FINAL INTERNSHIP REPORT

PAKISTAN RAILWAYS

Supervisor

Engr. MUHAMMAD ZEESHAN

Senior Instructor

Submitted By

ABDUL SAMAD 2014-UET-KIT-MECH-04

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DR A Q KHAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MIANWALI

August 2018
 PAKISTAN RAILWAYS

Supervisor

Engr. MUHAMMAD ZEESHAN

Submitted By

ABDUL SAMAD 2014-UET-KIT-MECH-04

A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the award of Bachelor’s Degree
in
Mechanical Engineering Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DR A Q KHAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MIANWALI

August 2018
 “In the name of ALLAH,
Most Gracious, Most Merciful”
 Undertaking

I certify that internship report titled “PAKISTAN RAILWAYS” is my

own work. No portion of the work presented in this report has been
submitted in support of another award or qualification either at this
institution or elsewhere. Where material has been used from other sources
it has been properly acknowledged / referred.

Abdul Samad
2014-UET-KIT-Mech-04
BSMT/2K14/04

Supervisor: __________________

Chairman: __________________

Principal: ___________________
 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all supervisors of each departments guiding us in

understanding the concepts of related Basic Mechanical Technology in
Industry (Workshops). I would like to thank all our teachers especially
Engr. Muhammad Zeeshan. Guiding us in solving our problems related
to internship and our supervisor is also Engr. Muhammad Zeeshan so his
cooperation and support to bring this task to completion.

I would also like to thank my families and friends for their continuous
encouragement and moral support.
 Abstract

The report is written and concern about my experience as per requirement

of internship,2018, in (LOCEMOTIVE WORKSHOP) which is a part of
my course of BSc. Mechanical Engineering Technology. The report
includes the complete orientation of the LOCOMOTIVE WORKS situated
in Mughalpura Lahore. This report is based on the working experience in
different workshop of LOCOMOTIVE, providing necessary knowledge
about RAILEAY WORKSHOP system.
Schedule of internship
Table of contents
Pakistan Railways Mughalpura, Lahore...........................................................I
Chapter 1....................................................................................................................2
Industrial Introduction..........................................................................................2
1.1 Pakistan Railway History..............................................................................2
1.2 Railway board.................................................................................................3
1.3 Functional units..............................................................................................3
1.4 Divisions..........................................................................................................3
1.5 Classes..............................................................................................................4
1.6 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:..........................................................5
Chapter 2....................................................................................................................6
Literature Review of Mughalpura Workshops ...............................................6
2.1 Workshops in mughalpura locomotive .......................................................6
2.2 Diesel classified and rehabilitation shop...................................................6
2.3 Machine shop....................................................................................................7
2.4 Foundry shop....................................................................................................7
2.5 E & DC shop.....................................................................................................8
2.6 Spring shop.......................................................................................................8
2.7 Power Plant Shop.............................................................................................9
2.8 Wheel shop........................................................................................................9
2.9 LIFTING SHOP.............................................................................................10
2.10 Engine block shop.......................................................................................10
2.11 Mill Wright Shop........................................................................................11
2.12 Tool shop......................................................................................................11
Chapter 3..................................................................................................................12
Diesel classified Shop...........................................................................................12
3.1 Diesel Classified Work Shop......................................................................12
3.1.1 Power assembly section:..........................................................................12
3.1.2 Nozzle & fuel Injection pump section:.................................................12
3.1.3 Electrical section:......................................................................................13
3.1.4 Governor section:......................................................................................13
3.1.5 Air compression section:.........................................................................13
Chapter 4..................................................................................................................14
Machine Shop..........................................................................................................14
4.1 Lathe Machines..............................................................................................14
4.1.1 Tpes of Lathe Machines........................................................................14
1. Centre lathe...................................................................................................14
2. Bench lathe....................................................................................................15
3. Turret lathe....................................................................................................15
4. Capstan lathe.................................................................................................16
4.1.2 Lathe machine specifications:.............................................................16
4.1.3 Parts of lathe machine:..........................................................................16
4.1.4 Operations of lathe machine:...............................................................17
4.2 Milling machine...........................................................................................17
4.2.1 Types of Milling Machine...................................................................17
1. Vertical mill..................................................................................................17
2. Horizontal milling machine.......................................................................19
3. Universal milling machine.........................................................................20
4.2.2 Milling cutters:.......................................................................................21
4.3 Grinding machine.......................................................................................21
4.3.1 Surface grinding machine....................................................................22
4.3.2 Types of surface grinders.....................................................................23
1. Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders .................................23
2. Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinder.....................................................23
3. Disc grinders and double-disc grinders..................................................24
4. Cylindrical grinding machine....................................................................24
4.4 Shaper machine..............................................................................................24
4.4.1 Features.....................................................................................................25
4.4.2 Working principle of shaper machine................................................25
4.4.3 Operations done using a shaper:.........................................................25
4.4.4 Main parts of a shaping machine: .......................................................26
4.5 Planer machine...............................................................................................26
4.5.1 Linear planning.......................................................................................26
4.5.2 Helical planing........................................................................................27
4.6 Wheel repairing Section..............................................................................27
4.6.1 Machines available in Wheel Repairing Section: ...........................27
4.6.2 Types of wheel:.......................................................................................27
4.6.3 Types of axle:..........................................................................................28
Chapter 5..................................................................................................................32
Foundry shop..........................................................................................................32
5.1 Foundry Shop.................................................................................................32
5.2 Parts prepared in brass foundry.................................................................32
5.3 Parts prepared in iron foundry...................................................................33
5.4 CASTING:.......................................................................................................33
5.4.1 Casting process.......................................................................................33
5.4.2 Pattern:......................................................................................................34
5.4.2.1 Different types of patterns: ..............................................................34
 5.4.3 Mould preparation:.................................................................................35
5.4.3.1 Mould preparation:.............................................................................35
5.4.3.2 Sand used in molding process..........................................................35
1. Green sand mould :...................................................................................35
2. Dry sand mould :.......................................................................................35
3. Materials used in mould preparation ....................................................35
5.5 Furnaces used in foundry workshop.........................................................35
5.5.1 Tilting furnace........................................................................................35
5.5.2 Rotary furnace.........................................................................................36
5.5.3 Cupola Furnace.......................................................................................36
5.5.3.1 Construction of Cupola Furnace......................................................37
5.5.3.2 Working of Cupola Furnace.............................................................37
Chapter 6..................................................................................................................39
Spring Shop.............................................................................................................39
6.1 Spring...............................................................................................................39
6.1.1 Classification of spring:...........................................................................40
1. Coil spring.....................................................................................................40
2. Compression helical springs......................................................................41
3.Tension helical springs................................................................................42
4. Torsion springs.............................................................................................43
5. Spiral Spring:................................................................................................44
6. Leaf spring....................................................................................................44
7. Volute spring...............................................................................................44
6.2 Spring making...............................................................................................45
6.2.1 Coiling......................................................................................................45
6.2.2 Hardening.................................................................................................47
6.2.3 Finishing...................................................................................................48
6.3 Machines used in spring shop....................................................................49
6.3.1 End grinding machine............................................................................49
6.3.2 Crash Grinders........................................................................................49
6.3.3 Crush Grinders........................................................................................50
6.3.4 End grinders.............................................................................................50
6.4 Process used in spring shop........................................................................51
6.4.1 Tempering................................................................................................51
6.4.2 Carbon steel.............................................................................................51
6.4.3 Quenched Steel.......................................................................................52
6.4.4 Normalized steel.....................................................................................53
6.5 Spring sizes and bar sizes:..........................................................................54
Chapter 7..................................................................................................................55
LIFTING SHOP......................................................................................................55
7.1 Lifting system:...............................................................................................55
7.2 Types of coach:..............................................................................................55
7.3 Parts of Bogie.................................................................................................56
7.3.1 Bogie Frame:...........................................................................................56
 7.3.2 Bogie Transom:.......................................................................................56
7.3.3 Brake Cylinder:.......................................................................................56
7.3.4 Primary Suspension Coil:.....................................................................57
7.3.5 Motor Suspension Tube:.......................................................................57
7.3.6 Gearbox:...................................................................................................57
7.3.7 Lifting Lug:.............................................................................................57
7.3.8 Motor:........................................................................................................57
7.3.9 Secondary Suspension Air Bag: ..........................................................57
7.3.10 Wheel Slide Protection System Lead to Axle box:......................57
7.3.11 Loose Leads for Connection to Car body: ......................................57
7.3.12 Shock Absorber:...................................................................................58
7.3.13 Axle box Cover:...................................................................................58
7.4 EQUIPMENT USE IN LIFTING SHOP:..................................................58
Chapter 8..................................................................................................................59
Power Plant Shop:.................................................................................................59
8.1 Power Plant Introduction.............................................................................59
8.2 Turbo Supercharger and its Working principle ......................................59
8.2 Main Components......................................................................................60
8.2.1 ROTOR ASSEMBLY.............................................................................61
8.2.2 LUBRICATING SYSTEM....................................................................61
8.2.3 COOLING SYSTEM..............................................................................61
8.3 ADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGED ENGINES.............................61
8.4 Defect in Turbochargers...........................................................................62
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................63
Future Recommendations about Pakistan railway workshops ...............64
References................................................................................................................65
 List of figures

