Meteorology

(The Atmosphere)
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and
the processes that produce weather and
climate.
 Weather vs. Climate
• Weather is the • Climate – a
state of the description of
atmosphere at any aggregate weather
given time. conditions; the sum
• Weather is of all statistical
constantly weather
changing (hour by information that
hour, day by day) helps describe a
place or region.
• Climate based on
observations over
many decades
List the ways in which
human beings
interact with the
atmosphere.
Describe the variations you
have observed in the
atmosphere where you live
or from your travels to other
locations.
What characteristics of
the atmosphere are
typically described in
weather forecasts?
 Air Evolves
• Our atmosphere = the air
(specific mix of gases)
around us
• Protects Earth from harmful
solar radiation, and
incoming projectiles.
• Lower bound – touches
surface of Earth
• Upper bound – gradual
transition into space
• Observed from space the
atmosphere is a thin shell
around Earth
 Air Evolves
• What is the
atmosphere made of?
− Mostly Nitrogen and
Oxygen
− CO2 is a small
component but plays a
large role in the
greenhouse effect
− Water vapor in the air
can range from 0%
over deserts to 7% in
humid climates

Is the atmosphere of the Earth

stable or is it changing with
time? Why?
 Air Evolves
• Having an atmosphere is not unique to Earth, but our
atmosphere’s composition is unique.
− Venus and Earth began with very similar atmospheres rich in
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and oxygen.
− The atmospheres originated from gases expelled from
extensive volcanism and collision with comets/meteorites.
− Venus being closer to sun had abundant water vapor. This
vapor was split into hydrogen and oxygen, and hydrogen was
lost to space. Remaining oxygen bonded with carbon
abundant CO2.
− CO2 blanket around Venus insulates planet 867°F on the
surface!
 Air Evolves
Earth No oxygen present 4 billion years ago.
- As Earth cooled, water condensed, rained, removed
CO2 from the atmosphere.
- Early primitive organisms used photosynthesis to
consume CO2 and produce oxygen
- Oxygen accumulated in oceans but not atmosphere
until about 2 billion years ago (oxygen is reactive and
combined with other elements in early rocks)
Key Point: Life Came Before Free Oxygen in Earth’s
Atmosphere
 Air Evolves

Earliest animals lived in

oceans. Oceans
protected them from
harmful solar radiation.
Once oxygen
accumulated in Earth’s
atmosphere, life could
be sustained on land.
This is also when the
ozone layer developed,
protecting life on land
from UV rays.
Composition of the
Atmosphere
 Composition of the Atmosphere
• Carbon Dioxide - present in small
amounts, it is very important to
meteorology.
• Absorbs energy and leads to a rise in
global temperature (Greenhouse
Effect)
 Other Variable Components
• Water vapor - absorbs heat given off by Earth
as well as some solar energy.
• When water vapor changes from one state to
another, it absorbs or releases heat.
• In the atmosphere, water vapor transports this
latent ("hidden") heat from one region to
another, and it is the energy source that helps
drive many storms.
 Other Variable Components

• Aerosols act as surfaces on which

water can condense
• Absorbers and reflectors of
incoming solar radiation.
 Other Variable Components
• Ozone is a form of oxygen that combines
three oxygen atoms into each molecule (O3).

• If ozone did not filter most UV

radiation and all of the sun’s UV
rays reached the surface of
Earth, our planet would be
uninhabitable for many living
organisms.
Primary Pollutants
 Structure,
Characteristics, and
Processes in the
Atmosphere
 Structure and Processes of the
Atmosphere

Gravity holds 99% of atmospheric

gases within 20 miles of the Earth’s
surface
 Structure and Processes of the
Atmosphere
• Gravity holds 99% of atmospheric gases within 20 miles
of the Earth’s surface.
• The atmosphere rapidly thins as you travel away from
Earth until there are too few gas molecules to detect.
• The density of air rapidly decreases with increasing
altitude.
• The accepted boundary with space is 62 miles above
Earth’s surface.
• Some gas must extend as high as 312 miles high, as
spacecraft can feel drag up to this altitude.
 Structure and Processes of the
Atmosphere
Altitude vs. atmospheric pressure

• Atmospheric
pressure is
simply the
weight of the
air above.
 Structure and Processes of the Atmosphere

Recall – Water has a high heat capacity!

