
structed for the bed rest state. The following conclusions were derived:
1. Periods of up to 36 weeks of bed rest can account for a 40 percent mineral loss
from the central os calcis (Donaldson et al., 1970). This bone is highly trabecular, as well
as weight bearing. In contrast, the ulna and the radius (primarily cortical and
non-weight-bearing bones) failed to exhibit mineral losses during periods of up to
30 weeks of bed rest (Vogel et al., 1974). It is acknowledged that the muscular forces
may not have been reduced in the case of the radius and that the hydrostatic forces may
not have been sufficiently altered to result in a breakdown in homeostasis.
2. The amount of initial mineral content in the os caicis can influence the rate of
mineral loss (Vogel et al., 1974). In a study of 19 subjects on 17 to 36 weeks of bed rest,
two groups of subjects emerged: those who exhibited a high mineral content at the onset
and eventually lost the least mineral both in percent and in quantity, and those who
exhibited a low mineral content at the onset and lost at a greater rate than the other
group.
3. The rate of mineral loss in general, but not in all cases, was greatest during the
second 12 weeks of bed rest and the least after the 24th week.
4. The mean rate of mineral loss in the os calcis was approximately 5 percent per
month, in contrast to a whole body calcium loss of 0.5percent per month
(Donaldson et al., 1970). Therefore, the os calcis is not representative of all the bones in
the body, and weight-bearing bones are more inclined to lose mineral in the recumbent
state than the non-weight-bearing bones.
5. The rate of mineral regain after reambulation follows a pattern roughly similar to
that of the loss; that is, if the maximal loss took 24 weeks, regain to baseline also took
approximately 24 weeks.
6. Little or no os calcis mineral loss was observed in less than 21 days of bed rest and
often was not observed until after 15 weeks (table 10).
From these data, a predictive model was established for the bed rest situation. In this
model, the ratio of initial mineral content to the initial 24-hour urinary hydroxyproline
excretion is related to observed losses (Lockwood et al., 1972). The greater this ratio, the
slower and smaller the losses and, conversely, the smaller the ratio, the faster and greater
the losses. The accurate measurement of baseline 24-hour urinary hydroxyproline
excretion is, therefore, an essential requirement for this prediction term.
Because of the limited available data, no time-response curve could be established for
the weightless state. It appears, however, that the time-response curve obtained from the
Skeletal Response 315
bed rest studies may be more prolonged with respect to the time of onset of
demineralization than is observed in true weightlessness (Donaldson et al., 1970;
Hulley et al., 1971; Hantman et al., 1973). Yet, this does not appear to be true for all
crewmen; in particular, the Apollo 14 and 16 crewmen and the LMP of Apollo 15 had no
mineral losses in the os calcis in 10 to 21 days.
Table 10
"Os calcis mineral change was measured twice for particular subject.
Repetitive studies of normal ambulatory malcs carried out over six to eight months
exhibited a 0.9 to 1.5 percent standard deviation from the mean in repetitive
measurements performed every two to three weeks (table 11). Furthermore, control
subjects 1 and 2 studied during the Apollo 14, 15, and 16 missions had maximal
variations from their mean values of -2.7 to +2.1 percent for control subject 1 and -2.4 to
+2.1 percent for control subject 2 (table 11). Therefore, it seems reasonable that not only
did the six Apollo 14 and 16 crewmen and the LMP of Apollo 15 fail to lose calcaneal
mineral (table 12), but that the 2.9 and 2.8 percent losses for the Gemini 7 crewmen, 2.1
and 3.0 percent losses for the CDR and CMP of Apollo 8 and 0.8 and 2.3 percent gains for
the LMP and CMP of Apollo 7 could also represent minimal or no losses from this bone
(table 13).
These data must be contrasted to the 7.8 and 10.3 percent losses in Gemini 4, 15.1
and 8.9 percent losses in Gemini 5, 7.0 percent loss for the LMP on Apollo 8, 5.4 percent
316 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 11
Apollo 14
Apollo 15
Apollo 16
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUAL_
Skeletal Response 317
loss for the CDR on Apollo 7 (table 13), and the reported losses of 6.6 and 7.3 percent
for the CDR and CMP of Apollo 15 (table 12). The 6.7 and 7.3 percent mineral losses for
the 12-day mission (Apollo 15) are in line with losses observed during the 18-day Soyuz 9
mission where there was no interlude of lunar gravity (1/6 g)(Biriukov & Krasnykh,
1970).
Table 12
Mission
CDR I LMP CMP
Apollo 16 +1.2 + .4 - .4
+0.3*
*R + 1 measurement
Losses of this magnitude did not occur in bed rest subjects until after the tenth week;
very little significant change was evident until the fourth to sixth week of bed rest. This
appears to be similar to the comparisons made by Biriukov and Krasnykh (1970) who
considered the Soyuz 9 flight to be similar to their 62- to 70-day bed rest confinement.
Krasnykh's studies of 70- to 73-day bed rest subjects (1969) resulted in an observed
average loss of 11.1 percent in five subjects, without total recovery occurring after 20 to
40 days of reambulation. This observation appears to be similar to the authors' studies
where an average loss of 10.5 percent was observed in eight subjects after ten weeks of
bed rest, with recovery after reambulation requiring a time approximately equivalent to
the duration of bed rest.
Clearly, there are no known experimental differences to account for all of these
observations. Only in Apollo 14, 15, and 16 were there cxposurcs to 1/6 g for short
periods of time. Of the six crewmen who experienced such an exposure, only the CDR of
Apollo 15 had mineral losses in the os calcis, and he experienced a more rapid recovery
than the CMP who had no such exposure. Yet, the CMP for Apollo 14 and 16 did not
318 Biomedical Results of Apollo
experience any mineral losses. Of the nine crewmen studied, the CDR and CMP of
Apollo 15 had the greatest baseline mineral content; that is, 706.2 and 704.7 mg/cm 2,
respectively, while the LMP had 576.3 mg/cm 2. The Apollo 14 crew had 562.0, 520.4,
and 673.1 mg/cm 2, and the Apollo 16 crew had 606.3,601.4, and 532.6 mg/cm 2. The
losses experienced during Apollo 15 are at variance with the bed rest observations.
Table 13
Mission
(percent)
CP* (percent)
P** (percent)
CDR I (percent)
LMP l (percent)
CMP
Central Os Calcis
Distal Ulna
A0oo,
I
Apollo 8 301 2113.
--6.4 --12.4 --16.2
*Command Pilot
**Pilot
The level of dietary calcium and phosphorus appears to have some effect on the rate
of mineral loss in bed rest subjects (Mack & LaChance, 1967). Some initial protective
effect is observed when supplemental calcium and phosphorus are administered
(Hantman et al., 1973). In examining the data available, the calcium intake could be
considered low only in the case of the crews of Gemini 4 and 5, the crew of Apollo 8, the
CDR of Apollo 7, and the CMP of Apollo 16; all others had an excess of 700 mg of
calcium in their diet (table I4). Additional exercise could have been a factor during
Gemini 7 and the Apollo missions as well as on Soyuz 9. Nevertheless, at this time, no
clear-cut pattern can be developed from the data available.
The results of the later Apollo studies contrast most sharply with the previously
reported flight mineral data in Gemini and Apollo in the case of the radius and ulna. In
none of these missions were there any significant losses in either of these bones for any of
Skeletal Response 319
the crewmen or controls. In these studies, the most distal area of the ulna and radius,
where the two bones are distinctly separated, was measured. This is the more trabecular
area of these bones. As shown in table 13, there were variations in Apollo 7 of -3.3, +3.4,
and -3.6 percent for the radius and -3.0, +2.1, and -3.4 percent for the ulna. These data
are not particularly different from the data of -0.1, + 1.5, and + 1.5 percent for the radius
and -1.6, -0.3, and +0.3 percent for the ulna on Apollo 14; 0.0, -0.7, and -1.9 percent for
the radius and -1.7, -3.5, and -3.1 percent for the ulna on Apollo 15; and +1.0, +1.5, and
+2.1 percent for the radius and -2.2, -3.3, and -3.5 percent for the ulna on Apollo 16
(table 14). In contrast, the reported values for Gemini 5 were -25.3 and -22.3 percent for
the radius with no data available for the ulna, and those for Apollo 8 were -8.8, -11.1, and
-11.4 percent for the radius and -6.4, -12.4, and -16.2 percent for the ulna. Data for these
two bones have not been reported for Soyuz 9, and, to date, no data have been reported
for Soyuz 11.
Table 14
CP 679 -- 7.8 m
Gemini 4
P 739 --10.3
Gemini 5
P 333 -- 8.9 -22.3
CP 945 -- 2.9
Gemini 7
P 921 -- 2.8
*a + 1 measurement
It is not possible at this time to attempt any correlations on these conflicting data.
Clearly, Gemini 7 and Apollo 7 had the greatest similarity to the Apollo 14, 15, and 16
320 Biomedical Results of Apollo
results and Gemini 4 and 5 and Apollo 8 had the least. Based on the bed rest experience,
one would not have expected significant losses from the upper extremity bones. The
differences between the photon absorptiometric and X-ray densitometric techniques can
account partly for these differences. The accuracy of the radiographic technique has been
considered to approach 10 percent, whereas the photon absorptiometric technique can
claim a 2 percent accuracy (Cameron et al., 1969). It would appear that the forces
generally applied to the upper extremity bones are still applied during flight, although
they are significantly reduced. In contrast, except for the lunar excursion periods,
compression forces, most vital to the integrity of the os calcis, are completely removed
from that bone.
Reliable calcium balance data for these missions are not available. During Gemini 7
when a metabolic balance technique was used, the net calcium balance was distinctly less
positive for both crewmen (Lutwak et al., 1969). The mean urinary calcium increased
during the second week by 23 percent for the Command Pilot (CP) and 9 percent for the
Pilot (P), the latter not being significant. However, the changes in calcium balance were
appreciable. In addition to weightlessness, investigators speculate that high oxygen
atmosphere, low pressure, exercise, and dietary protein reduction were factors that
contributed in varying degrees to the calcium balance changes in these two crewmen. The
greater negativity of the CP was supported by a slightly greater mineral loss in the hand
phalanx 4-2 (-6.55 percent compared to -3.82 percent) and distal talus (-7.06 percent
compared to -4.0percent) but not by the oscalcis (-2.9percent compared to
-2.8 percent), capitate (-4.31 percent compared to -9.3 percent), or the hand phalanx 5-2
(-6.78 percent compared to -7.83 percent) (tables,13 and 15).
The CDR on Apollo 8 is estimated to have had a 1.01 gm/day mass balance deficit,
and the average for all three crewmen on Apollo 7 was a 0.59 gm/day deficit (Brodzinski,
1971). These data are based on the examination of fecal calcium only, and are only
approximate because the fecal calcium excretion was assumed to be a constant 80 percent
of the daily total. This value has been shown to vary between 69.4 and 91.6 percent. In
bed rest studies (Donaldson et al., 1970; Hulley et al., 1971 ; Hantman et al., 1973), the
calcium balance became negative almost immediately and reached a peak in the fifth to
eighth week with a range of about 250+ 200 mg/day (two standard deviations)
(ttantman et al., 1973). These Apollo data reflect a greater negative balance that might
account for an earlier onset of the mineral loss.
Other bones were studied by X-ray densitometry, and the results obtained are listed
in table 15 for completeness. No specific pattern can be ascribed to these results on the
basis of duration of weightlessness, calcium intake (table 14), or physical activity. The
crew of Gemini 5 appears to have had the greatest losses in all of the bones studied.
Conclusions
yet identified, not all crewmen were similarly affected during the ten- to twelve-day
missions. These studies can be used to construct a time-effect curve that can be compared
with the bed rest data, thus permitting a reasonable degree of prediction for longer space
missions.
Table 15
by X-Ray Densitometry
References
Biriukov, E.N.; and Krasnykh, I.G.: Changes in the Optical Density of Bone Tissue and in the Calcium
Metabolism of the Astronauts. A.G. Nikovaev and V.I. Sevastianov, Moscow, Kosmieheskaia
Biologiia i Meditsina, vol. 4, Nov.-Dec. 1970, pp. 42-45.
Brodzinski, R.L.; Rancitelli, L.A.; Haler, W.A.; and Dewey, L.S.: Calcium, Potassium, and Iron Loss
by Apollo VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI Astronauts. Aerospace Med., vol. 42, no. 6, June 1971,
pp. 621-626.
Cameron, John R.; Jurist, John M.; Sorenson, James A.; and Mazess, Richard B.: New Methods of
Skeletal Status Evaluation in Space Flight. Aerospace Med., vol. 40, no. 10, Oct. 1969,
pp. 1119-1122.
Donaldson, Charles L., Hulley, Stephen B., Vogel, John M.; Hattner, Robert S.; Bayers, J.H.; and
McMillan, D.G.: Effect of Prolonged Bed Rest on Bone Mineral. Metab., vol. 19, no. 12, 1970,
pp. 1071-1084.
322 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Hantman, D.A.; Vogel, J.M.; Donaldson, C.L.; Friedman, R.J.; Goldsmith, R.S.; and Hulley, S.B.:
Attempts to Prevent Disuse Osteoporosis by Treatment with Calcitonin, Longitudinal Compression
and Supplementary Calcium and Phosphate. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., vol. 36, no. 12, 1973,
pp. 29-42.
Hattner, R.S.; and McMillan, D.E.: Influence of Weightlessness Upon the Skeleton: A Review.
Aerospace Med., vol. 39, no. 8, Aug. 1968, pp. 849-855.
Heuck, F.; and Schmidt, E.: Die quantitative bestimmung des mineralgehaltes des knochen aus dem
Rontgenbild. Fortschr. Roentgenstr., vol. 93, 1960, pp. 523-554.
Hulley, Stephen B.; Vogel, John M.; Donaldson, Charles L.; Bayers, Jon H.; Friedman, Ronald J.; and
Rosen, Sheldon N.: Effect of Supplemental Oral Phosphate on the Bone Mineral Changes During
Prolonged Bed Rest. J. Clin. Inv., vol. 50, no. 12, 1971, pp. 2506-2518.
Krasnykh, I.G.: Mineral Saturation of Bone Tissue Under Conditions of Prolonged Hypodynamia.
NASA TT F-639, 1969.
Lockwood, D.R.; Lammert, J.E.; Vogel, J.M.; and Hulley, S.B.: Bone Mineral Loss During Bed Rest.
Proceedings of the Clinical Aspects of Metabolic Bone Disease, Excerpta Medica Foundation
(Amsterdam), 1972, pp. 148-151.
Lutwak, Leo; Whedon, G. Donald; LaChance, Paul A.; Reid, Jeanne M.; and Lipscomb, Harry S.:
Mineral, Electrolyte and Nitrogen Balance Studies of the Gemini-VII Fourteen-Day Orbital Space
Flight. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., vol. 29, Sept. 1969, pp. 1140-1156.
Mack, Pauline B.; LaChance, Paul A.; Vose, George P.; and Vogt, Fred B.: Bone Demineralization of
Foot and Hand of Gemini-Titan IV, V and VII Astronauts During Orbital Flight. Am. J.
Roentgenology, Radium Therapy, and Nuclear Medicine, vol. 100, no. 3, 1967, pp. 503-511.
Mack, Pauline B.; and LaChance, Paul A.: Effects of Recumbency and Space Flight on Bone Density.
Am. J. Clin. Nutr., vol. 20, no. 11, 1967, pp. 1194-1205.
Rambaut, Paul C.; Deitlein, Lawrence F.; Vogel, John M.; and Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.: Comparative
Study of Two Direct Methods of Bone Mineral Measurement. Aerospace Med., vol. 43, no. 6, June
1972, pp. 646-650.
Vogel, John M.; and Anderson, Jerome T.: Rectilinear Transmission Scanning of Irregular Bones for
Quantification of Mineral Content. J. Nucl. Med., vol. 13, no. 1, 1972, pp. 13-18.
Vogel, J.M.; Rambaut, P.C.; and Smith, M.C.: Bone Mineral Measurement from Apollo Experi-
ment M078, NASA TMX.58110, 1974.
Vose, G.P.: Review of Roentgenographic Bone Demineralization Studies of the Gemini Space Flights.
Am. J. Roentgenology, Radium Therapy and Nuclear Medicine, vol. 121, 1974, pp. 1-4.
Witt, R.M.; Mazess, R.B.; and Cameron, J.R.: Standardization of Bone Mineral Measurements.
Proceedings of Bone Measurement Conference, Atomic Energy Commission Conference 700515,
1970, pp. 303-307.
' NTe
CHAPTER 8
by
J.L. Homick, Ph.D.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
The human vestibular system consists of two types of specialized sensory receptors
located in the inner ear. The semicircular canals are structured to respond primarily to
angular accelerations of the head. The otolith organs, closely related to the canals both
anatomically and functionally, are highly sensitive to linear accelerations and to changes
in the direction of gravity acting on the head. These two receptor mechanisms together
provide sensory information essential to the perception of body position and movement.
Results of physiological and anatomical studies have shown that afferent fibers from
these receptors project to a number of areas of the brain and the spinal cord and can
interact with or influence neural activity in those areas. Thus, the reticular system, the
autonomic nervous system, the eye muscles, and the voluntary skeletal muscles can be
.... ct_d ei_,_r directly or md,rcctly by vestibular activity, in laboratory and ficid
investigations, it has been well documented that excessive stimulation of the vestibular
receptors can lead to a variety of behavioral and physiological disturbances ranging from
decreased alertness, voluntary restriction of physical activity, oculomotor impairment,
nausea and, in extreme cases, vomiting. Discrepancies among visual, vestibular, and
tactile-kinesthetic spatial perceptions can lead to stressful sensory conflict, which can also
cause disturbances ranging from disorientation to nausea and vomiting.
Because a highly unusual gravito-inertial stimulus environment is present in space
flight, concern was expressed early in the United States manned space flight program
about vestibular problems that might occur during flight, particularly motion sickness.
For this reason, antimotion-sickness drugs were carried onboard the first manned Mercury
spacecraft. The drugs provided were Tigan and Marezine, in both oral and injectable
forms. However, no symptoms occurred and neither of these drags was required. The
early Mercury crewmen were also instructed to perform head movements cautiously and
to reach to different areas in the spacecraft. Again, no problems were reported.
323
324 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Methods
Qualitative
Assessment Procedures
Withoneexception thatisdescribed inafollowing section,
nosystematicprogram to
assessquantitatively
theeffectsof space flightoncrewvestibular functionwaspursued
duringthe Apolloflightseries. A majorportionof the understanding of vestibular
problems encountered duringspaceflightis based, therefore,
onqualitative
information
derivedfromavarietyof sources. Anattempt hasbeenmadetocompile detailedmotion
experiencehistories
foreachastronaut in theApolloflightseries.Thesehistories
indicate
whetheror not an individualastronauthaseverexperienced motionsickness in
automobiles,in boats,duringzero-gparabolic flight maneuvers,or duringspacecraft
egressexercises.
In addition,
heavyemphasis hasbeenplacedonsubjective reportingby
individualastronauts on the type and the magnitude of vestibulardisturbances
experiencedduringandfollowingtheirmissions.
Apollo
Flight
Crew
Vestibular
Assessment 325
Special
Preflight and Postflight Laboratory Measurements
Because of the need to obtain more definitive information on the effects of exposure
to the space flight environment on the vestibular system, procedures were implemented
to perform preflight and postflight vestibular tests on the Apollo 16 and 17 crewmen. To
accomplish a reasonably comprehensive evaluation of vestibular function, two types of
tests were performed. Postural equilibrium tests were selected as a means of providing an
assessment of a behavioral skill that is not only of practical importance, but also sensitive
to altered vestibular inputs that may result from prolonged exposure to weightlessness.
The second test used, caloric irrigation, complemented the tests of balance by monitoring
for changes in semicircular canal activity as a possible cause of postmission
dysequilibrium.
Postural equilibrium was tested by using a modified and shortened version of a
standard laboratory method (Graybiel & Fregly, 1966). Each crewman was fitted with
military-type shoes for this test, both preflight and postflight, to rule out differences in
footwear as a variable in intersubject and intrasubject comparisons. Rails of four widths
(1.90, 3.17, 4.45, and 5.72 cm) plus the floor provided the foot support for the standing
crewman. A tape 10.16 cm wide and 68.5 cm long served as a foot-guide alinement for
the floor portion of the test. Time, the performance measure of balance, began when the
crewman, standing on the prescribed support with his feet in a tandem heel-to-toe
arrangement, folded his arms. His eyes remained open in the first test series. In the second
series, the time measurement was initiated after the crewman attained a balanced position
and closed his eyes. Several practice trials were allowed on representative rails until the
crewman demonstrated full knowledge of the test procedure and reasonable confidence in
his approach to this balancing task.
The initial rail width for testing with eyes open was 3.17 cm. Three test trials with a
maximum duration of 50 seconds each were given. If the time limit was reached in the
first two trials, a third was not performed, and a perfect score of 100seconds
(100 percent of the required task) was recorded for the initial support width. If the
crewman failed to obtain a perfect score, the two largest time values for the three trials
were summed to obtain the final score. The choice of the second width depended on the
individual's performance on the initial support width. If his score was greater than or
ctluatt to 80 peFcei-it, *l.tli_ licz, t
.......... _ilIdlIUIII ......... _uIp_Ju[ t4_ ....'._tL_w
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next larger was used. Testing on a third support width was required when both of the two
prior width scores fell either below or above the 80 percent level. The testing with eyes
closed followed the same procedure, except that a larger rail support (5.72 cm) was used
initially. The eyes-closed test was executed in very dim laboratory light to initiate
dark-adaptation of the crewman in preparation for the caloric test.
Electrodes for recording nystagmic eye movements were attached before the posturai
equilibrium test. After cleaning the appropriate skin areas with 95 percent isopropyl
alcohol, silver chloride (Beckman) electrodes were placed at the outer canthus of each eye
and the reference electrode was placed in the center of the forehead. A Tracor RN-243
electronystagmograph system was used throughout the caloric test to record
corneoretinal potential changes. Electronystagmographic calibration of eye movements in
degrees per centimeter was obtained with the crewman sitting in an upright position and
326 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Results
Inflight Disturbances
Motion sickness histories of individual Apollo crewmen, as well as motion sickness
symptoms and vestibular related illusions experienced by Apollo crewmen during space
flight, are summarized in table 1. All three Apollo 7 crewmen had positive motion
sickness histories. During their mission, however, none of these crewmen - including the
Lunar Module Pilot (LMP), who performed purposeful spinning and tumbling maneuvers
in the Command Module - experienced any symptoms of motion sickness. While donning
his space suit, the Apollo 7 LMP did experience a brief tumbling illusion once, as indicated in
table 1. All three Apollo 8 astronauts had some history of motion sickness. During flight,
soon after leaving their couches, all three crewmen experienced nausea apparently as a result
of rapid body movements. For the Commander (CDR), these symptoms progressively
worsened; and, shortly after waking from his first sleep period, he vomited. In this particular
case, the severe symptoms experienced were in part caused by gastroenteritis. The antimo-
tion-sickness drug, Marezine, was ineffective for the CDR, but it did alleviate the stomach
awareness and nausea experienced by the other two crewmen.
Apollo Flight Crew Vestibular Assessment 327
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Apollo Flight Crew Vestibular Assessment 329
The first clear episode of a severe vestibular related motion sickness problem occurred
during the Apollo 9 mission. Because this incident is unique, a detailed account is given.
The crewman involved, the LMP, had fewer flying hours than the average astronaut and a
definite history of motion sickness. Also, he was making his first space flight. Because he
was concerned about his previous history, he took one 50-rag Marezine tablet three hours
before lift-off and another one 1-1/2 hours after orbital insertion. Upon rising from the
couch later on the first day, he observed that when he turned his head rapidly, he
experienced mild dizziness. The dizziness did not seem to interfere with his performance,
and he was able to control it by executing all movements slowly and by turning at the
waist instead of turning his head. He did not experience any nausea with the dizziness
that was produced by head movements.
Shortly after donning his pressure suit for transfer from the CM to the LM at
approximately 40:00 ground elapsed time, the Apollo 9 LMP vomited suddenly. The
characteristic prodromal symptoms of motion sickness were not experienced. He was,
however, able to retain the vomitus in his mouth long enough to use a disposal bag
effectively. In the postflight medical debriefing, he could not recall whether he felt
nauseated after vomiting or whether he experienced some relief. About four hours later,
he vomited again after he had transferred to the LM. Again, the vomiting was sudden and
was not preceded by much warning. Aspiration of the vomitus did not occur on either
occasion. Just before vomiting the second time, he had been closing circuit breakers and
cycling switches located in different areas of the cabin. Such activities require
considerable movement within the LM. Immediately following the second episode of
vomiting, he felt much better and noted a marked improvement in his ability to move
around freely. The only residual symptom was a loss of appetite and an aversion to the
odor of certain foods. Until the sixth day of the mission, he subsisted exclusively on
liquids and freeze-dehydrated fruits (Apollo 9 Mission Report, 1969).
Because of great concern about the inflight problems of the Apollo 9 LMP, a decision
was made to perform comprehensive vestibular tests on him at the Naval Aerospace
Medical Institute, Pensacola, Florida. Functional tests of the labyrinth included
audiometry, measurements of semicircular canal sensitivity (caloric irrigation and
oculogyral illusion), ocular counterroUing, and ataxia/postural equilibrium. Provocative
tp_t_ int-hlttOA tho " d,al
" test" (p _f ........ r h_ ..a arm ........ "° m thc .t ....
rotating room), a coriolis motion sickness test (performance of programmed head
movements while rotating in a chair), an off-vertical rotation test, and a cineramie motion
picture.
On the basis of these tests, it was concluded that the Apollo 9 LMP had normal
function of the vestibular apparatus. The provocative tests, including parabolic flight test
data, indicated that he had no greater than average susceptibility to motion sickness.
Furthermore, he showed an ability to adapt or to gain increased tolerance with repeated
exposures to provocative stimuli.
As a result of the Apollo 9 vestibular problem, increased attention was given to
developing techniques for predicting and preventing any such future occurrences.
Insufficient time prevented individual crewmen from engaging in any special preflight
vestibular adaptation activities. However, on the basis of research performed using the
330 Biomedical Results of Apollo
slow rotating room at the Naval Aerospace Medical Institute, it was determined that
vestibular adaptation to the weightless environment might progress more rapidly if the
crewmen executed planned head movements very early during their flights. Also, the
antimotion-sickness drug was changed from Marezine to a combination of scopolamine
and Dexedrine.
During the first day of the Apollo 10 flight, the LMP executed the recommended
head movements in an attempt to hasten vestibular adaptation. The head movements
quickly induced stomach awareness and nausea, and he was compelled to stop. He tried
these head movements again on the second day and again had to stop after one minute
because of the rapid onset of symptoms. After the second day of flight, he apparently
had adapted and experienced no further difficulties. On the seventh day of the mission,
he experimented with the head movements again and was able to perform them for five
minutes before symptoms began to appear. No other Apollo 10 crewman experienced any
inflight symptomatology.
Although several of the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 astronauts had positive motion
sickness histories, none of these crewmen reported any difficulties either during
weightless flight or on the lunar surface. The complete absence of vestibular problems
during lunar surface activity throughout the Apollo Program has proved significant.
Before the Apollo 11 mission, many predictions had been made regarding possible
disorientation and postural stability problems that might occur on the lunar surface.
Very early in the Apollo 13 flight, vestibular problems were experienced by two of
the crewmen, including the LMP, who vomited on the second day. All available
information indicated that both of these crewmen had negative motion sickness histories.
The CDR, who had a definite history of motion sickness, experienced no vestibular
symptomatology during this flight. Although comprehensive historical data are not
available for the Apollo 14 flight crew, at least two of the crewmen had some past
experience with motion sickness. This history was especially true of the CDR, who,
several years before the Apollo 14 flight, underwent successful corrective surgery for
M_ni_re's disease. No crewman encountered vestibular difficulties during the Apollo 14
mission.
Complete historical data are not available for the Apollo 15 flight crew; however, at
least two of the crewmen had some minimal past experience with motion sickness. During
the flight, the CDR and the Command Module Pilot (CMP) had no illusions or symptoms.
The LMP reported, however, that he experienced a sensation of impending vestibular
difficulties and therefore limited his motions during the first several days of the flight.
This condition cleared, and he had no subsequent problems during lunar extravehicular
activity and return to Earth. Following splashdown and recovery, however, he developed
some unusual symptoms that probably were partly vestibular in origin. He reported a
feeling of dizziness or lightheadedness that persisted for seven days following recovery.
This condition was not accompanied by any type of gastrointestinal disturbance.
Locomotion was not impaired, nor was any tinnitus reported. In addition, he commented
on a 30 ° head-down, tilted sensation experienced when supine. This sensation was most
apparent during periods of "twilight" sleep and persisted even when he turned onto his
side. The tilted sensation was not present when he was fully awake, regardless of postural
Apollo Flight Crew Vestibular Assessment 331
position. This condition gradually lessened; the degree of tilt appeared to decline and
disappeared entirely after the fifth postrecovery day. At about the same time that his
symptoms disappeared, he was subjected to several different clinical vestibular tests,
which were conducted by an otolaryngologist. The tests included a standard Hallpike
(measurement of the amount of nystagmus produced by alternate irrigation of the right
and left ear canals with warm or cold water), positional nystagmus, postrotary nystagmus,
and standard audiometry. The crewman's responses on all of the tests were normal.
All Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 crewmen had positive motion sickness histories.
However, only the Apollo 17 CDR and LMP experienced inflight disturbances. In both of
these cases, the symptoms were mild and disappeared after the third day of flight.
An overall summary of Apollo motion sickness findings is presented in table 2. Eleven
of the 33 individuals who have flown on Apollo flights have experienced apparent
vestibular difficulties. Of these eleven, nine had positive motion sickness histories.
Conversely, 18 of 27 individuals with positive histories had no inflight symptomatology.
Six of the eleven crewmen with inflight problems experienced minor symptoms, two
experienced moderate symptoms, and three had severe symptomatology. As previously
stated, it is questionable whether the vomiting experienced by one of these latter
individuals was vestibular in origin or due primarily to gastroenteritis. Six (40 percent) of
the 15 individuals making their first space flight developed inflight symptoms. Of the
18 veteran pilots, only five (approximately 28 percent) experienced symptoms.
Table 2
Because no postflight tests were performed on the Apollo 17 flight crew, complete
laboratory data for the Apollo 16 crewmen only are described.
Test results showing the ability of each Apollo 16 crewman to balance on rails of
various widths are presented in figure 1. Preflight findings for all three crewmen are
within the range of performance typically exhibited by young, healthy, pilot-type
subjects. Examination of figure 1 indicates that during the first (R + 3) and second
(R + 7) postflight test periods, postural equilibrium with eyes open was nearly identical
to preflight performance for all crewmen. The CDR actually demonstrated a slight
progressive improvement on this task with time. At R + 3, however, the CDR and the
CMP exhibited a marked decrease in postural stability when deprived of all visual sensory
cues. When these two individuals were tested again at R + 7, there was a definite
improw_ment in postural stability with eyes closed compared to their R + 3 performance.
The CMP bettered his preflight, eyes-closed scores, whereas the performance of the CDR
was approximately midway between his two previous scores.
The principal characteristics of the spontaneous nystagmus - as well as the lag, the
maximum velocity, the maximum frequency, and the duration of nystagmus elicited from
each Apollo 16 crewman in response to the two irrigation temperatures - are summarized
in table 3. Lag is defined as the time between the onset of irrigation and the first
measurable nystagmus. Maximum velocity was obtained by selecting the ten-second
epoch of a given record that contained the greatest preponderance of high-velocity,
slow-phase nystagmus, and by calculating the average slow-phase velocity value for that
epoch. Maximum frequency was obtained similarly. The duration of nystagmus is the
interval between onset and complete cessation of nystagmus.
In general, the preflight responses indicate that all crewmen possess normally
functioning canals bilaterally. The nystagmus produced was always in the expected
direction. Spontaneous nystagmus was present in all three Apollo 16 crewmen, but no
meaningful trends were observed with this parameter. Also, all of the crewmen exhibited
an asymmetry or labyrinthine preponderance which, with the exception of a slight
reversal in the CMP at R + 7, remained unchanged.
To facilitate more discernible intersubject and intrasubject comparisons, the primary
parameters of lag, maximum velocity, maximum frequency, and duration of nystagmus
are plotted in the form of bar graphs for each Apollo 16 crewman at each irrigating
temperature in figures 2 to 4. Right and left ear data are shown separately in each figure.
Examination of figure 2 indicates that during the first test period (R + 3), the nystagmic
responses of the LMP were very similar to his preflight responses, particularly at
308.65°K. The tendency toward shorter lag times, higher velocities and frequencies, and
longer durations of nystagmus with the more stressful water temperature (307.15°K) is
also quite apparent in these data, as is the consistent right-greater-than-left response
asymmetry. Because no postflight changes were detected with either postural equilibrium
or caloric irrigation procedures, the Apollo 16 LMP was not tested further. Changes in the
CDR's responses to caloric irrigation at R + 3 are readily observable in figure 3. With two
exceptions that occurred with the 307.15°K stimulus, all of the R + 3 response
parameters are elevated compared to the F - 30 baseline. When tested again four days
Apollo Flight Crew Vestibular Assessment 333
F-30 --
R+3 .....
R+7
WITH VISION WITHOUT VISION
r;!
100 1 O0
//
"/80
/
// 60
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0 60 _
4/" i II
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n-
/ 20 _
_ 2o
i
t I t I I I I I I 1
1,90 3.17 4.45 5.72 10.16 1.90 3.17 4.45 5.72 10.16
RAIL WIDTH (cm) RAIL WIDTH (cm)
100 I O0
t
CMP
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80
LL 60
O
_ 20
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60
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ee
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1.90 3.17 4.45 5.72 10.16 1.90 3.17 4.45 5.72 10.16
RAIL WIDTH (cm) RAIL WIDTH (cm)
100,
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LMP
<
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1.90 3.17 4.45 5.72 10.16 1.90 3.17 4.45 5.72 10.16
Figure 1. Pre- and postflight postural equilibrium scores for the Apollo 16 CDR, CMP,
and LMP. Performance with eyes open and eyes closed, expressed as percent of task, is
plotted as a function of rail width.
334 Biomedical Res.lls of Apollo
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Apollo Flight Crew Vestibular Assessment 335
LEGEND (A)
RIGHT EAR- •
LEFT EAR-
60 O 1
45
15 Im I _ 0
DAY DAY
oo ,.5 _
z
200
1.o - oo150
,<, .5 ---- _ lo0
m 0 50 --
DAY DAY
LEGEND (B)
LEFT EAR--
75 I Za 16 I
45
8 _
30 m
60 0 1!___==
15 i _" i---- _o
F-30 R+3 R+7 F-30 R+3 R+7
DAY DAY
n 1.5 _ 200 I
o
1.0
FI-I _ 150 =
co
Sr.l- I; -
O _
,o0
50
:_=
_=
DAY DAY
Figure 2. Pre- and postflight values for each of four nystagmus parameters obtained
from the Apollo 16 LMP. Responses to irrigation with water temperatures of 308.65°K
and 307.15°K are shown in (A) and (B) respectively.
336 Biomcdical
Rcsults
ofApollo
LEGEND (A)
RIGHT EAR- 1
LEFT EAR- m
m 60 °o 12
o
z
8 4s
_ 30 1 _ E
15
l
1
i _
o
m-I I
F-30 R+3 R+7 F-30 R+3 R+7
DAY DAY
200
8 1.5
o 1 1
1.0
8 1so
m i
250 _l
_.5 (n 100 m
0 50
DAY DAY
LEGEND (B)
RIGHT EAR- I
LEFT EAR-- 1
75 _ 1
60
45
15
I,.,l
F-30 R÷3 R+7
0
o
iL,!
1
0
F-30 R+3 R+7
DAY DAY
7° 200 1
Oo 1.5 = z_ l = l
1.0 I- - l _=
am 0 150 l_
_o
,_t _.._
=
'5_1_ I_ I_
__. {2)
_o_
10 0
__ 1I1
0i 50 i,,
l
DAY DAY
Figure 3. Pre- and postflight values for each of four nystagmus parameters obtained
from the Apollo 16 CDR. Responses to irrigation with water temperatures of 308.65°K
and 307.15°K are shown in (A) and (B) respectively.
Apollo
Flight
Crew
Vestibular
Assessment 337
LEGEND (A)
:f I-I °
z
O
12
I- l- ,,, 8
n
15 _ _ 0 urn--" I = l-
F-30 R+3 R+7 F-30 R+3 R+7
DAY DAY
1.5 ¢n
o 200
1,0 m
m m o° 150 m.
2"0I -n:
m --Ii. _m ii_ =
_ 250
100 m
,<, .s m __= ____
m 0 _ 50 m
DAY DAY
LEGEND (B)
RIGHT EAR- •
LEFT EAR-- m_
75 _
_6o o i
ao _ 4
15 o N
F-30 H+3 R+7 F-30 N+3 R+7
DAY DAY
_1.0L | a
O t50 _
iN
m
L-I
_.
o2-°r
'_
uJ
.5 I
i
_
m
im
m
m
i I ---
m
_
_ 2_o_-
100
..
i
i
=,,,
0 _ 50
DAY DAY
Figure 4. Pre- and postflight values for each of four nystagmus parameters obtained
from the Apollo 16 CMP. Responses to irrigation with water temperatures of 308.65°K
and 307.15°K are shown in (A) and (B) respectively.
338 Biomedical Results of Apollo
later, the CDR's nystagmic responses had essentially returned to preflight values. Figure 4
indicates that, although a few parameters were elevated at R + 3 compared to F - 30 and
R + 7, the data for the CMP are scattered and no overall trends are apparent. Left/right
asymmetry, which is pronounced in the first two crewmen, is not well defined in this
individual.
Although no provocative tests were administered, a motion experience questionnaire
completed before flight by each crewman indicated that all had low susceptibility to
motion sickness under one-g conditions. As stated previously, none of the Apollo 16
crewmen reported experiencing any symptoms of motion sickness during the flight.
Fregly and Graybiel (1970). Using procedures very similar to those employed in this
study, these investigators found a high positive correlation between tests of ataxia and
caloric irrigation. The majority of their subjects who performed poorly on the ataxia
tests, particularly with eyes closed, also yielded abnormal responses to caloric
stimulation.
On the basis of the data, a tentative conclusion is that the postflight responses
observed in two of the Apollo 16 crewmen reflected changes in vestibular function
brought about by exposure to the conditions encountered during their mission. Because
of the limitations inherent in this study, it is not possible to generalize from these data or
to identify causal factors with any degree of certainty. Although lack of a gravitational
stimulus was probably the most important environmental factor, other physiological
stressful events such as launch, entry, and recovery activities may have contributed to the
observed changes.
The lack of quantitative preflight, inflight, and postflight vestibular data on individual
crewmen renders a valid assessment of the Apollo findings difficult. However, certain
tentative conclusions can be made:
2. In most cases in which symptoms did occur, they were mild to moderate
and could be controlled by limiting head movements the first few days in
flight.
The results of followup studies on two individuals who demonstrated the most
significant inflight and postflight vestibular problems have already been discussed.
However, further comment about one of these cases is warranted.
The severe motion sickness of the LMP during the Apollo 9 flight, and the subsequent
negative findings during laboratory tests, underscore a very important problem in
understanding vestibular function in weightlessness. Parabolic flight research has shown
that it is very difficult to predict an individual's vestibular responses in zero g on the basis
of his responses in one g. An individual may have normal vestibular responses on the
ground and show markedly greater or lesser susceptibility to vestibular stimulation in
weightlessness (Miller et al., 1969). The Apollo 9 LMP may well be one of these unique
individuals who become more sensitive.
One of the most obvious implications of the Apollo flight crew vestibular evaluation
is a need for more inflight as well as preflight and postflight vestibular information on the
astronaut population. Only by examining with quantitative methods the men who
actually fly in space can a thorough understanding of the effects of weightless space flight
on vestibular function be attained. Without such information, reliably predicting possible
vestibular problems for individual crewmen will be difficult. One positive step toward
achieving this desired goal will be available through the Skylab human vestibular function
experiment.
References
Berry, Charles A.; and Homick, Jerry L.: Findings on American Astronauts Bearing on the Issue of
Artificial Gravity for Future Manned Space Vehicles. Aerospace Med., vol. 44, no. 2, Feb. 1973,
pp. 163-168.
Fregly, A.R.; and Graybiel, A.: Labyrinthine Defects as Shown by Ataxia and Caloric Tests. Acta
Oto-Laryngol., Stockholm, vol. 69, Mar. 1970, pp. 216-222.
Graybiel, A.; et al.: Vestibular Experiments in Gemini Flights V and VIII. Aerospace Med., vol. 38,
no. 4, Apr. 1967, pp. 360-370.
Graybiel, A.; and Fregly, A.R.: A New Quantitative Ataxia Test Battery. Acta Oto-Laryngol,,
Stockholm, vol. 61, Apr. 1966, pp. 292-312.
Guedry, F.E., Jr.: Psychophysiological Studies of Vestibular Function. Contributions to Sensory
Physiology. Vol. I. Academic Press, 1965.
Howard, I.P.; and Templeton, W.B.: Human Spatial Orientation. John Wiley and Sons, 1966.
Miller, E.G.; Graybiel, A.; Kellogg, R.S.; and O'Donnel, R.D.: Motion Sickness Susceptibility Under
Weightless and Hypergravity Conditions Generated by Parabolic Flight. Aerospace Med., vol. 40,
no. 8, Aug. 1969, pp. 862-868.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Apollo 9 Mission Report. MSC-PA-R-69-2. Prepared
by Mission Evaluation Team, Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas, May 1969.
S OT,ON
IV
Inflight Experiments
CHAPTER 1
BIOSTACK-A STUDY OF THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF HZE GALACTIC COSMIC RADIATION
by
Introduction
343
The objectives of the experiment and the constraints imposed upon it were met by a
design that allowed the study of the combined action of individual heavy nucleii of
cosmic radiation and spaceflight factors in biological systems in a state of rest. Detailed
information on the particle incidence, energy loss, and spectra were essential information
to be obtained. The Biostack experiment package contained a series of monolayers of
selected biological objects fixed in position and interleaved with physical track detectors
(figure 1). This arrangement permitted evaluation of individual tracks, and allowed
identification of each penetrating particle and determination of its relationship to
possible effects on biological matter in its path.
The execution of the experiment had two major thrusts; identification and
quantitation of the influence of HZE particles on biological systems at the molecular,
cellular and organismic levels; and the localization of individual HZE particles and the
quantitation of the physical and dosimetric parameters of the particles.
A very sophisticated method must be used to localize precisely the trajectory of a
particle relative to the biological objects and to correlate the physical data of the particle
relative to the observed biological effects along its path. Special methods were developed
Biostack-A Study of the Biological Effects of HZE Galactic Cosmic Radiation 345
for this purpose (Bucker e t al., 1973) in the Biostack experiment. Biological specimens
and physical track detectors were selected to achieve the optimum return of information.