Chapter 1
FIGURE 1. 1 PAKISTAN RAILWAYS................................................................2
FIGURE 1. 2 RAILWAY ENGINE INSIDE........................................................4

Chapter

FIGURE 2. 1 DIESEL ENGINE IN RAILWAY.................................................7

FIGURE 2. 2 FOUNDRY SHOP.............................................................................8
FIGURE 2. 3 SPRING SHOP..................................................................................9
FIGURE 2. 4 FORK LIFTER................................................................................10

Chapter

FIGURE 3. 1 ASSEMBLY SECTION.................................................................12

FIGURE 3. 2 NOZZLE...........................................................................................13

Chapter

FIGURE 4. 1 CENTRE LATHE...........................................................................15

FIGURE 4. 2 TURRET LATHE...........................................................................16
FIGURE 4. 3 VERTICAL MILLING..................................................................18
FIGURE 4. 4 HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE......................................20
FIGURE 4. 5 UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE.........................................21
FIGURE 4. 6 GRINDING MACHINE................................................................22
FIGURE 4. 7 SURFACE GRINDER...................................................................23
FIGURE 4. 8 SHAPER MACHINE.....................................................................25
FIGURE 4. 9 PLANER MACHINE.....................................................................26
FIGURE 4. 10 WHEEL..........................................................................................28
FIGURE 4. 11 AXLE D-105.................................................................................29
FIGURE 4. 12 AXLE D-59...................................................................................29
FIGURE 4. 13 AXLE D-52(CONDOM).............................................................30
FIGURE 4. 14 SPOKE WHEEL...........................................................................30
FIGURE 4. 15 SOLID WHEEL............................................................................31
FIGURE 4. 16 TIRE WHEEL...............................................................................31

Chapter

FIGURE 5. 1 BRASS FOUNDRY........................................................................32

FIGURE 5. 2 PARTS PREPARED IN FOUNDRY..........................................33
FIGURE 5. 3 PATTERN........................................................................................34
FIGURE 5. 4 MOULD PREPARATION............................................................35
FIGURE 5. 5 TILTING FURNACE.....................................................................36
FIGURE 5. 6 ROTARY FURNACE....................................................................36
FIGURE 5. 7 CUPOLA FURNACE.....................................................................37
FIGURE 5. 8 CUPOLA FURNACE.....................................................................38

Chapter

FIGURE 6. 1 SPRING SHOP................................................................................39

FIGURE 6. 2 SPRINGS USE IN FRAME..........................................................39
FIGURE 6. 3 COIL SPRING.................................................................................41
FIGURE 6. 4 COMPRESSION HELICAL SPRINGS......................................42
FIGURE 6. 5 TENSION HELICAL SPRING....................................................42
FIGURE 6. 6 TORSION SPRINGS.....................................................................43
FIGURE 6. 7 LEAF SPRING................................................................................44
FIGURE 6. 8 VOLUTE SPRING.........................................................................45
FIGURE 6. 9 COILING........................................................................................46
FIGURE 6. 10 SPRINGS SHAPES......................................................................46
FIGURE 6. 11 SPRING HARDENING...............................................................47
FIGURE 6. 12 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPRINGS.........................................49
FIGURE 6. 13 CRASH GRINDER PROCESS..................................................50
FIGURE 6. 14 SPRING SIZES.............................................................................54

Chapter

FIGURE 7. 1 BOGIE..............................................................................................55

Chapter

FIGURE 8. 1 ROTOR ASSEMBLY....................................................................60

 Pakistan Railways
Mughalpura, Lahore

I
 Chap
ter 1

Industrial Introduction

1.1 Pakistan Railway History

Pakistan Railways formerly also known as the  Pakistan Western

Railway between 1947 and 1974, is the national state-owned railway
company of Pakistan. Founded in 1861 and headquartered in  Lahore, it
owns 7,400 miles (11,881 km) of track across Pakistan, stretching
from Torkham to Karachi and operates both freight and passenger
train services. In 2014, the Ministry of Railways launched  "Pakistan
Railways Vision 2025" which, along with the ₨886.68
billion (US$8.5 billion) China–Pakistan Economic Corridor railway
upgrade, seeks to reinvigorate Pakistan Railways by increasing its share in
the transportation sector from 4% to 20% by 2025. The plans include the
acquisition of new locomotives, developing and improving current rail
infrastructure, increasing average train speeds, improving punctuality and
expanding passenger services. The first phase of the project will be
completed in December 2017, while the second phase will be completed by
2021 Pakistan Railways is an active member of the  International Union of
Railways.

2
 Figure 1. 1 Pakistan Railways

1.2 Railway board

The Railway Board functioned from 1959 to 2000 and was modified with
addition of the "Executive Committee of Railway Board"  between 2000 and
2014. However, the Railway Board was reconstituted again on February
20, 2015. The Minister of Railways Secretary serves as the official
chairman of the Pakistan Railway Board. The autonomous board consists
of:

 Secretary (Minister of Railways)

 Secretary, Communications Division
 Secretary, Finance Division
 Secretary, Planning & Development Division
 General Manager (Operations)
 General Manager (Manufacturing & Services)
 Member Finance, Ministry of Railways. This composition could not
get parliament approval and presently the Board consists of ex.
officio member listed above with three members from private
sector, appointed by Govt. The Secretary Railways is also Chairman
of the Board. The secretariat of Board is headed by Secretary
Railway Board. The seat of Board is Ministry of Railways,
Islamabad.

1.3 Functional units

Pakistan Railways comprises three functional units: [ 1]

3
 Operations
 Manufacturing
 Welfare & special initiative unit

1.4 Divisions
Pakistan Railway comprises seven territorial operating divisions:

 Karachi
 Lahore
 Multan
 Peshawar
 Quetta
 Rawalpindi
 Sukkur

1.5 Classes
Pakistan Railways has several classes of travel. Depending on the route,
certain trains may only have a single class. The fares for all classes are
different with unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The following
table lists the classes in operation. [ 2]

Class Description
AC Sleeper Class Code = ACSL
AC Parlour Class Code = PC
AC Business Class Code = ACLZ
AC Standard Class Code = ACL
First Class Sleeper Class Code = ISL
Economy Class Class Code = EC
Second Class Class Code = SEC

4
Figure 1. 2 Railway Engine Inside

5
1.6 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:

6
 Chapter 2

Literature Review of Mughalpura Workshops

The Moghalpura Railway Workshops are one of several Pakistan
Railways rolling stock repair sites, located on the  Lahore–Wagah Branch
Line at Moghalpura Junction railway station  in Lahore, Pakistan. The
workshop complex began to emerge at its present site in 1904 in order to
manufacture, repair and overhaul passenger coaches and freight wagons
for the then North Western State Railway . After Pakistan's independence
in 1947, it was the only state-of-the-art workshop for Pakistan Railways

2.1 Workshops in mughalpura locomotive

 Diesel classified and rehabilitation shop

 Machine shop
 Foundry shop
 E&DC shop
 Spring shop
 Power Plant Shop
 Wheel shop
 Lifting Shop
 Engine Block Shop
 Mill Wright Shop
 Tool shop

2.2 Diesel classified and rehabilitation shop

Diesel classified shop deals with the repairing and maintenance of the
engines. The responsibility of diesel classified work shop is overhauling
of all locomotives of Pakistan Railways after every 5 years. There are 5
different sections working for diesel classified.

7
 Figure 2. 1 Diesel Engine In Railway

2.3 Machine shop

In machine shop section different types of machines are used to machine different
parts according to need. After casting the work pieces are machined to convert them
into various parts according to part structure. Various types of machines are available
in at Loco shop of railway industry to machine different parts according to part
specification (part drawing). Operations to be performed and time to make that part
are mentioned on work order. Operations are performed according to the sequence
mentioned on work order.

2.4 Foundry shop

In foundry shop different types of parts are produced using casting process. After
casting the work pieces are machined to convert them into various parts according to
part structure. Various types of furnaces are available in at Loco shop of railway
industry to cast different number of parts according to demand. Operations to be
performed and time to make that part are mentioned on work order. Operations are
performed according to the sequence mentioned on work order.

8
 Figure 2. 2 Foundry Shop

2.5 E & DC shop

In this shop all parts related to diesel engine are prepared and machined
here:

Parts prepared and machined here are:

 oil seal
 friction plate
 discharge valve
 valve guide
 planger lubricant
 bearing shell
 con rod
 con rod bush
 roter shaft
 all types of bushes
 crank shaft of compresoor

2.6 Spring shop

Springs are flexible machine element used for controlled application of force or
torque or for storing and release of mechanical energy. Flexibility (elastic
deformation) is enabled due to cleverly designed geometry or by using of flexible
material.