In other words, it must absorb a lot of heat to produce a corresponding
temperature increase

The heat capacity of air is ¼ than that of water.

If the same amount of heat were applied to similar masses of air and water, which
would experience a greater temperature increase?

Air would experience a greater temperature increase, as it

doesn’t take as much heat to raise the temperature of a given
mass of air vs. water.
What is the difference between heat and
temperature?

a) Heat deals with total kinetic energy, temperature

with average kinetic energy.

b) Heat deals with average kinetic energy,

temperature with total kinetic energy.

c) There is no difference, since they both deal with

kinetic energy.
 Structure and Processes of the Atmosphere

The above pans of water are heated to the same temperature for the same
amount of time. They contain the same amount of heat, which is spread among
the water molecules in each pan. But the water in pan 2 has a higher
temperature, as the heat would have produced more rapid motion among fewer
water molecules.
Structure of the Atmosphere
4 thermal layers of the atmosphere

Troposphere:
Shows a decrease in temperature
with altitude.
Gets its warmth from the Earth’s
surface.
Contains our weather systems.
Air pollution collects here.
The bulk of air and aerosols reside
here.
Thickness varies based on its
thermal character. Thickest (10
miles) over equator and thinnest
(5 miles) over poles.
Structure Processes of the Atmosphere
Stratosphere:
Shows an increase in temperature
with altitude.
Over 25 miles thick.
Contains ~20% of the
atmosphere’s air.
This is where ozone resides, which
blocks out harmful ultraviolet solar
radiation.
Temperature increase is due to
absorption of solar radiation by
ozone molecules. Higher kinetic
energy (nothing to bump into).
The cool air of the troposphere
cannot rise into the stratosphere.
At extremely low temperatures the thin
polyethylene fabric (0.002 inches thick)
that made up the balloon carrying Joe
Kittinger’s capsule would have become
nearly brittle. Any small flaws in the
fabric could have caused the balloon to
spring a leak and deflate. At what
location during the ascent would the risk
of this potential danger have been most
acute?

a) Lower troposphere
b) Upper troposphere
c) Middle stratosphere
Structure and Processes of the Atmosphere
Mesosphere:
Decreasing air temperatures that
reach a minimum of -139°F!
Temperature minimum at the
mesopause.
Temperature decreases due to
fewer and fewer ozone molecules
to absorb solar UV radiation.
Very little oxygen and nitrogen.
Sufficient gases to burn up
incoming debris.
Most near earth objects burn up
in this layer.
Structure and Processes of the Atmosphere
Thermosphere:
Increasing air temperature up to
1,830°F due to solar radiation!
Blocks most of the harmful cosmic
radiation (x-rays, gamma rays,
some UV).
Very few gas molecules – heat
energy is actually low.
Gases here are ionized (broken
into constituent ions as solar
radiation strips them of electrons).
Ionized gases cause auroras
(interaction near the magnetic
poles of electrons and protons
from the sun).
Mechanisms of
Heat Transfer
 Heating the Atmosphere
Three mechanisms of energy transfer as heat are conduction,
convection, and radiation.

• Conduction is the transfer of heat through matter by molecular

activity. The energy is transferred through collision from one atom to
another with heat flowing from the higher to the lower temperature.

• Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of a mass of

substance from one place to another, which can only, takes place in
fluids. It is responsible for the redistribution of heat from equator to
the Polar Regions and from surface upwards.