The biological systems had to meet the following criteria: (1) the organisms had to
survive the period of experimental exposure in the dormant state and yet be viable for the
subsequent phases of the experiment; (2) they had to comprise a variety of species to
allow evaluation of radiation effects a t different levels of biological organization;
(3) they had to vary in radiation sensitivity (based o n previous radiobiological
experimentation with X-ray and other radiations); and (4) based again o n previous work,
be representative of genetic or somatic radiation damage mechanisms. The biological
organisms investigated in the experiment and the responsible investigators are shown in
table 1. The radiation effects subsequently studied were changes in cellular and
organismic growth, damage to cellular components and induction of mutations leading to
genetic changes of biological significance.
Table 1
For determination of the target area inside the spore layer, plastic detectors of
cellulose nitrate (CN) were used. The CN sheet was in fixed contact with the biological
layer. This contact was maintained during flight, during postflight etching and track
measurements, and during growth studies. Protection of the biological layer against the
toxic etching solution resulted in only one etch cone on the side of the CN sheet which
was not covered with biological specimens. The trajectory of an HZE particle in the
biological layer had to be extrapolated from this etch cone. With silver chloride (AgC1)
crystals, on the other hand, the biological layer was not exposed to toxic agents during
the development of the particle track images. The nuclear emulsion, attached to some of
the biological layers, received the pattern of biological objects by weak optical
illumination, during postflight disassembly. The hit biological objects were identified
directly from the developed emulsion, which showed the HZE particle track together
with faint images of the biological objects and a coordinate grid. Beside identification of
the biological area hit, evaluation of the track detectors resulted in extensive information
on the flux and angular incidence of the cosmic ray particles, on their absorption by the
wall of the spacecraft and the Biostack material, and on the spectral distribution of their
charge, energy, and energy loss.
The influence of the factors attendant to space flight (high gravity vectors, null
gravity, vibration, and temperature) were assessed by detailed controls made in parallel
with the Biostack experiment. For each space flight experiment, four identical Biostacks
were built. In each case, three units were delivered to NASA: one prime flight unit, one
backup, in case of damage to the prime flight unit, and one ground control to remain in
Houston. One laboratory control unit was kept in Frankfurt. Since the primary flight unit
was flown in both missions and a backup unit served as ground control, the two
Biostack-A Study of the Biological Effects of HZE Galactic Cosmic Radiation 347
t-
O
_ _ _$ >._ ._
.!
t-
t_
o
i
c
"O
c
0 ,_
_'_
o_ _-
-1- .j _o
o _ o
z >- z
.o
c-] c_
0 --
o
'a
-5
o _
z >- >- 0
e-
l'-
c
C)
c I.-
4- 0 UJ
0 ._, --I
._ E
I
:3 "0
n-o N
_n
o
_,,._ _ _, _
.__[
n-n'_
o
ORIGINAL PAG_/8
OF POOR QUALITY
348 Biomedical Results of Apollo
remaining units were available for further investigation. For Biostack I (Apollo 16), a
balloon flight at Fort Churchill, Canada, was conducted with one of the remaining units,
while the other served as the relevant control. For Biostack lI (Apollo 17), one of the
remaining units was irradiated at the University of California at Berkeley at the Bevatron
with carbon and oxygen ions. The other was subjected to vibration, acceleration, and
shock at the Centre National d_tudes Spatiales (CNES) in Toulouse, France.
Results
The Biostack I experiment was launched with Apollo 16 on April 16, 1972.
Splashdown into the Pacific was on April 28. The total mission time was 266 hours. The
temperature in the Command Module during the mission ranged between 290°K and
296°K (17°C and 23°C) and the limits of 287°K and 301°K (14°C and 28°C) were
never exceeded. The flight data of the Apollo 17 mission, with which the Biostack II was
flown, were quite similar to those of Apollo 16. The total mission time of Apollo 17 was
304 hours. In both missions, the Biostack experiment was placed in the R-1 compartment
of the Apollo Command Module. Its position relative to the wall of Command Module is
shown in figure 2.
The approximate absorption in the four different layers of the wall of the Command
Module was about 2.4 gm/cm 2. The bottom of the Biostack container was aluminum
3.00 mm thick with absorption 0.84 gm/cm 2. Since the software of the Biostack itself
absorbed radiation, there was a decrease of radiation from outside to inside. Figure 3
shows some data of the physical evaluation of Biostack I as a function of absorption.
From this it is evident that the flux of efficient HZE particles behind an absorption
screen of 20 gm/cm 2 is still half of the total flux encountered in the mission of
Apollo 16. This datum demonstrates the difficulty of shielding the crew of a space vehicle
against the HZE particles encountered in deep space.
In each Biostack experiment, several thousand biological objects were hit by an HZE
particle. Their response to an HZE particle stopping within the object (an ender) or
passing through was studied in detail. The result was a broad spectrum of HZE-particle
induced effects in biological matter. This spectrum of biological effects can be
categorized as processes (1) insensitive to a hit; (2) moderately sensitive to a hit; and
(3) highly sensitive to a hit by an HZE particle.
Insensitive Processes
In bacterial spores and plant seeds, germination was found to be highly resistant to an
HZE particle hit. During germination, the bacterial spores, Bacillus subtilis, initially phase
bright, became dark. This was probably the result of a change in the refractive index,
caused by excretion of dry matter, slight swelling, and redistribution of water within the
spore. This process has proved to be highly radiation resistant. Irradiation with X-rays of
doses approximately 400 krad, which reduced the surviving fraction of colony formers to
about 10 -4 , did not influence the germination process. Much higher doses, approximately
2000 krad are necessary to induce "pseudogermination," which is correlated with an
increased permeability of the cell wall. The germinating fraction of the spores hit was
more than 90 percent in the Biostack 1 experiment and reached nearly 100 percent in the
Biostack-A Study of the Biological Effects of HZE Galactic Cosmic Radiation 349
Biostack II experiment. This fraction did not differ significantly from that of the
controls, indicating a high resistance to HZE-particle bombardment. Pseudogermination
was not observed on the spores hit. Likewise, the Arabidopsis thaliana seeds hit
germinated with the same frequency and rate as the controls.
+ X -- AXIS \
(_) R-I
CONTAINER WALL_ _ jABLATOR
-1. \ \ HONEYCOMB
INSULATION
HONEYCOMB
\
Figure 2. Schematic of stowage and effective shielding_
of the Biostack experiments in the Apollo Command Module.
The growth of Vicia faba radiculae also did not differ significantly from that of the
controls. It is likely that the surrounding intact cells replaced the destroyed cells, if any
destruction occurred. Even cytological investigations dealing with achromasia of the
nuclear material or repairability of damages in the nuclear DNA did not reveal any
remarkable influence of HZE particles.
350 Biomedical Results of Apollo
200 4O
TRACKS/cm 2
700
RADIATION
[mrad}
150 30 500
X,O
TRACKS/cm 2
IN CN (_ _ TOTAL N_
OF TRACKS IN K2 400
TOTAL NUMBER
20.
3OO
STOPPING PARTICLES IN CN
0 ....................
0 5 10 15 20
' APOLLO I
SPACE "_tw SPACE O- h ', BIOSTACK
ALL ?o,-,O,
OF CONTAINER
Similar effects were found during development of hit Tribolium castaneum eggs.
Hatching frequency was significantly lowered, and, during the first two days after
hatching, a high mortality was observed. The frequency of abnormalities was increased
from 2.5 percent in controls to 48 percent in the experimental organisms. The most
frequent malformations were curved abdomina, fused segments of the abdomen or the
antennae, and split or shortened elytra.
Likewise, the hatching of hit Caurausius morosus "eggs was significantly reduced.
Many of the larvae died during the first two weeks after hatching. Curved abdomina and
fused s%.-m,..entsor shortened legs were the main abnormalities obse_,_cd in the descendants
of the eggs hit. The frequency of malformations was increased from 1.5 to 23 percent.
Discussion
The physical characteristics of the HZE particles are important in regard to biological
efficiency. The integral distribution function of the relative energy loss (REL) was
obtained from analysis of the plastic detectors of Biostack I. The REL spectrum agrees
satisfactorily with that obtained in the MEED experiment (Benton & Henke, 1973 and
Section IV, Chapter 3 of this book), which was stowed within the Command Module for
nearly the entire mission. However, the personal radiation detectors of the lunar surface
crewmen recorded higher fluxes (Benton & Henke, 1972).
In the biological studies of Biostack, special attention was placed on the effects of
HZE particles of very high energy. Therefore, it was agreed to restrict the studies of
relative energy loss to hits above a threshold of 1.8 GeV/cm2gm. For each particle that
hit biological materials, the REL in the biological laYer was determined. In cellulose
352 Biomedical Results of Apollo
nitrate detectors, the length of a single etch conc gave the REL of the particle at that
point in its path. In hit spores, REL values of 3.1 GeV/cm2gm were determined.
The charge of the HZE particle is another physical characteristic of interest. The
charge of each particle that hit was estimated from the relation of the cone length L and
the residual range R (figure 4). In the Bacillus subtilis spore hit evaluation, charges ranged
from Z_>12 to Z_>24.
ETCH HOLE
CELLULOSE NI :_
DIP ANGLE
ETCH HOLE
CELLULOSE NliRATE
L................
-I" SPORE LAYER _---
CELLULOSE NITRATE I
STOPPING END
CELLULOSE NITRATE
i
Figure 4. Schematic representation of track of a stopping HZE particle;
from Bacillus subtilis unit.
All particles that reached the Biostack penetrated the 3 gm/cm 2 shielding of the
spacecraft wall. A mean flux of approximately 0.1 particles/cm2-hr of Z_>4 was found for
Biostack I and II. The flux diminished remarkably from outside to the inside of the
Biostack due to absorption of the Biostack material itself, approximately 16 gm/cm 2.
Space flight conditions complicated the radiobiological research of HZE-particle
effects. Launch vibration, weightlessness, and ground exposure to cosmic background
radiation were the principal factors acting on the biological material. Therefore,
specimens flown but not hit were taken as flight controls, in addition to control groups.
Biostack-A Study of the Biological Effects of HZE Galactic Cosmic Radiation 353
The Bacillus subtilis spores were shown not to be influenced by the space flight
environment. Germination and outgrowth of the flight controls agreed with that of the
ground controls, also the rate of cellular elongation was not different. Likewise, there was
no difference in the kinetics of germination of Arabidopsis thaliana flight control and
ground control seeds. Slight damage, however, was observed in the Artemia flight control
eggs. The percentage of emergence and hatching was reduced in comparison with the
ground controls. Those flight control individuals, those able to hatch, afterwards
developed completely in accordance with the ground controls. This slight damage of the
flight controls has been assumed to be caused either by vibrational stress or by cosmic
background radiation.
The concept of the Biostack experiment made it possible for the first time to examine
the relationship between cosmic ray HZE particles and their biological effects. Emphasis
should be placed on the fact that the dose causing the biological effects during the Apollo
space flights was less than 35 millirem. This dose is much lower than the yearly
permissible dose for man on Earth, according to the recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiation Protection. At the present time, the question
concerning the significance of human HZE-particle exposures in long-duration space
flights cannot be answered satisfactorily. Further biophysical experiments will be
necessary to establish the upper limit of HZE-particle fluence that can be tolerated inside
spacecraft on long-duration missions.
The data of the Biostack I and II experiments confirm the assumption that HZE
particle-induced damage might become manifest if a significant number of nonreplaceable
cells are destroyed. In manned space flight, the prime candidate in this connection is the
central nervous system, which consists of highly differentiated nonreplaceable cells. The
question arises as to how many cells might be destroyed by each hit compared to the
number of cells that form a functional unit. It is likely that a large number of
....HZE-n_rli_.l_v
....................hlt_ t_ the same ..... f +h_.._brain would be required to destroy +_-o'_,,,,_
particular function and that the HZE-particle radiation environment poses no major
threat to manned space activities that may be undertaken in the foreseeable future.
References
Benton, E.V.; and Henke, R.P.: The High Energy Multicharged Particle Exposure of the Microbial
Ecology Evaluation Device Onboard Apollo 16 Spacecraft. In, Proceedings of the Microbial
Response to Space Environment Symposium, G.R. Taylor, ed. NASA TM X-58103, 1973,
pp. 179-189.
Benton, E.V.; and Henke, R.P.: Heavy Cosmic Ray Exposure of Apollo 16 Astronauts. USF-TR-
72-20, 1972.
Brustad, T.: Molecular and Cellular Effects of Fast Charge Particles. Radiation Research, vol. 15,
1961, p. 139.
BUcker, H.; et al.: Life Sciences and Space Research XI. In, Proceedings of the 16th Plenary Meeting
of COSPAR (Konstanz, Germany), May 23 - June 6, 1973.
Chase, H.B.: Cutaneous Effects of Primary Cosmic Radiation. Journal of Aviation Medicine, vol. 25,
1954, p. 388.
354 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Eugster, J.: Weltraumstrahlung. Bern, Switzerland: Medizinsuhen Vedag Hans Huber, 1955.
Haymaker, W.; Bailey, O.T.; Benton, E.V.; Vogel, F.S.; and Zeman, W., in collaboration with
others: Brain Study in Balloon-Borne Monkeys Exposed to Cosmic Rays. Aerospace Medicine,
vol. 41, 1970, p. 989.
Tobias, C.A.: Radiation Hazards in High Altitude Aviation. Journal of Aviation Medicine, vol. 23,
1952, p. 345.
Yagoda, H.; et al.: Brain Studies of Mice Exposed to Cosmic Rays in the Stratosphere and Report of
Nuclear Emulsion Monitoring in Four Balloon Flights from Bemidji, Minnesota, July - August
1960. Military Medicine, vol. 28, 1963, p. 655.
' N76 z 6s5
CHAPTER 2
APOLLO LIGHT FLASH INVESTIGATIONS
by
W. Zachary Osborne, Ph.D.
Lawrence S. Pinsky, Ph.D.
University of Houston
Houston, Texas
J. Vernon Bailey
Introduction
355
356 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The debriefing reports of crewmembers on the Apollo 11, 12, and 13 missions led to
the establishment of dedicated observing sessions on all subsequent Apollo flights. Three
separate one-hour sessions were programmed for Apollo 15 and two one-hour sessions for
Apollo 16 and 17. Simple blindfolds, designed to avoid corneal pressure, were used to
obtain and maintain a state of complete dark adaptation during the observing session.
Crewmembers' comments and descriptions of each event were radioed to tracking stations
and simultaneously recorded on tape in the spacecraft.
The flashes were generally described as white or colorless. The only exception was the
report by the Apollo 14 Lunar Module Pilot who described a flash as "blue with a white
cast, like a blue diamond." Three basic types of flashes were reported. The most prevalent
was the "spot" or "starlike" flash, which also has been referred to as a "super nova."
Sixty-six percent of the flashes were of this variety, described by the Apollo 15
Commander as resembling a photographic flashbulb that has been flashed across a dark
arena, several hundred feet from the observer. The Apollo 14 LMP described the flash as
being less clear than he had anticipated. "There still seemed to be at least two flashes,
maybe a bright flash followed an instant later by a more subdued flash, or perhaps a
halo-like effect - there does not seem to be a set pattern in each case. Sometimes it is a
very clear single flash; at other times it seems to be followed by a halo. Sometimes it
seems followed by an adjacent flash." On occasion, stars were reported in pairs, either
both in the same eye or one star in each eye.
The type of flash described as a "streak" was the second most abundant, occurring
about 25 percent of the time. Some streaks were described as sharp lines, while others
appeared to be diffuse. Still others were reported as dashed lines, with the most common
version consisting of two principal segments with a gap in the middle. All streaks had a
sense of movement, appearing to be "going from left to right" or "coming straight at
me." It has been hypothesized that these streaks were caused by particles with
trajectories approximately tangent to the retina, and their apparent motion was due to
either eye movement or the shape of the streak.
The final type of flash was referred to as a "cloud" and occurred in eight percent of
the cases. Clouds were flashes with no discernible shape and always appeared in the
peripheral visual field. The Apollo 14 Command Module Pilot described the clouds as
resembling a lightning discharge when viewed from behind terrestrial clouds in the
distance. Some of the cloud flashes were so large as to appear to fill the entire periphery,
while leaving the central visual field dark.
The number of events of each type seen by each observer in individual one-hour
sessions is shown in table 1. This table also presents the elapsed time in minutes from the
start of dark adaptation to the observation of the first event for sessions where that time
is known. This elapsed time, that is until the first flash was seen, averages to
19.3 minutes, compared with an average event rate after dark adaptation of one event
every 2.9 minutes.
Analyses of the elapsed time between events for a particular observer, and between
events for any observer, both indicate that the events seen during each one-hour session
were randomly distributed in time. Further, there does not appear to be a significant
Apollo Light Flash Investigations 357
preference for one eye or the other, either for a single event or for all events taken
together.
Table 1
on the Apollo 15 translunar coast were lost during playback to the ground.)
Length Time to
Phase
of First Number of Events
of Crewman
Session
Flight Event Total Streak Star Cloud I Mixture
(min) (min) L
Apollo 14
I
TEC I CMP 47 29 12 2 8 1 1
I LMP
CDR
47
47
17
18
22
14
5
3
13
8
3
1
1
2
Apollo 15
TLC CMP 60 10 22
LMP 60 9 12
CDR 60 10 25
LO LMP 60 10 12 6 5 I 0 I 1
TEC CMP 60 30 8 2 5 I 0 I 1
LMP 60 26 9 3 5 I 0 I 1
CDR 60 17 6
o Io I o
Apollo 16
TLC
LMP
CDR ] 60 6 14 1
ol01olo
TEC 0
LMP 60 21§ 1 II 4 II 2 II 1 II
CMP
CDR I 60 21 8 111 0 0 0
ADollo 17
TLC CMP 60 10 1
CDR 60* 39* 4 1
TEC CMP 60
LMP 60 15 I;
CDR 60
*A high phosphene level was reported during the first half of the session, fThe crew were already dark-
adapted and seeing flashes when the time session began. $ The first seven flashes were not reported in
real time; the elapsed time to the first event is not available but is probably about 15 minutes. §The
total includes those not reported in real time. IIComplete event descriptions were not available.
It can be noted in table 1 that no results are presented for the Command Module Pilot
of the Apollo 16 mission. He was the only Apollo crewmember briefed to look for the
phenomenon who failed to see it. He volunteered the information that he considers his
night vision to be poor.
An interesting feature of the light flash phenomenon is shown in table 2. The data
presented indicates the mean time between events after dark adaptation for each
observer, and the average value for all observers for each session. Session averages were
computed by weighting the individual values according to the corresponding dark-adapted
observing times. It can be seen from the table that the average time between events was
longer during transearth coast (TEC) (returning from the moon) observation periods than
during translunar coast (TLC) sessions. TEC dark adaptation times (time to witness the
first flash) also were considerably longer than those found during TLC sessions. In
addition, most crewmembers commented that the flashes seemed not only less frequent
during the TEC sessions but also much less brilliant. The most dramatic example of this
difference occurred on Apollo 17, when all crewmen reported that no events were seen
during the entire one-hour transearth coast session. During a similar translunar coast
session, the two observing crewmen reported a total of 28 events.
Table 2
LMP 1.43 17
CDR 2.23 18
CDR 2.10
combined
*Dark adaptation time available for the CMP only. i'Averaged over four observers. §Averaged
over seven observers.
Apollo Light Flash Investigations 359
only approximately 25 percent of the Z/> 6 primary cosmic rays have Z/> 12. This can
be understood by an inspection of table 5, which contains a summary of the predicted
energy spectra for the effective particles. Only at very low energies (0 to 200
MeV/nucleon), that is near the end of their range, do members of the C and O group have
an energy deposition rate large enough for them to cause light flashes.
Table 3
Monte Carlo Simulation Parameters
and Flash Rate Comparisons
Table 4
Apollo
Table 5
Charge Interval
Energy
Primary
Interval No Cerenkov Radiation With Cerenkov Radiation
CR
MeV/Nucleon
Finally, the Monte Carlo calculations were used to predict the number of Z/> 6 and
Z/> 12 particles which should have passed through an observer's eyes during the
Apollo 17 mission. This simulation predicts that, during the 60 minutes of an Apollo 17
observing session, a total of approximately 640 Z/> 6 primary cosmic rays (and spallation
secondaries) would pass through the eyes, as would approximately 130 Z t> 12 particles.
ALFMED Experiment
A system was developed for the Apollo 16 and 17 missions to obtain, for the first
time, a direct physical record of incident cosmic ray particles which would allow
correlation with crewmembers' reports of light flashes. The measurement system is
known as the Apollo Light Flash Moving Emulsion Detector (ALFMED).
The ALFMED was an electromechanical helmet-like device that supported cosmic
radiation-sensitive emulsions around the head of the test subject (figures l to 3). A direct
physical record was provided of cosmic ray particles that passed through the emulsion
plates and, in turn, through the head of the subject. The ALFMED contained two sets of
glass plates coated on both sides with nuclear emulsion and supported in a protective
framework. One set of plates was fixed in position wttnm"' " "u,c-,_u_L"-
-j ..... a,,u_ _u,,,,u,,u_,_d tho._
front and sides of the head. A second similar set of plates was located exterior and
parallel to the inner fixed plates and could be translated at a constant rate (10tt/sec) with
respect to the fixed plates, thereby providing a time resolution for events to within one
second. The total translation time available was 60 minutes, after which the moving plates
could be returned to the original or reference orientation.
The postflight analysis of the ALFMED plates proceeded through the following steps:
1. Location scan- The fixed plate was placed on a special microscope stage
containing the moving plate and positioned in the reference orientation (i.e., the r.elative
orientation of the plates during stowage). The fixed plate was then scanned for tracks
directed toward at least one eye, and the counterpart of each such track was sought in the
moving plate. The absence of an aligned counterpart indicated that the track was a
candidate (i.e., a track that originated while the plates were moving).
362 Biomedical Results of Apollo
I 'I
Figure 1. Exterior view of Apollo light flash moving emulsion detector (ALFMED)
with outer cover removed.
2. Trajector,y measurement - The direction of the track was measured, and the
subsequent trajectory through the head was predicted.
3. Translation scan - For all the candidate events located in the first step, a scan of
the moving plate along the line of translation was made t o locate the counterpart track. A
measurement of the translation distance for each event was also made, yielding the time
of occurrence of the event.
4. Correlation with observations -The list of events was compared with the
observations reported by the crewmen in an attempt to determine if cosmic rays did in
fact cause the phenomenon; if there was an apparent charge, energy, or linear energy
transfer (LET) threshold; or if some particular event types correlated with certain particle
types (e.g., streaks caused by tracks tangent to the retina, etc.).
5. Charge and energy measurement - Particles passing through the emulsion (East-
man Kodak NTB-3) left latent images which were developed in the same fashion as the
latent images on normal photographic film due to exposure to light. Some of the
secondary electrons (&rays) produced by the passage of the particle through the emulsion
have sufficient range to leave small tracks of their own. A detailed analysis of the density
364 Biomedical Results of Apollo
of these secondary tracks over the entire available track length in the emulsion could
yield charge measurements with an uncertainty of Z =_+1. For kinetic energies/nucleon in
the interval 50 MeV/nuc.<E,< 300 MeV/nuc, the analysis could also yield a measurement
of the kinetic energy.
The ALFMED film plates for the Apollo 16 mission were processed immediately
following the flight and examined extensively at that time. The ALFMED fixed plates
used for the flight had 200/am-thick emulsion on both surfaces while the moving plates
had 50/.an-thick emulsions. Thus the total emulsion thickness was approximately 500
_m. This, coupled with the extremely high particle flux experienced during the Apollo 16
mission (the highest for any of the Apollo missions), made it quite difficult to scan the
plates as originally planned. It was therefore decided that, due to the delays involved, it
would be advantageous to proceed with the Apollo 17 analysis first. Experience gained
during Apollo 17 analysis procedures then might be used to improve Apollo 16 analysis
techniques.
As a result of the difficulties in scanning the Apollo 16 plates, the Apollo 17 plates
were flown with 50 gm-thick layers on both sides, giving a total emulsion thickness of
200/am. This greatly improved track detectability.
Analysis of the Apollo 17 plates yielded a total of 2360 individual tracks with
directions that appeared approximately correct for passage through the eye of the
astronaut. Of these tracks, 483 did not initially appear to have positional counterparts in
the moving plates. These particles were all considered candidates for events which
occurred during the period of observation and while the moving plates were displaced
from their reference orientation.
Of the 483 tracks, 229 were in the front plate. Detailed trajectory measurements on
the 229 front plate candidates revealed that 65 of that number passed through one eye or
the other (or both). (Since the front plate was scanned first in each analysis step, the
efficiencies for the various steps were probably somewhat less than those for the side
plates.) Upon careful inspection, 50 of the 65 eye-directed tracks were found to have
alined counterparts in the moving plate for the reference orientation, thereby reducing
the front-plate sample to 15 genuine candidates.
The Monte Carlo calculations predict that one should expect approximately 30 Z>_12
candidate tracks in the front plate which originated during the translation period. The
current number of 15 candidates indicates that most probably the first-scan efficiency for
such tracks is roughly 50 percent. We consider it unlikely that any Z < 8 events are
included in this first-scan sample, but experience leads us to believe that a rescan will
result in a considerably improved efficiency, especially for the smaller charges.
Two of the 15 genuine candidates were found to coincide, to within five sconds, with
reported flash observations. It is anticipated, that after final measurements are made, the
coincidences can be determined to accuracies of one or two seconds.
The first coincidence is with the fifth light flash reported, and occurred some
1465 seconds after the plate translation began. It was described as "just a spot" in the left
eye. The candidate particle traversed the left side of the left eye, moving upward and
Apollo
Light Flash Investigations 365
slightly to the right, and passed almost tangent to the retina. Detailed charge and energy
measurements have not yet been completed; however, the particle was almost certainly
heavier than oxygen.
The second coincidence is with the eleventh event reported, and it occurred after
2368 seconds of plate translation. The light flash was described as a glow, "about one
eighth of an inch in diameter", and appeared to be three-fourths of the way out from the
center to the edge of the visual field at about 10:00 o'clock in the right eye.
The second candidate trajectory passed through the right side of the right eye,
heading from the front left to the right rear, and slightly upward. A rough estimate of its
location as it would appear to the observer places it in the periphery at approximately the
proper distance, but at 8:30 or 9:00 o'clock, rather than at 10:00 o'clock as reported.
Eye movement at the time of observation might account for this minor discrepancy. This
particle is also most probably heavier than oxygen.
In summary, available results are consistent with expectations based upon geometrical
considerations and upon the Monte Carlo calculations. First, evidence shows that, at least
in part, the flashes seen by astronauts are correlated with charged particles traversing the
retina. Further, since the flux of these particles is sufficient to explain the entire
phenomenon, it is likely that all of the flashes originate in this manner. From our sample
of two coincidences, we find no contradiction with the ability of the observer to discern
in which eye the event occurred. Finally, the ALFMED technique has been demonstrated
to be effective as a procedure for study of the light flash phenomenon.
References
Benson, R.E., and Pinsky, L.S.: Biomedical Experiments: Part C. Visual Light Flash Phenomenon. In
Apollo 16 Preliminary Science Report. NASA SP-315, 1972.
Pinsky, L.S.; Osborne, W. Z.; and Bailey, J.V.: Visual Light Flash Phenomenon. In Apollo 17
Preliminary Science Report. NASA SP-330, 1973.
Pinsky, L.S.; Osborne, W.Z.; Bailey, J.V.; Benson, R.E.; and Thompson, L.F.: Light Flashes Observed
by Astronauts on Apollo 11 through Apollo 17. Science, vol. 183, 1974_ pp. 957-959.
12686
CHAPTER 3
by
Gerald R. Taylor, Ph•D.
Introduction
The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the following persons, without whom the
many segments of this experiment could not have been completed. T.K. Mattilgly, III, C. Chassay,
J.V. Bailey, and R.C. Simmonds of the Johnson Space Center; A.M. Heimpel of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland; B.G. Foster and D.O. Lovett of Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas; J. Spizizen and J.E. Isherwood of Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation, LaJolla,
California; H. Biicker, G. Homeck, and H. Wollenhaupt of the University of Frankfurt, Germany;
P.A. Volz, Y.C. Hsu, D.E. Jerger, J.L. Hiser, and J.M. Veselenak of Eastern Michigan University,
Ypsilanti, Michigan; E.V. Benton of the University of San Francisco, California; R.A. English and
R.D. Brown of the Kelsey-Seybold Clinic, Houston, Texas; R.T. Wrenn, W.L. Ellis, R.A. Long,
M.B. Parson, C. Carmichael, and J. Lindsay of Northrop Services, Inc., Houston, Texas.
Special thanks is given to the Biological Sciences Section of Northrop Services, Inc., Houston,
Texas, in grateful appreciation for technical assistance provided to this study. Appreciation is also
expreased to Aerojet Medical and Biological Systems, El Monte, California, for design and fabrication
of the experiment hardware.
367
368 Biomedical Results of Apollo
increased the incidence of spore germinations of Strain 2577 of S. erythreus by about six
times that of the ground controls, whereas the viability of Strain 8594 decreased sharply.
These examples are typical of past survival studics where results are quite evenly divided
among those which report synergism, antagonism, or no relationship at all between space
flight and microbial viability (de Serres, 1969; Glembotskiy et al., 1962; Kovyazin et al.,
1962; Lorenz, 1968; Mattoni, 1968; & Parfenov, 1967). Many previous studies were
hindered by technical constraints, mission anomalies, or the inability to provide
meaningful controls. As a result, and in spite of the best effort of the investigators,
equivocal results were often produced. One of the objectives of the present experiment
was to take advantage of the considerable array of past experimentation, overcome as
many equivocating obstacles as possible, and help to establish a meaningful relationship
between space flight and the viability of several different microbial systems.
A few of the more recent United States and Soviet microbiology studies have
investigated the effect of space flight on other parameters in addition to viability.
Generally, these studies have involved genetic changes, and as with the survival studies,
they have produced variable results (Antipov, 1967; Antipov et al., 1969; de Serres, 1969;
de Serres & Webber, 1968; de Serres et al., 1969; Jenkins, 1968; Mattoni, 1968; Parfenov,
1967; & Zhukov-Verezhnikov etal., 1963). However, the combined results of these
studies suggest the possibility that the conditions of space flight influence microbial
genetic alterations (Townes, 1970). The "Microbial Response to Space Environment"
experiment was designed to evaluate this effect as well as to determine the survivability of
microorganism species.
from a minimum of 4 x l01 ergs cm "2 to a maximum of 8 x 108 ergs cm 2. The use of
ambient solar radiant energy as the mutagen necessitated close monitoring of this factor.
Photographic emulsion and a modification of the potassium ferrioxalate system of
Wrighton and Witz (1972) were used to record the amount of radiant energy which
actually reached Selected test systems (table 2). The possible mutagenic activity of
galactic radiation necessitated the inclusion of lithium fluoride thermoluminescent
dosimeters and a package of passive nuclear track detectors capable of recording
high-energy multicharged particles (table 2).
Table 1
Biological Components
R. T. Wrenn, W. L. Ellis
Lipolytic a toxin Lytic zone Northrop Services, Inc.
production on agar Houston, Texas
G. R. Taylor• R. C. Simmonds
Deforming /3 toxin Sarcina flava Bacillus NASA Manned Spacecraft Center
production and house fly thuringiensis Houston• Texas
A. M. Heimpel
Fatal _ toxin Silk worm and U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
production crystal assay Beltsville, Maryland
R. A. Long, W. L. Ellis
Northrop Services• Inc.
Nema tospiroides Houston, Texas
Infectivity Mouse
dubius G. R. Taylor
NASA Manned Spacecraft Center
Houston, Texas
Bacil/us subtilis
J. Spizizen, J. E. Isherwood
Genome alteration spores• strains
Spore production Scripps Clinic and Research
HA 101
Foundation
u^ 101 '_- ' r
La Jolla, California
UVand vacuum Colony formation Bacillus subtilis H. BLicker, G. Horneck,
sensitivity spores, strain H. Wollenhaupt
168 University of Frankfurt, Germany
J. Spizizen, J. E. Isherwood
Bacteria phage Host lysis Escherich ia coli Scripps Clinic and Research
infectivity (T-7 phage) Foundation
La Jolla, California
Table 2
Dosimctry Components
Lexan
Cellulose nitrate E. V. Benton
High-energy Passive nuclear
Photographic University of San Francisco
mutticharged track
emulsion San Francisco, California
particles detectors
Silver chloride
J. V. Bailey
Penetration of Thermo- NASA Manned Spacecraft Center
galactic luminescent Lithium Houston, Texas
irradiation dosimeters fluoride R. A. English, R. D. Brown
Kelsey-Seybold Clinic
Houston, Texas
These latter studies were conducted in a manner that allowed for direct correlation
with similar readings obtained from the BIOSTACK experiment, the Apollo crew
personnel radiation dosimeters, and the Apollo Light Flash Moving Emulsion Detector
(ALFMED), all of which were used in the Apollo 16 Command Module.
Each biological test sample, containing 102 to 106 living cells as appropriate, was
housed in a chamber (cuvette) 5 mm on a side, composed of Kel-f plastic with a quartz
window (figure 1). There were three types of these chambers, one of which was designed
to contain 50 microliters of fluid. This type possessed, on the side opposite the quartz
window, a fill port which was sealed with Shelwax 500 after filling with the test solution.
The cuvette body was designed to have a seven-degree internal slope to prevent possible
shadowing of the organisms.
The other two cuvette types were both designed to retain biological test systems
which had been deposited on Millipore filter chips with a mean pore size of 0.45 microns.
The only difference between these latter two types was that one was vented to the
outside, thus allowing for exposure of the contents to the vacuum of space (figure 1).
All loaded cuvettes which were to be exposed to UV irradiation were placed beneath
neutral density filters which were situated under bandpass filters. This optical filter
combination respectively controlled the amount and the wavelength of light reaching the
microbial systems (figure 2). Cuvettes and optical filters were placed in trays (figure 3)
which were mounted in a hardware case which measured 11.4 x ll.4x 24.5 cm. The
The Apollo 16 Microbial Response to Space Environment Experiment 371
flight hardware (figure 4), designated the Microbial Ecology Evaluation Device (MEED),
cuvettes, and 18 thermoluminescent dosimetry cuvettes. The flight hardware was placed
within a stowage bag which helped absorb the launch vibrations and provided additional
thermal insulation. The bag was made from nonflammable Beta cloth and nonflammable
QUARTZ WINDOW
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I.,r ..., ++,,+.+i,++ 1_;I-++_1++\',1,
I@U+14_x+-,-+÷%++-, I"l-_+ i+-I-+ /_i/'l-'l-_/t,+t_/l
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TRAYBASE CUVETTETRAY CUVETTE CUSHION TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
During the extravehicular activity phase of the Apollo 16 transearth coast, the MEED
hardware was removed from its protective stowage bag while in the crew compartment
and affixed to the distal end of the television boom which was then attached to the
handle of the opened hatch door (figure 4). The procedure of deploying the MEED
hardware by an Apollo 16 astronaut is shown in figure 5.
A small attitude adjustment of the Command Module was required to place the
appropriate surface of the MEED directly perpendicular to the rays of the sun. This was
indicated by a solar positioning device incorporated into the exterior surface of the
MEED. After attaining the proper attitude, the MEED was opened so that the biological
test systems and actinometers were exposed to the direct rays of the sun. After exactly
ten minutes of such exposure the device was closed, removed from the television boom,
and replaced in its protective bag for transport back to the Johnson Space Center.
Aeromonas proteolytica
This microorganism was selected for studying the effects of solar irradiation and space
flight conditions on the production of extracellular enzymes because it produces an
The Apollo 16 Microbial Response to Space Environment Experiment 373
374 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Bacillus subtilis
Different strains of this species were evaluated by two different groups as indicated in
table 1. Spores of this species are generally highly resistant to harsh environments and
were therefore expected to yield a high return of viable cells for detailed genetic analyses.
The manner in which spores of Strain 168 survive when exposed to one or more
factors of space has been critically studied in simulation experiments (Horneck et al.,
1971) as well as in the BIOSTACK experiment which was flown on Apollo 16 and 17.
For the present study, spores were exposed to space vacuum and solar ultraviolet
irradiation at a peak wavelength of 254 nm to determine the influence of these space
factors on their survival evaluated in terms of colony-forming ability. The combined
action of space vacuum and solar ultraviolet irradiation at a peak wavelength of 254 nm
resulted in greater loss of viability than was observed in ground-based studies. Space
vacuum alone did not cause a decrease in survival of predried spores, indicating that
air-dried spores may survive exposure to space vacuum if shielded against solar irradiation.
The additional environmental factors of space flight did not measurably influence the
viability and irradiation response of spores of Strain 168.
Another investigative group exposed Bac'illus subtilis spores of Strains HA 101 and
HA 101 (59) F to the space flight environment both in aqueous suspensions and in dry
layers, as outlined in table 1. These strains require three specific amino acids for growth
which are used as identification and mutation detection markers. In addition,
Strain HA 101 (59) F is defective in the ability to repair radiation damage (Gass et al.,
1971), and is therefore highly susceptible to the damaging effects of ultraviolet
irradiation. Generally, the lethal effects of irradiation at peak wavelengths of 254 and
200 um were greater for dried spores than for those exposed to distilled water.
Additionally, the repair-defective strain was more sensitive at both wavelengths of UV
irradiation. As expected, survival rates for space flight-exposed spores did not differ
significantly from analogous aliquots in the ground control units. Detailed genetic
analyses are being performed to determine if any mutational effects of space flight were
obtained.
This microorganism, which has widely been used as a biological insecticide, was
selected for inclusion in this experiment because it produces three toxins which are active
against biological systems and lends itself well to both rapid screening and critical in vivo
analyses. The toxins include a lipolytic omxotoxin which in some ways resembles the
376 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Nematospiroides dubius
This nematode was chosen for study largely because it is a complex multicellular
organism which has been successfully cultured in vitro from the egg to the third stage
infective larvae (Weinstein et al., 1969), is pathogenic to laboratory mice but not to
humans, and is quite insensitive to the special holding conditions of the flight hardware.
A total of 2 x 105 ergs cm "2 of solar inflight ultraviolet irradiation at a peak
wavelength of 254 nm was sufficient to completely inhibit ultimate infection in the
murinc host and subsequent maturity to adult worms. Therefore, the survival of space
flight irradiated larvae was too low for further comparative studies.
Comparison of nonirradiated flight and ground control subjects revealed no
differences in survival, infectivity in mice, formation of adults, or subsequent egg
productions. There was, however, a significant decrease in egg viability within the group
of adults which descended from flight control larvae that were exposed to the space flight
environment (excluding vacuum) but received no solar ultraviolet irradiation. This was an
The Apollo 16 Microbial Response to Space Environment Experiment 377
important observation since this control group was not purposefully exposed to any
experimental stresses and was simply a "passenger" on the space flight.
Mycological Studies
Four different species of fungi (two filamentous fungi and two yeasts) were
incorporated within the experiment package. Each of these species was carefully selected
by the investigator (table 1) so that exhaustive postflight studies of medically important
activities could be performed and compared to suitable ground-based controls.
Trichophyton terrestre was selected because it has the ability to attack human hair
under laboratory conditions and has not been shown to be naturally infectious. The other
filamentous fungus, Chaetomium globosum, was of special interest because of the
cellulolytic activity it has demonstrated on cloth fibers, such as those which compose
portions of the flight garments of the astronauts (Volz & Jerger, 1973): The two yeasts,
Rhodotorula rubra and Saccharomyees cerevisiae, were included because they lend
themselves well to drug sensitivity studies and other quantitative evaluations having
medical importance. Analysis of postflight data indicate that in no case was there a
significant difference between survival rates of static ground controls and other ground
control aliquots which were subjected to simulated launch vibration. There were slight
differences between survival rates of these two control series and the inflight controls
(not irradiated) of three of the test species. The survival of flown C. globosum, R. rubra,
and S. cerevisiae was slightly lower than corresponding ground controls. In addition,
aliquots of T. terrestre and S. cerevisiae demonstrated some sensitivity to inflight solar
ultraviolet irradiation when measured in terms of a loss of cell viability.
During the viability studies, selected isolates were recovered for ongoing postflight
investigations. These additional studies include evaluations of hyphal growth dynamics
and possible alterations in the chromosomal configuration of different filamentous
phenotypes. The nutrient requirements and drug sensitivity of returned phenotypes are
also being investigated for comparison with ground control values. Additionally, isolates
of T. terrestre are being examined for changes in the ability to decompose human hair
in vitro.
l Tltr2_inl,_t I_a¢imotr-.,
..................... j
Two methods were employed to monitor the actual radiant energy penetrating
selected optical .components of the flight hardware. One of these methods involved
Kodak High Resolution Film (Estar Thick Base) SO-343 which had been purged of
oxygen and sensitized with dry nitrogen gas to decrease the rate of latent-image fading.
This system was reliable over a range of 4 x 101 to 5.2 x 102 ergs cm "2 total energy with
a peak wavelength of 254 nm. Postflight analyses indicated that the dosimeters received
at least as much energy as had been expected from calculations based on data from the
NASA established Solar Spectral Irradiance Standard (Thekaekara, 1971). The
photographic film monitoring method proved to be a useful t0ol for measuring small
amounts of UV irradiation in space.
Solar irradiation within the range of 4 x 104 ergs cm "2 to 4 x 105 ergs cm -2 was
monitored by an adaptation of the Potassium Ferrioxalate Actinometry System described
378 Biomedical Results of Apollo
by Wrighton and Witz (1972). Data collected from analysis of the contents of flight
control and ground control cuvettes indicate that neither the simulated launch vibration
nor the total space flight exerted a detectable change in preirradiated control systems.
The ferrioxalate monitoring system, therefore, was shown to have the stability required
for successful measurements made within the flight hardware. Analysis of inflight
irradiated actinometry systems verified that the optical filter components of the
Microbial Ecology Evaluation Device performed in a manner which allowed for critical
evaluation of exposed biological test systems.
track fluences found in the MEED flight hardware showed them to be somewhat lower
than those found in either the ALFMED or the passive personnel dosimeters. These
observations, along with the depressed TLD values presented above, imply that the MEED
flight hardware had a somewhat greater average shielding as compared with either the
ALFMED or the personnel passive detectors. Likewise, these data are slightly lower than
those obtained from the TLD and CN detectors employed in the BIOSTACK flight
hardware, which was stowed in the Command Module in an area of minimal shielding to
ambient cosmic radiation.
This experiment system was designed to evaluate the effect of a particular space flight
on the survival rate of nine different species. Although a reasonable variety of organisms
(viruses, yeasts, filamentous fungi, bacteria, and an invertebrate) were tested under several
different conditions, no statistically valid differences could be detected in the survival of
flight samples when compared to corresponding ground-based controls. In general, these
evaluations were based on multiple observations of from ten to thirty replicates of up to
one million cells each. While the results of this experiment conflict with those of certain
other space flight investigations, as noted in the Introduction, it must be observed that
the conditions of a particular space flight cannot be exactly duplicated, and therefore
results from different flights are not directly comparable.