9
 Figure 2. 3 Spring Shop

2.7 Power Plant Shop

The diesel engine produces mechanical energy by converting heat energy derived
from burning of fuel inside the cylinder. For efficient burning of fuel, availability of
sufficient air in proper ratio is a prerequisite. In a naturally aspirated engine, during
the suction stroke, air is being sucked into the cylinder from the atmosphere. The
volume of air thus drawn into the cylinder through restricted inlet valve passage,
within a limited time would also be limited and at a pressure slightly less than the
atmosphere. The availability of less quantity of air of low density inside the cylinder
would limit the scope ofburning of fuel. Hence mechanical power produced in the
cylinder is also limited An improvement in the naturally aspirated engines is the
super-charged or pressure charged engines. During the suction stroke,pressurized
stroke of high density is being charged into the cylinder through the open suction
valve. Air of higher density containing more oxygen will make it possible to inject
more fuel into the same size of cylinders and produce more power, by effectively
burning it. A turbocharger, or turbo, is a gas compressor used for forced-induction
of an internal combustion engine. Like a supercharger, the purpose of a turbocharger
is to increase the density of air entering the engine to create more power. However, a
turbocharger differs in that the compressor is powered by a turbine driven by the
engine's own exhaust gases.

2.8 Wheel shop

Wheel shop is the sub shop of machine shop. The maintenance of wheel is
taking into the machine shop. The couple of axle and dick is called wheel.
The wheel is enter into the wheel shop .the dick is dismount from the
axle .different operation are used to machine and maintain the axle and
disk.

10
2.9 LIFTING SHOP

The lifting section deals with the repair of coaches and their related arts.
It is called as lifting section because the parts of coaching cannot be
repaired without lifting them. There are three main sections of lifting.

 Roller Bearing Section

 China Coaches Section
 German Coaches section

Figure 2. 4 Fork Lifter

2.10 Engine block shop

In engine block shop block of engines are made and prepared here. The
cylinder block is an integrated structure comprising the cylinder(s) of a reciprocating
engine and often some or all of their associated surrounding structures (coolant
passages, intake and exhaust passages and ports, and crankcase). The term engine
block is often used synonymously with "cylinder block".
The engine block is the collective term that refers to the crankcase and all the
components that fill it, including gaskets, valves, and seals. The cylinder block is the
portion of the engine between the cylinder head and sump (oil pan) and is the
supporting structure for the entire engine. All the engine parts are mounted on it or in
it and this holds the parts in alignment. Large diameter holes in the block-castings
form the cylinder bores required to guide the pistons. These holes are called bores as
they are made by boring. The cylinders are provided with a web or bulkhead to
support the crankshaft and head attachments. Each main bearing bulkhead supports
both a cam bearing and a main bearing. The bulkhead is well ribbed to support and
distribute loads applied to it. This gives the block structural rigidity and beam

11
stiffness. The cylinders are surrounded by cooling passages. The block has drilled
passages for the flow of coolant and lubricating oil separately. The head, pan, and
timing cover are fixed to the block with sealed joints for eliminating leakage. Gaskets
are used in the joints to take up machining irregularities and to absorb variations due
to pressure and temperature extremities.

2.11 Mill Wright Shop

It is basically maintenance or repairing in the loco shop as well as all over Pakistan.
Any part which is not working or out of order or any part is out of working, they
claim for the part to the mill wright shop. If the work is done on the spot they done it
there and if not they take the problem part to their shop and after repairing they install
in again. If the part is not repairable then they make a new part of that.

2.12 Tool shop

Tool shop is responsible to provide cutting tools of machines and different types of
dies for railways workshops, e.g. drills, shanks for tips, dies & punches etc. there are
3 precious machines and also 1 engraving machine

 Copy Milling
 Spark Errosion E.D.M (electric discharge machine)
 Wire cut machine
 Engraving machine

12
 Chapter 3

Diesel classified Shop

3.1 Diesel Classified Work Shop [2 ]

The responsibility of diesel classified work shop is overhauling of

all locomotives of Pakistan Railways after every 5 years. There are 5
different sections working for diesel classified.

 Power assembly section.

 Nozzle, fuel Injection & pump section.
 Governor section.
 Electrical section.
 Air compression section.

3.1.1 Power assembly section:

In power assembly section, engine head, connecting rod, valves,
piston, liner (cylinder) and other parts are totally disassembled and
overhauled. If there is any part which is out lived so it will be replaced
e.g. piston rings. Engine parts are transfer to power assembly section by
overhead electric crane (5 & 40 ton capacity). Liner (cylinder) made by
cast iron has ø9.003” and chrome coated internally. Aluminum made
piston has ø8.980”,

Figure 3. 1 Assembly Section

3.1.2 Nozzle & fuel Injection pump section:

In this section, injector nozzle is tested on nozzle testing machine

by applying the 4050 psi pressure of diesel spray, it will pass through 9
orifices of nozzle, if there is any blockage so it will be corrected by valve

13
seat adjustment. Fuel injection pump is also calibrated on calibrating
machine.

Figure 3. 2 Nozzle

3.1.3 Electrical section:

Electrical section deal with all electrical default and correct that
defaults.

3.1.4 Governor section:

Governor regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the

engine by controlling the fuel supply. It is tested on machine that how it is
working and what are problems which should correct. Check all 8 notches
as well.

3.1.5 Air compression section:

Air compressors of locomotives are repaired or overhauled here, it is

use for the braking system of train. There are two types of braking systems
used in Pak railways, air pressure brakes and vacuum brakes. 6 cylinders
compressor is used for 3000/2000 h.p locomotives. Where 3 cylinders for
70 psi air pressure and 3 cylinders for 22 lb/inch vacuum.
 6CD3UC compressor.
 6CD4UC compressor.

14
 Chapter 4

Machine Shop [3]

4.1 Lathe Machines

Different types of lathe machine are used in this shop for various
operations

The lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping articles of metal (and
sometimes wood or other materials) by causing the workpiece to be held and rotated
by the lathe while a tool bit is advanced into the work causing the cutting action. The
basic lathe that was designed to cut cylindrical metal stock has been developed further
to produce screw threads. tapered work. Drilled holes. knurled surfaces, and
crankshafts. The typical lathe provides a variety of rotating speeds and a means to
manually and automatically move the cutting tool into the workpiece. Machinists and
maintenance shop personnel must be thoroughly familiar with the lathe and its
operations to accomplish the repair and fabrication of needed parts.

4.1.1 Tpes of Lathe Machines

Lathes can be divided into three types for easy identification: operator can
accomplish more machining jobs with the engine lathes, turret lathes, and special
purpose lathes. Small engine lathe than with any other machine tool. Turret lathes
lathes can be bench mounted, are lightweight, and can be and special purpose lathes
are usually used in production ortransported in wheeled vehicles easily. The larger
lathes are job shops for mass production or specialized parts.

1. Centre lathe

The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindrical shapes from a

range of materials including; steels and plastics. Many of the components
that go together to make an engine work have been manufactured using
lathes. These may be lathes operated directly by people (manual lathes) or
computer controlled lathes (CNC machines) that have been programmed to
carry out a particular task. A basic manual centre lathe is shown below.
This type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the various handles on
the top slide and cross slide in order to make a product / part.

15
 Figure 4. 1 Centre Lathe

2. Bench lathe

lathe mounted on a workbench. lathe - machine tool for shaping

metal or wood; the workpiece turns about a horizontal axis against a fixed
tool.

3. Turret lathe
The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for
repetitive production of duplicate parts, which by the nature of their
cutting process are usually interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes
with the addition of the turret, which is an  indexable toolholder that
allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a
different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need for the
operator to perform set-up tasks in between, such as installing or
uninstalling tools, nor to control the toolpath. The latter is due to the
toolpath's being controlled by the machine, either in  jig-like fashion, via
the mechanical limits placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or
via electronically-directed servomechanisms for computer numerical
control lathes.

16
 Figure 4. 2 Turret Lathe

4. Capstan lathe

A capstan machine is a processing machine used to make the same

parts again and again. The cutting bits are mounted on a rotatable turret
known as a capstan, which permits the client to rapidly change the
introduction of the bits for slicing without needing to take off the first bit
and afterward mount the second. A bit of crude material, off and on again
known as a clear, is mounted into the capstan machine and is then spun at
high velocity. The cutting apparatuses, some of the time known as blades,
are then used to slice into the clear to make another shape or outline.

4.1.2 Lathe machine specifications:

 Swing
 Distance between centers
 Length of bed
 Radius ( one of swing)

4.1.3 Parts of lathe machine:

 Bed and ways

 Headstock and spindle
 Carriage and saddle
 Cross slide and compound
 Tool post and tools

4.1.4 Operations of lathe machine:

17
  Turning:
 Facing:
 Boring:
 Drilling:
 Threading:
 Knurling:

4.2 Milling machine

Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove
material [ 1]  from a workpiece by advancing (or  feeding) in a direction at an
angle with the axis of the tool. [ 2] [3 ]  It covers a wide variety of different
operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large,
heavy-duty gang milling operations. It is one of the most commonly used
processes in industry and machine shops today for machining parts to
precise sizes and shapes.
Milling can be done with a wide range of  machine tools. The original class
of machine tools for milling was the milling machine (often called a mill).
After the advent of computer numerical control (CNC), milling machines
evolved into machining centers (milling machines with automatic tool
changers, tool magazines or carousels, CNC control, coolant systems, and
enclosures), generally classified as vertical machining centers (VMCs) and
horizontal machining centers (HMCs). The integration of milling
into turning environments and of turning into milling environments, begun
with live tooling for lathes and the occasional use of mills for turning
operations, led to a new class of machine tools, multitasking machines
(MTMs), which are purpose-built to provide for a default machining
strategy of using any combination of milling and turning within the same
work envelope.