• Radiation is a way of transferring heat from the sun to the planets

and others. The energy from the sun consists of electromagnetic
radiation of different frequency. All radiation is capable of
transmitting energy through the vacuum at 3 x 108 m/s.
Energy Transfer as Heat
 Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
Sun emits electromagnetic radiation (EMR) which is described by
its wavelength and frequency.
Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere

The relative proportions

of solar radiation
reaching Earth.
Infrared and visible light
make up more than
90% of solar radiation
at Earth’s surface.

Human actions or natural

events that affect incoming
solar radiation may affect life
on Earth!
Absorption of solar energy

Highest energy
radiation is absorbed in
thermosphere.
Much of UV absorbed
in stratosphere.
 Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
What happens to EMR that reaches Earth’s surface?
• It can be scattered
- Can change direction when it hits particles and gas molecules

- This is what causes the blue color of the sky – blue light is scattered more easily
than other colors. This scattered blue light reaches our eyes, making the sky
blue!
- Higher in atmosphere, fewer gas molecules, less scattering, sky appears black

• It can be reflected
- Incoming radiation can be reflected off gas molecules and returned to space
- Can be reflected off surface features
- Albedo = reflectivity of a surface (ice is very reflective, forests and water are
not)
 Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
• Some EMR is absorbed
- Interacts with material in atmosphere and is converted into some other form of
energy (heat).
- Atmospheric gases absorb certain wavelengths
- Thermosphere absorbs short wavelengths (x-rays, gamma rays)
- Ozone in stratosphere absorbs UV
- Water vapor and CO2 in troposphere absorb infrared

Some solar radiation reaches

Earth’s surface – and some of
this is absorbed by land and
oceans, warming the planet
(about ½ of incoming solar
radiation heats Earth).
Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

 Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
The Greenhouse Effect
• Surfaces on Earth with low albedo absorb solar radiation and re-
radiate it as infrared (long wavelength) radiation.
• This long wavelength infrared radiation is then absorbed by
greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other trace
gases (methane, nitrous oxide) in the troposphere.
• This absorption causes the troposphere to warm = the greenhouse
effect!
• Keeps the Earth a livable ~33°C (91°F) warmer than if there were no
greenhouse effect.
• Average surface temperature of Earth would be ~0°F without it (as
opposed to current average of ~59°F).
• Venus, with so much CO2 in its atmosphere, has a runaway
greenhouse effect resulting in surface temperatures of up to 867°F!
 The Atmosphere Checkpoint

Explain if the interaction of EMR with Earth would cause

global temperatures to increase or decrease under the
following conditions.

1. The atmosphere is thicker.

2. The atmosphere contains more carbon dioxide.
3. The atmosphere contains more aerosols.
4. The atmosphere contains more black soot.
5. Trees are white in color.
6. There is no ice on Earth.
 The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
Water is the only substance that exists in all three states on Earth’s
surface

The atmosphere contains a small portion of the Earth’s water.

The volume of water falling as precipitation annually is 30 times greater than the
volume of water stored in atmosphere at any given time.
Water is constantly cycled through the atmosphere.
Conversion of water from one state to another transfers energy throughout the
troposphere.
 The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
Water molecules are dipolar = opposite charges on each end of the molecule
(net partial negative charge on oxygen atom and net partial positive charge on
one hydrogen atom).

States of water are defined by the distance

between water molecules and their degree
of motion:
Solid (ice) – closely spaced, move less, more
ordered
Liquid (water) – small groups of molecules
are attached, rapid movement creates some
disorder
Gas (vapor) – individual molecules move very
rapidly, and therefore don’t attract and join;
very disordered
 The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
Changes of state are accompanied by absorption or release of heat
Latent heat = the amount of heat absorbed or released as water
changes state.

Heat is absorbed during Heat is released during

melting, evaporation, freezing, condensation,
or sublimation (solid to or deposition (gas to
gas). solid).