References
Antipov, V.V.: Biological Studies Aboard the Spacecraft "Vostok" and "Voskhod." Vol. 6 of
Problems of Space Biology, N.M. Sisakyan, ed., Nauka Press (Moscow), 1967, pp. 67-83.
Antipov, V.V.; Delone, N.L.; Nikitin, M.D.; Parfyonov, G.P.; and Saxon0v, P.P.: Some Results of
Radiobiological Studies Performed on Cosmos-ll0 Biosatellite. Vol. 7 of Life Sciences and Space
Research, W. Vishniac and F.G. Favorite, eds., North-Holland Publishing Co. (Amsterdam), 1969,
pp. 207-209.
Cantwell, G.E.; and Franklin, B.A.: Inactivation by Irradiation of Spores of Bacillus thuringiensis vat.
thuringiensis. J. Invert. Pathol., vol. 8, 1966, pp. 256-258.
de
.....
_ ....
_, T_J..j..
T .
r_ttects of Radiation
r_
During Space Flight on Microorganisms and Plants on the
Biosatellite and Gemini XI Missions. Vol. 7 of Life Sciences and Space Research, W. Vishniac and
F.G. Favorite, eds., North-Holland Publishing Co. (Amsterdam), 1969, pp. 62-66.
de Serres, F.J.; and Webber, B.B.: The Combined Effect of Weightlessness and Radiation on
Inactivation and Mutation - Induction in Neurospora crassa During the Biosatellite II Mission.
Bioscience, vol. 18, 1968, pp. 590-595.
de Serres, F.J.; Miller, I.R.; Smith, D.B.; Kondo, S.; and Bender, M.A.: The Gemini XI S-4 Spaceflight
Radiation Inter-action Experiment II. Analysis of Survival Levels and Forward-Mutation
Frequencies in Neurospom crassa. Radiation Res., vol. 39, 1969, pp. 436-444.
Foster, B.G.: Toxic Properties of Aeromonas proteolytica. In Abstract of Annual Meeting of American
Society for Microbiology, 1972, p. 110.
Gass, K.B.; Hill, T.C.; Goulian, M.; Strauss, B.S.; and Cozzarelli, N.R.: Altered Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Polymerase Activity in a Methyl Methanesulfonate-Sensitive Mutant of Bacillus subtilis. J. Bact.,
vol. 108, 1971, pp. 364-374.
380 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Glembotskiy,
Ya.L.;Prokof'yeva-Belgovskaya,
A.A.;Skamina, Z.B.;andKhvostova, V.V.:Influence
of Spaceflight
Factors
onHeredityandDevelopment inActinomycetes andHigher-Order Plants.
Vol.1ofProblems
ofSpace Biology,
N.M. Sisakyan, ed.,USSR Academy ofSciencesPublishing
House(Moscow),
1962, pp.259-271.
Heimpcl,
A.M.:A Critical
Reviewof Bacillus thuringiensis var. thuringiensis Berliner and Other
Crystalliferous Bacteria. Annual Rev. of Entomology, vol. 12, 1967, pp. 287-332.
Homeck, G.; Biicker, H.; and Wollenhaupt, H.: Survival of Bacterial Spores Under Some Simulated
Lunar Surface Conditions. In Vol. 9 of Life Sciences and Space Research, Akademie-Verlag
(Berlin), 1971, pp. 119-124.
Hotchin, J.: The Microbiology of Space. J. of the British Interplanetary Society, vol. 21, 1968,
pp. 122-130.
Jenkins, D.W.: U.S.S.R. and U.S. Biosciences..Bioscience, vol. 18, 1968, pp. 543-549.
Kovyazin, N.V.; Lukin, A.A.; and Parfenov, G.P.: The Effect of Space Flight Factors of the Satellite
"Vostok-2" on Haploid and Diploid Yeasts. In Vol. 2 of Problems in Space Biology, N.M. Sisakyan
and V.I. Yazdovskiy, eds., 1962, pp. 156-160.
Lorenz, P.R.: Survival of Microorganisms in Space. Space Life Sciences, vol. 1, 1968, pp. 118-130.
Mattoni, R.H.T.: Space Flight Effects and Gamma Radiation Interaction on Growth and Induction of
Lysogenic Bacteria. Bioscience, vol. 18, 1968, pp. 602-608.
Parfenov, G.P.: Genetic Investigations in Outer Space. Cosmic Research, vol. 5, 1967, pp. 121-133.
Taylor, G.R.; Chassay, C.E.; Ellis, W.C.; Foster, B.G., Volz, P.A.; Spizizen, J.; Biicker, H.; Wrenn, R.T.;
Simmonds, R.C.; Long, R.A.; Parson, M.B.; Benton, E.V.; Bailey, J.V.; Wooley, B.C.; and Heimpel,
A.M.: Microbial Response to Space Environment. In Apollo 16 Preliminary Science Report.
NASA SP-315, 1972, pp. 27-11 through 27-17.
Taylor, G.R.; Spizizen, J.; Foster, B.G.; Volz, P.A.; Biicker, H.; Simmonds, R.C.; Heimpel, A.M.; and
Benton, E.V.: A Descriptive Analysis of the Apollo 16 Microbial Response to Space Environment
Experiment. Bioscience, vol. 24, 1974, pp. 505-511.
Thekaekara, M.P.: Solar Electromagnetic Radiation. NASA SP-8005, 1971, pp. 13-15.
Townes, E.H.: Infectious Disease in Manned Spaceflight - Probabilities and Countermeasures. Space
Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences (Washington, D.C.), 1970, p. 86.
Volz, P.A.; and Jerger, D.E.: Fungal Growth on Fabrics Selected for Space Flight. Amer. Fabrics,
vol. 98, 1973, p. 75.
Weinstcin, P.P.; Newton, W.L.; Sawyer, T.K.; and Sommerville, R.T.: Nematospiroides dubius:
Development and Passage in the Germfree Mouse, and a Comparative Study of the Free-Living
Stages in Germfree Feces and Conventional Cultures. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc., vol. 88, 1969,
pp. 95-117.
Wrighton, M.; and Witz, S.: Stability of Fe (II) in Ferrioxalate Solutions. Mol. Photochem., vol. 3,
1972, pp. 387-394.
Zhukov-Verezhnikov, N.N.; Mayskiy, I.N.; Yazdovskiy, V.I.; and Pekhov, A.P.: Evaluating the
Biological Effectiveness of Space Flight Factors by Means of the Lysogenic Bacteria E. coli K-12
(_,). Aviation and Space Medicine, V.V. Parin, ed., Akademiya Meditsinskikh Nank (Moscow),
1963, pp. 158-160.
Zhukov-Verezhnikov, N.N.; Rybakov, N.I.; Kozlov, V.A.; Saksonov, P.P.; Dubrov, N.N.; Antipov,
V.V., Podoplelov, I.I.; and Parfenov, G.P.: Results of Microbiological and Cytological
Investigations Conducted During the Flights of "Vostok" Type Vehicles. In Vol. 4 of Problems in
Space Biology, N.M. Sisakyan, ed., USSR Academy of Sciences Publishing House (Moscow), 1968,
pp. 252-259.
N76 12687
CHAPTER 4
THE APOLLO 17 POCKET MOUSE EXPERIMENT (BIOCORE) _
by
Webb Haymaker, M.D.
Bonne C. Look
Introduction
Travel outside the protective atmosphere of Earth can expose a spacecraft and its
occupants to potentially dangerous regions of radiation. Missions conducted to date,
including those of Apollo, have been fortunate since radiation doses received by
astronauts have been low and of no clinical significance. However, as space missions
increase in duration and move beyond the moon, the danger from radiation will become
more serious.
*A full report of this experiment (BIOCORE M 212: Biological Cosmic Ray Experiment) is given in
the April 1975, Special Issue of Aerospace Medicine. The present paper represents an amplification
of Paper I of the report. Permission for use of that paper was granted by Aerospace Medicine.
The authors wish to express their thanks to the following individuals for their support and
participation in the BIOCORE experiment: Pathology Group: O.T. Bailey, H.R. Brashear,
R.L. Dennis, J.T. Ellis, L.R. Eversole, R.O. Greep, G.A. Harrison, W.S. Hartroft, L.C. Johnson, L.M.
Kraft, C.C. Lushbaugh, J. Miquel, M.L. Moss, D.E. Philpott, E.A. Porta, T. Samorajski, G. Shklar, A.
Takabashi, T.V. Talmadge, F.S. Vogel, and W. Zeman. Biology Group: A.R. Behnke, Jr., K.R.
Brizzee, L.C. Erway, T. Laird, C. Leach, H.A. Leon, R.G. Lindberg, P. Pearson, J.M. Ordy, K. Suri,
J.W. Tremor, D.B. Webster, and D.L. Winter. Engineering Group: W.F. Barrows, F.L. Cota, J.A.
D'Urso, E.G. Park, Jr., G.H. Shillinger, C.E. Turnbill, and H.A. Zabower. Physics Group: E.V. Benton
and M.R. Cmty. Biotechnology Group: W.W. Ashley, R.M. Bianard, S. Black, W. Cooper, R.L.
Corbett, W.A. Dunlap, G.L. Humason, G. Klein, B. Lloyd, M. McTigue, Jr., W.T. Platt, J. Smith, V.
Teas, and T. Tilbury. Support Group: P.F. Beales, R.K. Clayton, M. Heflin, J.R. Larey, D.Leaffer, and
J.F. Saunders. The team acknowlcdges the invaluable management support and encouragement of H.
Mark, H.P. Klein, and J. Billingham.
381
382 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Particular interest in the effects of particle radiation on tissue arises from the
markedly different character of high energy (HZE) particle radiation as compared with
that of electromagnetic (E-M) radiation (X-rays, "y-rays). The energy deposition (dosage)
in E-M irradiation decreases exponentially with penetration depth into the target. In
contrast, the energy deposition by a particle can increase as the particle penetrates the
target and decelerates, the maximum energy loss per unit path length (LET: linear energy
transfer) occurring near the stopping point (Bragg peak) (figure 1). Most of the energy
deposition from particle radiation occurs in a very narrow cylinder around the trajectory,
within which there is intense ionization of the target's atoms. While the concept of dosage
is not strictly meaningful in assessing the radiobiological effects of HZE particle radiation,
perspective on the potential destructive character is obtained by noting that the "dosage"
(energy deposition per gram) in the immediate vicinity of the particle trajectory can be
on the order of megarads or higher.
75 50 25 I0 5 I 0
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
4000
3000
IRON /
E
(Z--_
"_L2000
/
IO00 /
NEON
_______--
0 I l t L I I I I I I I I
1600 900 400 I00 0
Figure 1. LET as function of residual range (distance to the stopping point) for three
species of heavy atomic nuclei. Not only is the maximum LET much larger for the
heaviest particle (iron) shown, but also the range of the very high LET values
(arbitrarily > 1000 KeV/#m) increases rapidly as nudear charge (Z) increases.
The Apollo 17 Pocket Mouse Experiment (Biocore) 383
For a given incident energy, a charged particle will penetrate a target to a relatively
well-defined depth that is a function of the particle’s charge. Collaterally, the LET of a
particle at any point along its trajectory is a function of the particle’s charge and distance
from the stopping point. In the present experiment, use was made of this last property,
that is, measurement of the LET, where the LET of each HZE particle was determined
from measurements on the particle’s track in the subscalp detector. Charge and distance
to the particle’s stopping point were calculated from the detector data.
In order to correlate any observed tissue damage in the heads of the flight mice with
the passage of HZE cosmic ray particles, it was necessary to record the trajectories of as
many of the particles passing through the heads during the flight as possible. To monitor
the primary targets - the brain and, to some extent, the eyes - a particle detector
composed of four layers of plastic (two of Lexan polycarbonate and two of cellulose
nitrate), sealed into a unit and coated with Paralene C for protection against tissue
fixatives, was developed. The dosimeter, designed to cover the entire brain from the
olfactory bulbs anteriorly to the cerebellum posteriorly, was mounted o n a Silastic
elastomer platform, the underside of which was contoured to the skull (figure 3). The
assembly was implanted beneath the mouse scalp, where scalp tension fixed its position
384 Biomedical Results of Apollo
with respect to the skull. N o deleterious effects in the mice due to the presence of the
subscalp assembly were observed, even several months after implantation.
would not have difficulty in moving about within their tubes, and that they would be
able to consume an adequate number of seeds to survive.
,
\ *'
, /\'
Figure 4. Components of flight package, partially assembled. The KO2 tube and the
mouse tubeq can be removed from the supporting spool for cleaning and for
reloadine: the K 0 2 . The purge tube attached to the end cap carries the oxygen to
the closed end of the canister to assure ample purging of the air in the canister
during experiment startup.
Prior studies determined that pocket mice in a sea-level atmosphere can easily tolerate
an ambient temperature of 308°K (35°C) for one month. A calculated temperature
profile anticipated a temperature of 300°K (27°C) during part of the flight (figure 5),
and was the cause of some concern, since free convection does not occur in zero g, and the
heat generated by the KO 2 and by the mice in the canister would have to be dissipated by
conduction and radiation. Accordingly, the heat dissipated from the canister, including
heat loss at the canister-Command Module interfaces, was investigated through studies
conducted on the canister in a vacuum environment. It was established that heat
dissipation at the interfaces would probably maintain the temperature in the mouse tubes
at no higher than 301°K (28°C).
oc OK 302.6OK
30 303 - (29.4oc)
28 301
300.4°K
26 299
24 297
-- 297.6°K _ (27"2°C) _
124.4°C)
22 295
20 293
I I I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
I M,SS,ONT,ME,h, I I
LI FTOFF EVA SPLASH-
DOWN
The problem of relative humidity (R.H.) as it affected the pocket mice was
considered. In an open-system, oxygen flow-through experiment, with an oxygen partial
pressure of 28 x 103 to 34 x 103 N/m 2 (4 to 5 psi) and ambient temperature of 302°K
(29°C), it was shown that the mice could withstand a relative humidity of 90 to
100 percent over a period of five days. Furthermore, in test runs in which the R.H. was
rather low- 23.4 percent R.H. or lower- the animals survived in apparent good
condition despite a loss in weight.
From the results of these and other studies it was evident that the pocket mouse is
exceptionally hardy and can survive wide variations in its environment. Moreover,
histological studies performed on many mice subjected to testing in canister oxygen
environments revealed no change in the brains or eyes of the animals, and relatively little
change in the lungs.
The primary criteria in the selection of the mice to be carried on Apollo 17 were
weight (9.5 gm or more), the general state and behavior, condition of the scalp over the
dosimeter, the presence or absence of nasal discharge, the appearance of the pelage, and
the activity of the animal and its housekeeping habits.
Test Procedures
Of the animals used as the major controls for the flight animals, some were
non-experimental controls, while others had been subjected to KO 2 oxygen tests as
controls against the oxygen partial pressures anticipated in the canister during flight. But
the most appropriate controls for the flight animals were the five mice taken to NASA
Kennedy Space Center (KSC) a few days prior to launch. Two canisters were loaded with
five mice each at KSC; one was chosen to fly, and the other to serve as flight backup. The
flight backup canister was flown back to NASA Ames Research Center (ARC), where the
mice were subjected to all stresses anticipated for the flight mice that could be carried out
on the ground. They were perfused with r" •lxm_
.' _ fluid on the same day (Dcccmbcr ._j
lax as
the flight animals. Four of these mice were used as flight controls.
A week or two prior to the time of anticipated spacecraft splashdown, 12 control
animals were perfused at the University of Hawaii in Honolulu (during the time the
engineers and pathologists were stationed there to process the flight animals in the event
of a mission abort), and an additional 17 animals were perfused at Pago Pago. Four of the
latter served as flight controls. The others were used as controls for subsequent
histological studies.
Two flight acceptance tests were run to qualify the hardware for flight. The two tests
were run concurrently (November 5 through 22, 1972). In these tests as well as in
preparation for flight, the initial step after the animals had been sealed in the canisters
was to flush the canisters with 100 percent oxygen for 15 or 25 minutes, a procedure that
left little residual nitrogen in the canisters. In the acceptance tests, the oxygen partial
pressure fell to a minimum of 17 x 103 N/m 2 (2.4 psi) and rose steadily thereafter. On
day 15, the pressure reached peaks of 81 x 103 and 84 x 103 N/m 2 (11.7 and 12.2 psi),
but fell to about 34 x 103 N/m 2 (5 psi) at the start of the simulated EVA maneuver.
Figure 6 shows the test profile.
388 Biomedical Results of Apollo
I
I
I
aJnssaJ d
The Apollo 17 Pocket Mouse Experiment (Biocore) 389
Flight Backup Test Carried Out Concurrently With the Apollo Flight
The initial pumpdown period of this test lasted 37 minutes. The minimum oxygen
partial pressure reached during autoregulation was 17 x 103 N/m 2 (2.5 psi). About
12 hours after the launch of Apollo 17, the package was flown from the Kennedy Space
Center to the Ames Research Center, causing a gap of 20 hours in the pressure data for
the time period starting from preparation for transport of the animal package at the
Kennedy Space Center until its installation in a test chamber at the Ames Research
Center. During those 20 hours the total pressure rose from 37 x 103 to 64 x 103 N/m 2
(5.4 to 9.3 psia). All five animals survived the test in excellent condition.
The flight backup canister experienced the same ambient temperature except during
the flight from the Kennedy Space Center to the Ames Research Center. The flight
backup and two other control canisters were flushed with a mixture of 50 percent
helium/50 percent oxygen toward the end of the test period, a procedure to be carried
out on the flight canister following splashdown. Moreover, the mice in all three canisters
were subjected to certain other stressful situations that were expected to be imposed on
them aboard Apollo 17: vibration following Apollo lift-off, launch acceleration with a
peak of 5 G soon after lift-off and a second peak of 2.5 G at second stage burnout, peaks
of 6.8 G and 4 G during reentry of the spacecraft into the atmosphere, and 37 G on
splashdown. These were test levels; the values were in excess of those anticipated on the
flight of Apollo 17. The mice tolerated the vibration and the G stresses without apparent
ill effects.
The data on the experiment package flown on Apollo 17 are given in figure 7. The
animals were placed in the canister on December 2, 1972. The initial pumpdown was
performed in 36 minutes. The minimum oxygen partial pressure reached during
autoregulation was 19 x ] 03 N/m 2 (2.8 psi). The Apollo was launched on December 7. In
the extravehicular activity (EVA) preparation during the flight, the Command Module
(CM) was emptied of its atmosphere and exposed to the vacuum of space in about eight
minutes, and the EVA was accomplished m about one hour. Hence, the rapidity of the
decompression of the mice in the CM (to 34 x 103 N/m 2, 5 psia) can be assumed to have
been approximately the same for the mice in the two flight acceptance canisters on the
ground and for the mice in the flight backup canisters as well. It can also be assumed that
the pressure in the flight canister rose slowly after the EVA maneuver. The rate of
recompression of the CM had no effect on the pressure in the flight. Splashdown in the
Pacific occurred on December 19, with the package received on the recovery ship on
day 13 of the flight (day 17 from the time the animals had been placed in the canister),
where it was flushed with He/O 2 gas mixture. The flushing was continued during
transport by plane to Pago Pago.
Upon arrival at Pago Pago the flight package was taken to a laboratory at the Lyndon
B. Johnson Tropical Medical Center. On opening the canister about seven hours after
splashdown, four of the five mice were found alive, while the fifth (A-3352) was dead.
Two of the surviving mice (A-3305 and A-3356) were active and in excellent condition
when released from their tubes into a container for observation. The other two surviving
mice (A-3326 and A-3400), when first examined, were docile and hunched up, as though
exhausted or arousing from torpor. They moved forward only a few steps when prodded.
390 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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The Apollo 17 Pocket Mouse Experiment (Biocore) 391
A-3326, the female of the group and the most subdued, was uncoordinated on walking
and would fall to one side or the other when it attempted to sit up on its hind quartcrs.
Later, on histological examination, it was found that severe hemorrhage had occurred
into its middle ear cavities during the flight. This could easily have accounted for the
incoordination.
After all the animals had been examined and their weights recorded, the four live
animals were anesthetized with Metofane and perfused with a fixing fluid, FAM (FAM:
formaldehyde, 1 part; acetic acid, 1 part; methyl alcohol, 8 parts). The perfusion was
carried out via the heart by means of a Harvard apparatus. The brain of the mouse
(A-3352) that did not survive the flight was fixed by introducing FAM into the
subarachnoid space via the orbits.
Upon completion of the perfusion procedures, the heads of all the animals were
immersed in FAM. The next morning (after about 12 hours' fixation) the heads were
transferred to 70 percent methyl alcohol.
control for a flight mouse was placed in a fixed position in a standardized aluminum box,
in the manner just described for the flight mice. The box was then secured on a rotatable
stage situated on the platform of a sterotaxic apparatus. Through a painstaking
procedure, a manila paper “dosimeter,” identical in size and shape to the flight
dosimeters, was placed on the head of each mouse in precisely the same position and a t
the same degree of tilt as had been recorded for each of the flight mice. Fine drills were
then directed through the control head by means of the arm of the stereotaxic apparatus,
the drills being introduced along the trajectory (within the limits of experimental
accuracy) of each of the cosmic ray particles that had penetrated the dosimeter of a flight
mouse. Where numerous tracks (up to 20) were found in the subscalp dosimeter of a
single flight mouse, the heads of as many as four mice were “tracked,” with four to five
tracks per head to serve as controls for that flight mouse (figure 8); the number of
“tracked” control heads totaled 17. Thc heads of these animals were carried to Duke
University, where they were processed and serially sectioned in the same manner as for
the flight mice.
The significance of this tracking procedure was that the pathologists could check any
lesion found in the brain of a flight animal against the location of the drill tracks in the
control brains. If congruity was found between a lesion in a histological section of a flight
mouse and a drill core in the corresponding control histological section, and if the lesion
was consistent with current concepts of what a cosmic ray-induced lesion should look
like - that is linear, or columnar or even spherical - there would be a high probability
that the lesion was produced by the cosmic ray particle.
TheApollo
17Pocket
Mouse
Experiment
(Biocore) 393
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_This adds up to 78 particles. Two of the particles thought to have traversed the head were found on
microscope examination of serial head sections not to have done so.
394 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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396 Biomedical Results of Apollo
ray particle flux through the mouse brain, since particles incident on the mouse came
from all directions and the mice were not restrained. As a consequence, some particles
could have passed through or terminated in or near the brain without having been
registered in the dosimeters. Thus the pathologists were faced with the possibility of
observing cosmic ray particle-induced lesions in the brain and other target tissues without
the presence of corresponding tracks in the dosimeters.
The pocket mouse heads were exposed to far broader Z and LET spectra of particles
than the 80 HZE particles indicated in table 1. However, only the HZE particles, which
were registered, were the particles of interestin the present experiment.
The tissues traversed by some of the cosmic ray particles are indicated in table 2.
Analysis revealed that one or more head structures of the five flight mice were traversed
by particles; the scalp by 76 particles; the eye by 5; the nasal cavity by 15; the middle ear
cavity by 23; and the brain by 59 particles (olfactory bulb, 14; cerebellum, 12;
hippocampal formation, l l;and hypothalamus, 3).
Body Tissues
Study of the body tissues of the four flight animals that survived the flight revealed
no changes that could be regarded as due to cosmic particle radiation. Some pertinent
observations, however, emerged from the studies. The increased oxygen partial pressure
to which the flight animals and control test animals had been exposed depressed
erythropoiesis in the bone marrow. The increased oxygen partial pressure did not induce
changes in periodontal or other oral tissues. The lungs appeared relatively resistant to
oxygen intoxication, attributable in part to the inclusion of nitrogen with the oxygen.
Mild pneumonitis was observed in all four flight backup mice, but not in the flight mice.
The liver in one flight mouse (A-3305) contained large focal areas of hepatocellular
necrosis of undertermined etiology, while those of the other flight mice and the four
flight backup mice were normal or virtually normal.
The kidneys of the flight mice were unremarkable. The juxtaglomerular apparatus
could not be evaluated because the fixing fluid (FAM) had dissolved the granules from
its cells. Assessment of the adrenal cortex according to the method used revealed no
significant alterations. A study of certain nuclei of the hypothalamus and of the cell
population of the pituitary gland and, to some extent, the adrenal cortex revealed minor
enlargement of neuronal nuclei in the supraoptic nucleus as the sole positive finding. This
suggested an antidiuretic hormone response.
The thyroid appeared normal in all mice in which it was examined, including the
thyroid of three of the flight animals. The same was true for the parathyroids. Soft-tissue
calcifications were found in a number of the mice - flight mice and controls alike - and
thus the possibility exists that this might be attributable to parathyroid hyperactivity.
Heart muscle showed no ostensible change in any of the animals. Histological changes
in skeletal muscle of the flight animals were minimal and were found to occur in the
control animals with comparable frequency. This was with the exception of Sarcocystis
infestation. Sarcocystis were not found in any of the flight mice, but they were present in
three of the five flight backup mice.
Tissues with continuously replicating cells were given special attention. The lack of
abnormalities in bone marrow in the flight mice except for reduced erythropoiesis has
The Apollo 17 Pocket Mouse Experiment (Biocore) 397
already been mentioned. In the upper small intestine of the flight mice the mitoses in the
crypts of Lieberkiihn were normal in appearance. The gonads also showed no differences
ascribable to the Apollo 17 mission. In two of the three surviving male flight mice (but
not in the third) spermatogenesis was advanced to the same degree as in ground control
mice at the same season.
Olfactory Mueosa
There was another tissue composed of continuously replicating cells, the olfactory
epithelium, which was severely damaged in the four surviving flight animals and to a lesser
degree in the animal that died. The respiratory epithelium in all these animals was, by
contrast, unaltered. The need to assess the changes in the olfactory epithelium in some
detail became evident when it was found that the nasal epithelium of the 17 major
control animals, of which four were flight backup animals, was entirely free from change.
There were two kinds of pathological change in the olfactory epithelium. One was
characterized by disorganization of much of the epithelium, in the sense that the
thickness of the layer and the number of its constituent cells varied from area to area in a
given strip of olfactory epithelium. The other consisted of multifocal severe lesions
originating either in the disarrayed epithelium just mentioned or in intact epithelium.
Intermediate stages between these two types of change were sometimes encountered.
The lesions were in various stages of evolution ranging from acute, in which a few
cells or masses of cells were being sloughed from the epithelium, to "old," in which newly
proliferated cells had replaced the sloughed cells. The acute lesions elicited a conspicuous
polymorphonuclear leukocytic response. The proportion of lesions classified as recent, of
intermediate duration, and old, was roughly the same in each of the four mice; nor did
the lesions vary perceptibly in character from mouse to mouse. Obviously the lesions had
been caused throughout the 17-day stay of the mice in the flight canister or throughout
the 13 days of flight. The presence of aggregates of polymorphonuclear leukoeytes in the
l,,,lic_ _,,h,,,,e,_ was the oh;or r;nA;_g ;,. +h_ _lfa_t_ry mucosa o _'_t.. mouse ._._.
.................................................. u,at died LILt
The lesions in the olfactory epithelium had virtually the same spatial distribution in
the epithelium in all these mice. However. their size nnd canfla,,r, tlon _.... i....... 1_._1
varied considerably. Most astonishing was their number: at least 51 to 90 lesions per
animal. By comparison, the number of high-energy cosmic ray particles Z I> 6 traversing
the nasal mucosa was calculated to total ten to fourteen particles per animal. Thus, the
number of lesions in the olfactory mucosa was at least four to nine times the calculated
number of cosmic ray particles Z >/6 that impinged on the mucosa. To determine
whether concurrence existed between lesions and cosmic ray particle trajectories, the
paths of particles through the nasal cavity were established by tracing the tracks of drills
that had been inserted through the heads of the 17 major control mice in the trajectory
of each of the particles. A total of 15 particles recorded in the dosimeters were found to
have traversed the nasal cavity in the five flight animals (figure 9). Concurrence was
usually observed, but since the lesions, which were frequently multifocal and usually
relatively large, were also found more or less precisely in the same location in the
olfactory mucosa of the eontralaterai nasal cavity (which presumably had not been
398 Biomedical Results of Apollo
intersected by a cosmic ray particle), implication of the cosmic ray particles under
consideration as solely instrumental in lesion production could not be justified.
!' /
Figure 9. Subscalp dosimeters of the five flight mice, showing the sites at which they
were intercepted by cosmic ray particles that penetrated the nasal cavities. The letters
are designations of the individual particles. The arrows indicate roughly the projected
direction of the partide trajectory through the nasal cavity.
Ear
The status of the finer structure of the inner ear could not be assessed in any of the
animals because the perfusion technique used (FAM introduced through the heart) did
not provide adequate fixation. Suffice it to say that no changes attributable to factors
operative in the space environment were observed.
In all of the flight animals as well as in all of the flight backup animals, hemorrhagic
materials were found in the middle ear cavity bilaterally. In the animal that died during
flight (A-3352), massive hemorrhage, which was fairly fresh, was found in the middle ear
cavity bilaterally. In regard to the four live animals, there was an indication that their
condition on recovery after the flight was related to the degree of hemorrhagic materials
in their middle ear cavities. Mouse A-3305 was in the best condition when examined: no
hemorrhage was found, the only blood constituent in air cells being proteinaceous
material, the latter signifying that an alteration in capillary permeability had occurred,
not capillary rupture. Mouse A-3326 (the female of the group) was in the worst
condition: hemorrhage in its middle ear cavities was severe. Mouse A-3400 was groggy on
initial examination: hemorrhage of recent origin was encountered. Mouse A-3356 was in
excellent condition: the hemorrhage, which was of moderate degree, had largely been
resorbed by the time the mouse was observed.
The occurrence of hemorrhage in the flight and flight backup animals was not
unexpected because much the same was noted with considerable frequency during
preflight KO 2 test runs, presumably as the result of pressure excursions in the canisters in
which the mice were housed. The question thus arose: in the space environment would
the hemorrhagic materials in the middle ear cavities and the cellular reactions thereto
differ from those occurring in the control animals?
In serial sections from the flight mice and flight backup mice, a wide diversity of
hemorrhagic materials was found in air cells of the middle ear cavities. To establish a
frame of reference whereby possible differences in the reaction of air cell contents to
factor._ in the space environment could be assessed, it was dccidcd that the incidence of
polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the hemorrhagic materials (blood clots, plasma,
proteinaceous material) would be the sole variable to be taken into account in the
evaluation. The results were surprising: air cells that contained proteinaceous material or
plasma carried a significantly higher incidence in the flight animals _han in the flight
backup animals and, moreover, polymorphonuclear leukocytes were encountered in the
proteinacous material - sometimes in great number - in the flight animals but not in the
flight backup animals. Moreover, leukocyte attraction to resorbing blood clots seemed
greatest in the flight animals.
Factors peculiar to the space environment were taken into consideration as
instrumental in the greater exudation of blood components into air cells of the flight
mice and the greater degree of leukotaxis. No basis was found on which to invoke
weightlessness as causative. Analysis of the subscalp dosimeters revealed that 23 cosmic
ray particles registered in the dosimeters had traversed the middle ear cavities of the four
mice that survived the flight. Concurrence between particle trajectories and aggregates of
polymorphonuclear leukocytes in air cells was sometimes observed, but the incidence of
the leukocytes along the particle trajectories was no greater than in adjacent air cells
400 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Scalp
Thescalps of theflightanimals (exceptthatof themouscthatdiedduringflight)
wereobtainedfor studyat the timethatthesubscalp dosimeters wereremoved for
analysis.
Chronicinflammatory changcs attributable to thepresence of thedosimeters
wereobserved inallofthesescalps. Inaddition, atotalof 13tinylesions werefoundinthe
epidermisor in hairfolliclesin threeof theflightanimals. (Inthefourthanimal, scarring
of the scalpowingto the presence of the dosimeter wastoo extensive to allow
evaluation.) Thelesions werecharacterized by necrosis of epithelial
cells,bothin the
epidermisandthehairfollicles,in focalareas measuring upto mooumacross. In tenof
thethirteenlesions, polymorphonuclear leukocytcs werepresent in varyingnumbers in
the dermisandsubcutaneous connective tissuein a columnar distributionextending
downward from the sitesof the necroticepidermal cells(scalpthickness, 0.15to
0.2mm).It wasevidentthatallthelesions wereincurred duringthecourse oftheflight
inasmuch asleukocyte lifetimein tissuesisnomorethanaboutfivedays.
Thequestionwasposedwhetherthe epidermal lesionshadresultedfromscalp
contusionduringtheflight,withtheexudation ofacuteinflammatory cellsinthedermis
asecondary reactivephenomenon, or whether cosmicrayparticles,intraversingthescalp,
hadin themselves createdthe lesions. Comparison wasmadewith thescalps of two
controlanimals.In oneof the controls(A-3329),in whicha dosimeter hadbeen
implanted forapproximately thesame periodof timeasfor theflightanimals, thescalp
contained twosuperficial focalepidermal lesionsbut nopolymorphonuclear leukocytes
inthedermis orsubcutaneous connective tissue. Thiswasinaddition to largerareas inthe
scalpin whichchronicreactive changes of moderate degree wereobserved. Thescalpof
TheApollo
17Pocket Mouse Experiment (Biocore) 401
the second control animal (A-3494), under which a dosimeter had not been implanted,
was free from epidermal-dermal lesions.
If the scalp lesions were indeed attributable to cosmic ray particle "hits," then one
would have anticipated that lesions having the same characteristics would be present in
the skin of flight animals in areas that had not been subjected to dosimeter implantation.
Accordingly, an area of skin from the back of a flight mouse was serially sectioned, then
studied. Examination revealed two tiny focal lesions in the epidermis. Beneath one of
these lesions the dermis contained a few mononuclear cells and polymorphonuclear
leukocytes. A single striated muscle fiber deep to the other epidermal lesion was focally
necrotic, and occasional polymorphonuclear leukocytes were found in its vicinity.
Moreover, the area contained a few lipid-filled macrophages. In an examination of
hundreds of other fields in other sections from the area of skin obtained from this animal
no such cells were observed.
Comparison of the 13 lesion sites in the three scalps with the sites of the 76 particle
trajectories in the subscalp dosimeters revealed only one possible coincidence between a
lesion and a registered particle trajectory. The particle in question (Z > 10) passed
initially through the mouse head, had an LET of 220 KeV/gm as it traversed the
dosimeter, and stopped in the scalp. Although there was only this one possible
coincidence between particle trajectory and lesion, there remains the possibility that
some of the lesions were produced by unregistered particles, that is,particles with Z < 6
and LET _ 150 KeV/gm. If these lower LET particles were radiobiologically effective,
one would have expected that the registered particles would have induced damage. The
issue as to whether the focal lesions observed in the scalp of the four flight mice, and in
the skin of the back in one of the flight mice, were produced by cosmic ray particles
remains unresolved.
Eyes
Both eyes of two of the mice that survived the flight and one eye each of the _ther
two surviving mice were retained in situ and serially sectioned along with the head and
examined under the light microscope. After animal perfusion (at Pago Pago), the other
two eyes of these flight animals were removed, placed in glutaraldehyde, and
subsequently studied by phase contrast and by electron microscopy. One eye of the dead
flight mouse was retained in situ, whereas the other was not available for study.
Five cosmic ray particles had trajectories that intersected the eyes of the four
surviving mice. They were shown to have traversed the retina at varying distances from
the optic nerve head. Four of theparticles (Z = 6 to 9 for three of them, and Z/> 10 for the
fourth) went through the head before reaching the subscalp dosimeter, while the
thindown direction of the fifth (Z > 10) was not determinable. On the average, the
particle LET in the retina was _ 200 KeV/_m. No retinal lesions were observed in the
flight animals.
Preliminary to examining the brain sections of the flight and the flight backup
animals, a study was made of tile calvaria and c,'!ated tissues in the region where the
402 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
monitor assemblies (dosimeters and their supporting platforms) had been implanted. The
objective was to determine whether alterations occurring in these tissues could have
created artifacts in the underlying brain tissue. Reference is made to erosion of the very
thin calvarium (0.1 mm in thickness) which might allow invasion by an infective agent or
in some manner interfere with meningeal blood supply.
Histological examination showed that each of the monitor assemblies had become
surrounded by a thin fibrous tissue capsule, in and around which was a mild chronic
inflammatory reaction with rare polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Giant cell reaction was
surprisingly slight. There was marked atrophy of the calvarium under the monitor
assemblies. Fibrosis of the dura mater was slight and was confined to a few small areas.
The leptomeninges were virtually unaltered. These findings indicated that tissue reactions
to the dosimeters would introduce no complicating factors in the analysis of the brains.
Mitoses in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation were approximately
one-third as frequent in the flight mice, and occurred about one-half as often in the flight
backup mice as in non-experimental control animals. The significance of these findings is
not clear, but it is suggested that the cause may be found in the internal environment of
the flight and backup canisters, possibly the oxygen partial pressure. Otherwise no
pathological changes were observed in the brain tissue of the flight animals or in the
meninges. Special attention was given the meninges in the regions where columns of
leukocytes were observed in the overlying scalps. No ieukocytes were found in the
meninges in these regions. If cosmic ray particles were the cause of the scalp lesions, a
difference in vulnerability could be postulated: for mesodermal tissue (scalp), high
vulnerability to particle radiation; for neuroectodermal tissue (meninges), low
vulnerability.
Although detailed studies were performed in an effort to answer the question whether
HZE cosmic ray particles are injurious to brain tissue, it should be appreciated that the
lack of demonstrable lesions by no means negates this possibility. The lack of lesions or
an inflammatory reaction that could be attributed to cosmic ray particle "hits" needs to
be evaluated in light of certain limiting factors relative to the recording of particles in the
subscalp dosimeters and of the LETs of the particles themselves. A total of 80 particles
were registered in the dosimeters of the five mice, nine of which did not pass through the
head. Among these 71 particles, only five were known to have had a downward trajectory
through the dosimeter, with thindown of the particles within or in the vicinity of the
head (table 1). Of the 32 particles of undeterminable thindown direction, ten of which
were in the heavy to very heavy charge group (table 2), roughly half must be considered
to have also passed through the brain prior to being registered m the dosimeters. Thus,
most of the particles had a higher LET in the dosimeter than in the brain. Owing to the
attenuation of the very high LET components of the cosmic ray particle flux by the
Apollo 17 spacecraft and by the animal package shielding, most of the particles that
penetrated the brain were in the lower portion of the high LET range (0.16 to
0.2 MeV/#m), and of medium to heavy charge. Most of the particles of prime interest
TheApollo
17Pocket
Mouse
Experiment (Biocore) 403
biologically- those with a very high Z (iron group) and an LET in the MeV/ttm
range - did not reach the mice.
In summary, the lesions in the scalp can be taken as circumstantial evidence of
vulnerability to radiation from cosmic ray particles, but this issue remains unresolved.
Also remaining undetermined is the causation of the damage of the olfactory epithelium
and the factor responsible for the greater exudation and the greater leukotaxis in the
middle ear cavities, as well as the reasons for the difference in frequencies of mitoses
encountered in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation in experimental and
control groups of animals. The absence of demonstrable lesions in the brain leaves
unresolved the degree of vulnerability of brain tissue to this source of radiation.
Obviously, substantially less shielded exposures to cosmic ray particles are needed if the
effects (or the lack of effects) of the particles on brain tissue and other target structures
are to be established.
SECTION V
Quarantine
CHAPTER 1
by
Richard S. Johnston
John A. Mason
Bennie C. Wooley, Ph.D.*
Gary W. McCollum
Bernard J. Mieszkuc
Introduction
2. To protect the integrity of the lunar samples and the scientific experiments.
3. To ensure that the operational aspects of the program were least
compromised.
407
was the responsibility of NASA. The Committee served only as an advisory body to
review and approve plans proposed by NASA.
The quarantine objectives of the Apollo Program included biological containment
of the crewmen, lunar samples, and other lunar-exposed material until released from
quarantine, and biological assessment of the returned lunar materials to ensure that
_fe release could be effected.
The Apollo Back-Contamination Program was divided into three phases (figure 1).
The first phase was concerned with procedures to be followed by the crewmen
while inflight to eliminate the return of lunar-surface contaminants in the Command
Module (CM). The second phase included spacecraft and crew recovery and the
provisions for isolation and transport of the crewmen, spacecraft, and lunar samples
to the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC). The third phase encompassed the
quarantine operations in the l,unar Receiving Laboratory (LRL).
In order to meet the ICBC requirements, NASA began to plan special quarantine
facilities, equipment, and operational procedures. The facilities and procedures made
necessary by the quarantine program were often well beyond the state of the art.
Quarantine represented a major impact on the Apollo Program. It meant that the
crew, the Command Module, and the hmar material had to be isolated from the
moment of arrival back on Earth.
Specific physical science and biomedical requirements for the collection, return,
and examination of lunar samples were formulated. Whereas the primary concern of
the physical science advisory groups was to ensure that procedures and equipment
were developed that would minimize the possibility of the contamination of the
lunar samples bv terrestrial organic and inorganic material, the primary concern of
the biomedical advisory groups was to ensure that equipment and procedures were
developed that would minimize the possibili_ of introducing the lunar material into
the biosphere. Although the possibility of discovering an existing life system was
considered remote, it could not be ignored. Consequently, appropriate quarantine
precautions were required for both the crewmen and the lunar samples.
Program Description
Quarantine Requirements
By observation of plant and animal diseases, it was determined that most
terrestrial disease agents were capable of invading a host and causing evident disease
symptoms within 21 days after exposure of the host. Most disease agents capable of
causing epidemic or rapidly spreading diseases werc sufficiently virulent to be
transmitted in less than 21 days. The ICBC decided that a crew quarantine period of
at least 21 days should be required after each Apollo mission.
Intensive medical examinations of the flight crewmembers during quarantine
determined if any medical problems existed as a result of exposure to lunar
material. The returned lunar samples and equipment were evaluated to ensure that
release of these items to an investigation team did not represent a hazard. To
The Lunar Quarantine Program
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410 Biomedical Results of Apollo
accomplish this and other functions, the Lunar Receiving Laboratory was
2. The preservation of human life should take precedence over the maintenance of
quarantine.
6. The extent of the biological test protocol would be limited to facilities approved
by the Congress, to well-defined systems, and to biological systems of known
ecological importance.
Together, guidelines 1 and 2 provided the basis for the Lunar Quarantine Program;
that is, although the probability that life existed on the moon was extremely low, the risk
was sufficiently high that a quarantine program was justified. However, this risk was not
considered great enough to permit an otherwise avoidable injury and/or loss of human life
just to maintain the integrity of the program.
Many critical decisions, especially those involving emergency procedures, could not
have been made without the establishment of the second guideline. Typical examples
The Lunar Quarantine Program 411
were emergency procedures for escape of crewmembers should the Command Module
begin to sink after splashdown, and emergency exit procedures should a major fire occur
in the LRL living quarters for quarantined personnel. The third guideline became the
basic criterion for the design and operation of the required containment systems. Again,
the dilemma was that procedures and equipment had to be designed, fabricated, and
operated to contain microbial agents that were assumed to exist on the moon and about
which no characteristics were known. It was decided that the biological containment
requirements should be based on the most stringent means used at that time to contain
infectious terrestrial agents. The fourth guideline established that sterilization require-
ments should be based on the method needed for destruction of the most resistant
terrestrial life forms. Terrestrial spore-forming microorganisms were used as models in
providing design criteria for equipment and guidelines for sterilization procedures.