4.2.1 Types of Milling Machine

There are following types of milling machine

1. Vertical mill

In the vertical mill the spindle axis is vertically oriented . Milling

cutters are held in the spindle and rotate on its axis. The spindle can
generally be extended (or the table can be raised/lowered, giving the
same effect), allowing plunge cuts and drilling. There are two
subcategories of vertical mills: the bed mill and the turret mill.

18
 Figure 4. 3 Vertical Milling

 A turret mill has a stationary spindle and the table is moved both

perpendicular and parallel to the spindle axis to accomplish cutting.
The most common example of this type is the Bridgeport, described
below. Turret mills often have a quill which allows the milling cutter
to be raised and lowered in a manner similar to a drill press. This type
of machine provides two methods of cutting in the vertical (Z)
direction: by raising or lowering the quill, and by moving the knee.
 In the bed mill, however, the table moves only perpendicular to the
spindle's axis, while the spindle itself moves parallel to its own axis.
Turret mills are generally considered by some to be more versatile of the
two designs. However, turret mills are only practical as long as the
machine remains relatively small. As machine size increases, moving the
knee up and down requires considerable effort and it also becomes
difficult to reach the quill feed handle (if equipped). Therefore, larger
milling machines are usually of the bed type.
A third type also exists, a lighter machine, called a mill-drill, which is a
close relative of the vertical mill and quite popular with hobbyists. A mill-
drill is similar in basic configuration to a small drill press, but equipped
with an X-Y table. They also typically use more powerful motors than a
comparably sized drill press, with potentiometer-controlled speed and
generally have more heavy-duty spindle bearings than a drill press to deal
with the lateral loading on the spindle that is created by a milling
operation. A mill drill also typically raises and lowers the entire head,
including motor, often on a dovetailed vertical, where a drill press motor
remains stationary, while the arbor raises and lowers within a driving
collar. Other differences that separate a mill-drill from a drill press may
be a fine tuning adjustment for the Z-axis, a more precise depth stop, the
capability to lock the X, Y or Z axis, and often a system of tilting the head
or the entire vertical column and powerhead assembly to allow angled
cutting. Aside from size and precision, the principal difference between
these hobby-type machines and larger true vertical mills is that the X-Y
table is at a fixed elevation; the Z-axis is controlled in basically the same
fashion as drill press, where a larger vertical or knee mill has a vertically
fixed milling head, and changes the X-Y table elevation. As well, a mill-
19
drill often uses a standard drill press-type Jacob's chuck, rather than an
internally tapered arbor that accepts  collets. These are frequently of lower
quality than other types of machines, but still fill the hobby role well
because they tend to be benchtop machines with small footprints and
modest price tags.

2. Horizontal milling machine

A horizontal mill has the same sort but the cutters are mounted on a
horizontal spindle (see Arbor milling) across the table. Many horizontal
mills also feature a built-in rotary table that allows milling at various
angles; this feature is called a  universal table. While endmills and the
other types of tools available to a vertical mill may be used in a horizontal
mill, their real advantage lies in arbor-mounted cutters, called side and
face mills, which have a cross section rather like a circular saw, but are
generally wider and smaller in diameter. Because the cutters have good
support from the arbor and have a larger cross-sectional area than an end
mill, quite heavy cuts can be taken enabling rapid material removal rates.
These are used to mill grooves and slots. Plain mills are used to shape flat
surfaces. Several cutters may be ganged together on the arbor to mill a
complex shape of slots and planes. Special cutters can also cut grooves,
bevels, radii, or indeed any section desired. These specialty cutters tend to
be expensive. Simplex mills have one spindle, and duplex mills have two.
It is also easier to cut gears on a horizontal mill. Some horizontal milling
machines are equipped with a power-take-off provision on the table. This
allows the table feed to be synchronized to a rotary fixture, enabling the
milling of spiral features such as hypoid gears.

20
 Figure 4. 4 Horizontal Milling Machine

3. Universal milling machine

The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as the
indexing fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various
special fixtures The basic difference between a universal horizontal milling
machine and a plain horizontal milling machine is the addition of a table swivel
housing between the table and the saddle of the universal machine. This
permits the table to swing up to 45° in either direction for angular and helical
milling operations.

21
 Figure 4. 5 Universal Milling Machine

4.2.2 Milling cutters:

 Plain milling cutter

 Side milling cutter
 Form milling cutter
 End milling cutter
 Face milling cutter
 T-slot cutters

4.3 Grinding machine

Grinding machines are also regarded as machine tools. A

distinguishing feature of grinding machines is the rotating abrasive tool.
Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy along with very
high class of surface finish on the work piece

22
 Figure 4. 6 Grinding Machine
A 
grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power
tools or machine tools used for grinding, which is a type
of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of
abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small  chip from the workpiece via
shear deformation. Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show
high surface quality (e.g., low surface roughness) and high accuracy of
shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in grinding is of the
order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing
operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50  mm
depth. However, there are some roughing applications in which grinding
removes high volumes of metal quite rapidly. Thus, grinding is a diverse
field .

4.3.1 Surface grinding machine

Surface grinding is used to produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces. It is a
widely used abrasive machining process in which a spinning wheel
covered in rough particles ( grinding wheel) cuts chips of metallic or
nonmetallic substance from a workpiece, making a face of it flat or
smooth.

23
 Figure 4. 7 Surface Grinder

Parts of surface grinder

 Body
 Table
 Magnetic chuck
 Wheel head
 Cross slide feed

4.3.2 Types of surface grinders

1. Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders

The periphery (flat edge) of the wheel is in contact with the
workpiece, producing the flat surface. Peripheral grinding is used in high-
precision work on simple flat surfaces; tapers or angled surfaces; slots;
flat surfaces next to shoulders; recessed surfaces; and profiles .

2. Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinder

The face of a wheel (cup, cylinder, disc, or segmental wheel) is
used on the flat surface. Wheel-face grinding is often used for fast
material removal, but some machines can accomplish high-precision work.
The workpiece is held on a reciprocating table, which can be varied
according to the task, or a rotary-table machine, with continuous or

24
indexed rotation. Indexing allows loading or unloading one station while
grinding operations are being performed on another

3. Disc grinders and double-disc grinders

Disc grinding is similar to surface grinding, but with a larger
contact area between disc and workpiece. Disc grinders are available in
both vertical and horizontal spindle types. Double disc grinders work both
sides of a workpiece simultaneously. Disc grinders are capable of
achieving especially fine tolerances.

4. Cylindrical grinding machine

The cylindrical grinder is a type of grinding machine used to shape
the outside of an object. The cylindrical grinder can work on a variety of
shapes, however the object must have a central axis of rotation. This
includes but is not limited to such shapes as a  cylinder, an ellipse, a cam,
or a crankshaft .
Cylindrical grinding is defined as having four essential actions:

1. The work (object) must be constantly rotating

2. The grinding wheel must be constantly rotating
3. The grinding wheel is fed towards and away from the work
4. Either the work or the grinding wheel is traversed with respect to
the other.
While the majority of cylindrical grinders employ all four movements,
there are grinders that only employ three of the four actions

4.4 Shaper machine

A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between
the work piece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool
path. Its cut is analogous to that of a  lathe, except that it is (archetypal)
linear instead of helical.
A wood shaper is a similar woodworking tool, typically with a powered
rotating cutting head and manually fed work piece, usually known simply
as a shaper in North America and spindle molder in the UK.
A metalworking shaper is somewhat analogous to a  metalworking planer,
with the cutter riding a ram that moves relative to a stationary work piece,
rather than the work piece moving beneath the cutter. The ram is typically
actuated by a mechanical crank inside the column, though hydraulically
actuated shapers are increasingly used. Adding axes of motion to a shaper
can yield helical tool paths, as also done in  helical planning.

25
 Figure 4. 8 Shaper Machine

4.4.1 Features

 Single point cutting tool is used for machining. Tool is clamped in

the tool post mounted on the ram of the machine.
 The ram reciprocates to and fro; tool cuts the material in the
forward stroke, no cutting during return stroke.
 Job is held rigidly in a vice.

4.4.2 Working principle of shaper machine

The tool is held in the tool post of the reciprocating ram and performs the
cutting operation during its forward stroke. It may be noted that during the
backward stroke of the ram, the tool does not remove material from the
work piece.

4.4.3 Operations done using a shaper:

 Machining horizontal surfaces

 Machining vertical surfaces
 Machining angular surfaces
 Cutting slots, groove and key ways.
 Machining irregular surfaces
 Machining splines /cutting gears.

26
4.4.4 Main parts of a shaping machine:

 Base
 Column
 Ram
 Table
 Cross rail
 Saddle
 Tool head
 Clapper box

4.5 Planer machine

A planer is type of metalworking  machine tool that

uses linear relative motion between the work piece and a  single-point
cutting tool to cut the work piece. [1 ]  A planer is similar to a shaper, but
larger, and with work piece moving, whereas in a shaper the cutting tool
moves.