Much more latent heat is released or absorbed during

changes between liquid and gaseous states than during
changes between solid and liquid states.
The Role of Water in the Atmosphere

Evaporation and
condensation are
extremely
important.
They occur over
large areas.
They contribute to
weather
phenomena and
redistribution of
heat in the
atmosphere.
Your body feels cooler when you
step out of a warm shower
because
a)water evaporates on your skin
b)water condenses on your skin
c)water evaporates from the
surrounding air
d)water condenses in the surrounding
air
 The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
Humidity = the amount of moisture in the air.
Determined by evaporation and condensation.
Hot and humid go together – higher temperatures cause evaporation to
dominate allowing more moisture in the air.
Air is saturated when it can hold no more water vapor at a given
temperature.
Absolute humidity =
mass of water (g) in a
volume of air (m3).
Relative humidity =
amount of water vapor
in air compared to
maximum mass of
water vapor the air
could hold if saturated.
 The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
When cold air moves over warm water, some of the warm water
evaporates (steam fog).
When warm air moves over cold water, the air cools.
Dew Point = temperature air must reach in order to become
saturated.
Condensation occurs when the relative humidity of air increases
enough that the air becomes saturated with moisture.

Humidity can increase in two ways:

Addition of water
Decrease in temperature
Explain why people can see
their breath on a cold
winter’s day, in terms of
water changing state and
latent heat.
 Explain why a hair dryer
actually dries your hair rather
than leaving you with hot, wet
hair. Explain the process
taking place.
 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation
Atmospheric pressure
= the pressure exerted
by the weight of an
overlying column of
air.
Air pressure declines
with increasing
altitude.
Air pressure is
influenced by air
density.
Air density Gravity pulls most gases to Earth’s surface. Air
measurement of the density is therefore higher closer to Earth’s surface.
mass of atoms and 50% of all air lies below 3 miles altitude.
molecules of gases per
volume of air.
 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation

Air contracts when cooled, increasing density (molecules occupy

smaller space) and air pressure
Air expands when warmed, decreasing density (molecules can
spread out) and air pressure

Highest air pressures are found in cold regions, lowest air pressures are found in
tropical warm environments.
Air pressure decreases rapidly at lower altitudes where air density is greatest,
and decreases slowly at higher altitudes.
Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation

Q: Recall Joe Kittinger’s descent: His balloon

expanded on his ascent. Why?

A: The air pressure outside was

decreasing leading to an expansion of
the helium inside the balloon.
 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation
• Compressed air becomes warmer, expanding air becomes cooler
− Tire pressures are typically twice that of the surrounding air.
− When you release the air, the air coming out feels colder than the
surrounding air – conversion of heat to mechanical energy = net cooling.
− This is an adiabatic change – occurs due to a change in pressure with no
loss or gain of energy to or from the surrounding air.

Example – burn up of a meteor entering

atmosphere. Burn up is NOT a result of
frictional heating. The incoming meteor
slows down as it compresses the gases of the
upper atmosphere, causing air temperature
around the meteor to rise.
 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation
• Rising air cools for two reasons:
1. It is expanding and cooling due to decreasing air pressure
2. It is moving farther away from the warm surface of the earth

As a parcel of air rises, the total amount of energy present doesn’t change,
but it can be used to either maintain a constant temperature OR to work to
expand the size of the air parcel.
As the air expands – heat is distributed through a larger volume, producing
a cooling effect.

Dry adiabatic lapse rate = 10°C per 1,000 m

As rising air cools, its relative humidity increases and the air eventually
becomes saturated.
Precipitation will occur which releases latent heat. This latent heat
counterbalances adiabatic cooling which reduces the cooling rate.

Wet adiabatic lapse rate = 6°C per 1,000 m The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere
 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation

Clouds form when:

• Air rises, cools, and water
condenses, AND
• Water vapor has a surface to
condense onto
− Microscopic particles
(dust, smoke, salt,
pollutants)
 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation

Clouds are composed of

billions of tiny water droplets
that may eventually combine
to form rain, snow, or hail.