The fifth guideline concerned the detection of hazards assumed to be present. The
term "hazard" had to be defined before a method of detection could be developed.
Procedures were limited to those capable of detecting an agent that would exhibit
classical pathogenicity to some terrestrial life form or that could establish itself in a
terrestrial environment and thereby alter the ecology. This guideline limited the search to
the detection of replicating microorganisms. Parameters such as toxicity were eliminated;
even if the lunar samples were highly toxic, the toxicity characteristics would be
self-limiting and non-propagating.
The sixth guideline dealt with methods to be used for the detection of replicating
microorganisms that could cause disease or establish and replicate themselves in some
terrestrial environment. The guidelines made a first level of decision possible in that the
efforts of the biological test program were directed toward the specific detection of
hazards to the biosphere. Because the program was focused on hazards to the terrestrial
environment, only terrestrial environmental conditions were acceptable as test systems.
Three limitations were set for the biological test protocols in support of the
quarantine program. Test systems for which little or no hase!inc or background
information was available were not considered. Systems of known ecological importance
were stressed. Lastly, the size of the facility and the scope of activities were determined
for planning purposes.
The period of quarantine for spacecraft, crew, and lunar samples was considered to
have begun as soon as the Apollo crewmen left the moon. Isolation was accomplished by
containing men and equipment first in the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF) located on
the hangar deck of the recovery ship, and, later, the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the
Johnson Space Center. A crew surgeon and recovery engineer joined the crew in the MQF
and remained with them throughout the period of quarantine.
Boxes containing samples of lunar rocks and soil from early missions were opened at
JSC in a unique vacuum chamber. The chamber was designed to ensure sample sterility
and to provide a method for preliminary examination without compromising sample
integrity by exposure to air. The vacuum simulated lunar pressure.
The quarantine program was carried out with minimal breaks. There were a few
instances in the LRL operations when technicians had to be quarantined because of leaks
in vacuum chamber gloves while personnel were handling the lunar material or when
412 Biomedical Results of Apollo
similar faults in the other protcctive devices occurred. These instances were infrequent. In
no instance was the biological containment of the crewmen, lunar samples, and/or any
othcr exposed material compromised.
Equipment
Waste water from washing and showers was chemically treated and stored in special
containers. Body wastes (urine and feces) were stored in special tanks in the Mobile
Quarantine Facility. Items were passed in or out through a submersible transfer lock. The
MQF could be serviced with utilities (power, communications, alarm system) from
shipboard, aircraft, and/or trucks. Redundant power systems and fans assured
maintenance of a negative pressure. Specially packaged and controlled meals could be
passed into the facility to be prepared in a microwave oven. Medical equipment was also
provided for use in immediate postlanding crew examinations and tests.
Biological isolation garments were used in Apollo 11 to isolate the crew from the
Earth's environment and from contact with recovery personnel. These garments were
constructed from a fabric which effectively isolated microorganisms from the crewman's
body. The garment was donned in the spacecraft before the helicopter hoist operation
and was worn until the crew entered the MQF aboard the primary recovery ship. The suit
was fabricated of nylon. A respirator was worn with the garment. It featured an air-inlet
flapper valve and high efficiency air-outlet filter to biologically filter expired gas. The
Apollo 11 crew used a heavier biological isolation garment, but this was discarded as an
unnecessary precaution after the initial lunar landing flight. On later missions, a
lightweight overgarment was used when transferring from the Command Module to the
MQF.
Special containers were fabricated for return of the medical and lunar samples, films,
and data tapes from the recovery area to the LRL.
The final phase of the Apollo back-contamination program was completed in the JSC
Lunar Receiving Laboratory (figures 2 and 3). The LRL, housed in Building 37 at JSC,
TheLunar Quarantine Program 413
covers 7700 m 2 (83 000 ft 2) of floor space and includes several distinct areas. These are:
the Crew Reception Area (CRA), Vacuum Laboratory, Sample Laboratories (Physical and
Bio-Science), and an administrative and support area. Special building systems were
employed to maintain airflow into sample-handling areas and the Crew Reception Area to
sterilize liquid waste and to incinerate contaminated air from the primary containment
systems.
The Vacuum Complex. The vacuum complex was the area in which sample
containers were opened and processing of the lunar material was initiated. This system
was sterilized before return of the containers to ensure lunar samples would not be
contaminated with terrestrial microorganisms. All materials entering the vacuum complex
after premission sterilization were sterilized using peracetic acid. All items leaving the
comtdex during the quarantine period were either placed in vacuum-tight containers, the
exteriors of which were sterilized with peracetic acid, or were directly sterilized with the
acid. Effluent gases from the vacuum chamber pumps were passed through absolute
biological filters, incinerated, and filtered again prior to venting to the outside
environment. All lunar samples left the vacuum complex in sterilized vacuum-tight
containers. The containers were placed in sealed plastic bags for handling within the
sample laboratory.
Secondary Biological Barrier. The rooms in which the cabinets were housed were also
maintained at a pressure negative with respect to the adjacent corridors. This guaranteed
that any escaping lunar material would be contained. The secondary biological barrier
The Lunar Quarantine Program 415
which surrounded the sample laboratory included facility systems and operational
procedures. Tight building construction was used and all penetrations were sealed. The
sample laboratory had a single-pass air conditioning supply and exhaust system which
maintained the area at a pressure negative with respect to the outside air. Inlet air was
filtered, and air exited through absolute biological filters. All liquid waste coming from
the sample laboratory area was sterilized with steam before being transported to the JSC
sewage treatment plant. All solid materials including waste, clothing, and trash were
sterilized. The sample laboratory area received supplies during quarantine operations
through ultraviolet-lighted airlocks.
Procedures
The procedures and the hardware necessary for the stowage of collected lunar samples
were considered next. Because the lunar material had existed for millions of years in an
almost perfect vacuum, the physical scientists decided that the lunar samples should be
transported to Earth under environmental conditions as near to those on the moon as
technically feasible. This decision necessitated the design and fabrication of a pressure
vessel that could be filled with lunar samples and sealed on the lunar surface, and in
which the internal environment could be maintained throughout the sample transfer from
the lunar surface to the LRL. Because the pressure vessel had to be an ultraclean,
416 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The Lunar Module was designed to include a bacterial filter system to prevent
contamination of the lunar surface when the cabin atmosphere was released at the start of
lunar exploration. Before reentering the LM, the crewmen brushed any lunar surface dust
or dirt from their space suits. They scraped their feet on the LM footpad and kicked the
LM ladder while ascending to dislodge any particles on their boots.
After cabin repressurization, the LM was launched from the lunar surface and docked
with the Command Module. The CM tunnel was pressurized and checks made to ensure
that an adequate pressurized seal had been made. The crewmen then vacuumed the Lunar
Module, their space suits, and the lunar surface equipment. To prevent dust particles from
being transferred from the Lunar Module atmosphere to the Command Module,
provisions were made to ensure a positive CM pressure relative to the LM.
The Apollo Lunar and Command Modules had separate environmental control
systems that removed dirt particles continually from the spacecraft atmosphere. In
normal operation, the environmental control-space suit systems were used to condition
the cabin atmosphere. Cabin gas was drawn into the system, and, as it passed through the
lithium hydroxide canister, nearly all dirt particles were filtered from the atmosphere.
This cleansing action reduced the amount of airborne lunar dust in the LM at the time of
docking with the Command Module. The 63-hour operation of the CM environmental
control system had the capability to virtually remove all lunar dust from the atmosphere
which had been transferred from the Lunar Module during docked operations.
The vacuuming system allowed material as small as 0.3 micron to be trapped in the
lithium hydroxide canisters. Visible liquids were removed by the liquid dump system. The
crewmen used towels to wipe surfaces clean of liquids and/or dirt particles. The three suit
hoses were located at random positions around the spacecraft for positive ventilation and
cabin atmosphere filtration.
Recovery
1. Crew Safety. To provide a safe method for the retrieval and return of crew and
spacecraft.
The quarantine phase of the recovery operation began as soon as the Command
Module had been located and the flotation collar installed by swimmers. The swimmers
were instructed to withdraw upwind from the immediate vicinity of the Command
Module after installing the collar. An additional swimmer, dressed in a protective
garment, was then delivered by helicopter to the raft attached to the flotation collar on
the spacecraft. The spacecraft hatch was opened momentarily and three protective
garments and masks were passed to the crew.
After the crewmen had donned the garments in the spacecraft, they closed the
postlanding ventilation system valves. The hatch was then opened and they egressed into
the raft which contained a decontaminant solution. The hatch was closed immediately
after egress, and the swimmer who had provided the crew with their garments and masks
sponged them off with a solution of organic iodine, an antibacterial agent. The spacecraft
hatch was also washed down with the solution (figure 4).
The Command Module crew was retrieved by helicopter and delivered to the aircraft
carrier. The helicopter was then towed to the immediate vicinity of the Mobile
Quarantine Facility where the crew left the helicopter and immediately entered the
Mobile Quarantine Facility. Following crew egress; the swimmer decontaminated the
Command Module, the collar, the raft, and his own protective garment with an
antibacterial agent. When the Command Module exterior had been decontaminated, all
decontamination equipment and the liferafts used by the Apollo crewmen were sunk at
sea.
418 Biomedical Results of Apollo
The Command Module was retrieved by the ship, towed to the immediate vicinity of
the MQF, and coupled to it with a plastic tunnel. The recovery engineer from the MQF
entered the Command Module via the tunnel, removed samples and data, and completed
Command Module shutdown procedures. The Command Module hatch was resealed and
remained sealed until it was placed in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston.
The biomedical samples and lunar sample containers, film, data, etc., from the CM
were packaged and decontaminated for return to the Johnson Space Center. The Mobile
Quarantine Facility with the astronauts, one crew surgeon, and one recovery engineer was
transported by the recovery ship to Hawaii where it was placed aboard an aircraft for the
flight to Houston. In Houston, the MQF was taken to the Johnson Space Center and
coupled to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory for transfer of crew, associated personnel,
and equipment. The MQF was then sealed and placed in quarantine as authorized.
The Command Module was also subjected to reaction control system
decontamination and pyro-safing in Hawaii. The CM was then transported to the Johnson
Space Center where it arrived approximately five days after the astronauts.
Quarantine of Personnel
The final phase of the Apollo back-contamination program was completed in the
Lunar Receiving Laboratory. The sequential flow of crewmen, spacecraft, and lunar
samples is shown in figure 5. The crewmen and spacecraft were quarantined for a
minimum of 21 days and were released after the completion of certain prescribed tests.
The lunar sample was quarantined for a period of 50 to 80 days, depending on the results
of extensive biological tests. In addition to the three Apollo crewmembers, other
personnel quarantined in the LRL were two crew surgeons, a recovery engineer, medical
laboratory technicians, cooks, and stewards.
During the quarantine period, the crew and their immediate contacts underwent daily
medical examinations. Basic observations consisted of recording oral temperature and
pulse rate, and a brief interview by the crew surgeon. Biological specimens were obtained
from the crew on the twelfth and eighteenth days after lunar departure, and the crew
underwent another complete physical examination on the twenty-first day. Selected
microbiologic and immunologic examinations were also conducted at several points in the
quarantine. The purpose of the latter examinations was to provide diagnostic information
in the event of clinical illness.
Provisions were made to treat routine illness and minor injuries within the Crew
Reception Area. Equipment and a small working pharmacy were available. Serious illness
and injury were also to be treated onsite so far as possible. But, had any of the Apollo
crewmen or support personnel become critically ill or injured, the quarantine would have
been broken and the individual transported to the nearest appropriate medical facility.
In the event of a serious crew illness, a quarantine Medical Advisory Panel was
available for consultation. This panel consisted of experts in various aspects of infectious
disease empowered to provide diagnostic information pertinent to any release
recommendation.
Release recommendations for the crew and support staff were developed by the
medical staff. The medical status of both the crew and the support personnel exposed to
The Lunar Quarantine Program 419
the crew and/or to the lunar mission equipment was taken into consideration.
Technically, release of the Apollo crews might have been delayed because of illness
,o Ys o_ oo Ys >
• LM HATCH CLOSED
• CM RECOVERY
DAYS)
_CREWMEMBER DEBRIEFING_
• MANAGEMENT DEBRIEFING
• PRESS CONFERENCE
• SPACECRAFT TO LRL
• SPACECRAFT RELEASE
To safeguard the health of LRL personnel, every worker was subjectcd to extensive
medical examinations before each Apollo lunar mission. Because of the potential hazard
of working with lunar material, a requirement was established that pregnant employees,
all persons lakin_ mt_rlicatinn ant] thn_ r_m_irln_ rn_sti,.al aifl_ _,,oh ac o,-,,t_k,._h .....
or hearing aids would not be permitted to enter the secondary biological barrier. In
addition, serum pools were collected from each individual who might be exposed to lunar
material. The stored samples would serve as a baseline for analysis of any medical
'complications that might arise in the years following the exposure.
The quarantine program was in effect for the crews of Apollo 11, 12, and 14.
Procedures differed very little for the three flights. The quarantine of the Apollo 11 crew
to an extraterrestrial source were recovered from the crewmen or the spacecraft. Release
No variations of the quarantine procedure occurred during recovery and return of the
Apollo 12 crew. However, the biological isolation garments used for Apollo 11 were not
420 Biomedical Results of Apollo
used for Apollo 12 or 14 since they prow_d to be uncomfortably hot during recovery
operations. They were replaced with lightweight coveralls and biological masks which
filtered exhaled air. No significant trends were noted in any biochemical, immunological,
or hematological parameters in either the flight crew or support personnel.
The only change in quarantine procedures for the Apollo 14 mission was the use of
two MQFs and two helicopter transfers of the crew and support personnel. This
procedure was implemented to return the crew to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory five
days earlier than on the previous lunar landing missions. No signs of illness or significant
trends related to lunar material exposure were reported, and again, release took place on
schedule.
There was no plan to decontaminate the spacecraft unless anomalies occurred during
a mission that might have indicated the need for an early spacecraft release. Provisions
were made, however, for spacecraft decontamination, if required. Before installing the
biological barrier (door panels) on the CM, the exterior was photographed, and
preparations were made for connecting the decontamination equipment. These activities
were performed by non-quarantined personnel, who did not deal with "contaminated"
systems. These persons then left the room in which the spacecraft was located and
biological barriers were installed.
The spacecraft room contained all equipment required for decontamination of the
Command Module. There were also communications and closed circuit television for
monitoring and supporting cleanup and decontamination activities. Personnel from the
Crew Reception Area were trained to open the Command Module hatch and remove the
double-bag stowed equipment, including lithium hydroxide canisters, fecal bags, food
bags, and space suits. The individual working inside the CM doffed shoe covers upon
egress. All persons then reentered the CRA and showered. Thus the likelihood of
contaminating the Crew Reception Area and space suit room was minimal.
Formaldehyde decontamination of the Command Module cabin and suit circuit was
accomplished without reopening the hatch. Following a minimum 24-hour kill period, the
hatch was opened and the cabin exhausted through the room air conditioning system.
The water and waste management systems were also decontaminated with aqueous
formaldehyde (formalin) for 24 hours. Spore strips were placed at random locations in
the CM to verify decontamination effectiveness.
The returned lunar sample was processed through a sequence of steps which resulted
in the following:
All flight equipment exposed to lunar surface materials was placed under quarantine
restrictions. The equipment included films, data tapes, logs, and other flight equipment.
Procedures for quarantine and release of the equipment were as follows:
Flight Film. Flight film was received in the Crew Reception Area and, after
appropriate preparation, was passed out for processing. Film from the Apollo 11 mission
422 Biomedical Results of Apollo
s_
Ot_
a:z
a.O +
z_- _t_z
u _nO
a_
< I
0
.4-,
a. I
0
L
I
I
l
u.m
z_ =
_g ,.5
a:O
zo_
x_
_z_
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
The Lunar Quarantine Program 423
was sterilized with ethylene oxide. After the Apollo 11 mission, sterilization of flight film
was not required.
Data Tapes. Data tapes were received in the CRA and, after appropriate preparation,
were sterilized using ethylene oxide gas and passed through the biological barrier. The
tapes were then handled using normal procedures.
Other Spacecraft Equipment. All other items were either held in approved biological
containers until the release of lunar samples or were processed using the procedures
outlined in figure 7. Requirements for early release were kept to a minimum.
Material exposed to lunar surface Pressure suJts Hold until sample release
or or
Equipment concentrating lunar - LiOH canisters Steam sterilization
material
or or
or
Hypochlorite dunk
or
Formaldehyde
Summary
The crews of Apollo 11, 12, and 14 experienced no health problems as a result of
their exposure to lunar material. The test species, plant and animal, which were exposed
to and injected with lunar material showed no adverse alterations or ill effects from
exposure. Since exhaustive studies of the astronauts and returned lunar samples from
Apollo 11 and 12 indicated there was no hazard to Earth's biosphere, the Interagency
Committee on Back-Contamination, in Januat:y of 1970, concurred in NASA's
424 Biomedical Results of Apollo
recommendation that stringent quarantine rules be abandoned for future Apollo missions
to the moon.
To ensure that lunar material represented absolutely no danger to the Earth's
environment, the quarantine program remained in effect for the Apollo 14 flight and was
then abandoned. Although the formal quarantine for the crew, spacecraft, and lunar
samples was over, procedures for handling lunar material and protecting it from
contamination remained in effect for the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions. This guaranteed
that scientists performing tests on the material would have uncontaminated samples.
126s9
CHAPTER 2
by
Gerald R. Taylor, Ph.D.
Bernard J. Mieszkuc
Introduction
The objective of the quarantine testing and hiocharaeterization portion of the Apollo
medical program was to test appropriate representative lunar samples for the possible
presence of agents that might be infectious or toxic for plants, man, and other animals.
The goal of the laboratory was to provide safety clearance for lunar samples within a
period of approximately 30 days. Lunar materials were analyzed in an isolated
environment. These analyses were performed immediately after the lunar samples were
unpacked in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) at the Johnson Space Center. Small
but representative samples of lunar material were used to assess whether they contained
microorganisms, and to ensure that the lunar materials were nonhazardous to the selected
test species.
The quarantine testing included a wide variety of biological species. Approximately
500 gm of lunar material were required for each investigation. Analyses of data from the
Apollo 11, 12, and 14 missions indicated that no microbial life forms had been recovered
from the lunar material. For subsequent missions, the containment aspects of the
postflight quarantine were omitted and the biocharacterization or preliminary biomedical
evaluation of lunar materials was initiated. The aims were to characterize the lunar
material with respect to its ability to stimulate biological activity, and to measure possible
microbial contamination of lunar samples. For the Apollo 15 mission, the number of
biological tests was reduced to one-third of those performed on previous missions.
Further reduction in the scope of the program occurred after the Apollo 15 mission.
425
426 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
Botanical Investigations
The botanical quarantine studies at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory were designed to
determine whether lunar material contained any agent capable of generating an epidemic
disease in representative species of the plant kingdom. These tests were conducted under
conditions which would ensure confinement of any infectious agents that might be found
in the lunar materials or generated in the lunar-exposed plants (Walkinshaw et al., 1970).
Class III biological glove boxes were used to achieve the required protective containment
(Kemmerer et al., 1969).
A total of 35 plant species wcre exposed to lunar material returned during the
Apollo 11 and 12 missions (table 1). Four test systems were employed. These included
liquid or solid cultures of algal cells, germinating spores and seeds, actively growing
seedlings, and tissue cultures on solid media.
Lunar samples used in Apollo 11, 12, and 14 studies were composites of
representative rock fragments and surface fines; samples used in Apollo 15, 16, and 17
postflight studies were composites of surface fines. The samples were handled and
analyzed as described by Johnson and co-workers (1972). Descriptions of the terrestrial
controls may also be found in the work by Johnson and his associates.
Treatment of algal cultures with lunar material inhibited growth in dense cellular
suspensions and stimulated growth in cultures grown on semisolid mineral media. Growth
promotion was evident by marked increase in cell density in areas adjacent to lunar
particles. Treatment of algal cells by exposure to lunar material suspended via gentle
agitation resulted in cultures having higher respiration rates than untreated controls.
Microscopic examination of treated cultures revealed no significant differences between
lunar- and terrestrial-treated cells.
The fern, Onoclea sensibililis L., which was tested with each composite sample,
appeared to be the most sensitive plant for demonstrating that lunar material can act as a
source of nutrients for plants. Clumps of spores germinating on lunar material placed
within a well cut into mineral agar showed a severalfold increase in mass. The resulting
Quarantine Testing and Biocharaeterization of Lunar Materials 427
Table 1
Plant Species Challenged With Lunar Materials
in Apollo 11 or 12 Quarantine Studies
gametophytes were also greener than those treated with terrestrial basalts. Other lower
plants, such as Lycopodium cernuurn L. and Marchantia polyrnorpha L. (liverwort),
exhibited similar stimulation. Measurements of chlorophyll a in the treated plants showed
significantly higher concentrations of that pigment than of chlorophyll b or carotenoids.
Seeds germinated in the presence of lunar materials grew vigorously and absorbed
significant quantities of aluminum, chromium, iron, titanium (Walkinshaw & Johnson,
1971), and a variety of elements including rare-earth elements. In addition, cabbage and
brussels sprouts absorbed large amounts of manganese. Lettuce seedlings generally thrived
in the presence of lunar material. Germ-free bean, citrus, corn, sorghum, soybean,
tobacco, and tomato plants showed no deleterious effects when their leaves or roots were
treated with 0.2 gm/specimen of lunar material (figure 1). Citrus, corn, and soybean
plants appeared to grow consistently better if treated in the sand-water culture system
originally described by Walkinshaw and co-workers (1970). Histological specimens taken
Erom lunar-treated plants revealed no deleterious effects.
Figure 1. Corn treated with lunar material from the Apollo 17 mission.
The twelve plant tissue culture systems used in the biocharacterization program
appeared to be the most useful for studying cell/lunar particle interactions (Walkinshaw
e t al., 1973). Lunar-treated tobacco cells accumulated approximately 30 percent more
total chlorophyll Q than did untreated ones (Weete & Walkinshaw, 1972). Relative and
absolute concentrations of fatty acids and sterols were changed by lunar treatment
Quarantine
Testing and Biocharacterizafion of Lunar Materials 429
(Weete, Walkinshaw & Laseter, 1972). Pine cells, on the other hand, exhibited a
remarkable increase in accumulation of tannin but not of fatty acids or sterols. Both
stationary and suspension cultures of tobacco tissue cultures treated with lunar material
exhibited an increased maturation of chloroplasts and apparent secretory activity (Baur
et al., 1973).
In summary, a number of beneficial effects were observed to be associated with
the use of lunar soil cultivation, and none of these effects was found to be
associated with an infectious process. The absence of microorganisms or any harmful
substance suggests that lunar material could be used as a support medium for the
growth of many plants. The tests conducted at the Johnson Space Center indicate
that ferns, liverworts, and tobacco cultures utilize lunar material as a source of
nutrients (Walkinshaw et al., 1970).
Virological Investigations
Virological studies of the lunar material obtained during the Apollo missions
consisted primarily of analyses for replicating agents, principally those able to reproduce.
The materials tested and the systems challenged are presented in table 2. The fluid
obtained from centrifuging 50 percent weight per volume (W/V) suspensions of lunar
material in sterile media was used to inoculate the test systems. Mammalian and avian
cultures were re-inoculated ten and twenty days later. Fish cell cultures were
re-inoculated in 15 days. Cell cultures in the final passage were tested for infection. All
systems were tested to make sure they would react with known viruses. African green
monkey kidney (GMK) cultures were challenged with enteric cytopathogenic human
orphan virus type !1; mammalian and avian cultures were challenged with pancreatic
necrosis virus. Embryonated eggs were inoculated by way of the yolk sac, the
chorioallantoic membrane, and the amniotic and allantoic sacs. Extracts of lunar material
were inoculated ;,,+,- the brain anA th_ h,,Ay cavil, of mice If; .... 9) l_lat_r;_l_ _r,,m
tissue cultures, embryonated eggs, and suckling mice were tested for hemaglutinins using
chicken, guinea pig, and human type O red blood cells. Viral passage materials were
processed for light- and electron-microscope examinations. Standard mycoplasma
isolation procedures were used. No evidence of replicating agents was found in any of the
systems used.
Additional studies were performed on the Apollo 15 lunar material to measure
changes in the ability to infect the host cells. The green monkey kidney cell cultures were
exposed to extracts (20 percent W/V) of lunar material and were challenged with
parainfluenza and rubella viruses. The ability of the cell cultures to support virus
replication was not affected. To determine the effect on growth, metabolism, and colony
morphology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae, the organism was grown in suspensions of lunar
material (ten percent W/V), in mycoplasma broth medium, and in agar containing
0.75 percent lunar material. No significant differences were observed between terrestrial
basalt used to simulate lunar material and lunar material suspensions. Colonies grown on
agar containing lunar material were similar to those grown on agar medium alone or on
agar containing simulated lunar material.
430 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 2
Systems Challenged in the Virological Analyses of Lunar
Material Obtained During the Apollo Missions
Systems Challenged
Apollo Number Tissue
of Samples Embryonated Suckling Mycoplasma
Mission Cultures
Tested Eggs Mice Media
I l::l
15 1 GMK. HEK, W I - 3 8 X X X
17
GMK =
GMK. HEK. W I - 3 8
GMK, HEK, W I - 3 8
Another study was performed to determine the effect of lunar materials on the
stability of poliomyelitis virus. Fifty-percent suspensions of lunar material from the
Apollo 11, 12, 14, and 15 missions were inoculated with poliomyelitis virus and
incubated at 277°K (_4°C). Virus-inoculated balanced salt solution and suspensions of
simulated lunar material served as controls. Aliquots were removed for viral assay
periodically. The number of virus particles in the suspensions of the lunar material was
significantly lower than the number in the balanced salt solution. However, no significant
differences were detected between simulated and lunar material suspensions.
Zoological Investigations
Following the Apollo 11, 12, 14, and 15 missions, 15 species of animals representing
five phyla were exposed to untreated lunar material (table 3). These tests were
complementary to the other protocols and were designed to detect any viable or
replicating agents capable of infecting and multiplying in animals. The lunar material used
for these tests came from the pooled biosamples (Long et al., 1972).
Because of the differences in maintenance techniques for the aquatic and terrestrial
species, the methods of providing exposure to the lunar samples differed. The aquatic and
protozoan species were exposed by adding lunar material to the medium in which the
animals were living. For the Apollo 14 tests, oysters were exposed by introduction of
lunar material into the shell cavity through a 0.32 cm (1/8 in.) hole drilled in the shell.
Exposure of the insect species was accomplished by mixing the lunar samples with their
food. The mice were exposed by inoculation into the body cavity (intraperitoneally) or
the skin (subcutaneously). The guinea pigs used for evaluating pulmonary response to
lunar material were exposed by inoculating this suspension into the respiratory tract
(trachea). The quail were exposed by intraperitoneal inoculation.
Results of exposure of the various animal species were uniformly negative (Simmonds
et al., 1972; and Benschoter et al._ 1970). Nn viable or r_,_li_J;,, ....... t_ ,_th_r the,,
identifiable terrestrial microorganisms, were ever recovered or observed in the test
animals. Exposure of the animals to the lunar material resulted in some minor and
temporary inhibition or toxicity.
Table 3
Lunar Material
Genus and Species from Apollo Results
(Common Name) Mission
Paramecium aurelia 11, 12, 14 Initial reduction in fission rates after exposure,
(paramecium) rapidly increasing to normal after 4 to 5 days.
All groups had normal morphologic features.
Crassostrea virginica 11, 12, 14 During Apollo 11 and 14 missions, large num-
(commercial oyster) bers of deaths were encountered in all groups
but correlation could not be shown between
the deaths and exposure to lunar material. Dur-
ing Apollo 12 mission, all oysters remained in
excellent health.
Fundulus heteroclitus 11, 12, 14 With the exception of a few fish in each group
(mummichog minnow) during Apollo 12 mission (lost because of gill
congestion from exposure to sodium hypochlor-
ite), all mummichogs remained in excellent
health, and no unaccountable gross or histo-
pathologic changes ware found.
ORIGINAL PAGB I$
OF POOR QUALITY
Quarantine Testing and Biocharacterization of Lunar Materials 433
A variety of samples from all six lunar exploration missions was examined for the
presence of biological forms or viable organisms (Taylor & Wooley, 1973). To evaluate
lunar material for the presence of viable organisms, aliquots of each sample were
inoculated into an array of culture media and incubated at several temperatures [277 °,
297 °, 308 °, and 328°K (_4 °, 24 ° 35 ° and 55°C)] in three gaseous environments(sterile
nitrogen, 10 percent carbon dioxide in air, and air) (Taylor & Ferguson, 1970). No
evidence of viable organisms was obtained from any of the analyses.
Following incubation of the lunar material in the culture media complexes, microbial
growth dynamics studies were performed with known test species to evaluate the possible
presence of toxic factors. Only extracts of culture media that had been in contact with a
mixture of lunar material from both Apollo 11 core tubes proved to be toxic to all
species tested (Taylor et al., 1971; and Taylor, Ellis et al., 1970). Attempts to reproduce
this toxic effect with individual Apollo 11 core samples Obtained at other parts of the
core tube and analyzed under somewhat different conditions were unsuccessful. The
mechanism causing this microbial death has not been determined. In all, 48 different
lunar samples, collected to a depth of 297 cm (117 in.) from six different landing sites,
were examined.
Summary
The likelihood that life existed on the moon was considered quite remote by most
members of the scientific community and by NASA officials, but the extensive testing
described above was conducted to ensure the safety of all life on Earth. The plants and
animals which were exposed to lunar material were carefully observed for prolonged
periods to determine if any mutation or changes in growing characteristics and behavior
occurred. The quarantine testing was terminated after the Apollo 14 flight when it
bccame apparent that previously returned lunar material contained no potentially
harmful agents. Further biological experimentation with the lunar material was
conducted to determine its chemical, physical, and nutritional qualities.
References
Anderson, D.H.: Numbering System for Moon Samples. Science, vol. 167, no. 3918, Jan. 1970,
p. 781.
Baur, P.S.; Walkinshaw, C.H.; Halliwell, R.S.; and Scholes, V.E.: Morphology of Nicotiana tabacum
Cells Grown in Contact with Lunar Material. Can. J. Botany, vol. 51, Jan. 1973, pp. 151-156.
Benschoter, C.A., Allison, T.C.; Boyd, J.F.; Brooks, M.A.; Campbell, J.W.; Groves, R.O.; Heimpel,
A.M.; Mills, H.E.; Ray, S.M.; Warren, J.W.; Wolf, K.E.; Wood, E.M., Wrenn, R.T.; and Zein-Eldin,
A.: Apollo 11: Exposure of Lower Animals to Lunar Material. Science, vol. 169, no. 3943, July
1970, pp. 470-472.
Carrier, W.D., III; Johnson, S.W.; Werner, R.A.; and Schmidt, R.: Disturbance in Samples Recovered
with the Apollo Core Tubes. Proceedings of the Second Lunar Science Conference, vol. 3, 1971,
pp. 1959-1972.
Carrier, W.D., llI; Johnson, S.W.; Wemer, R.A.; and Schmidt, R.: Core Sample Depth Relationships:
Apollo 14 and 15. Proceedings of the Third Lunar Science Conference, vol. 3, 1972,
pp. 3213-3221.
434 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Holland, J.M.; and Simmonds, R.C.: The Mammalian Response to Lunar Particulates. Space Life
Sciences, vol. 4, no. 1, Jan. 1973, pp. 97-109.
Johnson, P.H.; Walkinshaw, C.H.; Martin, J.R.; Nance, W.B.; and Bennett, A.D.: Elemental Analysis of
Apollo 15 Surface Fines Used in Biological Studies at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Bioscience,
vol. 22, no. 2, Feb. 1972, pp. 96-99.
Kemmerer, W.W., Jr.; Mason, J.A.; and Wooley, B.C.: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Activities at
the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Bioscience, vol. 19, no. 8, Aug. 1969, pp. 712-715.
Long, R.; Ellis, W.; and Schneider, H.: Biopreparation of Apollo 14 Lunar Material. Tex. J. Science,
vol. 24, 1972, pp. 262-263.
Simmonds, R.C.; Holland, J.M.; Young, E.L.; and Boyd, J.F.: Animal Maintenance for Biomedical
Evaluation of Lunar Material. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn., vol. 161, no. 6, Sept. 1972, pp. 720-727.
Taylor, G.R., Ellis, W.L.; Arredondo, M.; and Mayhew, B.: Growth Response of Pseudomonas
aeroginosa (ATCC 15442) to the Presence of Lunar Material. Bacteriol. Proceedings, 1970, p. 42.
Taylor, G.R.; Ellis, W.; Johnson, P.H.; Kropp, K.; and Groves, T.: Microbial Assay of Lunar Samples.
Proceedings of the Second Lunar Conference, vol. 2, 1971, pp. 1939-1949.
Taylor, G.R.; Ferguson, J.K.; and Truby, C.P.: Methods Used to Monitor the Microbial Load of
Returned Lunar Material. Appl. Microbiol., vol. 20, no. 2, Aug. 1970, pp. 271-272.
Taylor, G.R.; and Wooley, B.C.: Evaluations of Lunar Samples for the Presence of Viable Organisms.
Proceedings of the Fourth Lunar Science Conference, Geochim Cosmochim Acta, vol. 2, 1973,
pp. 2267-2274.
Walkinshaw, C.H.; Sweet, H.C., Venketcswaran, S.; and Home, W.H.: Results of Apollo 11 and 12
Quarantine Studies on Plants. Bioscience, vol. 20, no. 24, Dec. 1970, pp. 1297-1302.
Walkinshaw, C.H.; and Johnson, P.H.: Analysis of Vegetable Seedlings Grown in Contact with
Apollo 14 Lunar Surface Fines. J. Hort. Science, vol. 6, 1971, pp. 532-535.
Walkinshaw, C.H.; Venketeswaran, S.; Baur, P.S.; Hall, R.H.; Croley, T.E.; Weete, J.D.; Scholes, V.E.;
and Halliwcll, R.H.: Effect of Lunar Materials on Plant Tissue Culture. Space Life Sciences, vol. 4,
no. 1, Jan. 1973, pp. 78-89.
Walkinshaw, C.H.; Wooley, B.C.; and Bozarth, G.A.: Technology Advancements in the Growth of
Germ-free Plants at the Manned Spacecraft Center. Germ-free Research: Biological Effect of
Gnotobiotic Environments. Academic Press, 1973.
Weete, J.D.; and Walkinshaw, C.H.: Apollo 12 Lunar Material: Effects on Plant Pigments. Can. J.
Botany, vol. 50, Jan. 1972, pp. 101-104.
Weete, J.D.; Walkinshaw, C.H.; and Laseter, J.L.: Apolo 12 Lunar Material: Effects on Lipid Levels of
Tobacco Tissue Cultures. Science, vol. 175, no. 4021, Feb. 1972, pp. 623-624.
SECT,O0
VI
Systems
CHAPTER 1
APOLLO FOOD TECHNOLOGY
by
Malcolm C. Smith, D.V.M.
N.D. Heidelbaugh, V.M.D.
Paul C. Rambaut, Sc.D.
R.M. Rapp
Harry O. Wheeler, Ph.D.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
Before man ventured into space for the first time, there was concern that he might
choke while attempting to swallow food in zero gravity. Foreign body pneumonia from
aspiration of food particles and droplets was feared by some. The ability of man to digest
and absorb food in a weightless environment was also seriously debated. These concerns
for man's physiological well-being during weightlessness were augmented by fears that the
unfamiliar and austere limitations imposed by the space vehicle and flight plans might
place unacceptable constraints on the food system. Some food technologists doubted
that edible foods could be prepared to withstand conditions of temperature, pressure, and
vibration which were characteristic of unmanned :space flight vehicles. Limitations on
allowable weight and volume would also have direct impact on the food system.
Despite early concerns, restrictions, and technological hurdles surrounding space food
development, adequate and acceptable diets were formulated and made available in
sufficient time to accommodate the needs of man in space. The earliest food systems used
in the Project Mercury flights and the short duration Gemini Program flights resembled
military survival rations. For the first long term flight, the two-week Gemini 7 mission,
nutritional criteria became important considerations and began to constrain food system
designers. Adequate provisions for energy and nutrients had to be made within an
exceedingly small weight and volume envelope. This food system envelope, about .77 kg
per man per day (1.7 pounds) and 1802 cm 3 per man per day (110 cubic inches), also
had to allow for all packaging materials needed to protect foods.
437
The overall objective of the Apollo food system development program was to provide
adequate and safe nutrition for man during the most ambitious space explorations ever
attempted. This objective had to be achieved within many critical biological, operational,
and engineering constraints. Considerations from which specific constraints were
developed are listed in table 1. Details concerning the constraints are described in the
Apollo Experience Report - Food Systems (NASA TN D-7720, July 1974).
Table 1
Sources of Constraints
on Apollo Food System Development
Apollo food system technology evolved over a considerable period of time, with the
aid of efforts from the U.S. Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory Program, the U.S.
Army Natick Laboratories, industry, and universities. The earliest "space foods" were
bite-sized foods suitable for eating with one's fingers, and pureed foods, squeezed directly
into the mouth from flexible metal toothpaste-type tubes. Extensive modifications in
food and food packaging were made throughout Project Mercury and the Gemini and
Apollo Programs. Modifications of the food system were especially necessary during the
Apollo Program for the following reasons.
3. Meal preparation and consumption required too much crew time and effort.
5. Functional failures occurred in the rehydratable food packages in the early Apollo
flights.
Before an Apollo launch, each prime and backup crewmember evaluated available
flight foods and selected the food items he preferred. Then the foods were assembled
into nutritionally balanced menus which were reviewed by crewmernbers and nutritionists
for maximum acceptability within nutritional constraints. Finally, the astronauts were
briefed on spacecraft food stowage, preparation, and waste disposal.
440 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 2
Typical Menu, Apollo 7-10
A. Commander (CDR)
Meal A
Meal B
Corn chowder (R) Tuna salad (R) Corn chowder (R) Pea Soup (R)
Chicken sand- Cinnamon bread Beef pot roast (R) Salmon salad (R)
wiches (DB) cubes (DB) Graham cracker Cheese sand-
Coconut cubes (DB) Chocolate cubes (DB) cubes (DB) wiches (DB)
Sugar cookie Cocoa (R) Butterscotch Cocoa (R)
cubes (DB) pudding (R)
Cocoa (R) Cocoa (R)
Meal C
Beef and gravy (R) Spaghetti with meat Potato soup (R) Shrimp cocktail (R)
Brownies (IMB) sauce (R) Chicken salad (R) Chicken and gravy (R)
Chocolate pudding (R) Cheese sand- Beef sandwiches (DB) Cinnamon bread
wiches (DB) cubes (DB)
Pineapple-grapefruit Gingerbread (IMB)
drink (R) Banana pudding (R) Date fruit cake (IMB)
Orange drink (R)
Pineapple fruit Orange-grapefruit
cake (IMB) drink (R)
Grapefruit drink (R)
Meal A
Peaches (R) Applesauce (R) Fruit cocktail (R) Ham and apple-
Bacon squares (IMB) sauce (R)
Bacon squares (IMB) Sausage patties (R)
Peanut cubes (DB)
Cinammon bread Apricot cereal Cinnamon bread
cubes (DB) cubes (DB) cubes (DB) Strawberry cereal
cubes (DB)
Breakfast drink (R) Breakfast drink (R) Breakfast drink (R)
Breakfast drink (R)
R = Rehydratable
DB = Dry bite
IMB = Intermediate moisture bite
Apollo Food Technology 441
Table 2 (Continued)
Meal B
Chicken sand- Tuna salad (R) Beef pot roast (R) Pea soup (R)
wiches (DB) Cinnamon bread Graham cracker Salmon salad (R)
Coconut cubes (DB) cubes (DB) cubes (DB) Cheese sand-
Sugar cookie Chocolate cubes (DB) Butterscotch wiches (DB)
cubes (DB) Cocoa (R) pudding (R)
Cocoa (R)
Cocoa (R) Cocoa (R)
Meal C
Beef and gravy (R) Spaghetti with meat Potato soup (R) Shrimp cocktail (R)
Brownies (IMB) sauce (R) Chicken salad (R) Chicken and gravy (R)
Cheese sand-
Chocolate pudding (R) Beef sandwiches (DB) Cinnamon bread
wiches (DB)
Pineapple-grapefruit Gingerbread (IMB) cubes (DB)
drink (R) Banana pudding (R)
Orange drink (R) Date fruit cake (IMB)
Pineapple fruit
Orange-grapefruit
cake (IMB) drink (R)
Grapefruit drink (R)
Meal A
Peaches (R) Applesauce (R) Fruit cocktail (R) Ham and apple-
Bacon squares (IMB) Sausage patties (R) sauce (R)
Bacon squares (IMB)
Cinnamon bread Breakfast drink (R) Cinnamon bread Strawberry cereal
cubes (DB) cubes (IMB) cubes (DB)
Peanut cubes (DB)
Breakfast drink (.R) Breakfast drink (R) Apricu[ _real
cubes (DB)
Breakfast drink (R)
Meal B
Corn chowder (R) Tuna salad (R) Corn chowder (R) Salmon salad (R)
Chicken sand- Cinnamon bread Beef pot roast (R) Cheese sand-
wiches (DB) cubes (DB) wiches (DB)
Graham cracker
Coconut cubes (DB) Chocolate cubes (DB) cubes (DB) Peanut cubes (DB)
Sugar cookie Cocoa (R) Butterscotch Cocoa (R)
cubes (DB) pudding (R)
Cocoa (R)
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
442 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 2 (Continued)
Day 1 Day 4
Day 2 I Day 3
i
Meal C
Beef and gravy (R) Spaghetti with meat Potato soup (R) Potato salad (R)
Brownies (IMB) sauce (R) Chicken salad (R) Chicken and gravy (R)
Chocolate Cheese sand- Beef sandwiches (DB) Cinnamon bread
pudding (R) wiches (DB) cubes (DB)
Gingerbread (IMB)
Pineapple-grapefruit Banana pudding (R) Date fruit cake (IMB)
Orange drink (R)
drink (R) Pineapple fruit Orange-grapefruit
cake (IMB) drink (R)
Grapefruit drink (R)
The initial Apollo inflight food system consisted of two basic food types: (1) light-
weight, shelf-stable, dehydrated foods that required rehydration prior to consumption,
and (2) ready-to-eat, dehydrated bite-sized foods. Dehydrated foods were selected
because of shelf life and because weight was critical in the Apollo vehicle. Approximately
80 percent of the weight of fresh food is water; therefore, the removal of water resulted
in a substantial reduction of food system weight. As was previously noted, water for
rehydration was available as a by-product of fuel cell operation, wherein hydrogen is
combined with oxygen to release electrical energy.