Figure 4. 9 Planer Machine

4.5.1 Linear planning

The most common applications of planers and shapers are linear-toolpath

ones, such as:

27
  Generating accurate flat surfaces. (While not as precise as grinding,
a planer can remove a tremendous amount of material in one pass
with high accuracy.) [1 ]
 Cutting slots (such as keyways).
 It is even possible to do work that might now be done by  wire
EDM in some cases. Starting from a drilled or cored hole, a planer
with a boring-bar type tool can cut internal features that don't lend
themselves to milling or boring (such as irregularly shaped holes
with tight corners)

4.5.2 Helical planing

Although the archetypal tool path of a planer is linear, helical cutting can
be accomplished by coupling the table's linear motion to simultaneous
rotation. The helical planing idea is similar to both
helical milling and single-point screw cutting .

4.6 Wheel repairing Section

As its name shows in this section wheels are repaired and if necessary
then change the axle of wheels or change the wheels with new set of them.
The reasons why wheels and axle are needed to be change are?

 May its thickness is less than required thickness.

 May bore of wheel is open so axle seat is not press fitted in the
wheel bore.
 May axle seat’s diameter is less.
 May axle is bending.
 May rim is out from the frame ( In tire wheel this is happen)

4.6.1 Machines available in Wheel Repairing Section:

These Machines are available in wheel repairing section:

 Wheel Lathe Manual

 Milling Machine
 CNC Wheel Lathe
 Over head cranes
 Hydraulic Press

4.6.2 Types of wheel:

These are types of wheel:

 Solid Wheels (Commonly used in passengers coaches)

28
  Tire Wheels (For Goods)
 Spoke Wheels (For goods also but now a day’s its use is so less)

4.6.3 Types of axle:

 D-105
 D-59
 D-52

Figure 4. 10 Wheel

Different machines use for the given operations. After repairing the
axle and dick again mount to each other by using hydraulic press.

29
Figure 4. 11 Axle D-105

Figure 4. 12 Axle D-59

30
Figure 4. 13 Axle D-52(Condom)

Figure 4. 14 Spoke Wheel

31
Figure 4. 15 Solid Wheel

Figure 4. 16 Tire Wheel

32
 Chapter 5

Foundry shop

5.1 Foundry Shop

In foundry shop different types of parts are produced using casting

process. After casting the work pieces are machined to convert them into
various parts according to part structure. Various types of furnaces are
available in at Loco shop of railway industry to cast different number of
parts according to demand. Operations to be performed and time to make
that part are mentioned on work order. Operation are performed according
to the sequence mentioned on work order.

Foundry shop is divided in two parts:

 Brass foundry
 Iron foundry

Figure 5. 1 Brass Foundry

5.2 Parts prepared in brass foundry

There are following parts are prepared in this shop
 Sliding door handle
 Upper birth handle
 Coat hook
 Window catcher
 Window stopper
 Window panel
 Glass stand

33
  Motor cover

5.3 Parts prepared in iron foundry

There are following parts are prepared in this shop

 L.P cylinder for D.E loco

 H.P cylinder for D.E loco
 Oil tank cock body
 Disc brake
 Brake shoes
 Caps for alternator body
 Brake block
 Plug for oil tank cock body

Figure 5. 2 Parts Prepared in Foundry

5.4 CASTING:

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is

usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired
shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a
casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the
process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting
materials that cure after mixing two or more components together.

5.4.1 Casting process

Casting is the process of pouring molten metal into the previously

made cavity to the desired. Shape and allow it to solidify

The following are the basic operations of casting process

 Pattern making
 Mould preparation

34
  Melting the metal
 Pouring it into a previously made mould which confirms
to the shape of desired component.
molten
metal

support polystyrene
sand pattern burns;
polystyrene gas escapes
pattern

Figure 5. 3 Pattern

5.4.2 Pattern:

A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould, into which
molten. Metal is poured to produce a casting.
Requirements of a good pattern and pattern allowance.

 Secure the desired shape and size of the casting

 Simple in design, for ease of manufacture
 Cheap and readily available Light in mass and convenient
to handle
 Have high strength

5.4.2.1 Different types of patterns:

 Split or Parted Pattern

 Loose Piece Pattern
 Draw backs
 Gated Patterns.
 Match Plate pattern
 Cope and Drag Pattern
 Sweep Patterns.

5.4.3 Mould preparation:

A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired part. Molten

metal is then poured into the mold, the mold holds this material in shape

35
as it solidifies. A metal casting is created. Although this seems rather
simple, the manufacturing process of metal casting is both a science and
an art. First, molds can be classified as either open or closed. An open
mold is a container, like a cup, that has only the shape of the desired part.
The molten material is poured directly into the mold cavity which is
exposed to the open environment .

5.4.3.1 Mould preparation:

chaplet
chaplet

Mold
Mold
cavity
cavity

Figure 5. 4 Mould Preparation

5.4.3.2 Sand used in molding process

Different types of sand use in brass and iron foundry

1. Green sand mould :

A green sand mould is composed of mixture of sand, clay and water .

2. Dry sand mould :

Dry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with 1% to 2% cereal
flour and 1% to 2% pitch.

3. Materials used in mould preparation

Silica sand, Binder, Additives and water

5.5 Furnaces used in foundry workshop

Different types of furnaces used in workshop

5.5.1 Tilting furnace

Aluminum and brass materials are melt in this furnace

 Temperature of aluminum melting 550-600 F

 Temperature of brass melting 1050-1150 F

36
 Figure 5. 5 Tilting Furnace

5.5.2 Rotary furnace

Rotary Melting Furnace is very flexible & universal equipment used

for recycling many non-ferrous metals. Rotary Furnace is a batch type
process furnace. It is designed according to capacity. In Rotary Furnace
the required quantity of raw material is filled along with a proportionate
charge of additives. On the one end is a moving door & burner is installed
on that door for firing. & the other end of the furnace is attached with
Rotary Chamber for flue gases.

Figure 5. 6 Rotary Furnace

5.5.3 Cupola Furnace

The cupola is the most widely used furnace in the foundry for
melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys. A cross-section of a
cupola is shown. A cupola is a shaft furnace of cylindrical shape erected
on legs or columns. The cupola shell is made of steel plate 8 or 10 mm
thick. The interior is lined with refractory bricks to protect the shell from

37
getting over-heated. The charge for the cupola consists of metallic
material, fuel and fluxes.

Figure 5. 7 Cupola Furnace

5.5.3.1 Construction of Cupola Furnace

It is the constructed in the form of a hollow cylindrical vertical

steel shell. It is lined from inside with a refractory material  .It is generally
supported on fore cast iron lags mounted on a concrete base .The bottom
of the furnace is closed by two cast iron doors hinged to the bed plate of
the furnace .A wind box cast iron encircles to the outside of the furnace
bottom .This box is connected to the furnace blower by pipe known as the
blast pipe .Air which supplies the oxygen necessary to burn the fuel ,is
forced through the cupola by a blower .The top of the furnace is shielded
by a mesh screen and topped with a cone shaped spark arrester ,which
permits the free vent of the waste gas and deflects spark and dust back
into furnace.

5.5.3.2 Working of Cupola Furnace

First of all, the waste material dumped on the floor under the
furnace after the previous heat must be cleared away. The cupola repair
man enters the cooled furnace and cleans out the slag and refuses on the
lining and around the tuyeres from the previous run. Any bad spots or
broken bricks are repaired with a refractory material to return the lining to
its original shape .Then the bottom doors are swung into the position and
the prop placed under them .all cracks are closed with fire clay and a layer
of black molding sand is placed on bottom .This sand is rammed down and
given aslope towards the spout.

38
 Figure 5. 8 Cupola Furnace

The kindling material usually soft, dry pieces of wood is placed on the
sand bed and a charge of coke is put in the furnace .The kindling and bed
charge of coke are ignited through the tap-hole opening .As soon as the
coke bed is thoroughly ignited, the first charge of metal ,pig iron ,scrap
and flux is placed on top of the bed charge of glowing coke .A weighed
charge of coke is placed on top of the metal charge .After the cupola is
fully charged up to the charging door ,the iron should soak in the heat for
45 mins or longer .No forced draft is used during this period. [ 4]

39
 Chapter 6

Spring Shop

1n this shop all types of springs are prepared and manufactured here.

Figure 6. 1 Spring Shop

6.1 Spring

Springs are flexible machine element used for controlled application

of force or torque or for storing and release of mechanical energy.
Flexibility (elastic deformation) is enabled due to cleverly designed
geometry or by using of flexible material.

Figure 6. 2 Springs use in Frame

6.1.1 Classification of spring:

40
There are three class of spring
1-coile spring/helical spring
2-leaf springs
3-spiral springs

1. Coil spring
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device,
which is typically used to store energy due to resilience and subsequently
release it, to absorb shock, or to maintain a force between contacting
surfaces. They are made of an elastic material formed into the shape of a
helix which returns to its natural length when unloaded .