Heavier cloud droplets fall and collide and combine with other droplets to form
raindrops.
One raindrop contains ~1 million cloud droplets.
Pure water droplets in high clouds can remain liquid down to -38°F.
Supercooled water will only freeze if it is agitated or has a surface to freeze on.
Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation

Snow forms when:

• Clouds reach temperatures below -5°C, whereby air
needs a little less water vapor to be saturated for ice
than for water.
− Condensation will preferentially produce ice crystals.
− Miniature ice crystals act as condensation surfaces.
− These ice crystals act as condensation surfaces and
gradually increase in size to form snowflakes.
 Clouds and Frontal Systems
Much of the incoming solar
radiation is either absorbed
by clouds or reflected back
into space from their
surfaces.
Clouds can have both a cooling
effect (due to reflection of solar
radiation) and a warming effect
(due to absorption by water
vapor, a greenhouse gas) on the
Earth’s surface. At present, we
don’t know which effect is
stronger.
 Clouds and Frontal Systems
“cirr” = high
level with
wispy shape
“alto” =
midlevel
“cumulus” =
heap shape
“nimbo” or
“nimbus” =
rain cloud
“stratus” =
sheet like,
cover the
Clouds are classified on the basis of their altitude and whole sky
appearance.
 Clouds and Frontal Systems
Why does air rise?
• Air rises naturally if it is lighter than the surrounding air masses = density (or
convection) lifting.
 Clouds and Frontal Systems
Why does air rise?
• Frontal lifting = two large air masses of different densities meet.
Their boundary is a front. The lighter warm air rises above the
colder denser air.
 Clouds and Frontal Systems
Why does air rise?
• Orographic lifting = air is
forced to rise over an
obstruction such as
mountains.
• Convergence lifting =
collision of two air masses of
similar temperature forces
some air upward since both
air masses cannot occupy the
same space.
The Atmosphere Checkpoint 14.21
Classify the clouds in each of the following images:
 The Atmosphere Checkpoint 14.22b
In the following landscape, how would the amount of rainfall
change at location X if the mountain eroded down to the dashed
line?

a. Rainfall would increase.

b. Rainfall would decrease.
c. Rainfall would stay the same.
 Winds
Wind = horizontal movement of air that arises from differences in
air pressure.
Air flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

Wind is characterized
by its speed and
direction.

Direction refers to the

direction from which
the wind originates.

Isobar = line of constant

air pressure.
 Winds
Pressure gradient =
magnitude of the change
in pressure between two
points divided by the
distance between the two
points.
The greater the contrast
in pressure, the steeper
the gradient and the
faster the winds.
The closer together the
isobars, the steeper the
gradient and the faster
the winds.
 Winds
• Due to the Coriolis effect, winds are deflected to the right of their course in
the Northern Hemisphere.
• Eventually, pressure gradient balances Coriolis effect and winds move
parallel to isobars (geostrophic winds).
• Winds blowing near Earth’s surface are slowed by frictional drag from the
surface.
- Friction is most dramatic over rugged surfaces.
 Winds
• Due to the Coriolis effect, winds are deflected to the right of their course in
the Northern Hemisphere.
• Eventually, pressure gradient balances Coriolis effect and winds move
parallel to isobars (geostrophic winds).
• Winds blowing near Earth’s surface are slowed by frictional drag from the
surface.
- Friction is most dramatic over rugged surfaces.
 Winds
Cyclone and anti-
cyclone.
a. Winds converge in
low pressure
Anti-cyclone systems creating a
counter clockwise
airflow at the
surface.

Cyclone
b. Winds diverge in
high pressure
systems creating a
clockwise airflow at
the surface.
Winds

Wind energy
- Northern Part of the
Philippines (Ilocos)
- Wind velocities must
be greater than 12
mph to make wind
turbines viable
- What are some of
the advantages of
wind energy? What
are some
drawbacks?