Table 3
Typical Menu, Apollo l 1-16
Meal A
Peaches (R) Fruit cocktail (R) Peaches (R) Canadian bacon and
Bacon squares (8) (IMB) Sausage patties (SBP) Bacon applesauce (R)
Strawberry cubes (4) (DB) Cinnamon toasted squares (8) (IMB) Sugar coated corn
bread cubes (4) (DB| Apricot cereal flakes (R)
Grape drink (R)
Cocoa (R) cubes (4) (DB) Peanut cubes (4) (DB)
Orange drink (R)
Grapefruit drink (R) Grape drink (R) Cocoa (R)
Orange drink (R) Orange-grapefruit
drink (R)
Meal B
Beef and potatoes (WP) Frankfurters (WP| Cream of chicken Shrimp cocktail (R)
Butterscotch pudding (R) Applesauce (R) soup (R) Ham and potatoes (WP)
Brownies (4) (IMB) Chocolate pudding (R) Turkey and Fruit cocktail (R)
gravy (WP)
Grape punch (R) Orange-grapefruit Date fruit cake (4) (IMB)
Cheese cracker
drink (R) Grapefruit drink (R)
cubes (6} (DB)
Chocolate
cubes (4) (DB)
Pineapple-grapefruit
drink (R)
Meal C
Table 3 (Continued)
Typical Menu, Apollo 11-16
Meal B
Pineapple-grapefruit
drink (R)
Meal C
Salmon salad (R) Potato soup (R) Tuna salad (R) Beef stew (SBP)
Chicken and Pork and scalloped Chicken stew (SBP) Coconut cubes (4) (DB)
Pineapple-grapefruit
drink (R)
Table 3 (Continued)
Typical Menu, Apollo 11-16
C. Lunar Module
Meal A Meal B
D. Pantr' Stowage
Banana pudding 6
Butterscotch pudding 6
Applesauce 6
Chocolate pudding 6
Total Units 24
Table 3 (Continued)
Typical Menu, Apollo 11-16
Total Units 57
Rye 4 Apricots
White 4 Peaches
Cheese Pears 6
Total Units 6
Spoon-bowlpackage.
Apollo Food Technology 447
Table 3 (Continued)
Typical Menu, Apollo 11-16
Tomato juice 113.4 gm (1/2 c} Apple juice 113.4 gm (1/2 c) Beef consomme 113.4 gm (1/2 c)
Canadian bacon (2 slices) Broiled flounder Baked chicken 170.1 gm (6 oz)
Soft cooked eggs (2) 170.1 gm (6 oz)
Buttered rice 113.4 gm (1/2 c)
Toast (1 slice) Paprika potatoes Pureed carrots 113.4 gm (1/2 c)
113.4 gm (1/2 c)
Butter 9.45 gm (2 tsp) Whipped strawberry
Pureed green beams
Cream of rice 113.4 gm (1/2 c) gelatin dessert
113A gm (1/2 c)
Sugar Lady fingers (2)
Hard roll (1)
Grape jelly Tea or coffee
Butter 9A5 gm (2 tsp)
Coffee
Lime sherbet 113.4 gm (1/2 c)
Vanilla wafers (2)
Coffee
Critical relationships exist between pressure and temperature during the drying
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organoleptic quality and preventing destruction of nutrients.
Bite-Sized Foods
Bite-sized, ready-to-eat foods supplemented rehydratable foods for the first Apollo
manned flight. These bite-sized foods were either dehydrated (moisture less than two
percent) or prepared so that water in the product would be bound and, therefore, not
available for microbial growth. The latter category is generally referred to as
intermediate-moisture food to differentiate it from fresh foods at one extreme and
dehydrated food at the other. The intermediate-moisture foods (moisture less than
40 percent) are highly acceptable since they closely approximate the texture of fresh
foods and are ready to eat without reconstitution. Even with this combination of foods,
however, the range of texture and tastes was fairly limited for early Apollo astronauts, a
situation that was gradually rectified throughout the program.
448 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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454 Biomedical Results of ApoUo
Packaging
Packaging, like food items themselves, underwent substantial modification during the
Apollo Program. Flexible packaging protected each individual portion of food and made
handling and consumption easier. A series of redesign cycles finally resulted in a
rehydratable food package that had (1) an improved, transparent barrier-film of
laminated polyethylene-fluorohalocarbon-polyester-polyethylene; (2) a water injection
port consisting of a one-way, spring-loaded valve; and '(3) an improved opening that
permitted food consumption in weightlessness with a conventional tablespoon.
Cold [=283'K (lO°C)] and hot [=333OK (60°C)]water were available for food
preparation. Following water injection with the Apollo water dispenser, the food package
was kneaded to rehydrate the food and then opened for consumption. Early packages,
shown in figure 1, were fitted with plastic tubes through which rehydrated food was
extruded into the mouth. This configuration was changed by the introduction of a
spoon-bowl package, pictured in figure 2 and described in greater detail in the following
sections.
ORANGE DRINI
Bite-sized, ready-to-eat foods were contained in packets made from the same plastic
laminate material used for packaging rehydratable foods. These packets were opened sim-
ply by cutting with scissors (figure 3). The food was eaten directly from the package or
by use of the fingers.
Apollo Food Technology 455
I
.-
Figure 2. Apollo rehydratable food spoon-bowl package
shown opened with spoon inserted.
I
456 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Improvements in the food system were aimed at maintaining astronauts in the best
possible physiological condition and with a high level of morale. Modifications to improve
ease of consumption, stowage weight, and nutrient intake were reviewed and imple-
mented as dictated by changes in mission objectives, new activities, and medical,
operational, and experimental requirements.
Apollo 7
The food system for the first manned Apollo mission was basically that provided in
the Gemini Program but featured a wider variety of foods. However, while the availability
of 96 food items for the Apollo 7 flight contributed to better acceptance and increased
consumption relative to Gemini foods, the time and trouble required for meal preparation
was increased.
Apollo 8
The first departure from heavy reliance on rehydratable foods occurred during the
Apollo 8 flight. On Christmas day, 1968, during the first lunar orbital mission, the
Apollo 8 astronauts opened packages of thermostabilized turkey and gravy and ate with
spoons. This turkey entree required no water for rehydration because the normal water
content (67 percent) had been retained. The thermally stabilized, ready-to-eat meal in a
flexible can became known as a "wetpack," a term used to differentiate this package
from the dehydrated space foods that required the addition of water before consumption.
The flexible packs were made from a laminate of polyester, aluminum foil, and
polyolefin.
Wet-type foods had not been used previously because of the disadvantages associated
with high moisture content, particularly the requirement for sterility and the weight
penalty associated with this type of food. The improved crew acceptance of the product
justified the weight increase. Technology for heat sterilization in flexible packages was
sufficiently advanced by the time of Apollo 8 to assure a high quality product with
minimal chance for failure.
The Apollo 8 crew also used a conventional teaspoon to eat some foods, and found
that this mode of food consumption in weightlessness was quite satisfactory. This finding
led to food package redesign which made the use of spoons much more convenient.
Apollo 9
Beginning with the Apollo 9 mission, more wetpack items were added to the food
system. The variety of foods provided for this flight made crew diets more typical of
those consumed on Earth. The extensive use of wetpack containers without difficulty
during this mission confirmed the potential for eating a substantial portion of food from
open containers. The Apollo 9 crewmen experimented further by cutting open a
rehydratable food package and dating its contents with a spoon; the experiment was
successful.
During Apollo 9, the Lunar Module Pilot experienced nausea and vomiting. Menu
manipulation in flight to reduce the tendency for nausea represented the first use of
Apollo Food Technology 457
Apollo 10
Evolution of the Apollo food system was continued with the Apollo 10.flight, during
which the spoon-bowl package (see figure 2) was introduced. The spoon-bowl package
permitted convenient use of a spoon for consuming rehydrated foods. This modified
package had a water inlet valve at one end and a large plastic-zippered opening on the
other, which provided access to the rehydrated food with a spoon. Large pieces of
dehydrated meat and vegetables could now be included to provide a more familiar and
acceptable texture. As a result of this modification, some Apollo crewmen expressed a
preference for selected foods in rehydratable form over the wetpack equivalent.
The feasibility of eating from open containers with spoons in weightlessness was first
tested in aircraft flight, and subsequently verified during the flights of Apollo 8 and
Apollo 9. Using jet aircraft flying parabolic patterns, numerous foods, packages, and
utensils were tested. While these flights produced only brief periods of near-weightless
conditions, the results indicated that spacecraft application of the spoon-bowl concept
could be made successfully without dispersal of food particles throughout the vehicle.
Apollo 10 also marked the first successful use of conventional slices of fresh bread
and sandwich spreads. This bread had a shelf life at Apollo vehicle temperatures for at
least four weeks when packaged in a nitrogen atmosphere (figure 4). Provision of the
bread allowed crewmen to make sandwiches using meat salad spreads provided in separate
containers. The sandwich spreads were preserved by thermal processing and final package
closing in a hyperbaric chamber. The process enhances preservation of natural flavor and
texture by reducing thermal processing time and temperature.
An additional modificatian
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pantry concept. Locker space was reserved for an assembly of food to provide ad libitum
selection of meal components. This method allowed for some versatility in menu planning
and for inflight dietary modification. In all subsequent Apollo flights, pantry-stocked
foods augmented prepackaged meals. Even though.most astronauts expressed a desire
prior to flight for real-time food selection, they typically reported that this often proved
to be more trouble than it was worth.
The Apollo 10 crewmen reported some discomfort from a feeling of fullness and
gastric awareness immediately after eating. This was troublesome to individual astronauts
throughout the Apollo Program. Many causes for this condition have been suggested.
Among these are (1)aerophagia; (2)undissolved gases (oxygen and hydrogen);
(3) reduced atmospheric pressure; (4) changes in gastrointestinal motility; and (5) shifts
in intestinal microflora. Moreover, removal of water during the process of food
dehydration is a complex phenomenon that causes many physical-chemical shifts at the
cellular level. It is conceivable that, during the rehydration process, continued occurrence
of microscopic phenomena could cause osmotic displacements sensed by the cells of the
gastric or intestinal mucosa.
458 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Apollo 11
New food items for the Apollo 11 flight included thermostabilized cheddar cheese
spread and thermostabilized frankfurthers. Sandwich spreads were packaged in “401”
aluminum cans, which featured a pull-tab for easy removal of the entire top of the can.
This can proved successful and cventually became the nucleus for the development of the
open-dish eating concept implemented in the Skylab Program.
Command Module food for the first five days of the Apollo 11 mission was assembled
in nominal meal packages (figure 5). Forty-two man-meals (starting with day 1 , meal B),
an oral hygiene kit, and spoons were contained in a Command Module food locker.
Command Module menus for each Apollo 11 astronaut are presented in tables 3 (A, B).
Because the wetpack food items included did not require reconstitution in flight, the
menu was planned for consumption of wetpack foods during the midday meal when crew
activity was highest. The wetpack foods were stowed separately from nominal meal
packages.
A six-day supply of food and accessory items were stowed in pantry fashion (figure 6)
to permit some food selection based on real-time preference and appetite and to
supplement the meal packages if more food was desired by an individual. The foods
included beverages, salads, soups, meats, breakfast items, desserts, and bite-sized foods
[see table 3(D) for listing]. Primary food packages were placed in nonflammable
overwraps, which served to keep food groups together and to partition the spacecraft
Apollo Food Technology 459
food container for ease of retrieval in flight. Germicide tablets were provided for
stabilization of any food residue remaining in the primary food packages.
Four lunar surface meal periods were scheduled. The Apollo 11 Lunar Module menu
16 outlined in table 3(C). Foods for the four nominal meals (two each of meals A and B),
spoons, wetpack food, extra beverages, and tubed ham sandwich spread were stowed in
the Lunar Module food box. The remaining items (bread, candy, and dried fruit) were
stowed in the utility-light compartment of the flight data file.
Another major component of the Apollo 11 food system was the system employed
on the prime recovery ship in the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF) and, subsequently,
at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) at Johnson Space Center. A typical MQF menu
is shown in table 5. The MQF foods were used from time of splashdown until the crew-
men entered the LRL. The menu contained primarily precooked, frozen entrees, which
were reconstituted in a microwave oven in the MQF. The LRL system used the same type
of entrees with the addition of a wider variety of frozen vegetables, salads, and snacks.
The LRL food system also included a “first class” restaurant service, complete with table
linens. china, and silverware which was available to the flight crew, their support team,
and the lunar quarantine staff of approximately 20 scientists and technicians.
Apollo 12
The food system for Apollo 12 was quite similar to that which had proven successful
for Apollo 11. Freeze dehydrated scrambled eggs were introduced and were well accepted
by the crew. Other changes in the menu were directed toward meeting individual
crewmember nutrient requirements.
460 Apollo Food Technology
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Biomedical Results of Apollo 461
Apollo 13
The Apollo 13 inflight explosion and loss of fuel cell systems tested the food system
in an emergency situation in which fluid and electrolyte intakes were critical for life
support. After the accident, crew nutrient consumption was limited by the amount of
available water. Beverage bags proved to be extremely useful as an emergency means of
storing water that was rapidly being depleted. The use of these packages and the
availability of wetpack foods for providing fluids for the Apollo 13 crewmen has been
largely credited with maintaining the health of the astronauts throughout the emergency.
The beverage packages found other uses during Apollo missions and proved to be
versatile, durable, and reliable. They were used in experiments on the separation of gas
from liquids in weightlessness and also served as head supports on the couch during
reentry of the Command Module in at least one mission.
The &&lo 13 food system included the first dehydrated natural orange juice. Orange
juice hadrn6t been employed in space food systems previously hecause the dehydration
methods available failed to prevent fusion of natural sugars with the formation of an
insoluble mass. The provision of fruit juices further improved the quality and nutritional
value of the food system.
462 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Apollo 14
The Apollo 14 flight marked the first time space crewmen returned to Earth without
a significant change in body weight. Thc Commander and the Lunar Module Pilot had
consumed essentially all of their programmed food supply.
The Apollo 14 food system included an in-suit drinkin_ device. This allowed the
astronauts to better maintain fluid balance during extensive lunar surface operations.
The food safety regimen throughout the Apollo Program included the production and
final packaging of all food items in a Class 100 000 filtered-air cleanroom to maintain low
microbiological counts of Apollo foods. Foods were also examined for the presence of
heavy metals. The only deviation from perfect performance in the food safety area was a
failure in the early detection of mercury contamination in the Apollo 14 tuna fish salad.
The mercury content ways in excess of maximum limits established by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration. The tuna fish was removed from the food system shortly prior to
launch, and a nutritionally equivalent substitute from the pantry was used to supplement
the menu.
Apollo 15
Apollo 15 crewmen consumed solid food while working on the lunar surface. High
nutrient density food bars were installed inside the full pressure suit (figure 7). Figure 8
shows a view of the neck ring area of the Apollo lunar surface pressure suit with the
in-suit food bar and the in-suit drink device installed. The in-suit drink device was
designed to provide, water or fruit flavored beverages. This crew was the first to consume
all of the mission food provided. Negligible weight losses, after equilibration for fluid
losses, reaffirmed that the diet provided adequately for the crew's energy requirements.
The typical Apollo menu ultimately provided energy equivalent to 155+-17kJ/kg
(37+_4 kcal/kg) of body weight. Sliced fresh bread that had been pasteurized by exposure
to 50 000 fads of cobalt-60 gamma irradiation was first used for the Apollo 15 flight.
Apollo 16
Electrocardiographic recordings for Apollo 15 crewmen indicated occasional
arrhythmias believed to be possibly linked to a potassium deficit. In an effort to prevent
recurrence of a similar situation in the Apollo 16 crew, a requirement was levied to
provide 140+_5 milliequivalents of potassium in the Apollo 16 diets daily during flight and
for 72 hours both before and after flight. In addition, nutrient intake and absorption for
each Apollo 16 crewman was monitored during the entire period, beginning 72 hours
before flight and ending 72 hours after flight. This control of nutrient intake afforded
maximum opportunity to detect physiological changes accompanying transition to and
from the weightless state.
The requirement for 140+_5mEq of potassium could not be met by menu
manipulations using unmodified flight-qualified Apollo foods. Therefore, potassium
fortification of qualified inflight foods was investigated, and the development of modified
preflight and postflight foods was undertaken. It was found that Apollo 16 beverages and
soups could be modified by the addition of 10 mEq per serving of potassium in the form
of potassium gluconate (2.35 _n per serving).
Apollo Food Technology 463
Figure 7. Highdensity food bars for use in pressure suits on the lunar surface.
Large improvements and advances in space food systems were achieved during the
Apollo food program. Nevertheless, the majority of Apollo astronauts did not consume
sufficient nutrients. Loss of body weight, fluids, and electrolytes was the rule, with few
exceptions. The Apollo food program showed that man and his eating habits are not
easily changed. Adequate nutrition begins with appropriate food presented to the
consumer in familiar form.
A space food system must fulfill program requirements and provide proper nutrition
to maintain physiological well-being during the specific environments and stresses
imposed by the mission. Such a system must ultimately rely on nutritious foods that are
easy to prepare, that have familiar flavor and texture, and that provide diversion,
relaxation, security, and satiety.
Modifications of the Apollo food system were directed primarily toward improving
delivery of adequate nutrition to the astronaut. Individual food items and flight menus
were modified as nutritional countermeasures to the effects of weightlessness. Unique
food items were developed, including some that provided nutritional completeness, high
acceptability, and ready-to-eat, shelf-stable convenience. Specialized food packages were
also developed.
The Apollo Program experience clearly showed that future space food systems will
require well-directed efforts to achieve the optimum potential of food systems in support
of the physiological and psychological well-being of astronauts and crews. The
accomplishments of the Apollo food program provide a significant beginning.
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466 Biomedical Results of Apollo
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1967
Anon.: NASA Standards for Clean Rooms and Work Stations for the Microbiologically Controlled
Environment. NASA Handbook 5340.2, 1967.
Anon.: Standard Procedures for the Microbiological Examination of Space Hardware. NASA Hand-
book 5340.1, 1967.
Heidelbangh, Norman D.; and Rosenbusch, Marvin A.: A Method to Manufacture Pelletized Formula
Foods in Small Quantities. SAM TR-67-75, 1967.
Klicka, Mary V.; Hollender, H.A.; and LaChance, P.A.: Foods for Astronauts. J. Am. Dietet. Assoc.,
vol. 51, no. 2, Sept. 1967, pp. 238-245.
Apollo Food Technology 467
Nanz, Robert A.; Michel, Edward L.; andLaChance, Paul A.: Evolution of Space Feeding Concepts
During the Mercury and Gemini Space Programs. Food Technol., vol. 21, no. 12, Dec. 1967,
pp. 1596-1602.
O'Hara, May J.; Chapin, Roy E.; Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; and Vandervcen, John E.: Aerospace
Feeding: Acceptability of Bite-Size and Dehydrated Foods. J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., vol. 51, no. 2,
Sept. 1967, pp. 246-250.
1968
Heideibaugh, Norman D.; Vanderveen, John E.; and Iger, Howard G.: Development and Evaluation of
a Simplified Formula Food for Aerospace Feeding Systems. Aerospace Med., vol. 39, no. 1, Jan.
1968, pp. 38-43.
1969
1970
Flentge, Robert L.; and Bustead, Ronald L.: Manufacturing Requirements of Food for Aerospace
Feeding. SAM TR-70-23, 1970.
Hcidelbangh, Norman D.; and Karel, M.: Changes in Pouched Heat-Processed Foods. Mod. Packaging,
vol. 43, Nov. 1970, pp. 80-86.
Smith, Malcolm: The Apollo Food Program. Aerospace Food Technology. NASA SP-202, 1970,
pp. 5-13.
Vanderveen, John E.; O'Hara, May J.; and Leeber, Donald A.: Consumption of Rehydratable Food in
Zero-Gravity Environments Using Conventional Eating Utensils. Aerospace Med., vol. 41, no. 3,
Mar. 1970, pp. 306-308.
1971
Bourland, C.T.; Huber, C.S.; and Heidelbaugh, N.D.: The Relative Effectiveness of 8-Hydr0xyquino-
line Sulfate and Alkyl Dimethyl Benzyl Ammonium Chloride in the Stabilization of Aerospace
Food Waste. J. Milk Food Technol., voL 34, no. 10, Oct. 1971, pp. 478-481.
Flentge, R.L.; Grim, A.C.; Doppelt, F.F.; and Vanderveen, J.E.: How Conventional Eating Methods
Were Found Feasible for Spacecraft. Food Technol., vol. 25, no. 1, Jan. 1971, pp. 51-54.
Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; and Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.: Potential Applications of Space Food Processing
Environment Controls for the Food Industry. Proc. of the Food Engineering Forum, American
Society of Agricultural Engineers (St. Joseph, Mich.), 1971, pp. 95-105.
Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.; Rambaut, Paul C.; Hartung, T.E.; and Huber,
Clayton S.: Potential Public Health Applications of Space Food Safety Standards. J. Am. Vet.
Med. Assoc., vol. 159, no. 11, Dec. 1, 1971, pp. 1462-1469.
Powers, Edmund M.; Ay, Carl; EI-Bisi, Hamed M.; and Rowley, Durwood B.: Bacteriology of
Dehydrated Space Foods. Appl. Microbiol., vol. 22, no. 3, Sept. 1971, pp. 441-445.
468 - ": Biomedical Results of Apollo
Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.; Huber, Clayton S.; and Heidelbangh, Norman D.: Apollo 14 Food System•
Aerospace Med., vol. 42, no. 11, Nov. 1971, pp. 1185-1192.
1972
Berry, Charles A.; and Smith, Malcolm: What We've Learnt From Space Exploration. Nutrition Today,
Sept.-Oct. 1972, pp. 4-11 and 29-32.
Huber, Clayton S.; Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.; and Klicka, Mary: Space Foods.
Health and Food. John Wiley and Sons, 1972, pp. 130-151.
Ramhaut, Paul C.; Bourland, Charles T.; Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Huber, Clayton S.; and Smith,
Malcolm C., Jr.: Some How Properties of Foods in Null Gravity. Food Technol., vol. 26, no. 1,
Jan. 1972, pp. 58-63.
Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.; Rambant, Paul C.; Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Rapp, Rita M.; and Wheeler,
Harry O.: Food and Nutrition Studies for Apollo 16. NASA TM X-58096, 1972.
1973
Hartung, T.E.; Bullerman, L.B.; Arnold, R.G.; and Heidelbaugh, N.D.: Application of Low Dose
Irradiation to a Fresh Bread System for Space Flights. J. Food Sci., vol. 38, 1973, pp. 129-132.
Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Rambaut, Paul C.; and Smith, Malcolm C.: Incorporation of Nutritional
Therapy in Space Food Systems. Activities Report: The Research and Development Associates for
Military Food and Packaging Systems, Inc., vol. 25, 1973, pp. 7-32.
Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.; and Rambaut, Paul C.: Food Safety in NASA
Nutrition Programs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., vol. 163, no. 9, Nov. 1973, pp. 1065-1070.
Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Smith, Malcolm C.; Ramhaut, Paul C.; and Leach, Carolyn: Space Food
Processing Environment Controls and Safety Standards. AIChe Chemical Engineering Progress
Symposium Series No..,132, vol. 69, 1973, pp. 87-90.
Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.; Rambaut, Paul C.; Lutwak, Leo;
Clinical Nutrition Applications of Space Food Technology. J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., vol. 62, no. 4,
Apr. 1973, pp. 383-389.
Huber, C.S.; Heidelbaugh, N.D.; Rapp, R.M.; and Smith, M.C.: Nutrition Systems for Pressure Suits.
Aerospace Med., vol. 44 no. 8. Aug. 1973, pp. 905-909.
Luckey, T.D.; Bengson, M.H.; and Smith, M.C.: Apollo Diet Evaluation: A Comparison of Biological
and Analytical Methods Including Bioisolation of Mice and Gamma Radiation of Diet. Aerospace
Med., vol. 44, no. 8, Aug. 1973, pp. 888-901.
Rambaut, Paul C.; Heidelbaugh, Norman D.; Reid, Jeanne M.; and Smith, Malcolm C., Jr.: Caloric
• Balance During Simulated and Actual Space Flight. Aerospace Med., vol. 44, no. 11, Nov. 1973,
pp. 1264-1269.
Rambaut, Paul C.; Heidelbangh, Norman D.; and Smith, Malcolm C.: Calcium and Phosphorus
Mobilization in Man During Weightless Flight. Activities Report: The Research and Development
Associates for Military Food and Packaging Systems, Inc., vol. 25, 1973, pp. 1-7.
1974
Bannerot, R.B.; Cox, J.E.; Chen, C.K.; and Heidelbaugh, N.D.: Thermal Preparation of Foods in
Space-Vehicle Environments. Aerospace Med., vol. 45, no. 3, Mar. 1974, pp. 263-268.
12691
CHAPTER 2
WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
by
Richard L. Sauer
George K. Jorgensen
Introduction
Defecation and urination have been bothersome aspects of space travel from the
beginning of manned space flight. Ideally, waste management systems for use in space
would permit elimination of body wastes-and their collection to be accomplished as
simply as they are on Earth. In the weightless environment, however, this is a difficult
goal to achieve. Waste handling equipment must not only be designed to function in zero
gravity, but must do so within the constraints of size, weight, and power imposed by
spacecraft systems. These restrictions resulted in the use of the waste management
systems described in this chapter.
The urine collection and transfer processes, with only minor modifications, were
essentially the same for Apollo missions as they were for all prior United States space
missions. Very simply described, the prime system used prior to Apollo 12 by unsuited
crewmen employed the urine transfer system. This system consisted of a rubber cuff
connected to a flexible collection bag. A new system, the urine receptacle assembly, was
, ,
ueveiopeu , for _podo
, , and serveu1 as the prime system on _pono" " lz "" anu1 an" sunsequent
' "
missions. This system employed a device which did not require intimate contact of the
crewman during urine collection. The urine transfer system served as a backup system
during the latter missions. Each of these approaches is illustrated in figure 1.
When crewmen wore space suits during launch, extravehicular activity, and emergency
modes, a special device was provided for collection and intermediate storage of urine.
This device, known as the urine collection and transfer assembly, is shown in figure 2 as it
was worn over the liquid cooling garment. The assembly was connected by a hose to the
spacecraft waste management system. Several modified devices were used when urine
samples were collected for postflight analysis.
469
470 Biomedical Results of Apollo
,.,1
Waste Management System 471
Efforts had been made prior to the first Apollo flight to simplify the waste collection
systems to allow waste collection without intimate contact devices and to permit direct
overboard dumping of urine. Because of problems encountered during the development
phase, the improved systems were not available in time to be used for Apollo missions.
In the absence of a system providing positive means for the removal of feces from the
body, an extremely basic system had to be relied upon for inflight fecal collection. The
device used was a plastic bag which was taped to the buttocks to capture feces. After
defecation, the crewmember was required to seal the bag and knead it in order to mix a
liquid bactericide with the contents to provide the desired degree of feces stabilization.
Because this task was distasteful and required an inordinate amount of time, low residue
foods and laxatives were generally used prior to launch. During flight, in addition to low
residue foods, some use was also made of drugs to reduce intestinal motility.
472 Biomedical Results of Apollo
During lunar surface activity and free space extravehicular activity, the use of the bag
fecal collection system was not feasible. Should it have become impossible for a crewman
to have prevented defecation during these activity periods, the fecal containment
system a pair of undershorts with layers of absorbent material - would serve to contain
any excreta.
The following sections describe the Apollo waste management system in detail and
briefly evaluate its performance.
The function of the waste management system (WMS) was to control the disposition
of solid and liquid wastes and waste stowage gases. The basic requirements of the system
included collection and stowage of feces, collection and overboard dumping of urine,
removal of urine from the pressure garment assembly, provision for urination while in the
spacecraft couches, and venting of waste stowage gases. A urine and fecal waste stowage
vent and a vacuum subsystem were part of the overall waste management system (Sauer,
1971).
The waste managemen t system consisted of a urine subsystem and a fecal subsystem.
The principal elements of the urine subsystem were the urine receptacle assembly (URA),
the urine transfer system (UTS), the urine collection and transfer assembly (UCTA), and,
for several missions, modified urine collection devices to provide samples to be retained
for postflight analysis. The main elements of the fecal subsystem were a fecal and emesis
collection device, a waste stowage compartment, a waste stowage bag, and a fecal
containment garment (the "fecal containment system") for contingency and suited
conditions. Figure 3 is a schematic representation of the waste management system
elements within the Command Module (URA not shown).
Urine Subsystem
The urine subsystem consisted of three devices for collecting and transferring urine:
the urine transfer system, the urine collection and transfer assembly, and the urine
receptacle assembly. The remainder of the system consisted of a particulate filter to
prevent clogging of the orifice of the urine dump nozzle (see figure 1) and a hose for
transferring urine from any of the collection devices to the waste management panel for
dumping.
Urine Receptacle Assembly (URA). The urine receptacle assembly (figure 4) was an
open-ended, cylindrical container that could be hand-held. The receptacle was connected
by a quick-disconnect fitting to a flexible urine dump line, which in turn was connected
by a quick-disconnect fitting to the waste management panel. The receptacle could
accommodate a maximum urine flow of 40 ml per second. Although the receptacle's
volumetric capacity was only 480 ml, the effective system capacity was 700 ml with
concurrent urination and dumping.
The URA contained a honeycomb cell insert that supported a 40/a hydrophilic
screen. The honeycomb insert provided a large contact area that acted as a bundle of
capillary tubes. The capillary action produced by each cell (0.32 cm pore size) of the
honeycomb tended to hold the fluid in place in the zero-g environment until it could pass
:c -¸,
Waste Management System 473
e4
OttIGINAL. PAGE IS
OP I_OOR QUALITY
474 Biomedical Results of Apollo
into the urine dump line. A sealing cap installed during periods of nonuse blocked out
cabin airflow and permitted the interior of the URA to be exposed to the space vacuum
for venting between uses, if desired.
/
Figure 4. Urine receptacle assembly.
For use, the URA was taken from its stowage position, the cap removed from the
receiver chamber, and the device connected to the 3.05-m long urine transfer hose, which
in turn was connected to the waste management panel. The overboard dump valve on the
waste management panel was rotated to the “dump” position, allowing the system to be
vented to space at a pressure differential of 3.4 x lo4 N/m2 (5 psi). The man voided by
directing his urine stream into the receiver chamber of the URA. When the receiver
chamber had emptied, 60 seconds were allowed for clearing the hose and lines prior to
closing the urine dump valve. The cap was replaced on the receiver chamber and the URA
returned to its mission stowage position.
The urine transfer hose was made of flexible, convoluted fluorocarbon sufficiently
strong t o withstand the pressure differential and supple enough to facilitate easy handling
in zero g. The hose also could be used to join the space suit urine quick-disconnect fitting
to the waste management panel to facilitate emptying the urine collection and transfer
assembly.
Installed between the waste management panel quick-disconnect and the hose was a
215-micrometer filter. Urine was filtered to prevent clogging the orifice of the urine
dump nozzle. The dump nozzle orifice had a diameter of 0.1397 cm, which restricted gas
flow t o a maximum of 0.01 m3/minute and liquid flow to 453.6 gm/minute. This
prevented excessive loss of cabin oxygen during system use. Because ice formation at the
dump nozzle could block flow, the nozzle was fitted with two redundant 5.77 watt
heaters.
Urine Transfer System (UTS).The urine transfer system (figure 5) consisted of a
roll-on cuff, a receiver, a valve with a manifold, a collection bag, and a quick-disconnect
Waste Management System 475
fitting. The roll-on cuff was a rubber tube that functioned as an external catheter
between the penis and the receivedvalve. The cuff was designed to be used for one day
(five or six urinations) and was then replaced. Ten additional color-coded cuffs per
crewman were stowed. The receiver to which the cuff attached was a short tube
containing a low-pressure differential check valve [262 N/m2 (0.038 psi)] and a bypass
valve.
The UTS could be used in two different modes: (1) dumping during time of
voiding, and (2) dumping subsequent to voiding. In the first mode, the hardware was
interconnected to the overboard dump system during the time of voiding, as shown in
figure 1. As a consequence, the urine was immediately dumped overboard as it was
voided. In the second mode, the UTS was not connected to the overboard dump
system during the micturition. In this mode, urine was collected in the UTS bag.
Following micturition, the UTS was connected to the overboard dump system and the
urine vented overboard. The urine collection bag had a capacity of approximately
1200 ml. For reasons of sanitation, each crewman was provided a personal urine
transrer system.
Urine Collection and Transfer Assembly (UCTA). The urine collection and transfer
assembly (figure 6) was designed to facilitate urination when crewmen were wearing
pressure suits, for example during extravehicular activities. The urine collection and
transfer assembly consisted of a roll-on cuff and a collection bladder worn around the
waist. The UCTA was worn over the fecal containment garment. Urine in the device
could he drained either while the crewman was in the suit or after the suit was
removed by connecting the urine transfer hose to the spacecraft waste management
panel.
476 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Ancillmy Urine Hardware. Two ancillary urine collection devices were used. These
were the return enhancement water bag (REWB) and the biomedical urine sampling
system (BUSS).
The REWB, provided for the flight of Apollo 14, made available additional water
storage volume onboard in the event of a partial water system failure. The REWB was also
used for Apollo 15 and subsequent missions to pool urine for up to 24 hours in order to
circumvent overboard dumping during certain mission periods.* After the pooling period,
the REWB containing urine was dumped in a similar manner as was the urine transfer
system, except that an additional urine filter was installed downstream of the REWB to
prevent possible system plugging with urine precipitates formed as a result of urine
storage for 24 hours.
During the Apollo 16 mission, three return enhancement water bags (one for each
crewman) were provided to recover 24-hour pooled urine samples collected inflight with
the urine transfer system. Boric acid preinstalled in the REWBs preserved the urine. These
samples were collected to permit an investigation of fluid and electrolyte disturbances
suspected to have occurred during prior missions. Figure 7 depicts schematically the urine
collection system for Apollo 16.
Inflight urine samples were again collected during the Apollo 17 mission. In this case,
the samples were required for a study that focused on the cations and anions critical to
body fluid regulation. Twenty-four-hour urine samples were collected from each crewman
on each man-day of Command Module occupancy by use of the biomedical urine
*It was desirable, for example, to circumvent wine dumping for the conduct of lunar optical
experiments. Dumped urine tended to form a cloud of vapor around the spacecraft which fouled the
optics with particulate matter and interfered with observations.
Waste Management System 477
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ORIGINAL PAG_ IS
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478 Biomedical Results of Apollo
sampling systems. The BUSS consisted of two flexible plastic film containers - a 24-hour
pooling container and a collection container (figure 8). One BUSS was used per man-day.
This provided for transfer of a sample of pooled urine for return to Earth, with transfer
of the remaining urine volume to the Command Module urine overboard dump system for
disposal.
Fecal Subsystem
The fecal subsystem consisted of a fecal collection assembly, tissue dispensers, a waste
stowage compartment, and a waste stowage bag. For suited conditions, the fecal
containment system was provided.
The fecal collection assembly consisted of a fecal bag and an outer fecal/cmasis (FE)
bag bound together with a plastic wrapper. The fecal bag (figure 9) was a plastic sack with
a flange at the opening and a finger cot in the center of one side. A surface of
Stomaseal@ tape was used for adhering the flange to the buttocks. Tissue wipes and a
germicide pouch were stored in a pocket on the outside lower end of the bag. The outer
transparent FE bag was used for storing
- . the used fecal bag. Internal and external seals a t
Waste Management System 479
the mouth of the bag made it capable of containinga 3.4 × 104-N/m 2 (5 psi) gas
differential pressure.
Table 1
Briefly, the fecal collection system was used in the following way. The finger cot was
employed to position the fecal bag over the anus. The finger cot was also used after
defecation to separate fecal matter from the anal area and push it to the bottom of the
bag. The bag was then removed from the buttocks, and the anus was cleaned with tissue
wipes. These were disposed of into the fecal bag. The user then secured the germicidal
liquid pouch and, after cutting the corneroff the outer pouch, deposited it along with the
inner pouch into the bag. The bag was then sealed. The germicidal liquid was a mixture of
sodium orthophenylphenol and sodium chlorophenylphenol of amaplast blue LXT
(NASA, c. 1967). The bag was kneaded to rupture the inner pouch and mix the germicide
with the wastes. The inner bag was placed into the outer bag which was rolled into the
smallest possible volume and then placed in the waste stowage compartment. This
compartment featured a split membrane inside the door to prevent fecal bags from
floating back out into the cabin once they had been placed within the compartment. For
later Apollo missions, the volume provided by the waste stowage compartment was
inadequate. Consequently, a waste stowage bag was provided for additional volume for
the disposal of fecal bags. Both waste stowage volumes had an overboard venting
capability for gases generated in the feces.
Data on returned fecal samples from Apollo crewmen are listed in table 2.
The fecal containment system (FCS) was a pair of underpants of absorbent material
worn under the liquid cooling garment (LCG) during suited periods (e.g., extravehicular
activity). Figure 10 shows the garment. If an uncontrolled bowel movement had
occurred, the underpants would have contained the feces. During lift-off and reentry, the
fecal containment systems were stowed.
Experimental FecalIEmesis System Flown Aboard Apollo 16. Three modified fecal
collection bags were flown to evaluate their performance on the Apollo 16 mission. The
Waste Management System 481
Table 2
*Serial number.
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
482 Riomedical Results of Apollo
bags were of the same basic design as the Gemini-type fecal bag with the following
exceptions: (1) a modified seat flange, for better fit of seat flange to buttocks; (2) a wider
finger cot; and (3) an improved seal for keeping the device closed during performance of
personal hygiene.
Table 3
7 UCTA, UTS, FE
8 UCTA, UTS, FE
9 UCTA, UTS, FE
10 UCTA, UTS, FE
11 UCTA, UTS, FE
12 URA, UCTA, UTS, FE
13 URA, UCTA, UTS, FE
14 URA, UCTA, UTS, REWB, FE
15 URA, UCTA, UTS, REWB, FE
16 URA, UCTA, UTS, REWB, FE
17 BUSS, URA, UCTA, UTS, FE
Summary
Although there were inherent design limitations in the waste management systems
used for the manned Apollo missions, performance of the individual systems per se was
reasonably satisfactory. However, there were some problems. In addition to being
marginal from a hygienic standpoint, use of the collection devices required many steps
and the expenditure of a considerable amount of time. The problem of odor was
continually present because of the lack of a positive means of eliminating defecation
odors.
The Apollo waste management system's design and operations pointed to the need for
several improvements in future missions. These were the following:
1. Future systems should not require intimate contact.
2. The time required for system use should be significantly reduced.
3. The waste management system should provide some technique of automatically
removing feces from the buttocks area.
These considerations were taken into account in the design of the improved Skylab waste
management system.
References
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Waste Management: Project Gemini, ETS-HISD-
MSC1500-651208. NASA Manned Spacecraft Center Information Sheet, c. 1967.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Apollo Operations Handbook. Block II Spacecraft,
Vol. 1. Spacecraft Description, 15 April 1969.
Sauer, R.L.; and Bustamante, R,D.: Water Supply and Waste Management in Spacecraft- Past,
Present, & Future. Paper presented at the Twenty-Sixth Purdue Industrial Waste Conference
(Lafayette, Indiana), May 4-6, 1971.
12692
CHAPTER 3
BIOINSTRUMENTATION
by
Stanley M. Luczkowski
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
With the inception of the United States space program, continuous monitoring of
vital signs was a relatively new concept. Since that time, the technology of bio-
telemetry - long distance transmission of physiological information - has come of age.
Thousands of hours of data have been transmitted from space to the Earth from as far as
400 000 km (250 000 miles) away. Only when astronauts were in lunar orbit on the far
side of the moon was there an interruption in the steady transmission of vital sign data to
Earth-based physicians and mission controllers. All three crewmen were continuously
monitored during Apollo missions 7 through 13. Beginning with Apollo 14, data were
obtained on a continuous basis for at least one crewman. Both the Commander and the
Lunar Module Pilot were closely monitored during the performance of lunar surface
extravehicular activities, but because only one channel was available in the Lunar Module
data were collected for only one crewman.
It was essential that vital signs be monitored during space flight. During early space
flight operations, there was uncertainty as to the effects of space flight factors on normal
physiological functioning. Transmission of physiological data provided essential informa-
tion upon which a decision to abort a mission could have been reliably made from the
ground, should it have become necessary. During Gemini missions, astronauts operated for
the first time in the new environment of free space during the performance of
extravehicular tasks. Vital sign monitoring coupled with voice communication in this
instance dictated that early free space EVA be cut short because these activities proved
too taxing. Later, modifications of training and procedures enabled astronauts to perform
long-term extravehicular activities safely.
During Apollo missions, all three crewmen were instrumented for medical monitoring
during operation in the Command Module, the Lunar Module, and during extravehicular
activity in free space and on the lunar surface. Lunar surface activity imposed stresses of
an unpredictable nature on the lunar surface crewmen. While attempts to simulate lunar
walking and operating conditions were made during ground tcstiag, the full nature of the
485
486 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
effect of the lunar terrain on work efficiency and, hence metabolic rate, was not known
until the first lunar surface mission. Medical monitoring during these operations
permitted real-time adjustments in activity timelines formulated before flight as such
alterations were needed. Such data permitted changes in the scheduling of Apollo 15
lunar surface tasks when electrocardiographic recordings and other data indicated that
this crew was being subjected to excessive workloads.
The Apollo bioinstrumentation system (BIS) requirements evolved as a continuation
and refinement of medical monitoring systems utilized throughout the Mercury and
Gemini Programs. The BIS and related hardware provided physiological data to
ground-based medical personnel for operational inflight safety monitoring; for inflight
medical experiments; and for ground-based operations safety monitoring.
System Description
The Apollo BIS had two configurations. The early Apollo (Block I) Program was
terminated prior to any actual space flights. All missions from Apollo 7 through
Apollo 17 (Block II) utilized the BIS.
The system planned for Block I of the Apollo Program consisted of two electrocardio-
graphs (ECG), one impedance pneumograph (ZPN), one body temperature signal
conditioner, a DC to DC converter, and appropriate electrode, temperature probe, and
interconnecting cables(see figure 1). The Block I configuration was designed, fabricated,
and qualified for flight use, and was utilized in Block I ground tests until the
spacecraft 204 accident. The design and packaging concepts were essentially the same as
developed for Gemini, except for the addition of the DC to DC converter, providing a
high level (0 to 5 VDC) output signals to the spacecraft telemetry system. The body
temperature measuring components (figure 2) were added for ground tests only, and were
not included in the flight configuration.
The Block II (figure 3) system utilized the same components as did the Block I. The
only system difference was the deletion of one of the ECG measurements. The
temperature measurement capability was again provided for ground testing. Block II
signal conditioners differed only in their grounding configuration. Block I units had a
common connection for case ground and signal-power ground, while Block II utilized
separate connections for improved radio-frequency interference characteristics. Block l
and II units were, otherwise, electrically and physically identical.