One type of coil spring is a torsion spring. The material of the spring acts

in torsion when the spring is compressed or extended. The quality of
spring is judged from the energy it can absorb. The spring which is
capable of absorbing the greatest amount of energy for the given stress is
41
the best one. Metal coil springs are made by winding a wire around a
shaped former - a cylinder is used to form cylindrical coil springs.

Figure 6. 3 Coil spring

There are three class of coil spring
 Compression helical springs (or) Open coil springs
 Tension helical springs (or) closed coil springs
 Torsion springs
 Spiral Spring

2. Compression helical springs

It is made of round wire and wrapped in cylindrical shape with a

constant pitch between the coils. The gap between the successive coils is
larger. By applying the load the spring contracts in action.

42
 Figure 6. 4 Compression Helical Springs

Applications:
 Ball point pens
 Pogo sticks
 Valve assemblies in engines

3.Tension helical springs

It has some means of transferring the load from the support to the
body by means of some arrangement. The wire is coiled in a sequence that
the turn is at right angles to the axis of the spring.

Figure 6. 5 Tension Helical Spring

43
Applications:
 Garage door assemblies
 Vise-grip pilers
 Carburetors

4. Torsion springs

It is also a form of helical spring, but it rotates about an axis to create

load. Mainly used for torque transmission. The ends of the spring are
attached to other application objects, so that if the object rotates around
the center of the spring, it tends to push the spring to retrieve its normal
position.

Figure 6. 6 Torsion Springs

Applications:
 Mouse tracks
 Rocker switches
 Door hinges
 Clipboards
 Automobile starters

5. Spiral Spring:

 It is made of a band of steel wrapped around it number of times to

create a geometric.
 Its inner end is attached to an arbor and outer end is attached to a
retaining drum.

44
  It has a few rotations and also contains a thicker band of steel.
It releases power when it unwinds

6. Leaf spring

A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for

the suspension in wheeled vehicles. Originally called a  laminated or
carriage spring, and sometimes referred to as a  semi-
elliptical spring or cart spring, it is one of the oldest forms of springing,
dating back to medieval times

Figure 6. 7 Leaf Spring

7. Volute spring

A volute spring is compression springs in the form of a cone

(a volute).volute spring are used in applications where larger compressive
forces are exerted in small distances. As a volute spring is compressed, the
smaller coils can slide inside the larger coils, allowing the spring to be
compressed to a much shorter length than would be possible with a helical
spring. Volute spring have a higher spring rate and can with stand larger
loads than traditionally shaped compression springs of similar size,
making them ideal in shock absorbing situation.

45
 Figure 6. 8 Volute Spring

6.2 Spring making

in this shop all types of springs are prepared and manufactured here.

6.2.1 Coiling

1 Cold winding . Wire up to 0.75 in (18 mm) in diameter can be coiled at

room temperature using one of two basic techniques. One consists of
winding the wire around a shaft called an arbor or mandrel. This may be
done on a dedicated spring-winding machine, a lathe, an electric hand drill
with the mandrel secured in the chuck, or a winding machine operated by
hand cranking. A guiding mechanism, such as the lead screw on a lathe,
must be used to align the wire into the desired pitch (distance between
successive coils) as it wraps around the mandrel .

46
 Figure 6. 9 Coiling

Alternatively, the wire may be coiled without a mandrel .

Figure 6. 10 Springs Shapes

The wire is pushed forward over a support block toward a grooved

head that deflects the wire, forcing it to bend. The head and support
block can be moved relative to each other in as many as five
directions to control the diameter and pitch of the spring that is
being formed.

For extension or torsion springs, the ends are bent into the desired loops,
hooks, or straight sections after the coiling operation is completed.

2 Hot winding . Thicker wire or bar stock can be coiled into springs if the
metal is heated to make it flexible. Standard industrial coiling machines
can handle steel bar up to 3 in (75 mm) in diameter, and custom springs
have reportedly been made from bars as much as 6 in (150 mm) thick. The

47
steel is coiled around a mandrel while red hot. Then it is immediately
removed from the coiling machine and plunged into oil to cool it quickly
and harden it. At this stage, the steel is too brittle to function as a spring,
and it must subsequently be tempered.

6.2.2 Hardening

Heat treating. Whether the steel has been coiled hot or cold, the process
has created stress within the material. To relieve this stress and allow the
steel to maintain its characteristic resilience, the spring must be tempered
by heat treating it. The spring is heated in an oven, held at the appropriate
temperature for a predetermined time, and then allowed to cool slowly.
For example, a spring made of music wire is heated to 500°F (260°C) for
one hour

Figure 6. 11 Spring Hardening

6.2.3 Finishing

 4 Grinding. If the design calls for flat ends on the spring, the ends
are ground at this stage of the manufacturing process. The spring is
mounted in a jig to ensure the correct orientation during grinding,

48
 and it is held against a rotating  abrasive wheel until the desired
degree of flatness is obtained. When highly automated equipment is
used, the spring is held in a sleeve while both ends are ground
simultaneously, first by coarse wheels and then by finer wheels. An
appropriate fluid (water or an oil-based substance) may be used to
cool the spring, lubricate the grinding wheel, and carry away
particles during the grinding.
 5 Shot peening. This process strengthens the steel to resist metal
fatigue and cracking during its lifetime of repeated flexings. The
entire surface of the spring is exposed to a barrage of tiny steel
balls that hammer it smooth and compress the steel that lies just
below the surface.

 6 Setting. To permanently fix the desired length and pitch of the

spring, it is fully compressed so that all the coils touch each other.
Some manufacturers repeat this process several times.

 7 Coating. To prevent corrosion, the entire surface of the spring is

protected by painting it, dipping it in liquid rubber, or plating it
with another metal such as zinc or chromium. One process, called
mechanical plating, involves tumbling the spring in a container with
metallic powder, water, accelerant chemicals, and tiny glass beads
that pound the metallic powder onto the spring surface.
Alternatively, in electroplating, the spring is immersed in an
electrically conductive liquid that will corrode the plating metal but
not the spring. A negative electrical charge is applied to the spring.
Also immersed in the liquid is a supply of the plating metal, and it
is given a positive electrical charge. As the plating metal dissolves
in the liquid, it releases positively charged molecules that are
attracted to the negatively charged spring, where they bond
chemically. Electroplating makes carbon steel springs brittle, so
shortly after plating (less than four hours) they must be baked at
325-375°F (160-190°C) for four hours to counteract the
embrittlement.

 Packaging. Desired quantities of springs may simply be bulk

packaged in boxes or plastic bags. However, other forms of
packaging have been developed to minimize damage or tangling of
springs. For example, they may be individually bagged, strung onto
wires or rods, enclosed in tubes, or affixed to sticky paper

49
 Figure 6. 12 Different Types of springs

6.3 Machines used in spring shop

6.3.1 End grinding machine

There are three basic types of grinding machines used for spring end grinding, ‘crash’
grinders, ‘crush’ grinders and single end grinders. The first two types, crash and
crush, grind both ends of the spring simultaneously and are the most common.

6.3.2 Crash Grinders

Crash grinders pass the springs between two rotating disc grinding wheels on a
rotating table. The grinding wheels are a fixed distance apart from each other and the
springs are compressed slightly by entrance guides as they enter the wheels.
The upper grinding wheel is adjusted to have a wider gap between the wheels at the
point where the spring enters the wheels. This gap is typically set to be somewhere
between ¼ and ½ the wire diameter of the spring. The springs are passed only once
between the grinding wheels. Machines are available in a variety of sizes, employing
different diameter grinding wheels. Typically, larger machines with larger diameter
wheels are used to grind larger diameter wire springs.
For springs that require two passes through the grinding wheels to remove all of the
stock necessary, some machines come with two sets of heads. The springs are passed
between both sets of heads, the first set usually referred to as ‘roughers’ and the
second set as ‘finishers’.

50
 Figure 6. 13 Crash Grinder Process

The springs are feed into the machine by means of a rotary table with bushings to hold the
springs. It is important that the springs are carried across the entire face of the wheel. If
the grinding wheels have a center hole, the springs should break into the center by
approximately ¼ of the spring diameter. If the springs do cross the entire grinding wheel
face, the wheel will not wear evenly and develop a high center. This will require frequent
dressing and will cause problems keeping the springs square.

6.3.3 Crush Grinders

Crush grinders, also known as down feed grinders, look very much like crash
grinders, but grind the springs differently. The grinding wheels are kept flat and parallel
to each other. The springs are
placed in a rotary carrier and passed between the wheels many times while the top wheel
is fed down incrementally, as depicted in the graph. The carriers for downfeed grinders
typically run at a faster speed than crash grinders. The grinder will often have two
carriers, one that can be loaded while the other is grinding. It is claimed that downfeed
grinders can hold tighter tolerances for squareness and free length than crash grinders, but
they typically sacrifice speed. Most spring grinders are run without coolant and have

6.3.4 End grinders

At times, only a single end of the spring needs to be ground, or the spring is
too large to fit between a conventional spring grinder’s wheels. A single spindle end
grinder is most often used in this case.
These machines typically have a horizontal spindle. The springs are clamped into a
fixture that is rotated across the face of the grinding wheel.