The Apollo signal conditioners were designed to be of uniform size,
5.84 cm x 3.81 cm x 1.04 cm (2.3 in. x 1.5 in. x 0.41 in.), with identical miniature input
and output connectors. Color coding was incorporated to facilitate proper mating with
their respective connectors on the bioharness and electrode harnesses.
The ECG signal conditioner and electrodes were designed to provide inflight
measurements of a crewmember's ECG activity and to develop a signal wave ranging
between 0 and 5 volts peak-to-peak, which is representative of crewman ECG activity.
The unit was provided with an adjustment that permitted preflight calibrations. The
electrical activity sensed by the body electrode was passed into the signal conditioner
Bioinstrumentation 487
which had an input impedance of greater than 40 megohms, and common mode rejection
greater than 100 000 to 1. The gain of the signal conditioners was continuously variable
from 600 to 4500, and the output was the amplified ECG waveform which varied
k2.5 volts about a 2.5-V bias. Harmonic distortion was less than 1.0 percent over the
unit’s frequency bandpass of 0.2 Hz to 100 Hz. Signal conditioner power of plus and
minus 10 VDC at .5 milliamperes was required from the DC to DC converter.
_.
The body temperature probe and signal conditioner produced an output voltage in
the range of 0 to 5 VDC corresponding to sensed temperatures of from 303 ° to 319°K
(85 ° to l l5°F). The system accuracy was within _+0.17°K (_+0.3°F) and had a response
time to a 2.8°K (5°F) step change of five seconds. Power requirements were less than
5 milliamps from each of the DC to DC converter supply voltages.
DC to DC Converter (DCC)
The DCC as designed and delivered for Apollo provided isolated, balanced plus and
minus 10-V outputs. The outputs were regulated within -+0.1 volt over a current load
range of 0 to 30 milliamperes drawn from either side and with an input voltage of
between 14.8 and 20 VDC. Output impedance was approximately 3 ohms and output
voltage ripple less than 1 mv peak-to-peak.
Investigation into the potential short circuit fire hazards inside the space suit revealed
that, by shorting the output leads of the DC to DC converter, a spark could be produced
which would ignite cotton in the presence of oxygen under conditions of 131 kN/m 2
(19 psia). This ignition source was traced to output capacitor energy storage in the DC to
DC power converter and to the ability of the output capacitors to produce a high-current
pulse in a short-circuit condition (even though the output current would go to
50 milliamperes in a steady-state condition). The high-current pulse and the associated
ignition hazard were eliminated by installing resistors that limited the current in the
positive 10- and negative 10-volt output leads of the DCC.
The incorporation of these resistors influenced performance of the DCC due to the
increase in effective dynamic output impedance since the resistors could not be placed in
the voltage regulation loop. Output impedance, therefore, increased by 10 ohms and the
regulation increased from -+0.1 VDC to +0.1 VDC, -0.4 VDC under load variations.
Electrode Harnesses
The sternal-electrode harness was a small cable used in conjunction with the ECG
signal conditioner. The harness provided the electrical interface between the crewman's
electrode and the ECG signal conditioner. The cable also contained the system ground
electrode, which was a high-impedance ground primarily ....u_uJ._,, .........
... ,_movc tho..__,_oh_;_ _h_,g_
from the crewman.
The axillary-electrode harness was a small cable used in conjunction with the ZPN
signal conditioner. The cable provided the electrical interface between the crewman's
electrodes and the ZPN signal conditioner. Both electrode harnesses originally utilized
silver/silver chloride anodized discs in an acrylic housing. The wiring to the connector
which mated to the signal conditioner was Teflon insulated, and incorporated miniature
pin jack connectors in-line for quick-disconnect capability.
Several changes were made to the harnesses during the Apollo Program as a result of
inflight problems, testing, and operational changes. During the first manned Apollo
mission, data were lost due to separation of the pin jack connections inside the space suit
and also to wire breakage at the connectors. Therefore, the electrode harnesses were
redesigned to eliminate the pin jack and the electrodes were wired as a permanent part of
490 Biomedical Results of Apollo
the harness (figure 4). Also, the wire was changed from Teflon insulated to polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) insulated and a soft silicone rubber strain relief was added to the
connector. This eliminated the problems on all subsequent Apollo missions.
Continued testing during the program revealed a sneak ground path in the input
circuit of the ECG signal conditioner (which provided a current path to ground if the
crewmen should contact a voltage source). The solution to this problem required
increasing the input lead impedances by adding series current-limiting resistors to the
sternal-electrode harness. Also, a ground electrode with a series resistor was added to
reduce noise and artifact in the ECG data.
For missions through Apollo 14,the electrodes were filled with electrode paste and
attached to the crewman by double-back adhesive tape. Figure 5 shows a subject wearing
the biobelt with the electrodes in place. The electrodes were then covered with porous
surgical tape that permitted normal skin respiration. The electrochemical activity that
occurs at the electrode surface was degraded when the anodizing was damaged. This
problem occurs after many use cycles. Therefore, when it was decided that, for Apollo 15
and subsequent missions, the crewmen would be permitted to remove and replace their
electrodes during flight, the integrity of the anodized disc was doubtful. This problem
was eliminated by replacing the disc with a pressed pellet made of powdered silver/silver
chloride. This technique provided a homogeneous electrode that was not affected by
small surface damage.
Crew Interface
The bioinstrumentation system, which was required both in the vehicle and during
EVA, was designed to be worn inside the space suit. The biobelt containing the
instrumentation (figure 6) provided a compact means for placement and stowage of the
signal conditioners and the DC to DC converter. Snap fasteners were used to mate the
biobelt to the midriff section of either the constant wear garment or the liquid cooling
garment. The signal conditioners and the DC to DC converter were available for easy
connection to the biomedical harness and the sensing equipment. Elastic straps were used
to maintain the contents in a fixed position, and an overflap snapped over the contents of
each pocket. The overflaps were fabricated of Teflon-coated Beta cloth to satisfy
flammability requirements.
The electrode attachment technique was designed to maintain long-term reliable body
contact for good signals, but attachment was difficult to maintain without discomfort
and skin damage. Because electrodes became dislodged under such severe efforts as suit
doffing and donning, a kit was provided with attachment materials to replace electrodes
during unsuited periods.
obtained during the Apollo 15 mission during periods of cardiac arrhythmia. These data
led to a reassessment of workload and diet for subsequent crews, and alterations in
onboard medical supplies to include antiarrhythmic drugs.
This chapter has treated bioinstrumentation from its engineering aspects. The reader
is referred to Section II, Chapter 1, for clinical aspects of medical monitoring and the
bioinstrumentation system.
Normal Bigemini
179:07:20
Bigeminis
179:37:25
(a)
Bigemini PAC
179:07:40
179:_
PAC's
(b)
CHAPTER 4
by
Richard L. Sauer
David J. Calley
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Introduction
The potable water system was an essential element in the Apollo life support system.
It provided water, on demand, for drinking, personal hygiene, dehydrated food
reconstitution, and for cabin cooling. Unlike earlier spacecraft which relied upon stored
water as the only potable water source, the Apollo system provided for resupply of
onboard stores by utilization of byproduct water from fuel cell operation.
Underlying the development of the Apollo spacecraft water system, and that used on
all prior spacecraft, are unique circumstances related to operation in the space
environment, in general, and in spacecraft, in particular. The absence of gravity requires
that the entire water system be sealed and that positive expulsion be provided through
such techniques as movable diaphragms or bellows installed in water storage containers.
Spacecraft operation demands highly reliable performance and minimum weight. System
reliability is insured through careful materials selection and the use of redundant or
multiple components. Volume constraints within the spacecraft itself and the cioscd
atmospheric environment severely limit the choice of materials to be used. In addition
toxicological and flammability parameters require consideration.
The interdependency of spacecraft systems imposes other constraints upon the
potable water system. For example, protecting the integrity of the spacecraft's cooling
system demands severe limitation of the types and amounts of additives which may be
used in the water system to control microbial growth, prevent corrosion, or protect the
taste of the water provided.
The bacteriological quality criteria used by NASA for potable water systems required
the absence of viable organisms (sterility). The criteria did not specify indicator organisms
but rather included specific analyses for the absence of E. coli, total count, yeast and
mold, and anaerobic organisms. The design characteristics of the water system, possessing
several potential sources of contamination, offered little restraint in preventing microbial
entry and proliferation ill the water. Information concerning the interrelationship
495
I SU
CIR( TIT
PRES_ LIRE
_FUEL CELL
I / PRODUCT
I // DRINKING
I _ _ r__ TANK A
CONDENSATE
II FUEL CELLS r-l-1
HUMIDITY I I.-r-i PRESSURE
b
III WATER [_] REGU
LATORS
I IEVAPORATOF
I
URINE--_}_ I URINE VENT
_ OVERBOARD
I DUMP
I
The problems encountered in the use of fuel cell-generated water during Gemini were
resolved in sufficient time to make fuel cell water the principal source of potable water in
Apollo Command Module spacecraft. The solution was effeeted by the choice of a
sintered nickel electrode to replace the organic electrode used in the Gemini system. The
sintered nickel electrode did not degrade as did the organic electrode, consequently, the
Apollo fuel cell produced water of extremely high quality.
The water supply systems in the Command and Lunar Modules differed. In the
Command Module, water was generated by fuel cell operation; in the Lunar Module, all
water supplies were loaded in storage tanks before lift-off. Other differences between the
two systems were dictated by the functions unique to each vehicle. In the Command
_VlOOUle system, provision was llllllllU rut UILILIIII_ ............ _ .... supply .........
t ,u
or cooling was be provided for Lunar Module water. The Lunar Module water supply was
used as the primary means of vehicle cooling through a sublimation process. In the
Command Module, the potable water system provided for supplementary cooling only via
the spacecraft evaporators. (Primary sublimation cooling was accomplished through space
radiators.)
A schematic diagram of the Command and Service Module (CSM) water management
system is shown in figure 2. Water was generated by the fuel cells located in the Service
Module. These fuel cells consisted of two chambers separated by porous nickel electrodes.
The electrolyte was concentrated potassium hydroxide. One of the chambers was filled
with oxygen (cathode), and the other with hydrogen (anode); pressure in both chambers
was maintained at 4.1 x 105 N/m 2 (60 psi). Oxygen was diffused through the electrode
498 Biomedical Results of Apollo
into the hydrogen filled chamber, where the two gases reacted chemically to produce
electrical power to meet the requirements of the Command/Service Module. The initial
Apollo CM's were plagued with excess hydrogen in the water. As a consequence, a
hydrogen separator was developed and used on Apollo 12 and subsequent missions. This
device functioned as follows: hydrogen diffused from the water through the walls of
palladium-silver tubes and then vented into space, and the degassed water was conveyed
to the water valve (control) panel in the Command Module.
OVERBOARD
DUMP
URINE _ OXYGEN WATER VALVE
LINE _ _ f PANEL
--L-_ I ,, _ ......
I L _'--'-- 1_r-- 7 FUEL CELL
HUMIDITY
CONDENSAT
E I
tI
-- I
J .........
!
I
_
/ '
I
I
O_GEI
....KOH
O X_(3 E_N _
SEPARATOR
L --(_)-'PRESSURE--RELIEF
VALVE
The main controls on the water panel were two water-shutoff valves (one each for the
potable water and waste-water systems), a shutoff valve that permitted access to the
waste-water system, a chlorine-injection assembly, a control valve to the overboard dump,
and two pressure-relief controls.
Possible microbiological contamination of the potable water resulting from the
humidity-condensate input was prevented by maintaining a chlorine residual in the
Command Module potable water. On Apollo flights 7 through 13, continuous minimum
residual of 0.5 mg/liter was maintained by adding 22 cc of a sodium hypochorite stock
solution (5000-mg/liter available chlorine) once every 24 hours. The chlorine solution was
added manually at the port between the fuel cells and the potable water tank. A modified
chlorine addition was used on Apollo 14 and the remaining flights. In these flights the
water systems were injected with one 22 cc ampoule of sodium hypochlorite (1860 mg/l
as available chlorine) and one 22 cc ampoule of mixed sodium dehydrogen phosphate
(0.297 molar) and sodium nitrate (0.217 molar). The addition of sodium nitrate was
found to have a conserving effect on the chloride, reducing its rate of decay in the
system.
The food preparation unit consisted of a heater and two water-use ports for hot and
chilled water. A pressure of 1.7 x 105 N/m 2 (25 psi) was maintained by applying oxygen
to an expansion bladder in the potable water tank.
Functional Components. The following key functional components were used in the
Command Module water management system.
1. Potable Water Tank. The potable water tank served as a water storage container in
case of fuel cell failure and as an equalization tank to provide water during peak demand
conditions when the water demand rate exceeded the fuel cell production rate; for
example, during meal preparation times. The cylindrical vessel held a maximum of 16 kg
(36 lb) of water and was fabricated from 6061 aluminum alloy• An oxygen-filled
_-nnlvi_nrene_--
l- " . hladder maintained a pressure of approximately 1.7 x 105 N/m 2 (25 psi) in
the tank and throughout the system. Oxygen for pressurization was obtained from a
common Service Module supply that also provided oxygen for metabolic consumption
and for power generation. Because free hydrogen in the water diffused through the
bladder material, a low-rate gas bleed-off was provlueu to prevent a t,u,,uup .1.......
• 1 • I _a
"1 J llldL UIOUIIUI
3. Water Chiller and Water Heater. The chiller, which had a water storage capacity of
227 gm (0.5 Ib), reduced the temperature of the water from 298 ° to 280°K (76 ° to
45°F) for the drinking water gun and the food preparation unit. The heat exchanger
tubes and all other components in the chiller were made of stainless steel. Chilling was
provided by the spacecraft water/glycol cooling system. Heating was accomplished
through electrical resistance. The water heater had a storage capacity of 1.1 kg (2.5 lb),
and a maximum of two hours was required to raise the water temperature from 289°K
(60°F) to the operating temperature of 341°K (154°F).
500 Biomedical Results of Apollo
4. Food Preparation Unit. The food preparation unit dispensed hot or cold water in
28-gm (1-ounce) aliquots into the dehydrated food and beverages. The unit consisted of
two valves and one nozzle. The configuration of the nozzle was identical to the nozzle of
the water gun and permitted water to be injected into the food and beverage packages to
facilitate rehydration of the contents. The valves controlled either the hot or the cold
water to be used for food reconstitution. The water gun was used primarily to supply
cold drinking water to the crewmen, but could also be used for the reconstitution of food
and beverages requiring cold water (see figure 2).
5. Drinking Water Gun. A drinking water gun was connected to the water system by
a 178-cm (70-in.) long flexible hose fabricated from a fluorinated hydrocarbon elastomer,
Viton ®. It was calibrated to dispense 14 gm (0.5 ounce) of cold water upon each
activation. A counter was provided to permit inventory of the amount of water
dispensed. Water was ejected from the nozzle of the gun either directly into the
crewman's mouth or into a food or beverage container.
6. Transfer Lines. All hard lines in the system were fabricated from 0.64-cm
(0.25-in.) diameter aluminum tubing.
TANK 3
G_'_] SUBLIMATOR
COOLER
-- CII
D_IN
K_NG HUMIDITY
--- CONDENSATE
DESCENT-STAGE SECTOR
LEGEND
CHECK VALVE
(_ PRESSURE-RELIEF
VALVE
Overall, performance of the Command Module and Lunar Module water management
systems was good. Problems did, however, arise. The low solids requirements constrained
the use of materials for microbiological and corrosion control. Other areas of concern
were taste and odor control, water potability, and materials selection. Overall system
performance and resolution of problems that arose are described in the following
sections.
the water system, produced an electromotive force of approximately two volts. Internal
tubing surface imperfections provided sites for active localized corrosion.
Tests indicated that the CM fuel cell water containing sodium hypochlorite (NaOC1)
and sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4) at concentrations used in the spacecraft
produced considerable corrosive action on aluminum. Nickel, cadmium, manganese, and,
to a lesser extent, other metals were released into the Command Module water supply as a
result of corrosive activity and the attendant deterioration of the nickel brazing and
copper baffles in the water heater and the aluminum alloy tubing.
In addition to the problems that corrosion imposed on maintaining Command Module
system integrity, corrosion also was a sink for the chlorine biocide, resulting in a rapid
loss of residual biocide. To solve the incompatibility problem, sodium nitrate was added
as a corrosion inhibitor.
The interaction of iodine with aluminum caused similar corrosion in the Lunar
Module water system. The presence of metallic ions in samples taken from the ascent
tank and the descent tank use port were evidence of this corrosion. However, because
corrosion proved to be limited, inhibitors were not deemed necessary.
Gases. Offgassing of water at the use ports caused problems during flight because the
quantity of gas in the water formed bubbles of sufficient size to inhibit direct use for
drinking or food preparation. Techniques for gas/liquid separation in zero g (such as
bagging and centrifugation) were not effective. Use of a hydrophobic/hydrophilic
separator, which performed with reasonable success during the Apollo 11 mission,
together with the palladium silver hydrogen separator that was used during the Apollo 12
and subsequent missions, relieved the problem somewhat, however, gases were still
evolved.
The two major sources of gases dissolved in the Command Module water were
hydrogen released from fuel cell water and oxygen diffused through the water tank
bladders. Hydrogen gas was released from the fuel cell water as it passed through cascaded
Potable Water Supply 503
pressures from 4.1 x 105 N/m 2 (60 psi) to 3.4 x 104 N/m 2 (5 psi), the cabin atmosphere
pressure. Oxygen, used as a pressure balance in the water tanks, diffused through the
bladder membrane into the water supply. A third source of dissolved gases common to
the Lunar Module and the Command Module was ground support equipment water that
was not degassed before being loaded onboard the spacecraft.
Similar, but not nearly as pronounced, offgassing problems occurred at the use ports
in the Lunar Module. The gases consisted either of nitrogen diffused into the water
supply from the balancing plenum of the potable water tanks or air entrained in the water
supply at the time of servicing (no inflight data were collected).
Water used to fill ground support equipment before spacecraft loading was drawn
from the resources of the city of Cocoa, Florida. The city water was filtered through
particulate filters, charcoal filters, and two mixed-bed ion exchange units. This product
water, which met the quality requirements shown in table 1, was then passed through
0.22g bacterial filters and then into the ground support equipment units for the
Command Module and the Lunar Module. The requirements for chemical quality for the
ground support equipment water are listed in table 2.
Table 1
Command Module System. The Command Module water system was subjected to a
24-hour disinfection soak with chlorinated water (10 to 20 mg/liter). The ground support
equipment water was prepared with the chlorine solution plus sodium dihydrogen
phosphate (100 to 200 mgJliter) for pH buffering, and sodium nitrate (52 to 62 mg/liter)
as a corrosion inhibitor. This solution was loaded into the Command Module system. At
the end of the 24-hour period, the Command Module system was emptied, flushed, and
refilled with unchlorinated, high purity water from the ground support equipment. The
quality requirements for this water are cited in table 3. The water remained in storage in
the Command Module potable water tank for five to seven days. Between two to nine
.hours before lift-off, chlorine and buffer/inhibitor solutions were added to the storage
504 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 2
Turbidity 11 units
0-10# Unlimited c
10-25 875
25-50 1O0
50-1 O0 # 50
(over)l O0 2
Ionic species
Cadmium 0.01 mg/I
Chromium (hexavalent) 0.05 mg/I
Copper 1.0 mg/I
Iron 0.3 mg/I
Lead 0.05 mg/I
Manganese 0.05 mg/I
Mercury 0.005 mg/I
Nickel 0.05 mg/I
Selenium 0.01 mg/I
Silver 0.05 mg/I
Zinc 5.0 mg/I
Chloride
Magnesium
Iodide
Aluminum
Calcium
Potassium
Silica
Total nitrogen 10.0 mg/I (CSM only)
Bactericide 0.5 mg/I
Sterility d
aTest Point 2 is defined to be at the last possible, but practical, point prior to the potable water
load line/spacecraft load point interface; this test point allowed water sampling without breaking
or remaking of water servicing system connections. Water was required to meet the Test Point 2
maximum property limits at the beginning of water servicing prior to bactericide/additive addition
if used, or prior to servicing the spacecraft if bactericide was not used.
bThe particulate sample was taken immediately following final servicing of the spacecraft.
CUnlimited means that particles in this size range were not counted; however, any obscuring of the
filter grid lines was cause for rejection.
dSterility samples consisted of an anaerobic and an aerobic sample: total volume for both samples
was 500 ml.
Potable Water Supply 505
Table 3
Ionic species
Cadmium 0.01 mg/I
Chromium (hexavalent) 0.05 mg/I
Copper 1.0 mg/I
I ron 0.3 mg/I
Lead 0.05 mg/I
Manganese 0.05 mg/I
Mercury 0.005 mg/I
Nickel d 0.05 mg/I
Selenium 0.01 mg/I
Silver 0.05 mg/i
Zinc 5.0 mg/I
Chloride
Magnesium
Iodide
Aluminum
Potassium
Silica
Total nitrogen 10.0 mg/I (CSM only)
Bactericide 0.5 mg/I
Sterility e Free of viable organisms
aTest Point 3 is defined to be the onboard test/use ports in the LM and CSM.
bThe particulate sample was taken immediately following final servicing of the spacecraft.
CUnlimited means that particles in this size range were not counted; however, any obscuring of the
filter grid lines was cause for rejection.
dFor the CSM and for missions when water was used from the CSM for no more than 14 days
duration, the maximum allowable limit of the effective nickel concentration was 1.0 mg/liter.
eSterility samples consisted of an anaerobic and an aerobic sample: total volume for both samples
was 500 ml.
506 Biomedical Results of Apollo
tank by means of injection ampoules (22 cc). Water was cycled from the use ports to
distribute the injected solutions from the injection port (figure 2) into the storage tank.
During flight, injections were repeated at approximately 24-hour intervals. The corrosion
inhibitor described above was used only on the flights after Apollo 13.
Separate ampoules containing sodium hypochlorite (5000 mg/liter as chlorine) and
sodium dihydrogen phosphate buffer (0.7 molar) were used for inflight injection of the
Apollo 7 through 13 Command Module water systems. After the Apollo 13 mission,
sodium nitrate was added to the buffer ampoules to provide water system corrosion
inhibition. The water systems were injected with one ampoule of sodium hypochlorite
(1860 mg/liter as chlorine) and one ampoule of mixed sodium dihydrogen phosphate
(0.297 molar) and sodium nitrate (0.217 molar).
Three hours before lift-off, and at 24-hour intervals inflight, water was withdrawn
through the drinking water gun or the food preparation unit to permit a flow of fuel cell
water past the biocide injection point and into the potable water tank, after which the
contents of the ampoules were injected. The injected solutions were flushed into the
potable water storage tank by flowing fuel cell water past the chlorine injection port and
into the tank (figure 2). Most of the biocide and buffer passed the service line branching
point and was carried into the storage tank, but a small fraction remained in the injection
tee or was diffused into the service line. After a ten-minute contact time, an ampoule of
water was withdrawn through the injection point. As a result of withdrawal, any chlorine
solution in the service line was pulled back into the main line, where the chlorine was
transferred into the storage tank by the fuel cell water. Before the water was used, an
additional 20-minute period was required to allow biocide, buffer, and inhibitor to
disperse in the potable water tank. The treated water was withdrawn for consumption
through the drinking water gun and the food preparation service outlets.
On several occasions during the early Apollo flights, the crewmembers reported that
the water had a strong chlorine taste. In most instances, the difficulty was traced to a
procedural error that occurred during the injection of the chlorine and buffer. When clear
and concise procedures were developed and used, the crewmembers had no objection to
the taste of the water.
The chemical characteristics of the ground support equipment load water (test
point 2) and the spacecraft water (test point 3) are shown in table 4. As the table
indicates, the only potential contaminant consistently found was ionic nickel. The
Apollo 12 ground support equipment load water sample was the only sample in which
nickel appeared at a level above the specification limit. But, an excess of nickel was
contained in five samples taken from the drinking water gun. The excess amounts were
not considered medically significant for the short duration Apollo flights. Preflight
samples from the hot water port were examined, and they, too, were contaminated with
nickel. Based on these findings, a study was conducted to determine the inflight nickel
content in the hot water port on the Apollo 14 flight. A good correlation existed between
nickel concentrations found in flight and those found immediately after recovery
(table 5). Postflight concentrations (6.0 mg/liter) exceeded preflight load water specifica-
tions in nine out of ten samples taken within 40 hotirs of recovery. All evidence suggested
that the hot water heater was the source of the contaminant and that the concentration
Potable Water Supply 507
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508 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 5
of nickel increascd after the heater was activated inflight. A substantial quanti_ of nickel
brazing material was used in the construction of the heater. In addition, small amounts of
potable water system. A review of the medical literature indicated that ingestion of nickel
in the amounts found for the relatively short duration Apollo missions would not create
an acute or chronic toxicological problem, but that reconsideration would be required for
Command Module Fuel Cell Water Quality. Chemically, the fuel cell byproduct water
was of equal quality to distilled water, but the water was saturated with hydrogen gas.
The total dissolved solids in this water averaged 0.73 mg/liter, with an average pH of 5.6.
Analyses for total solids, turbidity, and particulates during chamber testing indicated that
the water met specifications except for the presence of a metal carbamate,
appeared only after fucl cell water had collected in the water storage tank.
Potable Water Supply 509
Lunar Module Water Quality. The Lunar Module water tanks were filled with ground
support equipment load water containing 20 to 30mg/liter iodine solution for
disinfection. After three to four hours contact time, approximately one-fourth of the
loaded water was drained out and uniodinated water added. This process resulted in a
final load iodine concentration of 11 to 13 mg/liter. No provision was made for the
inflight addition of iodine to the water storage tanks. In most cases, the degradation rate
of iodine in the system was such that the initial load concentrations were adequate for
biocidal action during the entire Lunar Module mission. The iodine concentrations were
checked three times before lift-off, and depletion curves were plotted from the data. The
depletion rate, projected for the duration of the flight, had to be low enough that an
iodine concentration of at least 0.5 mg/liter was maintained during the period of Lunar
Module manning When preflight data indicated a depletion rate that was too rapid to
maintain an adequate iodine residual during the mission, a bacterial filter was installed in
the line just ahead of the water use port.
The preflight chemical quality of the Lunar Module ground support equipment load
water (test point 2) and of water from the spacecraft system (test point 3) is shown in
table 6. As with the Command Module, comparison of these data with specification
requirements listed in tables 2 and 3 shows that the upper range of certain parameters,
slightly exceeded specification limits. These were turbidity test point 2 and nickel in test
point 3 samples. These excursions were not considered to be medically significant. No
data were collected to determine inflight Lunar Module potable water quality.
The NASA specifications for potable water require that water be "sterile"*
throughout the course of a mission. The use of a biocide in the water system was
necessary to meet this requirement. Command Module and Lunar Module data indicated
adequate control of microbial growth existed whcn a proper biocide concentration was
maintained. Preflight data gathered on the Command Module water demonstrated that
system sterility could not be maintained without an adequate biocide residual.
During the preflight water storage period, several microorganisms were found in
routine sampling of the water system. Because the growth phenomenon was consistent
throughout the Apollo Program, chlorination of each CM water system (normally three
hours before lift-off) was accomplished. Verification of the effectiveness of this
procedure was obtained from Apollo 17 prelaunch water samples. For this mission, the
water system was chlorinated nine hours before lift-off and microbiological samples were
taken two hours before lift-off. These samples were negative for all forms of microbial
growth.
*Sterile is defined as the absence of viable organisms when employing specific analysis procedures, as
in the filtration of three 150-ml samples through 0.45-micrometer filters, and then applying selective
media for E. coil, total count or yeast mold to each of the filters. In addition, a qualitative anaerobic
analysis was performed.
510 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 6
*Test Point 3 was the use port inside LM cabin, with water drawn from the descent
storage tank.
The types and numbers of microorganisms isolated from preflight and postflight
samples are listed in tables 7 and 8. The most commonly found microorganisms were
Flavobacteria. Seven species of this group were identified in preflight samples. At least one
Flavobacterium species was found before each Apollo mission. Approximately 90 percent
of the preflight samples taken during the storage period prior to chlorination contained
viable microorganisms.
The single common-use water dispenser provided for the three Apollo crewmembers
inflight offered no protection against microbial transfer from crewman to crewman. The
Command Module water dispenser was attached to a 178-cm (70-in) flexible hose. The
water in the hose had little or no residual biocide after remaining unused for extended
Table 7
Number of Microbes
Number of Microbes
Microorganism in Preflight
in Postflight Water
Unchlorinated Water
Aeromonas hydrophila 17
Cephalosporium acremonium 15
Corynebacterium sp. 7
Flavobacterium harrison5 17
Flavobacterium sp. 7, 15,16,17 14,15
Flavobacterium sp II 11,12,17 12
Flavobacterium sp. I I I a 1,8,9,10,12,14 11
Flavobacterium sp. III b 9, 10, 12, 14 10,12
Flavobacterium sp. I I I c 7
Flavobacterium sp. IVc 7,12
Flavobacterium sp. I Ve 14
Gram negative rod 16, 17
Herelea sp. 7
Micrococcus sp. 7, 17
NCDC Group IIIb 17
NCDC Group IVc 16 16
NCDC Group IVd 16 16
NCDC Group IVe 16 16
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16
Pseudomonas maltophila 14
Pseudomonas stutzerii 17
Rhizopus sp. 7
Sarcina sp. 7
Staphylococcus, betahemolytic
(Not Group A) 7
Staphylococcus epidermidis 9,12
Streptococcus equinus 14
Unidentified 11,12 7,13
Yeast/moid growth 7,13
It had been noted that maintenance of system sterility could not be achieved in the
absence of residual biocide. Connections, valves, metering dispensers, and O-rings in water
use ports also occurred. Bacterial growth in the water storage tanks was unexpectedly
rapid. During Command Module chamber tests when no biocide was used, bacterial levels
of 6 x 10 6 organisms/lO0 ml of water were found during the time when the water was
stored in the spacecraft. The source of the nutrients to support this growth is unknown;
however, the nutrients may be received from the tank bladder material, the fluorocarbon
Postflight potable water samples were taken from all missions except Apollo 13. The
genus Flavobacterium was again the most commonly occurring microorganism (tables 7
512 Biomedical Results of Apollo
Table 8
and 9). It was found in samples from l'iw_ of the eleven Apollo missions. In addition, tb4',
National Communicable Disease Center group IVc, IVd, and IVe microorganisms isolated
from Apollo 16 samples are very closely related to the Flavobacteria and some
classifications include them with Flavobacteria.
The potable water samples from three missions (Apollo 8, 9, and 17) contained no
microorganisms. All other mission samples contained concentrations ranging from three
organisms per 150 ml of water to those too numerous to count (table 9). Based on
preflight experience and public health data, microorganisms will not propagate in the
presence of chlorine or iodine biocide in concentrations of approximately 0.1 mg/liter or
higher. It must be assumed that residual chlorine was very low or absent in postflight
water samples containing viable organisms. The inflight schedule caued for chlorine
addition to the water at approximately 24-hour intervals. The final inflight chlorinations
were accomplished between 13 and 21 hours before splashdown. Samples for
microbiological analysis were taken between 7.5 and 40 hours after splashdown. This
schedule allowed the passage of approximately 25 to 55 hours, during which any residual
chlorine could become depleted from the system before samples could be taken. It is
known from qualification testing data that, in most cases, chlorine concentrations within
the water system are greatly reduced or disappear within 24 hours.
As soon as possible after the recovery operation, the residual chlorine concentration
in the hot water port and drinking water gun distribution systems was determined. These
values arc cited in table 10. As shown, chlorine residuals were present in the water in
Potable Water Supply 513
Table 9
8 Negative 0:2
9 Negative 0:2
13 No determinations
14 Flavobacterium sp. 2:2 1.5x 10 5
NCDC GrouplVd
NCDC GrouplVe
17 Negative 0:2
seven of nine missions. No determinations were made after the Apollo 13 and 14
postflight samples for microbiological analysis were taken simultaneously with those for
chlorine residual determination. As can be seen, there were occasions when there was
ratio. Therefore it is probable that while postflight analysis indicated the presence of
biocide (in effect the presence of biocide in the water tank because of sample volume),
the biocide level was nil in the water use ports and interconnecting tubing where there is a
high area-to-volume ratio. This could account for microbial growth in these portions of
the system and the positive analyses. Because of the requirement for a biocide contact
time and the immediate reduction of the biocide upon sample collection (sodium
Table 10
Postflight Chlorine Residuals in
Command Module Potable Water System
8 2.0 0.1 17
9 2.0 1.0 40
10 6.0 0.5 27
15 0.0 0.0 25
16 0.0 0.0 30
17 0.01 0.01 32
The Apollo potable water system satisfied the dual purpose of providing metabolic
water for the crewmen and water for spacecraft cooling. The overall performance was
good. Although design and operational difficulties existed, these were not insurmountable
despite the complexities of the unconventional type of water system required for space
travel.
The problems documented in this chapter were successfully resolved in the Apollo
Program. These efforts led to numerous technological advances including those in the
materials; material compatibility with water, gases, and biocides; and taste and odor
will contribute toward the needs of future space flight missions. In addition, this
Potable Water Supply 515
technology may have useful application in municipal, industrial, and private water
conservation programs.
References
Anon: Apollo Block II ECS Components, No SS-1959-R. Garrett Airesearch Manufacturing Division,
March 1968.
Anon: Apollo Operations Handbook, Vol. 1. NASA SM 2A-03, Block II(1). North American
Rockwell, 15 April 1969.
Anon: Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, 1962. U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Public Health Service. Public Health Service Publication No. 9516. United States
Government Printing Office.
NASA: Command Service Module/Lunar Module/Orbital Workshop Potable Water Specification and
Test Procedures. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Manned Spacecraft Center, July
1971.
Sauer, Richard L.: Spacecraft Metabolic Water Supply. Paper presented at Spacecraft Potable Water
Symposium, American Chemical Society, Division of Water and Waste Management (Houston,
Texas), Feb. 28, 1970.
Sauer, Richard L.; and Calley, David J.: Apollo Experience Report: Potable Water System. NASA TN
D-7291. June 1973.
12694
CHAPTER 5
by
James C. Brady
Donald F. Hughes
Frank H. Samonski, Jr.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Roger W. Young
David M. Browne
Introduction
The Apollo Command and Service Module (CSM) and Lunar Module (LM) proved to
be highly successful space vehicles. Instrumental in the success of these spacecraft was the
satisfactory and reliable operation of their environmental control systems. This chapter
describes the systems and system requirements and discusses the performance of both
Command Module and Lunar Module environmental control systems during the Apollo
Program. The bulk of the material contained in this Chapter was orginaUy published in
Brady and co-workers (1973), and Hughes and co-workers (1973).
The concept of the Apollo mission itself and thc spacccraft that would be needed to
complete it can be traced back to 1955. In March of that year, the feasibility of a one
million pound thrust liquid-fueled rocket engine to launch the vehicle on its path to the
moon was established. By late 1962, the broad conceptual design of the Apollo spacecraft
and the lunar landing mission was complete. During 1963, formal contract negotiations
for the spacecraft were completed, and by June of 1963 most of the subsystem designs
for the Command Module (CM) were finalized. At the same time, critical decisions were
being made concerning the I,unar Module (LM). The key items affecting its design
included the decision to rotate the CSM and manually maneuver it into a docked position
with the LM; that the crew would operate the LM from a standing position; and, most
important for the environmental control and life support systems, that the Lunar Module
would be capable of supporting the operations of two men on the lunar surface for up to
24 hours plus 24 hours in flight. Before the end of 1963, the Lunar Module mockup was
completed and, in early 1964, the Block II CSM configuration was completed. The
517
To accomplish these design objectives, the ECS interfaced with the electrical power
system for electricity, fuel cell system for water, and cryogenic storage system for
oxygen.
The oxygen subsystem was supplied from the Service Module cryogenic storage tanks
and controlled the distribution of oxygen within the Command Module. It stored a
reserve supply of oxygen, regulated several levels of supplied oxygen pressure, controlled
cabin pressure in normal and emergency modes, and provided for purging of the pressure
suit circuit.
The pressure suit circuit subsystem provided the crew with a continuously
conditioned atmosphere. It automatically controlled suit gas circulation, pressure, and
temperature, and removed debris, excess moisture, odors, and carbon dioxide from both
suit and cabin gases.
The water subsystem received the potable water produced as a byproduct of fuel cell
operation, stored the water, and chilled or heated the water for drinking and food
reconstitution. The waste water section collected and stored water extracted from the
suit heat exchanger and provided it to the evaporator for evaporative cooling. Potable
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 519
....... r....... 1
..__.1 1
OF POOR QUALITy
520 Biomedical Results of Apollo
water not needed for crew consumption was added to waste water storage. Water in
excess of system requirements was dumped overboard through a heated water dump
nozzle.
The coolant (water/ethylene glycol) subsystem supplied cooling for the pressure suit
circuit, potable water chiller, and electrical and electronic equipment mounted on
eoldplates in the Command and Service Modules. It also supplied heating or cooling for
the cabin atmosphere. Independent primary and secondary (backup) coolant loops were
provided, with each loop utilizing space radiators as the basic heat rejection mechanism
and water boiling from the glycol evaporator for supplementary heat rejection.
The waste management subsystem provided for dumping overboard of urine through
a heated nozzle and for storage arid venting of solid wastes. An interconnect capability
with the waste water dump system was available as a backup for all fluid dumping.
The postlanding ventilation subsystem provided means for circulating ambient air
through the cabin after landing.
Mission Performance
Oxygen Subsystem. The oxygen subsystem of the ECS, exclusive of the cryogenic
oxygen system, performed satisfactorily throughout the Apollo missions. Separate
regulation levels were maintained at nominal values of 690, 140, and 35 kN/m 2
(approximately 100, 20, and 5 psi), and the flow restrictors/heat exchangers demonstrated
satisfactory operation for flows approaching maximum capability. No emergency cabin
pressure regulation was required, and all planned depressurizations and repressurizations
were without incident. Oxygen allocated to the ECS was originally 78.29 kg (172.6 lb)
for a 14-day mission. Principal items were .82 kg (1.8 lb) per man-day for crew
consumption and 2.18 kg (4.8 ib) per day for cabin leakage. Additional allowan(:es were
made for the extravehicular activity in the latcr missions. Actual consumption, as shown
in table 1, proved to be less than alloeations, primarily because of lower cabin leakage and
crew requirements. A comparison of a typical mission with the specification requirements
is showp in table 2.
Pressure Suit Circuit Subsystem. The pressure suit circuit subsystem satisfactorily
accomplished all its design requirements. With the confidence gained during the program,
fully suited operation was eventually limited to launch and Lunar Module jettison. No
difficulty was ever encountered with the integrity of the Command Module pressure shell.
Therefore, the suit loop was not used as an emergency environment for the crew. During
the Command Module extravehicular activities on the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions, use
of the suit loop was required to support two crewmen, but no problems resulted and
pressure regulation was within the required 24. I to 27.6 kN/m 2 (3.5 to 4.0 psia) range.
The original concept of using 100 percent oxygen as the cabin gas during the
prelaunch and launch periods was abandoned following the Apollo 204 accident in favor
of a 60 percent oxygen/40 percent nitrogen mixture with the suit circuit remaining at
lO0percent oxygen. This required the inclusion of a pressure sensor to indicate
suit-to-cabin differential pressure, and the direct oxygen valve was used to provide a
constant 0.23 to 0.32 kg/hr (0.5 to 0.7 lb/hr) flow into the suit loop. This flow
compensated for metabolic usage and suit circuit leakage with some excess flow to keep
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 521
the loop at a positive pressure and provide a purge through the suit circuit relief valve.
Although brief periods of negative pressure resulted from crew movement in the suits, the
system was judged to perform acceptably.
Table 1
different from flight to flight, but that there was a predictability within a certain band.
Additional refinements were attempted to account for estimated crew metabolic rates,
activity levels, and spacecraft environments. None of these was particularly successful in
consolidating the data. Considering the lack of sufficient instrumentation and knowledge
of actual metabolic levels, tolerances of the chemical analyses, and possibility of
out-of-order use by the crew, the results appear to be representative of the element usage.
Table 2
100 --
Z 90 -- c
0
k- 80 -- _ _°
<
N 70
_o °
.J
60 -
c o_ _ °_°
o
LU 50 --
(3 o i_ _ o_
x 40 --
o
rr 30 --
a
>- 20 --
-r
10 --
3" o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 18 22 24 26 28 30 32
J INSTALLEDTIMEIN ENVIRONMENTALCONTROLUNIT,
Water Subsystem. The water subsystem typically managed from 180 to 225 kg (400
to 500 lb) of water with normal fuel cell production rates of 0.68 to 0.91 kg/hr (1.5 to
2.0 lb/hr). Because these rates far exceeded the requirements of the crew and evaporator
operation, most of the water was dumped overboard. Routine flight operation consisted
of maintaining a full potable water tank and alternately filling and dumping the waste
tank between limits of 10 percent and 85 percent full. On occasion, dumping was
inadvertently continued until the waste tank was completely empty, and some of the
potable water was dumped without adverse system effect. During later missions, the
waste water tank was kept almost full at Command Module/Service Module separation to
improve the spacecraft's lift/drag characteristics during reentry. A water balance for a
typical mission is presented in table 3. Quantities were determined from telemetered tank
quantities, calculated evaporative usage, and standard values for the lithium hydroxide
reaction and metabolic oxidation. (See Section VI, Chapter 4, Potable Water Supply, for
additional information.)
Table 3
I nitial Quantity
Onboard Water kg (Ib)
Water gained
Fuel cell production 235.87 (520)
LiOH reaction 12.25 (27)
Metaboiic oxidation 11.19 (26)
Water lost
Body waste water 43.09 (95)
Evaporator operation 3.63 (8)
Overboard dumping
Waste tank 191.42 (422)
Potable tank 7.26 (16)
URA flushing and samples 2.72 (6)
Initial onboard water + water gained = final onboard water + water lost.
524 Biomedic',d Results of Apollo
The hot water provided for food and drink reconstitution was _eatly appreciated by
the flight crews and improved the diet over tile cold diet supplied on earlier space flight
missions. However, while mechanical failures in the water system were infrequent, the
system itself was the source of frequent negative comments by the crew. These concerned
two aspects of system performance, gas in the water and problems with the sterilization
injection system.
Gas in the potable water originatc, d from two sources. Water produced as a byproduct
of fuel cell operation was saturated with hydrogen gas at a pressure of 415 kN/m 2
(60 psia). When this water was supplied to the environmental control system through a
140 kN/m 2 (20 psig) regulator, approximately one liter of hydrogen per day was released.
This gas was removed from the water system oil Apollo 112 and subsequent missions by
passing the water through a hydrogen gas separator. The separator removed about
99 percent of the hydrogen, reducing the partial pressure in the water to 4.1 N/m 2
(0.6 psia).
The other source of gas in the drinking water was oxygen from the bladder in the
drinking water storage tank. This tank contained an oxygen bladder pressurized to
140 kN/m 2 (20 psig) to expell the water. Oxygen permeated the bladder material until
the partial pressure was about equalized across the bladder. When the water was used by
the crew in the 35 kN/m 2 (5 psia) cabin, oxygen was released. This was particularly
troublesome when preparing food because large bubbles often formed in the food bags
and prevented proper reconstitution. A gas separator cartridge assembly was developed
for attachment to the water delivery port starting with the Apollo 11 mission. The
assembly separated the free gas from the water but was only partially successful due to
size and configuration limitations.
Subsequent to final design of the water system, a requirement for water sterility was
placed on the system. A method was devised by which 30 cm 3 (1 ounce) of chlorine
solution and 30 cm 3 (1 ounce) of buffer solution could be injected into the water system
every 24 hours through a fitting containing septa. The solutions were containcd in
hard-case, Teflon ampoules with flexible inner bags. During development, problems were
encountered with corrosion of the aluminum tubing and with chemical mixing. During
the first several missions, the crews complained of a strong chlorine taste after injections.
These problems were solved by (1) having the crew perform the injections just prior to
the sleep period, and (2) developing the use of sodium nitrate as a corrosion inhibitor for
addition to the buffer ampoules. The inhibitor was effcctiw_ in preventing the chlorine
from reacting with the aluminum and allowed a decrease in the concentration of the
chlorine injected from 5000 mg/liter (5000 ppm) to 1860 mg/liter (1860 ppm). Use of
the modified chlorine and buffer ampoule solutions began with the Apollo 14 flight. The
injection procedure itself posed certain problems primarily from ampoule bag leakage.
Additional preflight inspections improved this situation.
allowed satisfactory heat rejection by the space radiators during most periods. During the
translunar and transearth phases, the radiator outlet temperature seldom exceeded 283°K
(50°F) and often was below 280°K (45°F). When the temperature was below 280°K the
Service Module bypass valve was required to operate and control the Command Module
coolant temperature to 280°K (45°F). Evaporator operation was required only during
portions of launch, Earth orbit, lunar orbit, and entry, and during certain fixed attitudes
which prevented effective radiator operation. Starting with Apollo 11, when steam
discharge interfered with visual sightings and caused perturbations in orbital tracking and
attitudes, evaporator operation was inhibited except for launch, Earth orbit, and entry.
The resulting system temperature measured at the evaporator outlet exceeded the normal
278 ° to 283°K (40 ° to 50°F) range and cyclically increased during lunar orbits to 297°K
(75°F) or more. Typical lunar orbit system performance with and without evaporator
operation is illustrated in figures 3a and 3b. Principal impact of this excessive temperature
cycling was to increase the condensation on the colder cabin surfaces after the higher
temperature portions of the orbits.
The coldest coolant flowed through the suit heat exchanger for gas cooling and
condensate removal and then to the cabin heat exchanger for cabin gas cooling before
going to the electronic heat load. However, because the noise of the fans and the gas flow
passing through the cabin heat exchanger was amplified by the cabin structure, the crews
did not operate the cabin fans except during short specified periods and relied upon the
suit heat exchanger for the total thermal control of the cabin gas. This mode of operation
was normally adequate during translunar and transearth phases when the crews were
comfortable or slightly chilly. The higher coolant temperatures during lunar orbit
presented some discomfort, but the problem was not significant.
Early flight configurations of the evaporator showed a tendency to dry out under low
heat loads and required inflight reservicing. Later modifications, which included relocated
wetness sensors and trimming of the water distribution sponges, provided satisfactory
units. During the Apollo 16 mission, the mixing valw_ was operated in a manual mode for
almost the entire flight due to failure of the mixing valve controller. Less than a half
dozen adjustments were required by the crew, and overall system temperature increased
less than 3°K (5°F) which constituted adequate system performance.
Radiator heat load and rejection was determined by use of the total flow and radiator
inlet and outlet and evaporator outlet temperature measurements. Typical heat load and
rejection under favorable conditions during translunar or transearth PTC ranged between
1170 and 1470 watts (4000 and 5000 Btu/hr). Knowing the approximate electrical and
metabolic heat load, the heat loss through the structure was determined. Experience from
Apolio 7 and 9, both Earth orbit missions, showed that heat loss through the cabin
structure varied from 380 to 675 watts(1300 to 2300 Btu/hr), depending on the extent of
CM electrical load. This loss was largely due to heat shorts near the coldplates and was
greater than originally estimated.
(OF) OK
,,,=<15°'
=83 _./B¥.PASS j _,
_ 1401 277 I
(30) 272 _ - _ #
I EVAPORATOR • 8
120) 266 _,,w o, OPERATION _t_... 8
"_ EVAPORATOR OUTLET
1101 261 I I I I I
84 85 86 87 88 89
(a)
(9O)
(80)
305
300
L.__ UPPER
w (70) 294 _ y '_ OF II
LIMIT _ II l
n-
THERMAL / %EVATP EOMUTL ET / _ f
_- (60) 289
<
(50) 283
w (40)
I-
(30)
277
272
..,
/RADIATOR OUTLET I_TAED "--EV APOR EATTOR
(20) 266
I I I I I I
(10) 261
84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(b)
A reported inability by the crew to obtain additional drinking water and a subsequent
thermal model analysis indicate that the water tanks, or more probably the water lines in
the aft compartment, froze late in the powered down period. Command Module ECS
operation after reactivation and during entry was satisfactory.
Dust Control
A problem encountered with the start of the lunar landing missions was effective
control of lunar dust. After lunar EVA, the crewmen and the samples they had collected
were covered with this fine lunar material. Dcspite attempts at cleanup and packaging in
the Lunar Module, transfer of crew and materials back to the" Comnmud Module resulted
in contamination of the CM atmosphere. This was an undesirable situation in view of the
objectives of the quarantine program which sought to minimize contamination of the CM,
and thereby minimize the potential hazard of contaminating the biosphere after reentry
the spaeecralt. Larl]er contamination testing and analysis had shown that continuous
cycling of cabin gas through the lithium hydroxide elements (and filters) effectively
removed particles 5 microns or even less in diameter, even though 50 percent of the flow
was bypassed. Disadvantages to this automatic method were the relatively slow removal
rate and introduction of additional particles whenever a dusty, item was moved or
disturbed. To speed up the capture of suspended material, a filter was developed" for use
with the cabin fans. The filter, in a shape of a pleated bag, was made from the same
Armalon felt filter material used in the elements and was attached to the outlet of the
fans. When used for several hours during and after crew and sample transfer, the filter was
effective. An additional benefit was obtained by installing the filter shortly after launch,
thereby preventing floating objects from entering the inactive fan enclosure.
To assist in removing dust from suits and sample containers, a hand-held vacuum
cleaner (figure 4) was developed that used the qualified suit circuit compressor as a
528 Biomedical Results of Apollo
CO
°_
ooooo
e.
ooooo E
Z e gg
_ EE
_ O0
A _EE
_gg_
0_0
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 529
blower. Replaceable bags were fabricated from the Armalon felt, and a brush was added
to the compressor inlet. A 4.27-m (14-ft) power cable for attachment to the Command
Module utility outlet enabled use in both the CM and LM. The device was effective for
removing dust before transfer of the items from the LM, and reduced the contamination
entering the CM. Heavy usage, however, tended to clog the inlet screen and impeller and
required frequent cleaning.
EVA Provisions
The addition of the Service Module Experiment Bay on Apollo 15,16, and 17 added
an ECS revnirement to provide extravehicu!ar activity (EVA) czp,abilii;v for i'rie support
of one crewman while retrieving the experiment film containers. The system was designed
to provide suit pressure control and latent metabolic heat removal.
Oxygen flow from the cryogenic system originally was limited to two restrictorlheat
exchangers. In order to achieve the flow capability required for EVA, a third
restrictorlheat exchanger was added in parallel, increasing flow capacity to 4.54 kg/hr
(10 Ib/hr) minimum. Downstream of the restrictor manifold, and upstream of the
remaining ECS, a new EVA panel and life support system were added as shown in
figure 5.
Safety features, consistent with simplicity , were added to enhance problem detection
and backup provisions.
1. The EVA panel pressure gage was monitored for high pressure oxygen
[ 1030 kN/m2 (> 150 psia)] b y one of the two crewmen in the cabin.
2. The suit control unit (SCU) orifice controlled the flow rate to 5.0 + 0.5 kgjhr (11.0
+ 1.0 Ib/hr) a t 280°K (45OF)with 690 + 35 kN/m2 (100 + 5 psia) at the umbilical inlet, In
the event of a severed umbilical, reverse oxygen flow from the suit was limited by the
530 Biomedical
Results
of Apollo
\ VALVE7 PROM
02
-_--- 4- - - -_/ _RESTR,CTORS
25 FOOT OXYGEN AND I\ (E) l// /
COMMUN,CAT,ONS
; \ _ A /
UMBILICAL _ _ _ ..-,,P" I / CUFF GAGE
/_ _ /---.-(RIGHT ARM)
_\ L ........ J / r---PRESSURE
EVA
PANEL //REGULATOR
_) LOW
FLOW II r-" PRESSURE
IMPRESS. SWITCHIJ \GAGE:
Ikl_._ _ I'_'ORIFICE /| \ OXYGEN
_ _ r--SUIT 1| \ PURGE
)} _ _ _PRESS._ I _ SYSTEM
orifice. This allowed time [6.9 kN/m 2 (1 psi) drop in 80 seconds] for the EVA crewman
to close the SCU shutoff valve.
3. The pressure switch upstream of the orifice in the SCU activated a warning tone in
the EVA crewman headset should the umbilical pressure drop below 415 kN/m 2
(60 psig), indicating a low flow condition [2.7 kg/hr (6 lb/hr)]. Use of the pressure
switch as a means of low flow detection was possible since flow rate through the orifice
was sonic, and therefore, a function of upstream pressure.
4. The pressure switch downstream of the orifice in the SCU also activated the
warning tone in the EVA crewman headset and gave warning of low suit pressure [less
than 23.4 kN/m 2 (3.4 psig)].
5. The pressure control valve (PCV) controlled the suit pressure to 26 +- 1 kN/m 2
(3.80 +- 0.15 psig). The PCV was designed so that suit pressure would not fall below
20 kN/m 2 (3.0 psia) in the event the PCV failed in the open position.
6. A backup oxygen purge system (OPS) provided up to 3.6 kg/hr (8 lb/hr) oxygen
flow for 30 minutes. A purge valve controlled the flow for this system, utilizing either a
high flow or low flow setting.
Although no telemetry was added for the EVA hardware, existing telemetry and crew
data readouts indicated the system performance as given in table 5 was normal. No flight
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 531
problems were encountered with the EVA system, and the EVA crewmen commented
that thermal conditions were adequate for the time and metabolic rates involved.
Table 5
Suit circuit pressure kN/m 2 (psia) 26.9 (3.9) 25.9 (3.8) 25.5 (3.7)
EVA suit pressure kN/m 2 (psia) 27.6 (4.0) 26.5 (3.8) 25.9 (3.8)
EVA panel pressure gage kN/m 2 (psia) 2068 (300) 2068 (300) 2413 (350)
Calculated EVA flow at kg/hr (Ib/hr) 5.0 (11.0) 4.6 (10.2) 4.7 (10.4)
vacuum [using restrictor
delta P at 294 °K (70°F)]
EVA duration minutes 31 73 58
Redundancy Utilization. The requirements for reliability dictated that practically all
components with moving parts have redundancy or backup provisions. In the oxygen
system, which was especially critical for life support, all regulators and relief valves had
parallel redundancy and both were used together. In addition, regulators contained relief
features set slightly above regulation setting to allow for a failed open regulator. Each
regulator had a separate isolation capability. Redundancy for electrical switches, electrical
circuits, and manual shutoff valves was not normally provided. Therefore, backup
provisions were made for items essential to crew safety or mission success.
Very few hardware failures resulted in required use of redundant components, but
backup provisions were used to extend the capability of the ECS. For example, the
secondary glycol loop proved useful for warming the crew during prelaunch when
ehiidown of the primary giyeoi loop by ground support equipment was necessary for
equipment cooling. The manual backup provision on the glycol temperature valve was
used when the controller failed during the Apollo 16 flight. The suit loop, usually
considered as a backup for cabin cooling and ventilation, baeame the prime system
because the crew preferred to keep the cabin fans off. The secondary glycol loop was
never required as a backup for the primary loop. However, it proved useful during flight
as a means of cold soak prior to reentry. In this mode of operation, the coldest fluid of
the secondary loop was sent to the suit heat exchanger. Again, accomplishing this without
hardware changes was made possible by backup provisions such as bypass and isolation
valves,
Material Age Life Inrestigation. The specification design age life for the Command
and Service Module environmental control system was three years. It became apparent
that much of the hardware manufactured for the program would exceed this specification
532 Biomedical Results of Apollo
life, particularly since several spacecraft were nearing or had already completed
installation and checkout and were scheduled for storage because of program changes.
Such was the case of CSM 111, designated for the Apollo Soyuz Test Project (ASTP).
An age life analysis investigation was initiated. Each material, its application, failure
criticality, and rationale for age life extension, was listed and reviewed by material and
subsystem personnel. As a result of the review, the static age life of most materials was
extended to ten years. Also as a result of the study, specific valve positions were
identified to reduce material "set" during any storage periods.
System Description
The Lunar Module environmental control system was comprised of four main
sections: atmosphere revitalization, oxygen supply and cabin pressure control, water
management, and heat transport.
The atmosphere revitalization section (ARS) consisted of a suit circuit assembly and
suit liquid cooling assembly. The ARS is illustrated in figure 6. The suit circuit assembly
was a closed-loop recirculation system that cooled and ventilated the two pressure
garment assemblies (PGA) through flexible umbilicals. The suit liquid cooling assembly
circulated water through, and controlled the temperature in the liquid cooling garment,
circulated cabin gas via a cabin fan when required, and removed lunar dust from the cabin
after ascent from the lunar surface.
The oxygen supply and cabin pressure control section (OSCPCS) stored gaseous
oxygen, supplied oxygen to and maintained pressure control of the suit circuit and cabin,
and provided refill oxygen to the portable life support system (PLSS). A schematic of the
OSCPCS is shown in figure 7.
The water management section (WMS) supplied water for drinking, food preparation,
cooling by heat transport section sublimators, and refilling the PLSS water tank. Figure 8
is a diagram of the WMS.
The heat transport section (figure 9) contained the hardware that heated or cooled
the gas flow to the PGAs and cabin, cooled the electronic equipment and batteries, and
rejected heat to space. It consisted of a primary coolant loop for normal operation and a
secondary loop which cooled critical equipment in the event the primary system failed. A
water/ethylene glycol solution circulated through each loop.
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 533
L. c
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Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 537
R DENOTESREDUNDANTCOMPONENT
__ DENOTESGAS
DENOTESWATER
=_CABIN GAS
RETURNVALVE
Mission Performance
Cabin Leakage. The Lunar Module was pressurized after transposition and docking.
During the translunar coast of the vehicles, the pressure decay of the LM was monitored.
The rate of pressure loss was used to evaluate the leakage of the cabin in space. The range
of leakages obtained for Apollo 11 through 17 was between 14 and 23gm/hr at
35 kN/m 2 (0.03 and 0.05 lb/hr at 5 psia). The maximum allowable specification leakage
of oxygen from the LM cabin to space was 90 gm/hr (0.2 lb/hr) at a total pressure of
35 kN/m 2 (5 psia). Thus actual leakage rates that existed were generally between
one-seventh and one-fourth of the allowable specification rates.
Water consumption for a typical mission during which a total of 181.4 kg (399 lb) of
water was used was subdivided as follows: approximately 1 kg (2.3 lb) for the sublimator
fill, 22 kg (48 lb) for PLSS water refills, 4.5 kg (10 ib) for drink bag fills, and 3.7 kg
(8.2 lb) for metabolic nonreclaimables.
The oxygen consumption was the total of the oxygen consumed due to crew
metabolic consumption, leakage, cabin pressurization, and PLSS refills. The oxygen
consumption rate was equal to the sum of the metabolic rates of each man [Joules/hr
(Btu/hr)] multiplied by 0.07052 kg/J (1.64 x 10 -4 lb/Btu). This was based on a
respiratory quotient (RQ) of 0.82. The oxygen consumption due to leakage was a
function of the vehicle configuration.
538 Biomedical Results of Apollo
ASSEMBLY _',_BYPASSII
PRESSURE
_ ',._%'_V-'$-_¥_U-_C
,
K'_'_IVALVEIIREGULATORI_'_ ,_"_-Tr'
R.N REGULATO.RJ
...... _
L "
't-....... J ' J
_" ........ J PLSS
I I RECHARGE
_D \ s
ESCENT I _'_ \ ASSEMBLY
OXYGEN
TAN KS
ASCENT RECLAIMED
SHUTOFF H20 TAN KS M ETABOLIC
VALVES (5) H20 PRESSURE
REGULATOR
/
SECONDARY /
: SUBLIMATOR
SUIT
I
CIRCUIT /
,,.-
PRIMARY l
COOLANT H201ZE _
ASCENT WATER CONTROL MODULE SUBLIMATOR |
DESCENT
'_ DESCENT I _'_ LM 10--12
GUILLOTINE ,_ .......... _11 --- DENOTES
J H20TANKS %_,._./ R DENOTES REDUNDANT
COMPONENT
ORIGINA.L PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 539
Coolant
recirculator
assembly
II Coolant
Iltll.;at--Mill
lexc.a",gerIII
.II IIHI
exc"anger
IIIIITocool_,,',t
Suitwater_ III1 _ recirculator
assembly
cooling I IlrJ I vnmary I
Secondary_ Coolant ]
sublimator_accumulator I
Rdenotesredundant
component.
The total descent oxygen consumed for the Apollo 17 mission was 21.2 kg (46.6 lb).
This compared very well with the preflight prediction of 20.7 kg (45.5 Ib). Comparable
values for the Apollo 11 flight were 8.6kg (191b) consumed versus lOkg (22 Ib)
predicted. The higher predicted value for Apollo 11 can be attributed to conservative
estimates of expected crew metabolic levels during earlier flights.
Sufficient lithium hydroxide cartridges, the carbon dioxide control system of the
spacecraft, were not available in the Lunar Module to sustain the crew. The primary and
secondary cartridges supplied in the Lunar Module were used until the carbon dioxide
level reached approximately 2000 N/m 2 (15 mm Hg). Since additional lithium hydroxide
was needed, a means was developed for adapting the Command Module elements for use
in the Lunar Module system. Figure 10 shows the system ultimately devised.
LUNA,R __ LUNAR
_'-_E Kt<L5%_,_\\_\_MODULE
P ST,C
BAG
ODULE
LITHIUM HYDROXIDE
TAPED TOGETHER
Space suit return hoses were taped to plenum chambers, constructed by the crew
from onboard documents and tape, and attached to the Command Module environmental
control system elements. Cabin gas drawn through the elements by the atmosphere
revitalization system was successfully scrubbed of carbon dioxide. After about 20 hours
of operation, an additional unit was stacked on each original cartridge to improve the
removal of carbon dioxide. With this configuration, the indicated carbon dioxide level
was maintained between 13 and 240 N/m 2 (0.1 and 1.8 mm Hg). This special procedure
was used for 47 hours until the Command Module was activated and the Lunar Module
jettisoned.
Flight Problems
The problems encountered during flight were not serious in terms of crew safety or
mission success. Two of the more interesting problems involved the water separators and
oxygen demand regulators.
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 541
Water Separator. During the Apollo 11 and 12 flights, the crews reported free water
in their suits during lunar operations. Prior to the Apollo 12 flight, a thermal and system
analysis indicated that the most probable cause of the problem was bypass flow through
the separator selector valve, a part of the water separator. The problem could not be
reproduced during ground tests. However, during Apollo 12, free water was again
reported in the pressure suits.
Following the Apollo 12 flight, a detailed bench test was again performed to identify
the problem. It was found that the suit loop gas flow drove the separator too fast,
resulting in water carryover. To correct the difficulty, an orifice was incorporated in the
primary lithium hydroxide cartridges to limit the suit loop flow in future vehicles.
The Apollo 13 and 14 crewmen reported no free water. However, the indicated
separator speeds read "High" during some flight periods. In fact, in certain suited
configurations (for example, helmets and gloves removed), pressure resistance in the suit
was lowered and gas flow became unacceptably high. Therefore, the operating procedures
were modified to maintain adequate flow resistance during all modes of operation.
Oxygen Demand Regulator. Suit circuit and cabin pressures were controlled by two
oxygen demand regulators which sensed suit circuit pressure and supplied oxygen. The
regulators normally operated concurrently. Two pressure ranges could be selected: cabin
mode and egress mode.
While the cabin was being depressurized prior to the third lunar excursion during the
Apollo 17 mission, the suit circuit gas pressure increased above a normal regulator loekup.
The situation was cleared by manual shutoff of one of the two parallel oxygen demand
regulators. The mission was completed with exclusive use of the second regulator.
Postflight data review indicated that the pressure rise could have been caused by
inadvertently bumping the regulator out of its "Egress" position or by contamination
between the regulator poppet and seat.
Experience
Component Redundancy. The Lunar Moduh; ECS was designed with sufficient
redundancy in critical life support areas to provide a "fail operational, fail safe" design.
The hardware performed successfully throughout the Apollo flights. Only during the last
flight, previously discussed under flight problems, was a redundant component required.
Redundancy considerations were simplified by the multiple function component
design. Hardware complexity and costs were high compared to single function
components. For system design where weight, volume, and manual operation are
premium design requirements, the use of multiple function components should be
considered in lieu of multiple single function components.
Modular Construction. Modular packaging concepts were used in several places in the
ECS where groupings of equipment appeared desirable. The major package in the Lunar
Module ECS was the suit circuit assembly which contained the necessary atmosphere
processing equipment. The suit circuit assembly was densely packaged to accommodate
the required hardware in the allotted space. Use of the modular concept was necessary
because of the weight and volume constraints, but this led to a number of problems.
It had been planned to replace the entire package in the field if any component
required change. Changing an entire package was a relatively long process. A large number
of tests were required to verify that all the components within the replacement package
were functioning after installation. For this reason and wherever possible, the practice of
changing individual components with the package installed was adopted. This practice,
which was successfully performed on a number of occasions, saved time in the vehicle
cabin and generally avoided schedule delays.
Summary
The performance of both the Command Module and Lunar Module environmental
control systems during the Apollo Program was highly satisfactory. Only minor problems
were experienced. These systems provided the astronauts with the necessary life
Apollo Command and Service Module and Lunar Module Environmental Control Systems 543
sustaining functions, with as much added comfort as possible. The knowledge gained in
the system design and performance should be beneficial to the development of future
trouble-free systems.
References
The bulk of the information in this chapter appeared in the following two articles:
Hughes, D.F.; Owens, W.L.; and Young, R.W.: Apollo Command and Service Module
Environmental Control System - Mission Performance and Experience. ASME Paper No.
73-ENA-29, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (New York), 1973.
Brady, J.C.; Browne, D.M.; Schneider, HJ.; and Sheehan, J.F.: Apollo Lunar Module
Environmental Control System - Mission Performance and Experience. ASME Paper No.
73-ENA-28, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (New York), 1973.
CHAPTER 6
EXTRAVEHICULAR MOBILITY UNIT
by
Maurice A. Carson
Michael N. Rouen
Charles C. Lutz
James W. McBarron, II
Introduction
The Apollo extravehicular mobility unit was designed to meet a unique set of needs.
To assure the maximum return of scientific information from the moon, a method was
required for collecting samples, deploying/retrieving instruments, and performing cxpcri-
ments on the lunar surface and in free space. Man had to be able to operate safely in free
space to provide an emergency mode of translation from the l,unar Module to the
Command Module in the event a complete linkup could not be accomplished after lunar
lift-off. Since the weight required to provide redundant pressure vessels for each space-
craft would have been prohibitive, a space suit was required.
The extravehicular mobili_ unit (EMU) design reflected these needs. Figure 1 is a
cutaway representation of the EMU. The unit consisted of a highly mobile, anthropomor-
phic pressure vessel and a portable life support system (PI,SS). The pressure vessel, known
as the pressure garment assembly (PGA), when operatcd in conjunction with the Com-
mand Module and Lunar Module life support systems, provided pressurization backup
during critical mission phases, including launch and return. It provided primary pressur-
ization for the extravehicular activity conducted from the Command Module during the
m;_; ....
............. _ ,_po!!o 15, ,_,,
_ ,,u
--J ,,.
"_ _x,,,vctac_
................ of four to seven Hours (luratlon were made
with the PLSS on the lunar surface to perform the lunar science tasks.
A description of the EMU used for the first lunar landing is given here. A short
description is included of the changes made in the EMU design during the program to
incorporate the results of experience and to provide new capabilities.
The EMU was supplied by three different concerns. The pressure garment assembly was supplied by
ILC Industries, Incorporated, and the portable life support system by the Hamilton Standard Division
of United Aircraft Corporation. Both were under the monitorship of the Crew Systems Division of the
Engineering and Development Directorate of the Johnson Space Center. The communications equip-
ment was supplied by RC A under the monitorship of the Tracking and Communications Development
Division, also of the Engineering and Development Directorate.
545
LUNAR EXTRAVEHICULAR
OXYGENPURGE VISOR ASSEMBLY
SYSTEM
GAS UMBILICAL
PORTABLE LIFE
SUPPORT SYSTEM I
RESTRAINT LAYER
Two configurations of the PGA were worn on the Apollo I1 mission. The
intravehicular configuration was worn by the Command Modulc Pilot (figure 2). The
extravehicular configuration, shown in figure 3, was worn by the Commander and Lunar
Module Pilot. The two configurations were similar in most respects. However, the
intravehicular version was equipped with a lighter weight and less bulky coverlaycr and
did not include hardware and controls necessary for extravehicular use.
Both versions of the PGA consisted of a torso-limb suit assembly (TLSA) with an
integrated protective coverlayer, a pressure helmet, pressure gloves, controls, instrumenta-
tion, and communication equipment. In addition, extravehicular equipment consisting of
a lunar extravehicular visor assembly, lunar boots, a liquid cooling garment, and fecal and
urinary containment systems were provided to complete the EVA PGA configuration.
These components of the EMU are pictured in figure 4.
Apollo space suits were individually tailored for each mission. Fifteen suits were
required to fully equip the mission. Each prime crewmembcr had three suits - a training
suit and two flight suits, and each backup crewmcmber had two suits - a training suit and
a flight suit.
The following sections describe the components of the extravehicular PGA
configuration. Table 1 lists the characteristics of the suit assembly.
Extravehicular Mobility Unit 547
..
X w
>
s
W
U
4
3
uI
w
>
a
U
I- .-
Y
X I-
w 2
5 n
t;
fw
I
Extravehicular Mobility Unit 549
Table 1
PressureGarment Assembly
Characteristics with Thermal
Micrometeoroid Garment
The torso-limb suit assembly consisted of that portion of the PGA which
encompassed the entire body with the exception of the head and hands. The
cxtraw_hicular co_ffiguration is shown diagrammatically in fig'are 5. The torso portion was
custom-sized and the limb portions were graduated in size and were adjustable to
accommodate individual crewman limb lengths.
A pressure sealing and restraint slide fastener permitted the crewman to enter the suit.
A lock assembly prevented inadvertent opening. The pressure-containing bladder of the
TLSA was a neoprene-coated nylon fabric. Directly over the bladder outer surface was a
nylon restraint layer that controlled the conformal shape and provided structural support
to the bladder. Dipped rubber convoluted joints were located at the shoulders, elbows,
wrists, hips, knees, and ankles, to permit movement with a minimum expenditure of
energy. Restraint cables or cords sustained axial limb loads during pressurized operation
and prevented ballooning of the convoluted joints. A biomedical injection patch was built
into the right thigh portion of the torso-limb suit to permit a crewman to self-administer
a hypodermic injection without jeopardizing the gas retention quality of the PGA.
The arm assembly had a bearing to enhance rotational movements above the elbow.
The PGA boot, which was connected to the torso-limb suit, was sized to the individual
crewman's foot and had an ankle convolute which permitted ankle extension and flexion
movements.
550 Biomedical Results of Apollo
HELMET ATTACHING
NECK RING
GLOVE ATTACHING
LOWER PORTABLE LIFE DISCONNECT
SUPPORT SYSTEM
ATTACHMENT BRACKET SLIDE FASTENER
COMMAND MODULE
COUCH RESTRAINT
The innermost layer of the torso-limb suit was a nylon liner (figure 6) for comfort
and improved donning. A series of noncollapsible ducts attached on the inner surface of
the pressure bladder served as part of the ventilation system.
The ventilation system directed all inlet gas flow to the helmet for respiration and
helmet defogging during lunar surface operations. The gas flow then traveled over the
body to the extrcmities where return ducting routed the flow to the suit outlet. A
ventilation flow director valve was located on the inlet gas connectors. The PGA suit
pressure was displayed on a gagc mounted on the lower arm.
The pressure helmet was a detachable, transparent closure with provisions for feeding,
drinking, and attachment of the lunar extravehicular visor assembly (LEVA). The helmet
was made by a special heat forming process from high optical quality polycarbonate
plastic. The helmet and neckring which attached it to the torso-limb suit are shown in
figure 7. It contained a feedport which allowed insertion of a probe for administering
Extravehicular Mobility Unit 551
water and contingency food to a crewman while wearing the complete PGA in either the
pressurized or unpressurized condition. A synthetic elastomer foam vent pad was bonded
to the back of the helmet shell to provide a headrest, and to act as a ventilation flow
manifold for directing the flow of gas to the oral-nasal area. This flow caused an efficient
exhaust of carbon dioxide from the nasal area through the torso neck opening.
COMMUNICATIONS
LEAD SNAP FLAP SNAP ASSEMBLY
CUSHION PADS
I \_WATER CONNECTOR
The lunar extravehicular visor assembly, shown in figure 8, furnished visual, thermal,
and mechanical protection to the crewman's helmet and head. It was composed of a
plastic shell, three eyeshades, and two visors. The outer, or sun visor was made of high-
temperature polysulfone plastic. The inner, or protective visor was made of ultraviolet-
stabilized polycarbonate plastic. The outer visor filtered visible light and rejected a
significant amount of ultraviolet and infrared rays. The inner visor filtered ultraviolet
rays, rejected infrared and, in combination with the sun visor and pressure helmet,
formed an effective thermal barrier. The two visors in combination with the helmet
protected the crewmember from micrometeoroid damage and from damage in the event
552 Biomedical Results of Apollo
of falling o n the lunar surface. A hard shell protected the sun visor during non-use
periods. The eyeshades were adjusted by the crewman t o prevent glare from hampering
vision during EVA. The central eyeshade was added at the suggestion of' the Apollo 11
lunar surface crew who reported the need for greater glare protection.
HYDROFORME
POLYCARBONAT
POLYURETHANE
\NECKRING
CENTER EYESHADE
HINGE ASSEMBLY
VIEWPORT DOOR
SUN VISOR
ASSEMBLY
SIDE
PROTECTIVE VISOR
ASS EMBL Y
THERMAL COVER
ASSEMBLY
Pressure Gloves
The pressure glove was a flexible, gas-retaining device which was attached and locked
to the torso-limb suit by means of a quick-disconnect coupling. The glove (figure 9) was a
protective hand covering which was attached to the torso-limb suit prior to egress for
extravehicular operations.
Cotton wristlets were used to prevent arm chafing caused by the pressure garment
assembly wrist disconnects when the gloves were removed and the torso-limb suit was
worn. Comfort gloves constructed of nylon tricot were worn under both intravehicular
and extravehicular gloves. The comfort glove made donning the pressure glove easier and
acted as a sweat absorption layer between the hand and the pressure glove bladder.
...-.:_-_""'-; -. .-COMMUN,CAT,ONS
_"_*" "_, _,_ ". / CARRIER
r%-"--';'"="-.-_
,,,
,ff
ELECrmCAL _ _ TWENTY-ONEP_N
ELECTRICAL
cO
ENTRANCE CLOSURE
Ag_CESS
LAr_ _ F _,, PC RTA BsLEsLIEFME S U PPO R T
_ ABRASION PATCHES
_LOWER ARM
TETHER_TTACHMENT
(5 PER LEG)
PENLIGHT POCKET
__POCKET BEt
"_ tm__j
_ PENLIGHT POCKET
UR,NE
COLLECT,ON
OEV,CE-/[Fr'{ "-''-- SCISSORS POCKET
Lunar Boots
The lunar boots, donned prior to lunar surface activity, provided thermal and abra-
sion protection for the pressure garment assembly boots during lunar surface operations.
The outer layer of a lunar boot, except for the sole, was fabricated from Chromel-R and
the tongue area was made of Teflon-coated Beta cloth. Ribs projected from the bottom
of the silicone rubber sole to increase thermal insulation qualities, to provide lateral
rigidity, and to provide traction on the lunar surface. The inner layers consisted of two
layers of Kapton followed by five layers of aluminized, perforated Mylar. The Mylar layers
were separated by four layers of nonwoven Dacron followed by an inner liner of Teflon-
coated Beta cloth. Two layers of Nomex felt in the sole provided additional thermal in-
sulation from the lunar surface. Figure 16 shows the lunar boot.
Extravehicular
Mobility
Unit 557
(RIPSTOP)
(5 LAYERS) PROTECTION
SECTION PROTECTION
CROSS SECTION
FILM/BETA
PROTECTION j
MARQUISETTE LAMINATE
(2 LAYERS)
CLOTH LAYER
FATCHES
The constant wear garment (CWG) (figure 17) was a cotton fabric undergarment worn
next to the skin during intravehicular Command Module operations. It provided for
comfort and perspiration absorption, and for attachment of a biobelt which contained
the bioinstrumentation system. In the Command Module, the CWG was worn under the
pressure garment assembly. A fly opening and a rear buttock port allowed for urination
and defecation.
558 Biomedical Results of Apollo
_ MULTIPLE TUBING
ENTRY CLOSURE
-- MANIFOLD ASSEMBLY
POLYVlNYL CHLORIDE
MODIFIED FLEXIBLE
PLASTIC TUBING
', ).j
MULTIPLE OUTLET
._j PASSIVEPOCKETS
DOSIMETER
L LIGHTWEIGH T.
:::='--
NY ON
Table 2
Liquid Cooling Garment Characteristics
Characteristic Value
RETAlNlNG STRAP
ASSEMBLY
STRAP ASSEMBLY
SOLE ASSEMBLY
Communications Carrier
The communications carrier (figure 18) provided redundant microphones and
earphones in a soft-suspension skull cap. Proper fitting insured acoustic isolation between
the earphone and microphone. The connection could be made directly to the spacecraft
communications system or through the PGA internal communication harness.
Bioinstrumentation associated with the PGA is described in Section VI, Chapter 3. The
communications carrier permitted suited crewmen to talk to each other, and to the
Mission Control Center, through the Lunar Module systems. Telemetry data from both
crewmen were also communicated to the ground through the Lunar Module.
560 Biomedical Results of Apollo
DOSIMETER
BIOINSTRUMENTION
BELT ATTACHMENT
DOSIMETER
EARPHONE PERSPIRATION
ACOOST,OA'T
_ -_ A"SO22T'ON
_,CROPHONE
--,,__
PIN CONNECTOR
O X Y G E N P U R GIE
SYSTEM (OPS)
I-ANTENNA
-MAIN
YOXIGIN
(ERECT1
LOCKING M E C H A N I S M
OXYGtN HOSf
ACTUATOR M E C H A N I S M
POWER S W l l C H
BOTTLES
\L -HEATER
-BATlERY
-SUBLIMAlOR
TLIOH CANISTER PESfRVOIR
-HARD POINT M O U N T S
~ I E R M I N A L
BOXES
P O R T A B L E LIFE
SUPPORT
SYSTEM
(PLSS)
4, EF
k::L
VENT FLOW SENSOR
AN
-
-OXYGEN REGULATOR
-VENT CONNECTOR
SIGHT GLASS
U W A l E R 1111 CONNECTOR
Figure 19. Portable life support system and oxygen purge system.
The portable life support system supplied oxygen to thf pressure garment assembly
and cooling water to the liquid cooling garment. The PLSS subsystems were an oxygen
ventilating circuit, a primary oxygen subsystem, a liquid transport loop, a feedwater loop,
and an electrical power subsystem.
suit, absorbing heat, moisture, and body contaminants. The contaminated gas was then
returned to the PLSS contaminant control assembly where contaminants were removed.
The decontaminated gas then entered the sublimator (heat exchanger) where heat was
given up, and the excess moisture in the stream was condensed. Next, water was removed
by a water separator and transferred to a storage reservoir. A fan forced the air through a
back flow check valve, finishing the recycling process.
Table 3
Specifications for the Portable Life Support System
Specifications
Design Requirements
Apollo 11 - 14 Apollo 15 - 17
Average metabolic load 6694 Jlhr (1600 Btulhr) 6694 Jlhr (1600 Btulhr)
Peak metabolic load 8368 Jlhr (2000 Btulhr) 8368 Jlhr (2000 Btulhr)
Maximum heat leak i n 1046 J/hr ( 250 Btulhr) 1255 Jlhr ( 300 Btulhr)
Maximum heat leak out 1046 Jlhr ( 250 Btulhr) 1464 Jlhr ( 350 Btulhr)
Maximum COP partial pressure 2000 Nlm2 (15 mm Hg) 2000 Nlm2 (15 mm Hg)
Pressure garment assembly pressure 26 545 N/m* (3.85 psia) 26 545 Nlm2 (3.85 psia)
Ventilation flow .I 557 m3/min (5.5 cfm) .I557 m3lmin (5.5 cfm)
Duration 4 hr 7 hr
Oxygen charge pressure a t 7 032 652 Nlm2 ( 1020 psia) 3 721 607 N/m2 (1410 Psis)
= 2940K (70OF)
Battery capacity 279 W-hr 431 W-hr
Emergency oxygen
Duration (minimum) 30 m i n 30 m i n
Maximum flow 3.63 kglhr ( 8 Iblhr) 3.63 kglhr (8 Ib/hr)
Pressure garment assembly pressure 25 510 N/m2 (3.7 psia) 25 510 Nlm2 (3.7 Psia)
Extravehicular Mobility Unit 563
OXYGEN
_ FROM
NNECTOR PRIMARY
SUPPLY OXYGEN
SYSTEM STEAM OXYGEN
TO
VACUUM FAN
WATER
\ SEPARATOR
DRAIN WATER
CONTAMINANT
TRANSPORT CONTROL
WATER
FEEDWATER
OXYGEN FROM
RESERVOIR
PLATE
OXYGEN _FEEDWATER :
STEAM TO
OXYGEN OUT VACUUM
The gaseous oxygen in the portable life support system primary oxygen subsystem
(figure 22) provided oxygen for suit pressurization and astronaut breathing. Oxygen,
stored in the primary bottle, was regulated to the correct pressure before entering the rest
of the system. A quick-fill connector allowed for oxygen recharging.
PRIMARY OXYGEN
PRIMARY OXYGEN BOTTLE PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
\l
I _. PRESSURE
FILL I REGULATOR
I I
OXYGEN FLOW SENSOR _,_ F LOW RATE FILL
SENSOR
UPSTREAM
OXYGEN PGA PRESSURE
SENSOR
CONNECTOR FROM LOW PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
20.5V
INPUT POWER DECREASING INCREASING
DOWNSTREAM
SENSOR HEATER SUPPLY PRESSURE PRESSURE
TRANSPORT
"POROUS
PLATE
WATER
°UT;I
WATER
PUMP FEEOWATER
STEAM TO
FAN JACKET
WATER
Feedwater Loop
The feedwater loop (figure 24) supplied expendable water to the sublimator for
cooling, and stored condensation removed by the water separator in the oxygen
ventilation circuit. As the water passed through the sublimator, it absorbed system heat.
The hot water was then discharged to the outside.
a warning system, and other components required for operation. The EVC-2 was similar
to the EVC-1 except that the EVC-2 had an FM transmitter instead of an FM receiver.
WATER D R A I N C O N N E C T
R E S E R V O I R VENT C O N N
WATER F I L L CONNECT0
VALVE
Much of the instrumentation was located in the remote control unit. This
chest-mounted unit, shown in figure 25, housed electrical controls for the PLSS, a
primary oxygen quantity indicator, and warning devices. The warning devices would
signal the astronaut if system components failed to work properly. Malfunctions checked
were low feedwater pressure, low ventilation flow, low PGA pressure, and high oxygen
flow. In an emergency, the mission would be aborted or the emergency oxygen purge
system activated.
REGULAlOR
IHIGH PRESS 0 2
0 LOW PRESS 0 2
0 2 , COz, H2O.
6 BODY GASES
-- MECH LINKAGE PRESSURE GARMENT ASSEMBLY
EMU Performance
The life support system underwent changes during the program to meet new
requirements and incorporate improvements based on experience. The PLSS was
redesigned for Apollo,l5, 16, and 17 to allow longer lunar missions by increasing oxygen
storage pressure, adding more contaminant control material, increasing the size of the
power supply, and adding an auxiliary feedwater tank. A longer duration emergency
system was required for Apollo 14, 15, 16, and 17 because of the greater distances of
traverse from the Lunar Module. This requirement was accomplished by the addition of
the buddy secondary life support system (BLSS) shown schematically in figure 27. It
could provide backup cooling in the event of a failure of the PLSS cooling loop.
The extravehicular mobility unit was one of the outstanding engineering successes of
the Apollo Space Program. While there were some minor problems experienced with the
suit, for example, the lunar visor tended to scratch easily and finger dexterity was not
optimum, never was a major or even minor failure experienced with the suit or backpack
system.
Extravehicular Mobility Unit 567
OXYGEN PURGE
SYSTEM INLET
,_/EWATER
)E'ECT"CA'I
coNNE°cMT_oR
U_?_
,,, , __,
"i-%-i
SUBLIMATOR 02
I_ SUBLIMATOR
PORTABLE LiFE
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Rigorous preflight testing was accomplished during suit development, and each
individual flight suit was tested prior to every mission. The Apollo suits were impact
tested against various objects, including extremely sharp devices, for resistance to
penetration and rips. Quality control was meticulous. Pins used in the manufacture of the
garment were accounted for and each suit was X-rayed to preclude the possibility of an
oversight. Training suits were used in most preflight tests rather than flight suits to ensure
there would be no compromise of the integrity of the flight suit. However, each flight suit
was tested in a limited number of altitude chamber tests, after which the suits were
thoroughly inspected for any possible damage.
The helmet used during EVA had an extremely high resistance to impact. The helmet
material, Lexan, will not break even upon impact with a hammer. Lexan was substituted
568 Biomedical Results of Apollo
for the Project Gemini visor material. The latter lacked the impact resistance necessary
for lunar operations. During one Gemini reentry, the visor cracked when the astronaut
lurched forward, hitting the instrument panel.
The extravehicular mobility unit and its associated components, the pressure garment
assembly, the portable life support system, and the oxygen purge system, were used in
various configurations in the Apollo 7 through 17 missions. Components were opera-
tionally tested before integration into the EMU. In all cases, the components performed
effectively.