6.4 Process used in spring shop

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6.4.1 Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys,
such as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater  toughness by decreasing
the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually
accompanied by an increase in  ductility, thereby decreasing
the brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed
after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest
state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched
work-piece to a temperature below its "lower  critical temperature". This is
also called the lower transformation temperature or lower arrest (A 1 )
temperature; the temperature at which the crystalline  phases of the alloy,
called ferrite and cementite, begin combining to form a single-phase solid
solution referred to as austenite. Heating above this temperature is
avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure,
called martensite.
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is
crucial to achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low
tempering temperatures may only relieve the internal stresses, decreasing
brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering
temperatures tend to produce a greater reduction in the hardness,
sacrificing some yield strength and tensile strength for an increase
in elasticity and plasticity. However, in some low alloy steels, containing
other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low
temperatures may produce an increase in hardness, while at higher
temperatures the hardness will decrease. Many steels with high
concentrations of these alloying elements behave like  precipitation
hardening alloys, which produces the opposite effects under the conditions
found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to as  maraging steels
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of  carbides in
the martensite, forming a microstructure called "tempered martensite".
Tempering is also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to
increase ductility, machinability, and impact strength. [3 ]  Steel is usually
tempered evenly, called "through tempering," producing a nearly uniform
hardness, but it is sometimes heated unevenly, referred to as "differential
tempering," producing a variation in hardness [ 5 ]

6.4.2 Carbon steel

Very few metals react to heat treatment in the same manner, or to
the same extent, that carbon steel does, and carbon steel heat treating
behavior can vary radically depending on alloying elements. Steel can be
softened to a very malleable state through annealing, or it can be hardened
to a state nearly as rigid and brittle as glass by  quenching. However, in its
hardened state, steel is usually far too brittle, lacking the structural
integrity to be useful for most applications. Tempering is a method used to
decrease the hardness, thereby increasing the ductility of the quenched
steel, to impart some springiness and malleability to the metal. This allows
the metal to bend before breaking. Depending on how much temper is

52
imparted to the steel, it may bend  elastically (the steel returns to its
original shape once the load is removed), or it may bend  plastically (the
steel does not return to its original shape, resulting in permanent
deformation), before fracturing. Tempering is used to precisely balance
the mechanical properties of the metal, such as  shear strength, yield
strength, hardness, ductility and tensile strength, to achieve any number of
a combination of properties, making the steel useful for a wide variety of
applications. Tools such as hammers and wrenches require good resistance
to abrasion, impact resistance, and resistance to deformation. Springs do
not require as much rigidity, but must deform elastically before breaking.
Automotive parts tend to be a little less rigid, but need to deform
plastically before breaking.
Except in rare cases where maximum rigidity and hardness are needed,
such as the untempered steel used for files, quenched steel is almost
always tempered to some degree. However, steel is sometimes annealed
through a process called  normalizing, leaving the steel only partially
softened. Tempering is sometimes used on normalized steels to further
soften it, increasing the malleability and machinability for
easier metalworking. Tempering may also be used on welded steel, to
relieve some of the stresses and excess hardness created in the  heat
affected zone around the weld.

6.4.3 Quenched Steel

Tempering is most often performed on steel that has been heated
above its upper critical (A 3 ) temperature and then quickly cooled, in a
process called quenching, using methods such as immersing the red-hot
steel in water, oil, or forced-air. The quenched-steel, being placed in, or
very near, its hardest possible state, is then tempered to incrementally
decrease the hardness to a point more suitable for the desired application.
The hardness of the quenched-steel depends on both cooling speed and on
the composition of the alloy. Steel with a high carbon-content will reach a
much harder state than steel with a low carbon-content. Likewise,
tempering high-carbon steel to a certain temperature will produce steel
that is considerably harder than low-carbon steel that is tempered at the
same temperature. The amount of time held at the tempering temperature
also has an effect. Tempering at a slightly elevated temperature for a
shorter time may produce the same effect as tempering at a lower
temperature for a longer time. Tempering times vary, depending on the
carbon content, size, and desired application of the steel, but typically
range from a few minutes to a few hours.
Tempering quenched-steel at very low temperatures, between 66 and
148 °C (151 and 298 °F), will usually not have much effect other than a
slight relief of some of the internal stresses. Tempering at higher
temperatures, from 148 to 205  °C (298 to 401 °F), will produce a slight
reduction in hardness, but will primarily relieve much of the internal
stresses. Tempering in the range of 260 and 340  °C (500 and 644 °F)
causes a decrease in ductility and an increase in brittleness, and is referred
to as the "tempered martensite embrittlement" (TME) range. Except in the
case of blacksmithing, this range is usually avoided. Steel requiring more

53
strength than toughness, such as tools, are usually not tempered above
205 °C (401 °F). Instead, a variation in hardness is usually produced by
varying only the tempering time. When increased toughness is desired at
the expense of strength, higher tempering temperatures, from 370 to
540 °C (698 to 1,004 °F), are used. Tempering at even higher
temperatures, between 540 and 600 °C (1,004 and 1,112 °F), will produce
excellent toughness, but at a serious reduction in the strength and
hardness. At 600 °C (1,112 °F), the steel may experience another stage of
embrittlement, called "temper embrittlement" (TE), which occurs if the
steel is held within the TE temperature range for too long. When heating
above this temperature, the steel will usually not be held for any amount
of time, and quickly cooled to avoid temper embrittlement

6.4.4 Normalized steel

Steel that has been heated above its upper critical temperature and
then cooled in standing air is called normalized steel. Normalized steel
consists of pearlite, martensite and sometimes  bainite grains, mixed
together within the microstructure. This produces steel that is much
stronger than full-annealed steel, and much tougher than tempered
quenched-steel. However, added toughness is sometimes needed at a
reduction in strength. Tempering provides a way to carefully decrease the
hardness of the steel, thereby increasing the toughness to a more desirable
point. Cast-steel is often normalized rather than annealed, to decrease the
amount of distortion that can occur. Tempering can further decrease the
hardness, increasing the ductility to a point more like annealed
steel. Tempering is often used on carbon steels, producing much the same
results. The process, called "normalize and temper", is used frequently on
steels such as 1045 carbon steel, or most other steels containing 0.35 to
0.55% carbon. These steels are usually tempered after normalizing, to
increase the toughness and relieve internal stresses. This can make the
metal more suitable for its intended use and easier to  machine .

54
6.5 Spring sizes and bar sizes:

Figure 6. 14 Spring Sizes

55
 Chapter 7

LIFTING SHOP

The lifting section deals with the repair of coaches and their related arts.
It is called as lifting section because the parts of coaching cannot be
repaired without lifting them. There are three main sections of lifting.

 Roller Bearing Section

 China Coaches Section
 German Coaches section

7.1 Lifting system [6] :

There are three types of lifting system used in Pakistan railway.

 Tang Shang bogie
 CNR/air spring bogie
 C.R.C Bogie

7.2 Types of coach:

 Passenger coach
 Goods coach

56
7.3 Parts of Bogie

Figure 7. 1 Bogie

7.3.1 Bogie Frame:

Can be of steel plate or cast steel.   In this case, it is a modern

design of welded steel box format where the structure is formed into
hollow sections of the required shape.

7.3.2 Bogie Transom:

Transverse structural member of bogie frame (usually two off) which

also supports the car body guidance parts and the traction motors .

7.3.3 Brake Cylinder:

An air brake cylinder is provided for each wheel.   A cylinder can

operate tread or disc brakes.   Some designs incorporate parking brakes as
well.   Some bogies have two brake cylinders per wheel for heavy duty
braking requirements.  Each wheel is provided with a brake disc on each
side and brake pad actuated by the brake cylinder.   A pair of pads is hung
from the bogie frame and activated by  links attached to the piston in the
brake cylinder.  When air is admitted into the brake cylinder, the internal
piston moves these links and causes the brake pads to press against the
discs.  A brake hanger support bracket carries the brake hangers, from
which the pads are hung
.

57
7.3.4 Primary Suspension Coil:

A steel coil spring, two which are fitting to each axle box in this
design.  They carry the weight of the bogie frame and anything attached to
it.

7.3.5 Motor Suspension Tube:

Many motors are suspended between the transverse member of the

bogie frame called the transom and the axle.   This motor is called "nose
suspended" because it is hung between the suspension tube and a single
mounting on the bogie transom called the nose.

7.3.6 Gearbox:

This contains the pinion and gearwheel which connects the drive from
the armature to the axle.

7.3.7 Lifting Lug:

Allow the bogie to be lifted by crane without any need to tie chains or
ropes around the frame.

7.3.8 Motor:

Normally, each axle has its own motor.   It drives the axle through the
gearbox.  Some designs, particularly on tramcars, use a motor to drive two
axles.

7.3.9 Secondary Suspension Air Bag:

Rubber air suspension bags are provided as the secondary suspension
system for most modern trains.   The air is supplied from the train's
compressed air system.

7.3.10 Wheel Slide Protection System Lead to Axle box:

Where a Wheel Slide Protection (WSP) system is fitted, axle boxes are
fitted with speed sensors.  These are connected by means of a cable
attached to the WSP box cover on the axle end.

7.3.11 Loose Leads for Connection to Car body:

The motor circuits are connected to the traction equipment in the car or
locomotive by flexible leads shown here.

58
7.3.12 Shock Absorber:

Reduce the effects of vibration occur the result of wheel/rail interface .

7.3.13 Axle box Cover:

Simple protection returns current brush, if fitted, and the axle

bearing lubrication.

7.4 EQUIPMENT USE IN LIFTING SHOP:

 Railway jacks or mechanical jack capc max .(16 t) each

 Welding plant

59
 Chapter 8

Power Plant Shop:

8.1 Power Plant Introduction

The diesel engine produces mechanical energy by converting heat

energy derived from burning of fuel inside the cylinder. For efficient
burning of fuel, availability of sufficient air in proper ratio is a
prerequisite.
In a naturally aspirated engine, during the suction stroke, air is being
sucked into the cylinder from the atmosphere. The volume of air thus
drawn into the cylinder through restricted inlet valve passage, within a
limited time would also be limited and at a pressure slightly less than the
atmosphere. The availability of less quantity of air of low density inside
the cylinder would limit the scope of burning of fuel. Hence mechanical
power produced in the cylinder is also limited.
An improvement in the naturally aspirated engines is the super-charged or
pressure charged engines. During the suction stroke, pressurised stroke of
high density is being charged into the cylinder through the open suction
valve. Air of higher density containing more oxygen will make it possible
to inject more fuel into the same size of cylinders and produce more
power, by effectively burning it.A turbocharger, or turbo, is a gas
compresser used for forced-induction of an internal combustion engine.
Like a supercharger,the purpose of a turbocharger is to increase the
density of air entering the engine to create more power. However, a
turbocharger differs in that the compressor is powered by a turbine driven
by the engine's own exhaust gases [7 ]

8.2 Turbo Supercharger and its Working principle

The exhaust gas discharge from all the cylinders accumulate in the
common exhaust manifold at the end of which, turbo- supercharger is
fitted. The gas under pressure there after enters the turbo- supercharger
through the torpedo shaped bell mouth connector and then passes through
the fixed nozzle ring. Then it is directed on the turbine blades at increased
pressure and at the most suitable angle to achieve rotary motion of the
turbine at maximum efficiency. After rotating the turbine, the exhaust gas
goes out to the atmosphere through the exhaust chimney. The turbine has a
centrifugal blower mounted at the other end of the same shaft and the

60
rotation of the turbine drives the blower at the same speed. The blower
connected to the atmosphere through a set of oil bath filters, sucks air
from atmosphere, and delivers at higher velocity. The air then passes
through the diffuser inside the turbo- supercharger, where the velocity is
diffused to increase the pressure of air before it is delivered from the
turbo- supercharger.
Pressurizing air increases its density, but due to compression heat
develops. It causes expansion and reduces the density. This effects supply
of high-density air to the engine. To take care of this, air is passed through
a heat exchanger known as after cooler. The after cooler is a radiator,
where cooling water of lower temperature is circulated through the tubes
and around the tubes air passes. The heat in the air is thus transferred to
the cooling water and air regains its lost density. From the after cooler air
goes to a common inlet manifold connected to each cylinder head. In the
suction stroke as soon as the inlet valve opens the booster air of higher
pressure density rushes into the cylinder completing the process of super
charging.
The engine initially starts as naturally aspirated engine. With the increased
quantity of fuel injection increases the exhaust gas pressure on the turbine.
Thus the self-adjusting system maintains a proper air and fuel ratio under
all speed and load conditions of the engine on its own. The maximum
rotational speed of the turbine is 18000/22000 rpm for the Turbo
supercharger and creates max. Of 1.8 kg/cm 2 air pressure in air manifold
of diesel engine, known as Booster Air Pressure (BAP). Low booster
pressure causes black smoke due to incomplete combustion of fuel. High
exhaust gas temperature due to after burning of fuel may result in
considerable damage to the turbo supercharger and other component in the
engine.

8.2 Main Components

Turbo- supercharger consists of following main components.

 Gas inlet casing.
 Turbine casing.
 Intermediate casing
 Blower casing with diffuser
 Rotor assembly with turbine and rotor on the same shaft.

61
8.2.1 ROTOR ASSEMBLY

Figure 8. 1 Rotor Assembly

The rotor assembly consists of rotor shaft, rotor blades, thrust collar,
impeller, inducer, center studs, nosepiece, locknut etc. assembled together.
The rotor blades are fitted into fir tree slots, and locked by tab lock
washers. This is a dynamically balanced component, as this has a very
high rotational speed.

8.2.2 LUBRICATING SYSTEM

One branch line from the lubricating system of the engine is connected to
the turbo- supercharger. Oil from the lube oils system circulated through
the turbo- supercharger for lubrication of its bearings. After the
lubrication is over, the oil returns back to the lube oil system through a
return pipe. Oil seals are provided on both the turbine and blower ends of
the bearings to prevent oil leakage to the blower or the turbine housing.

8.2.3 COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling system is integral to the water cooling system of the engine.
Circulation of water takes place through the intermediate casing and the
turbine casing, which are in contact with hot exhaust gases. The cooling
water after being circulated through the turbo- supercharger returns back
again to the cooling system of the locomotive.

8.3 ADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGED ENGINES

 A super charged engine can produce 50 percent or more power
than a naturally aspirated engine. The power to weight ratio in such
a case is much more favorable.
 Better scavenging in the cylinders. This ensures carbon free
cylinders and valves, and better health for the engine also.

62
  Better ignition due to higher temperature developed by higher
compression in the cylinder.
 It increases breathing capacity of engine
 Better fuel efficiency due to complete combustion of fuel.
8.4 Defect in Turbochargers

Low Booster Air Pressure (BAP).

Oil throwing from Turbocharger because of seal damage or out of
clearance.
Surging- Back Pressure due to uneven gap in Nozzle Ring or Diffuser
Ring

Internal combustion engine needs

fuel, ignition and compression

in order to run.

 Four-Stroke Gasoline Engine

 Two-Stroke Gasoline Engines

 Diesel Engine

 Rotary Engine

 Steam Engine

63
 CONCLUSION

This training focused upon increasing our knowledge and interest in

toward the Production of Railway Carriage & Wagons and workshops .
Because It is most efficient and necessary needs to peoples in these days
so its production at most efficient method with minimum cost and in
proper sequence with less wastage. It was a great experience. It increases
my practical skills that’s the main thing which i learnt in the training
session. Thus, I believe that my training session will be beneficial for
various purposes & hence our efforts will be fruitful.

Finally I would like to thank my instructor and all the person of this
organization who had helped me lot during my course.

64
Future Recommendations about Pakistan railway
workshops
I would like to give some recommendations to improve  the quality of work
and save time along the health of the workers because during our visit we
observed that the workers are not playing with their own lives which are a
great loss of man power.

Motivation comes for any work, from within and heavily depends on
individual consideration, which are bound to be different for each human
positiveness of character makes him/her flexible, tolerant and sound in any
specific consideration. The positiveness heavily depends on the
individual’s education and curiosity

During my course of training in pakistan Railway Workshop. I have

experienced an immense pleasure while comparing the text that I have
come across practically conversing with people and obtain through
questionnaire

Pakistan railway workshop mughalpura Lahore is the best place where you
can learn many things about related to mechanical works. This is the
Asia’s largest mechanical workshop here you can see all operations and
mechanical practical’s.

Training methods, techniques and equipment continue to be upgraded to

the latest standards. Trainees are taken on extensive study tours over the
PR network to acquire practical knowledge

65
 References
[1] Pakistan Railways suffers another loss-making year. (2016, August 11). Retrieved
September 04, 2017, from https://tribune.com.pk/story/1160520/downfall-pakistan-railways-
suffers-another-loss-making-year/

[2] Pakistan Railways. (2017, September 01). Retrieved September 04, 2017, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Railways

[3] Ltd, P. R. (2006, July 18). The Railway Technical Website. Retrieved September 06,
2017, from http://www.kosmomachine.com/blog/30-what-is-a-machine-shop.html

[4]Beeley, Peter (2001), Foundry Technology (2nd ed.), Oxford,

UK : Butterworth-Heinemann , ISBN  978-0-7506-4567-6
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry

[5] NVQ and competence-based qualifications Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering -

Spring Making (L3). (n.d.). Retrieved September 06, 2017, from
https://qualifications.pearson.com/en/qualifications/nvq-and-competence-based-
qualifications/engineering-processing-and-manufacturing/mechanical-manufacturing

[6] Peatfield, A. E. (1978). Workshop practice. Toronto: Coles. (n.d.). Retrieved September
06,2017,fromhttps://www.railway-technology.com/contractors/yard/vector-
lifting/browse/standard-handbook-of-machine-design-third-edition#fullDetails

[7] Joseph E. Shigley; Charles R. Mischke; Thomas Hunter Brown, Jr.: Standard Handbook
of Machine Design, Third Edition. COUPLINGS, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2004
1996), AccessEngineeringHOW TO MAKE SPRINGS - Educypedia, The educational ...
(n.d.). Retrieved September 6, 2017, from https://www.dieselpartsdirect.com/diesel-engine-
parts http://www.bing.com/cr

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