No outside spacecraft activities were performed during the missions of Apollo 7 and
8. The only EMU system aboard the spacecraft, therefore, was the pressure garment
assembly for use as a backup to the pressure and environmental control system and for
protection against noise and vibration during launch and reentry. The pressure garment
assembly performed satisfactorily during these missions, and crews reported that
ventilation in the PGA was adequate during the orbital phase. Further, donning and
doffing were found to be much easier at zero g than at one g.
The first use of the complete EMU under flight conditions was accomplished during
the Apollo 9 mission. The Lunar Module Pilot, wearing the complete EMU, opened the
side hatch of the LM and stepped out to simulate contingency transfer to the Command
Module. At the same time, the Command Module Pilot operating with an interface with
the environmental control system, opened the Command Module side hatch and stood up
in the hatch area several times to retrieve thermal samples and take photographs. Both
crewmen reported that they were comfortable and experienced no visual problems with
the extravehicular visor assembly.
After completion of the EVA, the Lunar Module Pilot doffed the PLSS, the OPS, and
the LEVA with no problems. At this point, the PLSS was successfully recharged in the
Lunar Module cabin for possible contingency reuse and for demonstration of this
operation under actual flight conditions. Each Apollo 9 crewman wore his PGA for
approximately 52 hours, for most of this time with the helmet and gloves off.
The Apollo 10 mission was similar to the Apollo 7 and 8 missions in that the EMU
was not used for extravehicular activities and the PGA was used only as backup to the
Command Module environmental control system. Again, the performance of the PGA was
satisfactory.
The Apollo 11 mission was the first mission during which the EMU was exposed to
the lunar environment for which it had been designed. All aspects of EMU operation
demonstrated during testing and on previous flights were proved on the lunar surface. No
significant problems were noted at Lunar Module egress. The crew stated that they were
comfortable wearing the PLSS/OPS and that the mass of the unit was not objectionable.
In fact, the lunar surface crewmen reported that they were so comfortable in the suits
that, after a brief period of time on the lunar surface, they virtually forgot they were
wearing them. Mobility and balance were sufficiently adequate to allow stable movement
while performing lunar surface tasks. The Lunar Module Pilot demonstrated the
capability to walk, run, change directions while running, and stop without difficulty.
The liquid cooling garment worn by the crew was controllable by each astronaut to
maintain a temperature suitable for his needs. During the Apollo 11 mission, the
Extravehicular
Mobility
Unit 569
Summary
On July 20, 1969, man took his first step onto the surface of another planet and
collected scientific data while his life was sustained by the extravehicular mobility unit.
Throughout the course of the Apollo Program, the EMU was used to provide a habitable
environment for astronauts on seven different missions. During its entire span of
performance, no significant problems were experienced with any part of the system. The
emergency oxygen system provided never had to be used.
SECTION
VII
A Summing Up
CHAPTER 1
by
This book closes yet another chapter in the continuing effort of biomedical scientists
to characterize the responses of man to perhaps his last frontier - space. The results of
Project Mercury (1961-1963) have been well documented (NASA, 1965) and need not be
reiterated here. Chapter 2 in the continuing manned space flight epic was the Gemini
Program (1965-1966). The principal objectives of the ten Gemini Missions were to perfect
the techniques of rendezvous, station keeping, docking, and extravchicular activity all
critical to the Apollo lunar landing goal. Three flights of the Gemini series were of
biomedical interest: Gemini 4, 5, and 7, lasting four, eight, and fourteen days,
respectively. Several inflight measurements or experiments were accomplished on these
missions, as well as preflight and postflight studies.
The significant results of the Gemini investigations are listed in table 1. In general, the
presence of postflight orthostatic intolerance observed following Mercury flights was
confirmed. Other biomedical findings included: moderately decreased postflight exercise
capacity and red cell mass; minimal loss of bone mincral and muscle nitrogen; and the
tt_iuttv_ty ltJ_u metabolic extravehicular activity. Th_ finAi,,g_ have ;,_-
reported in detail elsewhere (NASA, 1967; 1968).
The Apollo (1968-1973) results presented in this volume constitute the third chapter
of the biomedical manned space flight story. Eleven manned missions were completed in
the five-year span of the Apollo Program, from prelunar flights (missions 7 through 10);
the first lunar landing (mission 11), and five subsequent lunar exploratory flights
(missions 12 through 17). Apollo 13 did not complete its intended lunar landing mission
because of the pressure vessel explosion in the Service Module. Instead, it returned to
Earth following a partial lunar orbit.
As stated elsewhere in this report, biomedical studies in Apollo were limited
essentially to the preflight and postflight mission phases, along with inflight crew
monitoring and observation. Inflight biomedical experiments were originally planned for
Apollo. These, however, were subsequently cancelled by senior program management on
573
the basis of the operational complexity of the Apollo flights. Despite this setback,
considerable biomedical information was gathered and served as a basis of the ambitious
Skylab Program, then in its formative stages.
Table 1
• Moderatepostflight orthostaticintolerance
• Moderatepostflightlossof exercisecapacity
• Moderatelossof red cellmass
• Minimal lossof bonecalciumandmusclenitrogen
• Minimal lossof bonedensity
• High metaboliccostof extravehicularactivity
The purpose of this section is to summarize the significant Apollo biomedical findings
and the tentative conclusions that may be drawn.
Preflight Phase
Apollo crew health problems in the preflight period were generally minor in nature
and, for the most part, involved the skin. Viral upper respiratory and gastroenteric
illnesses were next in frequency. The Apollo 9 launch had to be postponed for three days
because the three crewmen developed viral upper respiratory symptoms. The only other
instance in which preflight mission plans had to be altered for medical reasons was the
Apollo 13 mission. The exposure of one of the crew to rubella (German measles) and his
lack of demonstrable immunity to this viral disease resulted in a management decision to
substitute a backup crewman on this mission. Beginning with the Apollo 14 mission, a
Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program was instituted for the purpose of limiting,
insofar as was practicable, the exposure of the prime and backup crews to communicable,
infectious diseases. This program was described in Section II. Although it is difficult to
assess the effectiveness of such a program, it doubtless served to focus attention on the
problem, and in all probability reduced the number of direct crew contacts with persons
who could possibly transmit infectious agents, particularly upper respiratory viruses, to
the members of the crew.
Inflight Phase
Apart from cases of minor superficial dermatitis and skin or mucous membrane
irritation secondary to trauma, abrasion or exposure to spacecraft environment, several
more potentially serious inflight medical events deserve mention. The Apollo 7 crew
developed viral upper respiratory infections during their mission which were
uncomfortable nuisances and responded fairly well to decongestants. No secondary
bacterial infections developed, and antibiotic therapy was not required. Apollo 7 was
NASA's first experience with inflight illness.
Summary
andConclusions 575
Postflight
Phase
Theprincipalastronaut
illnesses
duringthepostflight
periodwereupperrespiratory
infections
(fourinstances)
andinfluenza(typesBandA2) contracted during numerous
debriefing sessions and public relations appearances. The only other unusual finding of
this period was probably related to vestibular dysfunction. A single astronaut reported a
mild sensation of being tilted slightly "head down," particularly when recumbent. This
sensation lasted for about seven days after the flight. It is an interesting observation of
presently obscure etiology.
Significant Findings
Vestibular
The late appearance of the space motion sickness syndrome in the American manned
space flight experience and its sudden elevation to prominence as a problem of
compelling concern in future manned space flight activities are sufficient reasons to
warrant a few additional comments on the subject. Increased mobility of head and body
permitted by the larger volume of the Apollo spacecraft, as compared with earlier
vehicles, apparently results in motion sickness symptoms during the early adaptive period
following orbital insertion. Individual susceptibility varies widely and neither previous
history of motion sickness at one g nor responses to current vestibular tests at one g have
any predictive value for susceptibility aloft.
It should be stressed that most Apollo crewmen experienced only mild motion
sickness symptoms, and only three vomited. Most symptoms subsided completely after
two to five days in space. Further, symptoms could be controlled or lessened by reducing
head movement during the first few days of flight, although some head and body
movement is required for the process of adaptation to proceed. Extravehicular activity at
one-sixth g on the lunar surface resulted in no disorientation or vestibular disturbance,
nor was there any apparent change in the sensitivity of the vestibular system on suddenly
returning to one g. Indeed, there was only one episode of postflight vestibular
disturbance.
Clearly, then, we are confronted with a complex problem. An aggressive attack on the
problem from several approaches is indicated: to devise reliable predictive tests; to
improve medications for symptom control; to investigate training methods and
procedures which will increase the threshold to space motion sickness or to mitigate its
symptoms during flight. A formidable task awaits us.
Cardiovascular
Exercise Tolerance
Reduced work capacity and oxygen consumption of significant degree was noted in
67 percent (18 of 27) of the Apollo crewmen tested on recovery. This decrement was
transient, and 85 percent of those tested (23 of 27) returned to preflight baseline values
within 24 to 36 hours. A significant decrease in cardiac stroke volume was associated with
diminished exercise tolerance. As we noted in the case of the cardiovascular "decondi-
tioning" phenomenon, the Apollo findings do not indicate whether the exercise
decrement has its onset during flight. If it does, Apollo could shed no light on its inflight
time course. Judging from the astronauts' performance on the lunar surface, we have no
reason to believe that any serious exercise tolerance decrement occurs during flight,
except that related to lack of regular exercise and muscle disuse atrophy.
There can be no doubt of the decrement in exercise tolerance in the immediate
postflight period. It would seem that multiple factors are probably responsible for the
observed decrement. Lack of exercise and muscle disuse atrophy have already been
mentioned. Catabolic tissue processes may be accentuated by increased cortisol secretion
as a consequence of mission stress and individual astronaut reaction to such stress.
Additional factors associated with the return to Earth's gravity may also be implicated.
Thus, the observed diminished stroke volume (cardiac output) is certainly contributory
and, in turn, is doubtless a reflection of dimished venous return and contracted effective
circulating blood volume induced by space flight factors. Other probable contributory
factors are unstable fluid and electrolyte flux states and fatigue, both of which defy
accurate objective assessment.
Apollo crewmen were provided with adequate dietary nutrients and exhibited
clinically normal gastrointestinal function, although their appetites were generally
somewhat diminished. Since no strict metabolic balance study was performed during
Apollo, only relatively crude estimates of the various balance parameters can be made.
The diminished appetites aloft may have been due primarily to early space
motion sickness symptoms such as stomach awareness or mild nausea. There is no
evidence that any inflight metabolic anomaly, including hypokalemia, was secondary
to marginal or deficient nutrient or mineral intakes.
All Apollo crewmen lost weight ranging from one to twelve pounds with a mean
loss of approximately six pounds on a balanced diet providing 2500 calories (10,475
Joules) per man per day. Again, not all the food provided was consumed. Most of
578 Biomedical Results of Apollo
the weight loss (roughly 60 percent) was attributable to water and electrolyte loss;
the remainder of the loss was attributed to lipid (30 percent) and muscle
(10 percent) catabolism.
The partially controlled metabolic study conducted in conjunction with the
Apollo 17 mission provided our only insight into inflight mineral balance during the
Apollo Program. These data must be regarded as only grossly indicative of actual balance
trends. The results argue in favor of a mild to moderate negative balance of sodium,
potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium. Exchangeable potassium values were
decreased in Apollo 15 and 17 but not in 16. The increased inflight cortisol secretion
would argue in favor of increased tissue catabolism and potassium loss. The negative
calcium balance observed in Apollo 17 and the slight losses in bone density in about half
of the Apollo astronauts are consistent with the losses observed in subjects at bed rest for
a comparable time period.
Postflight decreases in total body water and intracellular fluid volume are consistent
with body weight loss and contracted effective circulating blood volume. Decreased
potassium 40 and exchangeable potassium with increased urinary nitrogen argue in favor
of muscle catabolism and potassium loss.
Postflight increases in renin, aldosterone, and antidiuretic hormone are consistent
with the body's attempt to expand various body compartment volumes, conserve water
and electrolytes, and restore venous return, cardiac output, and orthostatic tolerance to
preflight levels. The finding of increased inflight aldosterone secretion is somewhat
unexpected.
Blood Volume
Investigations in Gemini revealed that effective circulating blood volume was reduced
following flight. This reduction was effected by a decrease in red cell mass, averaging about
17 percent and by a decrease in plasma volume in most instances. The mean red cell mass loss
in Apollo 7 and 8 was two percent with a ten percent loss registered for Apollo 14 through
17. Plasma volume was also consistently decreased following these Apollo flights.
The loss of red cell mass in Gemini was thought to be due to hemolytic destruction of
the cells secondary to oxidative changes in the corpuscular membrane. The Apollo data,
however, revealed no change in red cell survival times, indicating that the red cell mass
decrement is relative to inhibition of erythropoiesis rather than to intravascular
hemolysis.
Thus, red cell mass loss was demonstrated in Apollo, but to a lesser extent than in
Gemini. Determination of the precise stimulus responsible for red cell loss (marrow
depression), the time course of the red cell mass reduction and its subsequent recovery
must await further study. It is generally held, however, that this phenomenon is another
in a series of adaptive changes to the space environment, that it is self-limiting in
character and that it poses no threat to extended manned space missions.
General Summation
effectively in the space environment (and on the lunar surface) for time periods up to two
weeks in duration. Inflight medical problems such as space motion sickness and the
cardiac arrhythmias episode were observed for the first time in the American manned
space flight experience. Although these problems are potentially serious, they are not
insurmountable. Once their etiology is understood, they can be dealt with effectively.
Table 2
• Vestibular disturbances
• Inflight cardiac arrhythmia
• Reduced postflight orthostatic tolerance
• Reduced postflight exercise tolerance
• Postflight dehydration and weight loss
• Flight diet adequate; food consumption suboptimal
• Decreased red cetl mass, plasma volume
• Negative inflight blance trend for nitrogen, calcium, other electrolytes
• Increased inflight adrenal hormone secretion
• No inflight diuresis
References
NASA: Gemini Midprogram Conference, Including Experimental Results. NASA SP-121, Manned
Spaeeeraft Center (Houston, Texas), February 23 - 25, 1968.
NASA: Gemini Summary Conference. NASA $P-138, Manned Spacecraft Center (Houston, Texas),
February 1 - 2, 1967.
NASA: Space Medicine in Project Mercury. NASA SP4003, Scientific and Technical Information
Division, 1965.
CHAPTER 2
PERSPECTIVES ON APOLLO
by
Introduction
From its inception, the United States space program has been dedicated to the
concept of manned space flight. We have always viewed man as a vital element in the
system. Man's adaptive intelligence proved to be indispensable during many critical
operations. In 1961, when we became committed to a national objective to place an
American on the moon within nine years, virtually nothing was known about man in
space, beyond the fact that he could survive. Yet, NASA was charged with the
responsibility to send men on a mission that would take them beyond the Earth's
gravitational field, into orbit around the moon, and safely back to Earth after a stay on
the lunar surface. Such a mission could not be accomplished in less than eight days of
exposure to stresses whose effects were still a mystery.
People who were concerned with the future of man in space quickly became aligned
with _,ne of two n,_;,,v .... were me' more cautious and
.... ts_ v._'_view. r_..., thc one _:a_,,,_,'_u,_,_
conservative members of the medical and scientific community who genuinely believed
man could never survive the rigors of the experience proposed for him. The spirit in the
other camp ranged from sanguine to certain. Some physicians, particularly those with
experience in aeronautical systems, were optimistic. But by far the most enthusiastic
proponents were the very individuals who would themselves make the historic journey to
the moon. The population from which the astronaut corps was formed had considerable
test pilot experience. Pilots, and the engineers who develop the aircraft they fly,
characteristically view man as an element of the operational system that is every bit as
strong and reliable as any other component of that system. It became the task of the
medical team to work toward bringing these divergent views toward a safe middle ground
581
where unfounded fears did not impede the forward progress of the space program, and
unbounded optimism did not cause us to proceed at a pace that might compromise the
health or safety of the individuals who ventured into space.
At the start of the space program in this country, many scientists had qualms about
man's ability to survive in space. Since there were so many unknowns about the
environment and it was presumed to be hostile, some focused on the known limitations
of the delicately balanced human physiological system. In order to survive, the human
body requires food, mental stimulation, waste disposal, a relatively narrow temperature
range, and oxygen at a particular pressure for absorption into the blood stream. Those
who were discouraged or pessimistic about the fate of astronauts envisioned dire
consequences; for they felt the space flight environment would not allow these
requirements to be met. Before Cosmonaut Gagarin flew, some scientists predicted that
an astronaut would never survive launch because launch acceleration would cause heart
rate to soar, creating severe pathologic disorders or terminal fibrillation. Some believed
the phenomenon of weightlessness would result in a plethora of difficulties for an erect
animal like man. Man had evolved through millions of years with organs that had been
genetically designed to pump blood against the pull of gravity and to maintain an internal
fluid balance based on a gravity system. Some thought man would not be able to urinate,
swallow, or perform any physiological function that seemed to be gravity-dependent.
Others felt his vision might be impaired, and predicted empty field myopia would result
from staring endlessly into the void of space. Among other physiological disruptions
feared were cardiac arrhythmias, muscular atrophy, hallucinations, disorientation, and
nausea.
Because of the rapid progress of the program and the fact that so few astronauts were
actually flown, decisions concerning appropriate mission lengths had to be made
conservatively. Far less medical information was available for decision making than would
ideally have been the case. At the conclusion of the Mercury Program, the longest U.S.
manned space flight was 34 hours. Mercury 9 was scheduled to be the last flight in the
Mercury series, to be followed by the first Gemini mission, slated for seven days.
However, the last two Mercury astronauts had shown significantly reduced cardiovascular
tolerance upon reentering Earth's gravity, engendering reluctance to commit man to a
week-long flight without additional medical data. One solution would have been to fly
another Mercury mission to bridge the gap. From a medical standpoint, the question of
man's safety in space was, at that point, still a serious one. Only electrocardiographic and
blood pressure monitoring were available.
Budgetary and other considerations precluded a Mercury 10 mission. Moreover, an
additional Mercury flight might have diluted the effort directed toward Gemini and
interrupted its momentum. The solution was to schedule the first Gemini mission for four
days rather than seven. If a four-day mission went well, a second mission of eight days
could be safely recommended, which in turn, would provide a sound basis for proceeding
with a fourteen-day mission. A fourteen-day mission was deemed necessary because it was
projected that no Apollo mission would exceed two weeks. With two weeks worth of
medical data, man could be committed safely, from a physiological standpoint, to a lunar
landing mission.
Perspectives on Apollo 583
Conduct of medical investigations during the two-week Gemini mission was critical to
planning for lunar landings. Because there was a paucity of information concerning man
in the environment of space flight, every opportunity had to be exploited to collect data
in a systematic way. However, some compromises had to be made for operational reasons.
One of the astronauts selected for the fourteen-day Gemini mission exhibited a liver
enzyme abnormality. Ideally, from a purely medical experimentation point of view, such
an individual would not have been chosen because his condition could be expected to
influence hematological findings. From an operational standpoint, however, he was the
man for the job.
The medical experience of Gemini was extremely valuable, and plans had been made
to continue medical experimentation in the early Apollo flights. When the Apollo 204
fire tragically supervened, a planned series of inflight medical experiments was deleted
and all energies were directed toward engineering and other operational problems.
Amassing medical information was difficult for numerous technological reasons, and
was further compounded by certain attitudinal issues. Some astronauts were reluctant to
admit physiological difficulties for various reasons, some purely pragmatic. In military
aviation, the field from which the vast majority of astronauts were selected, the flight
surgeon is required to keep close watch over pilots and to disqualify them when they are
unfit for flight. The psychological set of the astronauts may have caused them to fear
exclusion from the program for medical reasons.
With the enormous investment of time and training in the astronaut corps, the
medical approach in the space program was quite different. Every effort was made to
keep these highly select, highly trained individuals qualified for flight. One astronaut who
had been scheduled for a mission was not permitted to participate because a bony bridge
developed on a cervical vertebra and had to be removed surgically. After surgery, he was
requalified and flew on a critical space mission. Another astronaut who suffered from
Memere s syndrome was also qualified after surgery corrected the situation with an
endolymphatic shunt.
A final aspect of the philosophy which governed the manned space flight program in
general and the Apollo Program in particular is worthy of note. Space flight created a
,,ni.l ...... P r_bl_m--- ._.c-_personnel charged ...:+l.,,.,. ,,,_,,,,_,,,-_:=_t
rr,anagen-,ent. _,,any_
.... aspects of the
entire space flight experience, during all phases - before flight, during flight, and after
flight - have a potential for straining the privileged communication between doctor and
patient. The entire issue of medical privacy is, and always has been, a very difficult one
for physicians involved with persons of any notoriety. Astronauts, as such a group, lost
many of their rights of privacy by virtue of their position. An individual who has
volunteered as an astronaut in our nation's space program must pay a certain price and
owes a certain debt for the privilege of his participation. As part of this debt, he must give
up a certain amount of privacy and be willing to sacrifice an "image" where such a
sacrifice bears on the success of his mission or future missions. A physician monitoring a
space mission has to receive reports on such intimate issues as the number of bowel
movements, thetypes of pains suffered, the amount of sleep obtained, and so forth.
Reporting this information was particularly irksome to many astronauts, especially since
this information had to be transmitted over open loop telemetry links and became public
584 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
A Medical Chronology
Many of the early biomedical preconceptions concerning man in space were answered
during Mercury and Gemini flights. Project Mercury's indispensable legacy was that man
could survive in space and, moreover, that he could do useful tasks. The legacy of Gemini
was in many respects an even richer one. The fourteen-day Gemini mission demonstrated
that weightlessness does indeed cause changes in man. Cardiovascular and bone density
changes were just two findings that signaled that the world of zero gravity profoundly
affected the human. Gemini missions also provided a fund of knowledge concerning the
measurement of physiological functioning at a distance. But, at the end of the
2000 man-hours of Gemini, we were confronted with difficult issues. Because the number
of individuals involved was small, we could not tell whether genuine space-related
phenomena were being observed or whether the changes reflected individual variations. If
the changes seen were authentic responses to the space environment, we could not at that
point say whether they represented the beginning of downward trends, whether they
would level off in time, or whether, perhaps, they would be cyclic. The contribution of
, Perspectives on Apollo 585
confinement to physiological effects observed during and after space flight had also to be
assessed, along with numerous less-well-defined factors. This was Gemini's legacy to
Apollo, and it became the task of the Apollo Program to search for answers.
The Apollo Program provided an opportunity to gain biomedical information in a
more orderly manner than was possible during the Gemini missions. More definitive data
now could be obtained concerning man's performance during what was truly a space
voyage. Biomedical information returned from the later Apollo missions has allowed us to
progress significantly toward a detailed description of man's behavior in space and the
physiological changes which occur.
Apollo 7 marked our first experience with inflight illness. It also represented our first
experience in diagnosing and treating illness via telemetry across the void of space. This
situation illustrated the difficulty of dealing with medical issues privately. Space flight
procedures called for all consultations to be effected through the Capsule Communicator
and not directly between the physician and patient, eliminating the possibility for
privileged communication. The Apollo 7 crew suffered colds and upper respiratory
symptoms. Colds on Earth are bothersome enough, but weightlessness exacerbates
symptoms still further. In zero gravity, mucous clogs the nasal passages and does not
drain. Even decongestants seem less effective; shrinking of the membranes gives no relief
because there is no drainage from the sinuses. There was some concern on the part of the
crew about the possibility of rupturing their eardrums if they wore helmets during
reentry and were unable to perform a modified Valsalva maneuver to equalize pressure on
either side of the tympanic membrane. The crew made the decision to reenter with
helmets off despite opposition from the ground. As it turned out, the crewmen were able
to ventilate the cars during reentry.
In Apollo 8, the first incident of vestibular illness was encountered during an
American space flight. When the astronauts left their couches after the spacecraft had
entered orbit, all three developed vertigo. One crewman had a vestibular problem for
about two and one-half days and suffered nausea; another vomited and had diarrhea. For
the first time, astronauts were moving around rapidly in a spacecraft with a relatively
large volume, and some of them were quite susceptible to motion sickness. The effects of
Seconal, a sleeping medication, and viral gastroenteritis have been implicated, but
• ,,_=t;l_,,l=,- A;_t,,,.t ...... =,, ,,,oll ha,,,_ I_,_o., = _;,m;f;,_nt f=,-ta_" ;n the* A;ff;,-,,h;,_ _,,ff,_,-oA
by the crew.
Even more severe vestibular disturbances were experienced during the Apollo 9
mission, and a portion of the scheduled extravehicular activity had to be cancelled as a
result. There was grave concern over this incident because, for the first time, vestibular
disturbances interfered with performance of mission-related tasks. This was a distressing
discovery because it suggested, ominously, that missions could indeed be compromised by
vestibular problems. In the extreme case, mission success and even crew lives could be
threatened.
The mission of Apollo 9 underscored the problems that could be created by any
illness in flight, and alerted us to the hazards of clinical illness. At that time, there was no
preflight isolation program, and crews engaged in a rigorous preflight schedule of
activities. After the flight, there were press conferences and tours to be taken, and the
astronauts were not allowed sufficient time to readjust before they engaged in these
586 Biomedii:al Results of Apollo
activities. In fact, the launch of Apollo 9 had to be delayed for three days because all
three crewmembers developed upper respiratory symptoms. The problem of the lack of a
preflight isolation program to prevent clinical illness was brought into sharp focus. This
topic has been dealt with in detail in several chapters of this book, and will be discussed
further later in this chapter from the point of view of medical program management.
Apollo 10 was the first Apollo mission during which no inflight illness occurred.
While there was still no highly structured preflight preventive medicine program, illness
was kept in check.
Apollo 11, the first lunar landing mission, gave man the first opportunity to visit an
extraterrestrial body and to experience an environment where the gravity was one-sixth
what it is on Earth. There had been concern in many quarters about man's capability to
operate effectively in this environment. Some felt man would be disoriented in lunar
gravity, and, when he attempted to walk on the moon, would become motion sick and
vertiginous and be unable to move in a given direction. This fear was resoundingly
demonstrated to be baseless by Apollo 11.
Apollo 12 gave us further confidence about man's capabilities in a 1/6-g field.
Projections concerning metabolic cost of work in this environment proved to be
reasonably accurate. Metabolic cost of routine locomotion and nominal tasks was not
excessive, nor was it detrimental to adequate lunar surface performance.
Apollo 13 was the most difficult, danger-ridden mission in the U.S. space program.
Even before the flight, the mission had been threatened by medical difficulties. The
incident in point began just before the 21-day examination period. Astronaut Charles
Duke, a backup crewmember, and his family spent a weekend with friends. Two of the
children in the household had rubella (German measles), and Astronaut Duke contracted
it. Detailed blood studies were conducted, and other viral illnesses were considered
because rubella is easily misdiagnosed. When the illness was confirmed as rubella, an
epidemiological investigation was initiated. A flight surgeon visited the family from whom
the disease had been contracted, and blood samples and epidemiologically significant data
were collected. Next, complete immunologic evaluations were made of the Duke family
and of all prime and backup crewmen.
On the day before Astronaut Duke exhibited the rubella rash, a prime crewman had
worked with him in the Command Module Trainer. The crewman, Thomas K. Mattingly,
was the only individual in the prime crew who showed no protective antibodies against
the disease. With the launch fast approaching and the crew already at Cape Kennedy
making preparations, a complex epidemiological and medical situation was created. Daily
flights were made between Houston and the Cape to study blood samples collected from
the prime crew. Specialists from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
were consulted on the problem, and assisted in evaluating the risks. By this time, the
crewman's measles exposure was public knowledge. Agency officials were queried from
many quarters, some requesting daily briefings concerning the status of the flight.
There was no question of the risk involved, and a decision had to be made to
substitute a backup crewman. The decision to make the crew substitution was based on
medical advice given by many respected individuals. In fact, Mattingly did not develop
rubella, although he just as easily might have. He was subsequently immunized to the
disease and participated in a later mission.
Perspectives on Apollo 587
The events surrounding the harrowing inflight experience of Apollo 13 are well
known. The only medically significant occurrence during that mission was a urinary tract
infection in one crewmember resulting from reduced water intake and the cold
environment of the Lunar Module "life boat." The afflicted individual had chills and
fever associated with the illness, but he did not identify these as symptoms of clinical
illness because all crewmembers were chilled by the cold.
Apollo 14 was unremarkable from a medical standpoint. This was the first mission for
which a full-fledged Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program was in effect. This
program, and the effectiveness with which it was executed, must be credited for its
contribution to the reduction of inflight clinical problems on this flight and subsequent
missions.
Apollo 15 will remain an anomaly in the Apollo Program. Preflight and inflight
activities went well. The lunar surface operations were characterized by heavy work
schedules and some sleep difficulties. The crewmen worked to a point of near exhaustion
on some occasions, and the Commander pulled a shoulder muscle while operating the
lunar surface drill. The pain from the muscle injury interfered with his sleep on the lunar
surface and during the return flight to Earth, and persisted for several weeks. At the
conclusion of Apollo 15's lunar surface activities, a very tired crew departed the moon to
rendezvous with the Command Module.
The schedule of the labors after the link-up was also heavy, and the Command
Module Pilot had to rely on his already fatigued companions to transfer equipment from
the Lunar Module to the Command Module, a task he himself had been slated to perform.
Once transfer operations were complete, difficulty was experienced in sealing the hatch
between the two vehicles. This problem necessitated two additional lunar orbits and
additional labors before the tunnel connecting the vehicles was successfully sealed and the
LM could be jettisoned.
After Lunar Module jettison, the crew was engaged in a space suit integrity check
when a bigeminal rhythm appeared on the console monitoring Astronaut Irwin's
electrocardiogram. Paper copies of the trace were called for to establish that the
irregularity was not artifactual. The bigeminal arrhythmia lasted for 10 to 20 beats, and
was followed by a series of premature ventricular and atrial beats, interspersed with
normal ones. One other crewman had exhibited some a_hythmias, but they were far less
serious than those with which Astronaut Irwin was afflicted. The crew had transmitted no
messages indicating a problem. In fact, Astronaut Irwin reported later that he had
experienced a feeling of a brief loss of contact as though he had momemtarily gone to
sleep. In retrospect, this episode could have been a momentary loss of consciousness at
the precise time the arrhythmia was noted. After the arrhythmias were noted, continuous
electrocardiographic recordings were obtained for all three crewmen while they slept.
It took the Apollo 15 crew three to four weeks after the flight to return to
preflight normal levels of exercise and cardiovascular orthostatic tolerance. This was
the longest recovery period seen in our space program and was uncomfortably
reminiscent of the findings of the eighteen-day Soviet Soyuz 9 mission. This Soviet
mission had been marked by a prolonged recovery wherein cardiovascular, vestibular,
and musculoskeletal difficulties were experienced by the crewmen. While it would
have been, ideally, preferable to shield the two astronauts from public attention, it
588 Biomedical Results of Apollo
was judged in the best interest of the space program to provide information about
their conditions.
There is a reasonable basis for suspecting that the Apollo 15 crew was launched with a
potassium deficit. They had engaged in very rigorous training for lunar surface tasks prior
to this space mission in intense summer heat. The crew drank considerable amounts of an
electrolyte solution during this training, which tended to leach potassium from the
system. These factors, coupled with intlight diets that were not particularly high in
potassium, are believed to have contributed to negative potassium balances.
Apollo 16 and 17 crewmen were free of any cardiac difficulties during their missions.
This may have been in part due to the institution of a program involving dietary
potassium supplements and revised work/rest schedules to preclude a negative potassium
balance. Such a negative balance can contribute to cardiac irritability and can predispose
to arrhythmias. The crews of both missions were also free of any clinical illness during
flight. Again, the meticulously conducted Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program
seemed to be effective. All crewmen took sleeping medications to ensure sufficient rest to
complete busy lunar surface schedules. Both the Apollo 16 and 17 missions were
unqualified successes from an operational and a medical standpoint.
The clinical illnesses which were encountered in the early Apollo missions clearly
indicated the need for a health stabilization program during the preflight period.
Uncertainty about the nature of potential lunar soil contaminants dictated in the minds
of some individuals in the scientific community the necessity for a postflight quarantine
program after the first several lunar surface missions. Details of these programs can be
found in Section II, Chapters 1 and 6, and in Section V of this book. Some of the
nuances surrounding the establishment and the conduct of the isolation and quarantine
programs are presented here.
As mentioned earlier, the launch of Apollo 9 had to be delayed for three days because
of the development of upper respiratory infections in the crew. That was the first
instance of medical problems impacting the operational aspects of a space flight.
Understandably, there were some objections to the sort of control medical management
proposed to exercise during the preflight period. But the facts were immutable. Crewmen
were becoming ill during flight, and an illness of any severity could seriously jeopardize
the safety of a mission and crew. Some form of preflight isolation was mandatory.
A postflight quarantine period was to be required for the first lunar landing and for
the missions of Apollo 12, 13 (not conducted because the lunar landing was aborted), and
Apollo 14. The Interagency Committee agreed to remove this requirement when
exhaustive studies conducted by NASA indicated beyond a doubt that no life of any kind
existed on the moon.
Every precaution was taken which feasibly could have been taken to safeguard the
objectives of the quarantine program. When Lunar Receiving Laboratory technicians and
other persons were accidentally exposed to lunar materials through breaks in the gloves
which allowed manipulation of these materials, off they went into "exile" with the crew
and quarantine support personnel until the official quarantine period had ended.
Perspectives
onApollo 589
Had there been an organism on the moon, the quarantine program would, in this
writer's opinion, have had about a 90 percent chance of containing it. Preflight isolation
simplified the matter of identifying the etiology of any illness that might have arisen
postflight. Catalogs of crew microorganisms allowed for postflight identification of
organisms as terrestrial versus lunar.
The problems associated with conducting the isolation periods preceding and
following space flight were myriad. Emotions ran high when families had to be separated,
and there were occasional tense moments.
Apollo 11 demonstrated that man could indeed fly the Lunar Module after having
flown only a training device, which was, of course, not an exact duplicate. In fact, not
only could he fly the vehicle near the lunar surface and effect a landing, but he could
change the coordinates of that landing based upon terrain characteristics making such a
change necessary. This was the case with the Apollo 11 lunar landing. Astronaut
Armstrong did a masterful job conducting the landing and demonstrated man's capability
to execute such control operations under adverse circumstances.
There had been much conjecture concerning man's response to the one-sixth gravity
environment. Serious concern also existed about his ability to work effectively in 1/6 g in
a pressure suit. Therefore, his capability to do so was measured by conducting lunar
surface-type activities in simulated 1/6-g conditions on the ground. Man's responses were
also evaluated in underwater, neutral buoyancy simulations in order to determine the
metabolic loads associated with various activities. The first true data obtained from the
Apollo 11 crew's lunar experience indicated that the real metabolic cost of 1/6-g activities
was an acceptable one.
At first, it was speculated that time spent in 1/6 g might have a salutary effect after
zero-g exposure, and perhaps reduce the postflight "deconditioning" effect. However, it
was not possible to show any salutary effect on deconditioning from the brief periods
spent at 1/6 g, perhaps because these effects were obliterated by the additional two and
one-half to five days spent in weightlessness on the return flight to Earth. However, in the
case of one astronaut, 1/6 g did appear to counteract vestibular disturbances - stomach
awareness and vertigo - experienced in zero g.
Psychological Issues
One of the questions most frequently asked about space flight is what psychological
effect does it have on astronauts? Do they experience fear? What is their reaction during
launch when seven and one-half million pounds of thrust catapults them from the surface
of the Earth? How do they feel when they are approaching the moon? Are they
compatible in the cramped quarters of a spacecraft?
It is perhaps remarkable that there was virtually no difficulty from a psychological
and psychodynamic viewpoint among highly competitive, driving, and forceful
individuals. Some of the success in the psychological sphere must be attributed to the
original astronaut selection process. All Apollo astronauts were carefully screened
psychologically and psychiatrically prior to entry into the program; and attempts were
made to assess their ability to deal with stressful situations. The fact that most astronauts
were veteran military pilots aided in the selective process since this served to indicate they
590 Biomedical Results of Apollo
could keep emotional reactions under control and were capable of professional behavior
during conditions of danger. This was buttressed by numerous observations made during
medical and other types of training and monitoring activities in the preflight period.
Certainly there were times when tempers flared and differences of opinion led to
arguments. But at no time were any psychological responses observed before, during, or
after flight which could be considered in any way abnormal.
Careful psychological screening and selection excluded individuals with any
psychopathology from the astronaut corps. The astronauts were intrinsically stable
individuals. But several other important factors accounted for the high degree of psychic
stability exhibited in some exceedingly stressful inflight situations. The first, and perhaps
most important, was the level of motivation among these individuals. Astronauts are an
exceedingly motivated group. Their training program is an extremely rigorous one. It
involves countless hours of difficult training, some of which is unpleasant and some
frankly dangerous. All astronauts must go through this training, even before they are
designated to fly on a particular flight. Many never will participate in a space mission, and
they know it. By the end of the Apollo Program, only 52 percent of the astronaut corps
ever actually flew an operational mission. All of these factors are testimony to the
inherent motivation of these people. This spirit allowed them to overcome many
difficulties which would have been extremely bothersome to other individuals less
determined to succeed.
Space flight operations clearly have aspects that would frighten any ordinary person.
Nothing on Earth could have prepared these men for the stillness of the void of space or
the experience of being weightless. And, a whole complex of emotions must have been
produced by knowing one was totally alone and literally out of this world. Workload
played an important part in helping the astronauts manage the anxiety-provoking parts of
the space flight experience. Time lines were constantly active. This allowed little time for
deep contemplation. In the author's opinion, had there been long periods of
unprogrammed time, it is possible that some difficulty might have developed in the
psychological sphere.
A voyage to the moon is unquestionably one of the most profound experiences
encountered by man. It would have been shortsighted of us to have believed that such an
experience would not impact our astronauts at some later time. It is perhaps surprising
that more individuals did not react in some marked way to this experience.
Several astronauts had some rather well publicized difficulties in the psychological
sphere after flight. Astronaut Aldrin was clinically depressed after his mission. By his own
account, the largest factor contributing to this depression was difficulty in handling
public exposure after Apollo 11. Further, he had expected that the landing of men on the
moon would have a tremendous impact on the world. He was extremely distressed to find
that the world did not change appreciably, and certainly not immediately, as a result of
the achievement of Apollo 11.
Two other individuals radically changed their way of life after space flight. Astronaut
Irwin became actively involved in evangelical religion, and Astronaut Mitchell in
parapsychology. Neither of these developments was especially surprising in view of the
interests each individual had prior to space flight in these respective areas. In this writer's
opinion, neither one of these astronauts exhibited any behavior which could be described
Perspectives on Apollo 591
as psychologically aberrant. Having gained new perspectives, they simply chose different
life styles.
Space flight must be recognized as an experience which taxes the individual every bit
as much psychologically as it does physiologically. This aspect of the experience must not
be overlooked.
Conclusions
Before the Apollo program began, there were many questions regarding the
physiological phenomena space flight produced. The Apollo missions answered many
questions left unresolved by the Gemini Program, and, as is so often the case where
phenomenological issues are involved, it raised as many new questions as it answered. The
biomedical results of Apollo assured us that our planning and preparation had been of
great value. Almost every observation in the physiological realm had been identified, at
least in kind if not in degree, by the Gemini experience. Physiological changes did indeed
occur, but these were all reversible shortly after flight. The single exception to this rule
was the Apollo 15 crew. Apollo 15 stands out as an anomaly. It took this crew nearly a
month to recover from the effects of space flight. The anomalous findings of Apollo 15
will perhaps never be totally understood, but they were probably due largely to a lack of
adequate potassium intake. Cardiac arrhythmias suffered by two members of this crew
had not been seen in other missions and were not seen following increased potassium
intake in the two subsequent crews. It is, of course, difficult to be certain that potassium
deficits were the cause or, for that matter, that potassium supplements were the cure.
We learned from Apollo that man can perform very nicely in a one-sixth gravity
environment. One-sixth of the gravity to which he is accustomed proved to be sufficient
to give man a feeling of near normalcy for performing functions with at least the same
ease as he does on Earth and, in some cases, with greater ease. The astronauts adapted
quickly to movement in the lunar gravity environment and traversed the surface of the
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lunar surface activity also demonstrated that the metabolic costs of working in that
environment were completely acceptable. On the basis of this experience, a lunar surface
laboratory in the future is not only feasible but may be highly desirable. Perhaps an
international laboratory will ultimately be established there for the study of our solar
system and the universe.
The Apollo experience also emphasized the importance of preflight isolation of
crewmen to guarantee, insofar as is medically possible, that no infectious illness will
intervene in the inflight or the immediate preflight period. We learned the importance of
closely following the immunologic status of crewmen and of immunizing them
adequately against childhood diseases. Postflight quarantine was an interesting and
valuable exercise which provided experience for future quarantine programs. We learned
in the course of a carefully conducted program, however, that there are no organisms, live
or dead, on the lunar surface.
Satisfying the medical objectives of the Apollo Program had a number of
unanticipated benefits. Much of what we have come to call spinoff was produced by the
program. Technology developed in support of Apollo missions has found useful and
592 Biomedical
Results
ofApollo
widespread application
in thepublicsector.
A fewof themanyexamples whichcanbe
citedhavebeenselected for comment•A one-sixthgravitysimulator
originallydesigned
to allowtheastronauttoadapttolunarsurfacegravityinadvance
ofhismission hasbeen
usedin rehabilitatingthc physicallyhandicapped• The Apollo liquid cooling
undergarment hasfoundmedical application
in thesymptomatictreatmentofsustained,
highfebrilestates
andin personsworkingin highthermalenvironments,
suchasoil well
fire fighting. A portable, noninvasive, continuous blood pressure monitoring and
recording system has made possible biomedical monitoring of hypertensive patients
during uninterrupted, normal daily activities. Laminar airflow clean room techniques,
used in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory and the crew quarters at Cape Kennedy to reduce
the spre.ad of infectious agents, are used with enormous success in hospitals and surgical
suites for identical reasons.
Probably the most impressive aspect of the Apollo medical program and its most
important accomplishment was that man could be supported in the hostile operating
environments of space and the lunar surface. This was done with minimal data and in the
face of difficulty in obtaining some of the data. We monitored man's vital signs across the
void of space and could offer him assurance of his safety during dangerous and difficult
operations. The Apollo medical program supported man on his journey to the moon and
back and provided a fund of information that will form the medical data core for
allowing him to venture still further into the solar system and, perhaps, li;_e and work in
lunar laboratories of the future.
The Anollo Program triumphantly closCd man's first decade in space• To reach for the
• l c_ , / , +_, ¢.
moon m 1961 when man s total Orbital flight time was less than two hours, and to de.clare
that we would attain it before the decade was out, was an extremely ambitious goal. The
vehiclc for this achievement was the Apollo spacecraft, and it served its purpose well. The
Apollo Program placed twelve men on the moon, leaving them there for a total of over
four man-weeks, and returned them safely to Earth• It was an engineering and medical
feat with few parallels in the history of mankind. The universe is man's destiny, and the
Apollo Program was the first definitive step toward that destiny. The term space flight
always connotes manned space flight in my view. No machine can observe space and
celestial bodies with the resourcefulness and intuition that man can bring to the task.